HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

70,3 IH-

Library of
SAMUEL GARMAN

TYlasfl^HdJ.

wa/t^vuMT^

MAY \ 4 1928

REPORT

ON THE

FRESH WATER FISH AND FISHERIES

OF

INDIA AND BURMA,

in

Surgeon-Major FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S. & F.Z.S.,

INSPECTOR GENERAL OF FISHERIES IN INDIA.

CALCUTTA :

OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF GOVERNMENT PRINTING.

1873.

INTRODUCTION.

1. The following report is the result of investigations
made since 1867, into whether a wasteful destruction of the
fresh-water fisheries is or is not occurring in India and
Burma. It may be said to be composed of two elements,
personal investigations and the result of enquiries made by
European and Native civil officers in India and Burma.

2. When personally enquiring in different districts, I
found that such a la rue amount of valuable local knowledge
existed that I proposed circulating a scries of questions
and deferring the compilation of the full report imtil answers
had been received.

3. The questions circulated were as follows : — For Col-
lectors, (1). — Are breeding fish and very young ones destroyed
in your district to any great extent ? (2). — If they are des-
troyed, how, in what places, and at what seasons ? (3). — What
is the smallest size of the mesh of nets allowed or employed
in your district ? (4). — What difficulties are there against
regulating the size of the mesh of the nets ? (5). — What size
between knot and knot of the meshes of nets do you con-
sider advisable ? (6). — What objections exist against prohi-
biting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars? (7). — Are
there any objections against prohibiting the capture of fish
in hilly districts, as the Himalayas or Nilgiris, during the
first two months of the monsoon season when they are
breeding ?

4. Those for Tehsildars or Native Officials were, —
CO* — What number of fishermen are there in your range, and

( 2 )

are they only such, or do they pursue other occupations like-
wise ? (2) . — What are the names of the fishermen castes in
your district? (3). — Are the local markets fully supplied
with fish, or could more be sold ? (4). — What is the price of
large and small fish in the bazar, and also that of first and
second sort of bazar mutton? (5). — What proportion of
people eat fish ? (6). — Have the fish increased, decreased,
or remained stationary of late years? (7). — Are very small
fish taken in any quantity during the rains ; if so, how ?
(8). — What is the smallest size of the mesh of the nets
employed ? (9) . — Are fish trapped in the irrigated field dur-
ing the rains ? (10) . — Enumerate the various sorts of fish-
ing, and give the native names of every form of net, trap,
or snare used in taking fish in your range.

5. Many of the answers received have been most ex-
haustive, and afforded me the opportunity of drawing attention
to certain facts that I otherwise might not have so promi-
nently brought to notice. Whenever possible, I have rather
given the opinions of others than my own, provided the two
were identical. Where so many reports are excellent, it would
be invidious to draw attention to any particular one, especi-
ally as all will be found collated in the appendix.

6. All returns received prior to November 5th have
been included, whilst due to the delay in some localities it was
found impossible to even commence this work in June 1872
as had been anticipated. The period during which answers
were being waited for was employed in drawing up the last
three papers in the appendix, which it is hoped will add to
the completeness and utility of the report.

Madras, \

December 5///, 1872. $

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Page.

Report on Indian feesh-wateb fisheries ... 1

Origin of .enquiry — Previous workers on the subject of Indian fishes —
Enquiries made in 18G7 — Where fresh-water fisheries exist.

Rivers and their expansions .... 4

Rivers of the Indian Empire— Hill rivers of India, some having Alpine
sources — Those destitute of Alpine sources— Rivers of the plains —
How these rivers shallow during the hot season until only a suc-
cession of pools exist, and here large fish have to remain until the
rains return — How some rivers have seasons of inundations, filling-
large lakes in the contiguous country — How lakes thus formed may
be isolated or connected ones.

Irrigation works ...... 7

Irrigation weirs or bunds — Underslukcs, either narrow or wide, the weirs
impassable to ascending fish — Narrow uudersluices — Wide under -
sluices — Fishunable to ascend over weirs — Irrigation canals — Simple
irrigation weirs — Irrigation and navigation canals. How fish are
carried into irrigating canals and perish there, due to a want of
water — Small rivers diverted for irrigation in Malabar — Mills
worked by water destructive to fish.

Tanks useful as fisheries . . . '. .14

Tanks used as fisheries — Jhils — How a natural protection may be afford-
ed to fish.

The fishes of the fresh-waters . . . .15

Fresh-water fish — Migratory and non-migratory species, some polygamous,
others monogamous — Breeding season — Spiny rayed Bshes, divisible
into purely fresh-water and partially marine forms — Physostomatous
order — Scaleless family, those of hills and plains — Their respira-
tion— Family of Scombresocidae and Cyprmodontida: — The carps,
loaches — Sand-grubbers true carps — Carps of the plains, migratory
or not so — Herring family, migratory or not so — Eels — Lophobran-
chiate fishes — Plectognathi — Cartilaginous fishes.

Respiration of Indian Fishes .... 24

Respiration of fishes — Water and compound breathers.

^Estivation of fish ...... 28

Migrations of fish ...... 29

Breeding of fish ...... 31

Breeding fish, migratory and non-migratory ones of the plains — Migra-
tory and non-migratory ones of the hills — Breeding of migratory
hill fishes — Non-migratory fish of the plains, some monogamous,
others polygamous — Migratory fresh-water fishes of the plains —
Migratory sea fishes.

The fry of fresh-water fish .... 36

Fry how destroyed instead of being protected,

11

Page.

FlSn IN AN ECONOMIC POINT OF VIEW . . . .37

The proportion of persons who use fish as foot! — Local markets insuffi-
ciently supplied.

The fresh-water fisheries . . . . .40

How wasteful injuries to fisheries commence — Breeding fish and fry
wastefully destroyed — -The supply of fish in the waters decreasing —
To whom the fisheries helong — Why British rules and regulations
have a disastrous effect on fisheries — How fisheries were worked
under native rulers — How they are treated under British law.

The Fishermen ...... 49

Who the fishermen are — How fisheries are worked.

Fixed engines . . . . . .57

What fixed engines are — Those made of elastic materials — Those of
non-elastic substances, and weirs — 'Fixed traps.

Moveable fishing implements ..... 65

Composed of elastic or non-elastic substances — The smallest size of
the mesh of nets employed — Seasons when different meshes are
used — Effect of regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets —
Damming waters for fishing purposes — Diverting rivers or streams —
Waters may be poisoned — Sometimes solely to obtain the fish —
Minor modes of fishing.

Vermin which destroy fish ..... so

Crocodiles as vermin — The fish-eating crocodile — The common crocodile —
Otters as vermin — Minor fish-destroying vermin.

Objections to legal action being taken . . . .85

Primary objections — Divine reasons — General objections — Legal objec-
tions— Regulations deemed unnecessary — Zoological objections —
Political objections — Social objections — Fishermen's objections —
Trading objections — Result of want of regulations elsewhere.

Suggestions as to what legal steps are necessary . . 91

Reasons why such are desirable — General reasons — Regulations pro-
posed— A necessity for restricting the minimum size of the mesh
of nets — Minimum size proposed — Prohibiting the sale of the fry
of fish in bazars — Further proposals.

Fishery Laws of Great Britain .... 104

Fishery laws of Great Britain — Right of fishing — Nature of right of
fishing — Right of property in a fishery — Fishing weirs when legal —
Fixed engines — Size of mesh of nets in England — Laws for the
preservation of fry in England — Other illegal modes of fishing —
Poisoning waters — Fish roe — Weekly close time — Close season and
prohibition of fixed engines — Taking unclean fish — Spawning
salmon — All fishing amenable to the general laws — Boards of
conservators — Weirs and fish passes — Remedies that have been
tried — Beneficial results that have ensued.

Results of this enquiry . . . . .110

Propositions as to what. action is necessary . . . 112

Legal action required.

A general Fishery Act ..... 113

One necessary — Skeleton of Act.

Bye-Laws or Local Acts ..... 114

Local regulations — Fence months— Regulating the minimum size of
the mesh of nets — Minor modes of fishing— Vermin — Who is to
pay for regulations, if any are to be carried out?

Ill

Tage.

APrENDICES.

Pan jab . • • • • i

Territory included and its physical geography — Its population — Enquiry
on this subject in 1869 and 1870 — Proportion of population who
consume fish — Local markets insufficiently supplied— Present state
of the fisheries and destruction of breeding fish in hilly districts —
Fisheries Government property, and how the Rajahs let them —
Fishermen not dependant on this occupation as a sole means of
subsistence — Breeding fish and fry if destroyed, and the result of
regulating the minimum size ofthe mesh of nets — Fish killed whole-
sale in canals constructed for working mills — Diverting hill streams-
Irrigation weirs and canals destructive to fisheries — Suggestions
respecting prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in bazars — Fence
months advisable in hilly districts — Some pools in hill streams
should be protected during the dry months — Trapping fish objec-
tionable— Neighbouring native states should be asked to co-operate
in preservative measures — Present Panjab fishing regulations —
Additional ones proposed.

Reports from European Officials ..... viii

Secretary to the Panjab Government — Commissioner of Peshawar —
Deputy Commissioners of Peshawar, Hazara, and Kohat — Commis-
sioner of Rawal Pindi — Deputy Commissioners of Rawal Pindi,
Jhilam, Shahpur, and Gujrat — Commissioner of Derajat — Deputy
Commissioners of Banu, Dera Gazi Khan, and Dera Ismail Khan-
Deputy Commissioners of Jhang, Muzaffargarb, Montgomery, and
Multan — Deputy Commissioners of Labor and Gujranwalla — Deputy
Commissioners of Amritsar, Sialkot, and Gurdaspiir — Commiesionei
of Ambala — The Deputy Commissioners of Ambala and Ludhiana —
Commissioner of Jalandar: Deputy Commissioners of Jalandar,'
Phillur, Hushiarpur, and Kangra — Commissioner of Hissar and the
Deputy Commissioner — Commissioner of Delhi — Deputy Commis-
sioners of Delhi, Gurgaon, Sarsa, and the Extra Assistant Commis-
sioner of Karnal — The Revd. Dr. Carleton's observations on
fishing as carried on in hilly districts.

Reports from Native Officials - . . . . xix

Peshawar Division, from Peshawar. Ilaiipiir, Mausera, and Kohat —
Rawal Pindi Division, from Rawal Pindi, Attock, Gujer Khan, Fathi
Jang, Muni, Jhilam, Pind Dadan Khan, Chakwal, Talegang, Gujrat,
Kharim, and Sahem — Derajat Division, from Band, Isakhel, Mia-
maoli, Lakki, Dera Gazi Khan, Sangarh, Rajanpur, Jampiir, Dera,
Liah, Bhakkar, and Kolachi — Multan Division, from Multan, Ala
Dal Khan, of Khangarh, Darqgah Shere Shah, Mian Mahbab, Mu-
zaffargarh, Kot Adu, Montgomery, Gugaira, Pikpatan, Riaz
Hossain, Multan, Shoojabad, Lodhran, Mailsi, Seraie Saidhu — Labor
Division, from Labor, Kasur. Chunia, Sharkpur, Gujranwalla. Wazir-
abad, and Hafizabad — Amritsar Division, from Amritsar. Reyah,
Pasrur, Zaffarwal, Sialkot, Shakergarh, Batala, and Pathankot —
Ambala Division, from Ambala, Jagadri, Raossur, Kharar, Narayan-
garh, and Pipli — Jalandar Division, from Jalandar, Phillur, Nawa-
shahr, Nacodar, Hushiarpur, Unah, Garhsankar, and Dasuha— Hissar
Division, from Hissar, Hansi, Fathiabad, Bhawani, and Barwala —
Delhi Division, from Delhi, Larsauli, Ballabhgarh, Gurgaon, Rewari,
Palwal, Nuh, Fazilka, Sarsa, Kurnal, Panipat, and Kaithal.

Sind . . . • • • xx*ls:

Its fresh-water fisheries — River Indus — Tanks or dhands, isolated or
connected with the Indus, and their finny inhabitants — Canal fisheries,
and proof that prohibiting the use of small meshed nets, small fish
do not disproportionately increase over the larger sorts — Fishery in
Indus mostly for Shad — Fresh-water fish, river and inundation
descriptions — No preventible destruction ofthe immature fish appears
to obtain — Fish universally eaten — Fisheries peculiar.

IV

Reports from European Officials

Commissioner of Sind — Collector of Shikarpur — Collector of Karachi-
Collector of Haidarabad.

P LOB

xxxi

Reports from Nat ire Officials

xxxu

I In M BAY

xxxin

Its fresh-water iisheries — Reason why some returns are omitted — Rivers
and inland tanks suitable for fisheries — Proportion of people who eat
fish — Local markets insufficiently supplied — Comparative price of
large and small fish — The amount of fish have decreased — Fisheries
mostly Government property — Fishermen, as a rule, follow other
occupations as well — Mature breeding-fish trapped and otherwise
killed — Fry destroyed to a great extent — Modes of capturing fish —
Size of the meshes of nets — Fish how trapped-— Waters poisoned —
Angling and line fishing— Conclusions as to the fresh-water fish-
eries— Coast fisheries of less consequence than inland ones — Majoiity
of people eat fish — State of the fisheries — Which are Government
property — Number of fishermen — Fish trapped during the rains —
Fry destroyed to a great extent — Minimum size of the mesh of nets
emplojTed — Modes of fishing — Conclusions respecting coast fresh-
water fisheries — Whether advisable to mitigate the present evils or
let them continue — Objections to action being taken — Propositions as
to what steps are desirable — As to the proper minimum size of the
mesh of nets — Opinions as to prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish
in bazars — On the necessity or the reverse of fence months.

Reports from European Officials ....

Chief Secretary to Government — Revenue Commissioners — Collector of
Ahmedabad, Collector of Broach, and Assistant Collector — Collector
of Kaira and Assistant Collector — Collector of Surat— Secretary
to Municipality and Assistant Collector — Collector of Khandeish.
Major Probyn, and Assistant Collector — Extra First Assistant
Collector, Punch Mahals — Collector of Nasik— Collector of Ahmed-
nugger, Acting First Assistant, and Acting Second Assistant —
Collector of Puna, Assistant Collector, and First Assistant Collector
— Collector of Tanna — Collector of Colaba— Collector of Satara —
Collector of Kaladgi — Collector of Sholapur — Collector of Belgaum,
First Assistant Collector, and Assistant Collector — Collector of
Dharwar and the Assistant Collector — Collector of Ratnagiri, Deputy
Conservator, and Assistant Collector — Collector of Cauara.

xlm

Reports from JS'atire Officials .

Ahmedabad Collectorate, from Mamlutdars of Duskroee, Gogo, Purantey,
Sanund, Dhundooka, Dholka, Veerumgam, and Morassa— Broach
Collectorate, Erom Broach, Jumboosur, Ahmode, and Hansote —

Kaira Collectorate— Khandeish Collectorate — Nasik Collectorate —
Ahmednugger Collectorati — Puna Collectorate— Colaba Collectorate,
from Alibag, IVnn, K'oha, Mangam, and Mhar — Satara Collectorate
—Kaladgi Collectorate— Sholapur — Belgaum — Dharwar Collector-

W

ate. From Dharwar.
Bunkapur, Hangu
Kode.

Petta Moogud, ETooblee, Nowlgoond, Dumbul,
Ranebedume, Kurujgbee, Rutghutgbee, and

Pi OB,

Madras — (First Report) . • • • _ . lxiii

Origin of answers — The fresh-water fisheries — Few perennial rivers—-
Bales suggested as only to affect perennial rivers — Majority of
people eat fish — Inland' markets insufficiently supplied— Fish in
waters has generally decreased — Fisheries Government property —
Fishermen, with but few exceptions, only follow this occupation in
addition to their usual work — Breeding fish destroyed— Fry killed
in large numbers — Minimum size of the mesh of nets and inter-
stices in cruives— Fixed engines, damming and poisoning waters —
Conclusions based upon reports— Measures of amelioration which
have been proposed — Personal propositions in 18GS — Orders of the
Madras Government and the Bevenue Board — Fresh-water fisheries
in Madras prior to Government investigations — Personal observa-
tions in the Presidency — Beply to an observation that regulating
the minimum size of the mesh of nets would be cruel to the poor — ■
Further propositions — Proposal of Bevenue Board to appoint two
Inspectors of Fisheries.

/Reports, Sfc.,from European Officials .... Ixx

Proceedings of the Board of Bevenue : their draft rules for fresh-water
fisheries— Proposal for Draft Fishery Act — Circular orders in 1848 —
Instructions to Collectors — Collector of Ganjam, Collector of Viza-
gapatam, Collector of Godaveri, and the Bevd. Dr. Murphy —
Assistant Collector of the Kistna districts, Executive Engineer,
Acting Collector, &c. — Collector of Nellur and Major Clay-
Collector of Bellary and Acting Collector — Collector of Tanjur —
Collector of Triehinopoly — Collector of Cuddapah— Collector of
Kurnal, the Assistant Collector, the Acting Head Assist. nit, the
Deputy Collector of Peapally, and the Deputy Collector of Kurnal —
Collector of Madras — Collector of Chingleput — Collector of Salem —
Collector of North Arcot and Acting Collector — Collector of South
Arcot and Sub-Collector — Collector of Tinuevelli — Collector and
Acting Collector of Madura and Mr. Nelson — Collector of Coini-
batore — Collectors of Malabar — Collector of South Canara — Experi-
mental trial of pisciculture in South Canara.

Reports from Native Officials ... . x. ii

Ganjam Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Chicacole, Gumsur, and Berham-
pore — Vizagapatam Collectorate, mi answers — Godaveri Collectorate,
from Ramachendrapur, Amalapuram, Narsapuram, Rajahmundry,
Bhimavaram, Tanuku, Peddapuram, Ellur, Coconada, Tuni, Pitta-
pur, Yernagudem. and Coring! Kistna Collectorate. from Tehsil-
dars — Nellur Collectorate, from the Tehsildars — Bellary Collect-
orate. from the Tehsildars— Tanjur Collectorate, no replies — ■
Triehinopoly Collectorate, from five Tehsildars — Cuddapah Collect-
orate, no replies — Kurnal Collectorate, from seven Tehsildars —
Chingleput Collectorate, from six Tehsildars — Salem Collectorate,
three replies — North Arcot Collectorate, no replies — South Arcot
Collectorate, from one Tehsildar — Tinuevelli Collectorate, from
eight Tehsildars — Madura Collectorate, from the Tehsildars— Coim-
batore Collectorate, from ten Tehsildars — .Malabar Collectorate,
from one Sub-Collector — South Canara Collectorate, no replies.

Mysore and Coorg ...... ci

Their fresh-water fisheries — At least half the people eat fish — Markets
generally insufficiently supplied — Fish decreasing — Fishermen also
follow other occupations — Breeding fish and fry extensively des-
troyed— Every poaching mode pursued — Conclusions from the
reports — Localities where fishing is carried on — Fisheries which
have no perennial supply of water — Those which possess a peren-
nial supply.

VI

Page.
oiii

IS. /nits from European Officials
Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner — Superintendent of the
Nundidrug Division — Deputy Superintendent of Bangalur, Colonel
Pmkle — Nagar Division, Deputy Superintendents of Shimoga,
Chituldrug, and Kadoor — Deputy Superintendent o£ Tumkur —
Deputy Superintendent of Kolar.

J\ 'e ports from Native Officials ..... cv

Nundidrug Division, from the Amildars — Astragam Division, from the
Amildars — Hassan District, from the Amildars — Nagar District,
from the Amildars — Coorg, from the Amildars.

IIatdarabad . . . . . . . cviii

Fisheries in the assigned districts — Fish eaten by a large proportion of
the people — Markets insufficiently supplied — Fish in the waters
have decreased — Fisheries Government property — Fishermen, as a
rule, have other occupations as well — Breeding fish and fry
destroyed to a great extent — Smallest meshes of nets used — Trapping
and snaring, damming, lading, and poisoning waters practised —
There would he but little difficulty in prohibiting the sale of
fry in the bazars — Opinions as to the necessity for protective
measnres — How rules would affect fishermen — Proposals respecting
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets — Conclusions
from the reports — Fence months.

Opinions of European Officials . . . .ex

Second Assistant Resident — Officiating Commissioner of West Berar —
Deputy Commissioner of Akola — Deputy Commissioner of Bul-
dana — Assistant Commissioner of Bassim — Deputy Commissioner
of Amraotee — Deputy Commissioner of Ellichpoor — Deputy Com-
missioner of Woon.

Opinions of Native Officials ..... cxii

Tehsildar of Akola — Tehsildar of Buldana — Tehsildar of Bassim —
Tehsildar of Amraotee — Tehsildar of Mortizapur— Tehsildar of
Chandore — Tehsildar of Morsee — Of Woon District.

Central Provinces ...... cxv

Majority of people may eat fish — Markets how supplied — Whether fish
in the waters have increased or decreased — Fishermen, as a rule, have
other occupations — Breeding fish how destroyed Fry killed whole-
sale— The smallest size of the mesh of nets — Other modes of
fishing — Remedial measures proposed — As to regulating the mini-
mum size of the mesh of nets — Whether the sale of fry in bazars
ought to be prohibited — Fence months.

Opinions of European Officials ..... cxvii
Chief Commissioner. Nagpiir Division, Collectors of Nagpiir,
Bhandara, Chanda, Wardha, and Balaghat — Deputy Commissioner
of Jabalpur — Narbada Division, Collectors of Betul, Chindwara,
Hoshangabad, Narsinghpur, and Nimar — Chhattisgarh Division,
Collectors of Eaipiir, Sambalpur and Bilaspur.

Opinions of Native Officials ..... exxii

Nagpiir Division, from five Tehsildars — Jabalpur Divisions from five
Tehsildars — Narbada Division, from five Tehsildars — Chhattisgarh
Division, from three Tehsildars — Upper Godaveri District, from the
Tehsildar of Siruucha.

vn

K.UrtTTANA. .

Opinions of European Officials .....
Governor General's Agent and Commissioner of Ajmir — Deputy Com-
missioner of Ajmir.

Oui>ir .....••

Opinions of Chief Commissioner — Large proportion of people fish-
eaters— Supply in markets unequal to demand — Fry largely killed
during the rains — The smallest size mesh of nets— Breeding fish
trapped in irrigated fields — Whether the sale of fry should be
prohibited.

Opinions of European Officials ....

Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad — Chief Com-
missioners— Commissioner of Faizabad — Those of the Collectors —
Collector of Lucknow — Collector of Unas — Collector of Bara
Banki — Collector of Sitapur and Captain Thompson — Collector of
Hardui and of the Settlement Officer — Collector of Rai Bareli —
Collector of Sultanpur — Collector of Pratabgarh.

Opinion of Native Officials .....
Faizabad Division, from Tehsildars — Lucknow Tehsildar — Unas
Tehsildar— Sufleepur Tehsildar Purwah Tehsildar— Mohan
Tehsildar — Kantha Rungit Singh Mara Wan, Ganga Sahib
Bangermoro Gopal Singh — Nawabgunj Tehsildar — Futtehpiir
Tehsildar— Samahi Ghat Tehsildar— Hydergurh Tehsildar— Sitapur-
Hurdui Tehsildar — Shahabad Tehsildar — Sundeela Tehsildar —
Bilgram Tehsildar — Rai Bareli Tehsildar — Sultanpur — Putti —
Pratabgarh Tehsildar — Behar Tehsildar.

Nokth-Westekn Provinces .....

Area and population — Rivers, canals, and rainfall — Ganges and Jumna
rivers how replenished — Fishes of North -Western Provinces — Impe-
diments to fish-breeding, as canals, &c. — Fixed engines and damming
streams — Majority of population fish-consumers — Markets insuffi-
ciently supplied — Fish decreasing in the waters — Fishermen, as a rule,
also have other occupations — Breeding fish and fry destroyed —
Modes of fishing pursued — Conclusions — Reasons given for inacti-
vity— Advisable steps — Propositions for temporary measures.

Opinions of European Officials ....

Lieutenant-Governor — Commissioner of Meerut — Superintendent of the
Doon — The Collectors of Meerut and Mozuffernuggur — Commissioner
of Rohilcund — The Collectors of Budaon, Shahjehanpiir, Bijnour,
Moradabad, and Bareilly — Commissioner of Kumaon, Senior Assist-
ant Major Fisher — Assistant Commissioner of Gurhwal — Superin-
tendent, Terai — Commissioner of Benares — Magistrate of Goruckpiir —
Collectors of Bustee, Mirzapur, Benares, and Ghazeepur — Deputy
Collector of Ghazeepur — Collector and Civil Surgeon of Azimgurh —
Commissioner of Jhansi — 'Deputy Commissioners of Jalora and
Lullutpur — Assistant Commissioner — Commissioner of Allahabad —
Collectors of Jompiir, Futtehpiir, Allahabad, Hunipur, Bauda, and
Cawnpore — Commissioner of Agra — Collectors of Furruckabad,
Etawah, and Agra — Mr. Adams — Collectors of Muttra and Etah.

Opinions of Native Officials
Meerut Division — Rohilcund Division — Benares Division-

-Jhansi Divi-

sion-

- Allahabad Division — Agra Division.

Bengal ( First Report) ......

Province — Main rivers — Fish largely eaten — Local markets insufficiently
supplied — Fish have decreased — The fishermen — Breeding fish
destroyed — Fry wastefully killed — Stocking ponds — Modes of fish-
ing— Conclusions — Remedies proposed.

Page.
exxvi
exxvi

exxvii

ex xix

CXXXlll

cxI

cxlviii

clxxii

clxxix

Vlll

Opinions of European Officials .

Burdwan Division — Collectors of Midnapiir, Bind wan, and Hooghly —
Coocb Behar Division — Deputy Commissioners of Darjeeling, Goal-
para, andGaro Hills — Rajshahye Division — Commissioner of Orissa —
Officiating Collector — Engineers of Irrigation Works— Assistant Ma-
gistrates at Bhudruk and Balasur,

Opinions of Native Officials .....
Tehsildars of Burdwan and Hooghly — Assam.

British Buema ......

Its provinces — Native mode of letting the fisheries — River and tank
fisheries — Its principal rivers — Tanks or Eengs— Burmese eaters of
fish — Usually boatmen and fishermen — Markets how supplied —
"Whether fish have decreased — Fisheries Government property —
Breeding fish and fry destroyed.

Opinions of European Officials ....

Chief Commissioner — Personal observations — Moveable engines — Reasons
fisheries are not depopulated — Letting fisheries chiefly useless to the
consumers — Present propositions as temporary measures to obviate
local objections — Answers to cpxestions circulated in 1869 not yet re-
ceived— Chief Commissioner's opinions and those of a committee of ex-
perienced officers — Commissioner of Arrakan, Deputy Commissioners
of Akyab, Ramree. and Sandoway — Deputy Commissioner of Thyet-
myo — Commissioner of Tenasserim, Deputy Commissioners of
Amherst and Shwegyen — Commissioner of Pegu, Deputy Commis-
sioner of Rangoon, Senior Revenue Settlement Officer.

Opinions of Native Officials .....

Akyab District — Ramree District — Sandoway District, from three —

Thyetmyo District, from one — Amherst District, from four Myo-okes.

Executive Engineer of Amherst respecting poisoning the waters —

Tavoy District, from one Myo-oke — Shwegyen — Mergui.

Madeas {Supplementary Report) ....

Opinions of European Officials .....
Collector of Bellary, Subordinate and Head Assistant Collectors — Collector
of Trichinopoly — Collector of the Kistna, Head Assistant and Sub-
Collectors — Collector of South Canara — Draft Fishery Act.

Opinions of Native Officials .....

Trichinopoly Collectorate, from five Tehsildars — Kistna Collectorate —
South Canara Collectorate.

Bbitish Buema (Supplementary Report) ....

Opinions of European Officials .....

Chief Commissioner — Commissioner of Pegu, Deputy Commissioners of
Rangoon, Bassein, Deputy Collectors of Myanoung, Prome, and
Thayetmyo.

Opinions of Native Officials .....

Pegu Commissionership, from Prome, Rangoon, Pantanaw, Myoung
Mya, Theegwen, Tsabai-yoon, Yay-gyee, Lay-myet-hna, and Shwe-loung.

Bengal (Siqyplcmentary Report) ....

Opinions of European Officials .....

Commissioner of Assam, Deputy Commissioners of Durrung, Nowgong,
and Secbsagur — Assistant Commissioners of Golaghat and Jorehat,
Deputy Commissioner of the Kbasi Hills — Collector of Tipperah —
Commissioner of Dacca — Civil Surgeon of Furreedpore — Commis-
sioner of Chota Nagpore — Deputy Commissioners of Hazareebaugh,
Singbhoom, and Maunbhoom — Commissioner of Chittagong, Collect-
ors of Noakhally and Chittagong,

Page
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IX

Page,

Fish as food, or the reputed origin of disease

On a fish diet — Deficiency of supply of animal food (o natives of India —
Various estimations in which fish is held by the different races —
General effects of a fish diet — Does such affect the procreative
powers — Fish diet more suited than that of mammals to natives
of the East — Large fish more valuable weight for weight than small
ones — Fish as food may set up poisonous symptoms due to several
causes — Spiny rayed fish as food, those having accessory breathing
organs most esteemed by convalescents— Scaleless fish as food — ■
Carps in hilly districts may set up deleterious effects — Herring famihr,
members of it may be poisonous — Eels as food — Scleroderini as food,
or poisonous — Cartilaginous fishes as food — Diseases attributed to
a fish diet — Skiu diseases and scurvy — Wounds from fish spines,
especially of Siluroids — Wounds from spiny rays of fishes.

ccxxxvu.

Fresh-water fishes of India

What they consist of — Definitions of sub-classes, orders,
genera, and species of fresh

Order Acanthopkrygii, T
Family Percidae

„ Pristipornatidae

„ Sciaenidae

„ Squamipinnes

„ Carangidae

„ Mugilidae

„ Gobiidae

„ Nandidae

„ Labyrinthici .

„ Ophiocephalidae

„ Rhynchobdellid;y

„ Chromides

Order Anacanthini
Family Pleuronectidae

Order Physostomi
Family Siluridae

Seombresocidas

Cj'prinodontidae

Cyprinidae

Clupeidae

Notopteridoe .

Symbranchidas

M uraenidaj

Order Lophobranchii .
Family Syngnathidae .

Order Plectognathi
Family Gymnodoutidae

water fishes of Ind

families,
ia and Burma.

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Sub-class Chondroplerygii
Order Plagiostomata .
Family Carchariidaj .
„ Pristidae
„ Trygonidae

On preserving specimens offish
On making preparations— Preserving fish in spirit.

Pa ok.

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E E P 0 R T

ON THE

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

I. In August 1SG7, the Secretary of State for India,

in a despatch to the " Madras Govern-

Orisjin and progress of the j »»T l n j.-

present enquiry into the state of ment, directed their attention to a
fresh-water fisheries of the in- coHimunicatioii from Sir Arthur

u'iJire' Cotton, wherein he had stated he

" should suppose that the inj ury to the coast fisheries must
be very great, now that seven of the principal rivers on
the East Coast" are barred by irrigation works that had been
constructed. On 27th May 1868, I received instructions to
proceed to the anicuts or weirs in the Madras Presidency, in
order to obtain more specific information than had up to that
period been received. Eirst, the districts to the south of
Madras were inspected,* subsequently those to the north. t
Having been directed to continue these enquiries, I went next
to Orissa and Lower Bengal, | afterwards to British Burma, §
and at the end of 1809 the Andaman Islands. || Being
compelled to proceed to Europe on sick leave in March of
1870, due to an accident received dming these investigations,
I availed myself of the opportunity of visiting a number of the
fish ladders existing in England, returning at the end of the
year to India. At the commencement of 1871 these en-
quiries were resumed ; first, the North- Western Provinces^"
and the Panjab** were inspected. On September 17th a brief
synopsis of the result of the enquiries already made was drawn
up, and a set of definite questions submitted for promul-
gation to all European and Native officials in India and
Burma, from which a considerable amount of the following

* Report, to the Madras Government.

t Reports dated 17th November 186S and 4th February 1S69.

X Report, 8th March 1869.

§ Report on Fresh-water Fisheries and another on the Sea Fisheries, 1869.

|| Report, dated February 1870. If Report, dated July. ** Report, dated July.

( 2 )

details have been collated. Finally, Sind was visited,* and
now the whole of these enquiries are brought together as
briefly as possible, in order that individual investigations may
be tested to the fullest possible extent by the opinions of
others, prior to any definite conclusions being arrived at.

II. Respecting those who have previously worked
Previous workers on the sub- amongst the fresh- water fisheries of

ject of the fishes in India. India, our literature is exceedingly

scanty. Dr. Hamilton Buchanan in 1822 published " The
Fishes of the Ganges," his investigations into which com-
menced in 1794. He considered the question of fish as one, if
not the most important, which could be enquired into, and gave
many interesting observations bearing on the subject.
Dr. McClelland in 1839 drew attention to the great benefits
which might accrue in looking after the fresh-water fisheries.
Cucier, when writing to a correspondent in India, observed
that he did not know a more interesting and important
question that could arise in the East, than an enquiry into the
fresh-water fisheries of Hindustan, In 1819, the late Dr.
Jerdon published papers upon the fresh-water fish and fisheries
of Southern India in the " Madras Journal of Literature and
Science." Mr. Bhjth has given some description! of these
fishes in the "Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal," 1859
and 1860. In the " Eishes of Malabar," published by myself in
1805, are a few remarks on the same subject, my attention,
when collecting the fresh-water fish, having been drawn to
the wasteful destruction then going on. (See para. 139.)
Mr. Grant, Collector of Malabar, about this time suggested to
Government the necessity of affording some protection to the
fishes in the waters of his collectorate from the indiscriminate
destruction to which he considered they were subject, but
nothing was attempted. Two years subsequently, the late
Colonel Haly revived the question, and since that period a
mass of valuable information has accumulated.

III. In 1SG7, some enquiries were made by the Govern-
„ . . , . „ „ ment of India, the replies to which

Enquiries made by the Govern- -,, , -, i -i , • j-i • i

uunt of India in 1867, ami suK- may well be adverted to m this place,
gestions as to what information r£[lG Natural History Secretary to the

then unavailable was required. > . . . rv • # X -r> i /ni i

Asiatic Society of Bengal (21st
January 1SGS) replied " that the Council are fully aware of the
great importance of the question at issue, and they consider

* Report, March 1871.

t There are several authors who have written on the fresh-water fishes of India, hut
confined their remarks simply to descriptions with or without figures — BlocA., Russell, Sykes,
Cuv. and Vol., Gray and Giiul/ter, whilst Kardwiclce only gave drawings.

( 3 )

that the statement made by Sir A. Cotton, together with the
strong a priori arguments that may be adduced, render it in
the highest degree probable that the effects of anicuts or
weirs across large rivers leads to a rapid destruction of many-
kinds of fish, which may ultimately lead to their extermi-
nation, not only by interfering with their spawning in their
accustomed localities, but by leading to their accumulating
in large numbers below the weirs, where they are not only
captured in large quantities by man, but are exposed in an
increased degree to the attacks of crocodiles and predaceous
fishes." Dr. Jerdon (9th November 1867) observed on
" the necessity for adopting some restrictive measures for pre-
venting the wholesale destruction of large fresh-water fish, such
as the mahaseer, during the spawning season." Mr. Grote,
Senior Member of the Board of Revenue, Loioer Provinces
(15th March 1868), considered — " very little is known of the
habits of Indian fish." " It may be found advisable to
legislate for regulating the exercise of the public right of
fishing in all our navigable rivers. As yet we have been
unsuccessful in our endeavours to curtail that right, or to
enforce the claim of Government to lew a tax from those who
have been in the habit of exercising it." Colonel Strachey,
Inspector General of Irrigation Works (23rd June 1868), pro-
pounded the following enquiries: — "What are the fish which
constitute a practically important portion of the food of the
people ? Of those fish, which are those which migrate for the
purpose of depositing their spawn ? Amongst the migratory
fish, what are those which live entirely in the fresh- waters,
and what are those which pass from the sea or brackish
waters into the fresh river waters ? "What are the precise
habits of each of these classes of fishes, as to their migrations,
both in respect to their extent up the rivers and the season
at which they occur ? And what is the season at which the
young brood of fish is developed, and when do they descend
the rivers ? "With such knowledge, we should be in a position
to form an opinion of some practical value on the question
that has been put." I now propose taking up all these and
some other questions in detail, before entering upon the
result of the investigations which have been made by others
as well as by myself.

IV. The fresh-water fisheries of India and Burma

Where fresh-water fisheries extend fl'Om a Sea level to almost

exist- every place in which water exists in

any quantity, even to high up amongst the hill ranges.

( i )

Tli cy are to be found in rivers, irrigation or other fchoolsj
canals, lakes, tanks muljhils, and are of various degrees of im-
portance, not only as regards the amount of fish residing in
them, hut likewise in accordance with the character of the
contiguous people, as to whether they are fish-eaters or
reject this article of food ; also as to the sparsity or the
reverse of the population.

Rivers and their Expansions.

V. The rivers of India and British Burma possess
. ,, _ .. „ . certain peculiarities which tell, to a

Hi vers or the Indian hmpire. l n , ~ ,

greater or lesser degree, upon the fishes
that inhabit them — some of these being due to the season of
the year, others to the amount of rain-fall. There are those
descending from the hilly regions, as the Irrawadi in Burma,
and the Indus in the Panjab and Sincl. Besides which,
there are certain differences to be observed when the rivers
are in the hilly districts from what obtains in the plains, and
these re-act upon the fishes which inhabit them.

VI. The hill rivers of India, or, more properly speaking,
h;ii rivers of India : those those which take their rise in the hill

having Alpine origins. ranges, may be divided into (1) those

which have, or (2) have not, Alpine sources. Generally speak-
ing, the rivers which have Alpine origins, as those which de-
scend from the Himalayas, have for their sources of replenish-
ment (exclusive of springs) two most prominent ones. During
the hot months, that derived from melted ice and snow is
abundant, and a daily rise and fall in the amount contaiued
in them may be observed at certain hours, corresponding
to the distance from their snowy sources, and which is due to
solar influence. Throughout the monsoon season, doubtless,
the rains also assist in the melting of the snows : exclusive of
this, however, they are sufficient to fill the rivers in what
may be termed a spasmodic manner. Thus, in the commence-
ment of March, the snow-floods begin in the Indus, the
inundations of this river being more entirely due to the
influence of the melting snows than to that of the rains,
as in the Ganges and Jumna, owing to the rain-fall being
greater in the upper regions of the latter rivers than in
those of the former and its affluents. These hill rivers con-
sequently form torrents, rising rapidly and as rapidly sub-
siding, more especially during the rains, whilst, having no
contiguous tanks into which the fish could retire, their

( 5 )

piscine inhabitants are peculiar, or have habits and means
of support differing from what obtains in those residing
entirely or nearly so in the rivers of the plains. During the
cold season, these rivers, unreplenished by rains or melting
snows, become in places exceedingly small. The beds of hill
streams are more or less restricted into one or more sharply-
defined channels, frequently passing over considerable heights,
whilst they have become widened by casual changes of force
and direction, insufficient, however, to form lakes or even
tanks. The wider or larger these rivers are, which pass over
vertical falls of a given depth, the greater are the chances of
fish being able to ascend. Many of the species which in-
habit these regions are provided with an adhesive sucker,
placed behind the lower jaw or on the chest, in order to
enable them to retain their hold against rocks, and thus pre-
vent their being washed aAvay.

VII. In rivers destitute of Alpine sources, as the Ner-
mii rivers destitute of Alpine budda, Kistna, Godaveri, and those

sourcvs- taking their origin in the Western

Glints, Nilghiris, and other hill ranges, where snow but rarely
reaches and never remains for months, we have a very
different state of affairs. Amongst these must also be class-
ed the sub-streams or affluents of the larger snow-fed rivers ;
and it is in these places, where the water is warmer, that
most of the hill fishes, excepting many of the loaches, breed.
Rivers unreplenished by melting snows are naturally destitute
of the daily rise and fall throughout the hot months which is
perceived in snow-fed ones. In the rivers of the Malabar Coast,
most have then rise in the Western Ghats, receiving the full
force of the south-west monsoon, which, commencing in
June, rarely continues beyond three months, and it is only
during this period that we see those sudden rises and falls
which enable breeding-fish to ascend to the hill ranges, for
the purpose of depositing their ova in localities suitable for
the rearing of their young. After the monsoon is over, the
waters gradually subside, and the breeding-fish descend to
the plains, leaving many of their young to be reared in the
small pools remaining in the hill streams.

VIII. The rivers of the plains of India are, of course,
P. , ,, , . . _ .. chieflv the continuation of those de-

Rivers of the plains of India. ,v „ ., , .,, ,

scendmg from the hills ; but even m
those having Alpine sources, the daily rise from melted snows
becomes less and less apparent the further they are from their
sources. These rivers may be divided into those (as the

( 6 )

Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra and Irrawadi) which have
always a fair supply of water in them : and others (as the
Sone, Godaveri, Kistna, Cauveri, &c.) that become com-
paratively dry in the hot months, in some of which this defi-
ciency is increased by water being abstracted from them by
works of irrigation. Their relative value as fisheries de-
pends on several causes — some natural, others artificial.
During certain seasons of the year, as in the height of the
rains, and in those with snowy sources in the hot months,
these rivers form impetuous torrents, absolutely precluding
fishing being carried on, excepting at their edges.

IX. Throughout the cold months, and generally until the

How during the dry months SCttillg-in of the SOLltll-West mOllSOOU

ip the majority of the rivers of ju juue rivers are at their lowest,

India, the waters shallow untu , ,, . , . , .,,

only a succession of pools exist, whether examined in hill ranges or on

connected by a larger or smaller the plains. Thus, in the hill streams

sti cam, and here the larger fish . * T7- -p^. , . , ,

must continue until the river in the Kangra District (see para.
rises- 30), as the cold months commence, the

amount of water shallows until there appears a succession of
pools united by a more or less insignificant stream ; to these
places all the fish that do not descend to the plains resort. In
the cold months, they take refuge at the bottoms and
under rocks, and are not easily netted, but as the
warmer weather sets in (unless the river is snow-fed),
easily fall a prey to the fisherman as the water steadily
decreases. The same thins? occurs throughout the length and
breadth of Hindustan: thus on the western coast of India, about
August or September, as the south-west monsoon decreases,
the rivers gradually diminish in size until the downpour of
rain commences in June the succeeding year. As they sub-
side, pools are left, in which the larger fish congregate.
" Though there may be many pools in a river, there are only
a few at intervals of four or five miles that are specially
resorted to by the larger kinds of fish. These are generally
the deepest and longest ; they are sometimes as much as
twenty feet deep and a quarter of a mile long. They are
generally cooler, from being overshadowed by trees, and
more or less overhung with rocks. Their very depth also
would keep them cooler than the wide shallows extending
for miles together, and in the height of the hot season, of a
few inches only in depth, under a tropical sun."*

* 11. S- Thomas, Esq.j on "Pisciculture in South Canara," p. 4

( 7 )

X. Iii some rivers, as the Irrawadi or the Indus, a
„..,,. rather different state of things is

How rivers have their seasons Lt . o .

of inundations, flood the country, perCClVed. In the latter T1VGT its

and fill lakes or tanks termed „reatest height 18 ahoilt AugUSt. and

Eens in Burma, and D hands o > • i /» i • r»

in portions of the Panjab and in tlllS IS the period 01 heaviest floods ;

Smd- in September its subsidence is usually-

very rapid, zero being commonly reached by November. As
a large tract of country becomes inundated during these
periods of floods, the tanks, to wherever they extend, receive a
fresh supply of water : in Burma, where this occurs, due to
the risings of the Irrawadi or Pegu rivers and the downpours
of rain, these tanks are termed Eens, whilst in a portion
of the Panjab and in Sind, where the Indus extends, the local
term Dlidnd is employed.

XI. These tanks or dhdnds in Sind, that are useful to

Dhdnds or tanks in Sind main- HsllOnneU, _ are of tWO claSSeS I the
ly divisible into isolated ones, in first arc isolated dlldllds, and ill

So^roSd^iZiK which communication wit li the Indus

tions, and connected ones, which Olllv OCCUl'S during periods of illim-

are extensions of running water f]nf;ni1Q nnf] mnsflv HripQ nn winv tn
into a tank, and their communi- UailOllS, dllU lllOSliy Ul ILh lip pilOl TO

cation continues throughout or tllC next year's Slipplv ; whilst the

for the most part of the year. ^C<m& HYG COMlCCtcd d/ldiids, being

expansions of a river, small stream, or canal into a tank, and
which, throughout or for the most part of the year, are con-
nected with running water. Some of these dhdnds are
without, others within, embankments, which have been
constructed for keeping the inundation water within due
limits, or bunding it in certain desired directions.

Irrigation "Works.

XII. Amongst the artificial causes affecting fisheries
are anicuts, weirs, or bunds constructed for the purpose
of irrigation or working mills. Irrigation weirs have been
erected across various rivers in the Panjab, North- Western
Provinces, Bengal, and Madras, in order to deflect a certain
amount of water iuto canals constructed for its reception
and dissemination. These weirs are usually built in the
form of stone walls across the entire breadth of rivers,
and consequently form an obstruction, arresting the up-
ward and downward passage of fish that are endeavouring
to migrate, whilst, should it be sufficiently high, it entirely
prevents their passing. On the bed of the river in front
of it, or on its down-stream face, there is generally a stone
pavement termed "an apron," or this apron may be a gradual
slope of rough or smooth stones extending from the summit

( 8 )

of the walls to the bed of the river. Likewise on the up-
stream face of these weir walls is a bund of stones, of
greater or lesser extent, sloping down to the bed of the river.
XIII. These irrigation weirs are of different forms,
_ . .. . , , . but all arrest the passage of fish,

Irrigation weirs, under-sluices . .-, <i -\

either narrow or wide; no fish some temporarily, others entirely;
able to ascend through the ancias a consequence those migrating

former ■"■

down-stream often pass into the
irrigation canals. These weirs have openings of varying
sizes termed " under -sluices" constructed for the purpose of
permitting the surplus water passing through the body of the
weir, and on a level with the lowest bed of the river ; when
rushing through with great velocity, it was expected large
quantities of silt would be carried with it, keeping the
general bed of the river washed out to its proper level.
These under-sluices or complete gaps through the weirs are
of different widths, and may be classed under two divisions :
first, the long narrow ones in Madras, the North-Western
Provinces, and the Panjab; and, secondly, the wide ones in use
at Cuttack, Midnapur, and on the Sone River. These under-
sluices are kept closed, except when there is an excess of
water, as during the monsoon months : those of the Madras
pattern are from six to nine feet in width and several yards in
length ; they close by means of boards pushed down
vertically into large wooden grooves, and these boards
can be elevated, when it is desired to do so, by means
of a capstan and windlass. As these narrow under-sluices
are of many feet in length, there are generally two sets
of grooves, one at each end, so that either can be made use
of. These narrow under-sluices carry such a rush of
water through them that no Indian fish can ascend up
when they are open. I thought this had been clearly esta-
blished, but as I see this belief again advanced, I must here
digress in order to explain that such never occurs. Fish,
which are attempting to pass weirs in the course of their
ascent up rivers, are chiefly those who are in a breeding con-
dition, and are trying to reach their natural spawning grounds.
Thus, when near the sea, the shad or hilsa is the most valu-
able sort which becomes stopped by weirs without practicable
passes, so they are unable to reach the only localities wherein
their spawn or ova could come to maturity if deposited ; they
consequently have to drop it in the water below these weirs,
and here it cannot be fertilised, but inevitably perishes. The
same occurs with some of the large carps in the more north-
ern rivers (as of the North- Western Provinces and the Panjab)

( 9 )

that are weired not far from the base of the Himalayas, the hilly
streams of which are the natural breeding-places for some,
as the mahaseer, &c. They descend over them before the
cold months, when the rivers above contain too little water or
are unsuited for their residence ; and when attempting to
return up-stream, find this stone wall an insuperable obstacle :
thus their reproduction is likewise prevented. These ques-
tions will have to be considered more fully further on, but
are only introduced here to demonstrate that it is fish heavy
in roe which must have a free passage, at least if the
fisheries are worth conserving, and such a ruinous course
is not checked by sensible measures of restriction, irre-
spective of the consideration that below these weirs or obstacles
large accumulations of fish take place, and thus assist man
and other predaceous animals in destroying them. Fish when
heavy in roe are not so well able to jump any great heights
as are some of the younger or barren ones. Standing at the
period of freshes, on the bridge above one of the Madras
weirs possessing these narrow under-sluices, it is interesting to
see the numbers of fish, both large and small, which leap up
against their walls : some strike against the piers of the
bridge, others fall into the cascade descending over its summit ;
but though I have passed hours watching them, I never saw
one clear these obstacles, although I have seen thousands
attempting it. The only rational reason that I can adduce
for the junrping against the insurmountable weir walls
whilst the narrow under-sluices are open, is because they
find such to be impassable. Could they ascend through these,
why do they not ? The truth is that they are unable to
do so. When these fishes were netted, many, especially the
large ones, were bruised and scaleless in places, evidently
due to injuries caused during their frantic but unavailing
efforts to surmount the wall, or ascend through the open
but narrow under-sluices. Take the Coleroon River as an
instance. Since the construction of the lower weir, the shad,
which formerly ascended high up to breed, and are now ex-
tensively netted below it, have never been taken above it
(unless a breach has occurred), and this although there is
a second weir nearer its source, where netting was permitted,
and which was a further obstacle to ascent. At this second
weir indiscriminate slaughter of fish was beins: carried on
when 1 was there; mercy was unknown; the amount of
present spoil formed the only anxiety of the fisherman,
whilst the injury being done to future years' supply was
entirely unheeded

( io )

XIV. Thus here was a weir with narrow under-sluices
Weirs with narrow under- at which the shad were being detained

slakes, continued. endeavouring to ascend to their spawn-

ing beds, although these under-sluices were open during
freshes, and the floods were so great that a mere ripple on the
surface of the river only marked the presence of a weir. In
spite of all this, no fish have been found to pass this obstruc-
tion, and surely did they do so, a solitary straggler might have
been taken. Even a barren fish, in fact, a shad of any sort,
had not appeared at Trichinoooly during the whole period
that this construction has existed and been intact. Shad,
or rather large fish, have been taken in these under-sluices,
but only when they were closed at the up-stream end. It
is true that a good current is then coming down between
the boards which close these vents or narrow passages, but
it does not prevent strong healthy fish from ascending as far
as the boards, but these very boards form an effectual bar
to their onward progress. The very use of the sluices is
to force the water down with such impetuosity that, during
high freshes when they are open, no Indian fresh-water fish
could possibly ascend when the weirs are several feet in
height : the water shoots down the openings and across
the apron, bubbling and boiling a hundred yards or more
down-stream. This torrent of about six feet in width is
like a mill race, or as if it were shot out of an engine,
carrying down stones, sand, &c, in its course, and which of
themselves would be sufficient to injure fish attempting to
ascend. From personal observation I am satisfied no fish
could pass up them : persous locally employed on these weirs
assert the passage of fish to be impossible : above such con-
structions these migratory species attempting to ascend cannot
be found; it must, therefore, be evident to any one who will
consider the question, that weirs are effectual barriers to the
ascent of fish, even although such possess narrow under-sluices
that are left open during the periods of the freshes.

XV. The wide under-sluices, such as exist in the weirs

weirs having wide under- at Cuttack and Midnapur, are con-
siuices no impediment to ascend- structcd on an entirely different prin-

ing fish when such are open. ciple ^ pattcrn? foxing free gapS

of many yards in width, so that, when open, fish cannot have
any difficulty in ascending through them.

XVI. These weirs likewise, it is stated, may be topped
Fish unable to ascend over by fish during heavy floods, as then

wens. they may ascend over them, especially

when the summit of their wall is several feet below the

( 11 )

surface of the water. But they do not appear to do so, or
why are the shad entirely stopped at the lower Coleroon one ?
In the Kistna the ascent of the fish usually occurs after the
freshes have subsided, aud when a wall of stone is built
along1 the top of the weir, and through which water only
trickles, this construction being indispensable for the irri-
gation of the second crop of rice : fish, however, attempting
to ascend during the freshes, one would at first sight have
thought, could easily pass over the Bezwada weir, as it forms
a loug slope on its down-stream face, from its summit to
the bed of the river. But such is not the case :* it is asserted
that not a single marine species is caught there, or has been,
since its construction. Those which try to ascend up the
rough stones, in the face of an impetuous current, apparent-
ly become so bruised and injured that they are unable to
cross, and even could they do so, their ova would probably
be irretrievably ruined. But these rough stones do not
exist in front of the under-sluices ; and as the river is
frequently five feet above the level of the wall above them,
it might be advanced that they could cross at that spot, but
they apparently do not contrive to do so, which is most
probably due to the great force of the current, for they would
have to rise 16 feet at least to clear the wall. As they
ascend along the river's bed they find a wall and ascend to
surmount it, but as they rise the strong current must take
them backward down-stream, and thus they never reach its
summit which the muddy condition of the water prevents
their seeing, for it is only during freshes that the wall is
covered.

XVII. Besides the foregoing there are irrigation canals
irrigation canals simple or for which have a bearing upon the
traffic as well. fisheries of a district, and these may

be divided (1) into those simply constructed for purposes of
irrigation, or (2) those which are made for both irrigation
and navigation. These canals in some places, as the Boree one
in Sindj are mere artificial streams, which, in some portions
of their extent, exist in lieu of natural water-courses which
have silted up. Here no great falls occur, and references
to such are unnecessary. But irrigation canals, as a
rule, are given off from one or both sides of a river, which
has a stone weir thrown across it for the purpose of bunding
up the water to a given height. At the head of each of

* It is stated at Kurnal (p. lsxxi) that sable are taken at the weir there; if so,
they must cross the Bezwada one. Having written to the Collector, he is unable to say if it
is the suble or not, so I have requested, but not as yet received, a specimen.

( 12 )

these canals are head-sluices, where the amount of water
entering can he regulated in accordance with local require-
ments, or entirely cut off if necessary.

XVIII. Irrigation toeirs constructed simply for irriga-
...... . tion are those in which boat-traffic

simple irrigation weirs. . , , ... .,

cannot be also carried on, due to one
or more vertical falls existing which are too great to permit
such. These falls, which are sufficient to prevent traffic,
ore mostly also sufficient to entirely oh struct fish, which have
once descended over them, from ever re-ascending. These
canals almost invariably have a high fall near their com-
mencement, whilst helow all overflows, and due to the action
of descending water, are holes of a larger or smaller size in
their bed, and being well adapted for feeding in, here large
fish live and thrive so long as they are permitted. The
further the distance from the canal head, and as the amount
and rapidity of the flow of water decreases, the falls are
usually less and these holes are smaller; still, even there they
are present, but are not so suitable for providing food for
large fish. It will thus be seen that these canals form large
receptacles which may be turned into traps for all fish which
once obtain an ingress, unless there are tanks connected with
them into which they could retire when the water is cut off
and they become dried, or else that the holes in their beds
retain a sufficient supply during these periods, so that the
fish may remain in safety until the water is re-admitted.
Eor at certain times every year, it becomes necessary to dry
off these canals to enable the engineer officers to ascertain
what repairs are necessary, and unless the fish have a safe
place to resort to they might be easily taken. But, unfor-
tunately, in some canals it is, or has been, the custom to allow
the employes to kill all the fish at this period, and thus a
simple irrigation canal becomes a vast trap for destroying
fish. (See para. 12, p. v.)

XIX. In canals which are constructed for both irri-
irrigation and navigation gation and navigation, there are lochs

c:m:ils- at every fall, that boats may be

admitted and floated up to a higher level. At these lochs
I have observed that fish can obtain a passage up or down
stream, so they will not be further alluded to.

XX. None of these canals contain gratings or other
How fisi, are carried into appliances _ at their commencement

irrigating canals, ami how they foi' preventing the iugl'eSS of fish, aild
perish from want of water. an official \n tuQ North-Westcm

Provinces (para, ool) observes upon having personally

( 13 )

witnessed how, when water is re-admitted into these canals,
shoals of fish are carried over falls up which none can re-ascend,
and below which they are unable to breed. Thus, the water
is cut otf and the contained fish destroyed, the canal to be
again replenished with a supply from the river, to be again
and again exterminated several times during the year ; and
a surprise is expressed that the fisheries are deteriorating.
The oftener the canals are closed, and the longer the periods at
each closure, the greater is the mischief (see para. 315.) But
from either side of these main canals are given off side ones for
the purposes of irrigation ; these, again, have no grating to pre-
vent fish ascending them ; they go up, but, as they are mostly
only filled every alternate week on either side, all that have
gone up them invariably perish. In other districts fixed
traps are permitted in all these small water-courses.

XXI. Again, in Malabar (see para. 1G7), as the dry
Small rivers diverted for ini- season commences and water is requir-
gation in Malabar. ec[ to irrigate a second crop of rice,

the rivers are of small proportions, and near their sources the
farmers collect boulders of stones, lay them across a stream,
and fill in the interstices with shingle, stopping up the cre-
vices with bushes and mud. This lasts until the next south-
west monsoon sweeps it away, and whilst it exists, it diverts
an entire river stocked with fry into rice-fields. Thus the
young fish pass with the water into the irrigated fields, which
have been levelled and partitioned with shallow embank-
ments so as to economise the water as much as possible.
Here, though predaceous fishes are excluded, man can
do as he likes ; the water, if it does not return to the river,
mav be' entirelv exhausted in these fields, and if every
drop has been turned on, nothing can escape destruction,
or else some may rejoin the river as waste water, and
thus the young fish regain a locality suitable for their
growth ; but at each outlet from every field exists a fixed
trap which captures every one of the fry. Again, when the
yearly rains naturally inundate the country, when rivers
and tanks overflow, and fish move about to find suitable
localities for breeding in, the small streams and outlets resem-
ble the net-work of irrigation channels. Many species ascend
up them to breed, but find appliances of destruction, invented
by man, meeting them at every turn. Persons may be watch-
ing to catch them, or fixed engines and traps existing,
and which are sure in their effects, or, should some
breeding-fish contrive to ascend, they are usually trapped
on their return : whilst the fry obtain no greater immunity,

( 11 )

and this is said not to be " waste" because they are
eaten !

XXII. On the Himalayas grain is, in places at least,
Mills worked by water-power : ground in mills moved by water-power

small fish destroyed there. (para, oo^ ^^{q^ jg effected by

constructing small canals, into which the water of streams is
diverted as in irrigation works. Into these canals, termed
Icools, numbers of fry and even large fishes find their wav,
as there are no obstructions at the mouths of these kools to
prevent their entrance. The mill-owner cuts off the water at
his pleasure, and all the contained fish are left dry.

Tanks useful as Fisheries.

XXIII. Of tanks (see para. XI), there are those
m , e, „ . . which are always in connection with

Tanks useful as fisheries. , . *> .

such running water as rivers and
works of irrigation ; or those in which this communication
only exists during the monsoon time : whilst others are
entirely unconnected. First, there are those which are always
in connection with running water, which are generally useful
as breeding-places for the non-migratory forms of fishes, and
merely require a little care to be taken as to how they are
worked, in order to render them exceedingly valuable as
fisheries. The second sort of tanks, or those in which com-
munication with running water only exists during the
monsoon time, are of two distinct forms *. in the first, they
always, or nearly always, contain water, whilst in the second,
they are dry, or almost so, except during the rains. Pish
obtain access to both these forms of tanks during the mon-
soons and breed there ; but in the last, so soon as all commu-
nication with the running water has ceased, they become
practically isolated, and unless they happen to be of such va-
rieties as bury themselves in the mud (para. XLIV) during
the dry months of the year, they must die, whether captured
by man, killed by the lower animals, or destroyed by the sun
as the water evaporates. Lastly, we have those tanks which
arc always unconnected with large pieces of running water,
frequently due to their being situated upon an elevated
portion of the country, and these are generally stocked with
fish by the owners.

XXIV. In lavgejhUs, where the screw pine, Pandamts
T... . , ,, ,, ». odoratissimus. or many weeds as the

Jhtls; now naturally the nan ... *

in them may be protected from lotllS 01' VallSUei'ia, COVCl1 tllCll' SUl'laCeS

nettins- and extend themselves through their

depths, or where grasses spring from their beds, or the roots

( 15 )

of trees grow into them, fishing has usually to be carried on
by means of traps, angling, or spearim

lS-

The Pishes of the Fresh-waters.

XXY. The fishes which are chiefly useful as food in

the fresh-waters of India beloDg to

Fresli-water fishes. ,-■ -, -r,7 , . ■ i-i • •!„

the order Physostoini, especially in its
siluroid, cyprinoid and herring families, as well as those which
are included in the order Acanthopterygii, sub-divided by some
authors into two. The other orders which furnish examples
to the fresh-waters are only employed as food by the very
poorest classes, or even entirely rejected. (A list of the
fresh-water fishes is appended, para. 430).

XXVI. Another mode of dividing the fishes which fre-

quent the fresh-waters of India is into

Migratory and non-niiaratory A . , -, ,

fishes? Breeding ones poiyga- the migratory and non-mujratorij .

mous or monogamous. Seasons Some of the migratory foi'UlS (as

iuetins" Barbus tor) ascend the hill streams

from the rivers of the plains for breeding purposes : cr
those which never leave the plains, although they belong
to this division, may be marine (as Clupea palasah) : or
entirely fresh- water species (as several of the carps).
Migrations in adult fish are effected for breeding or pre-
daceous purposes, or to obtain some peculiarly desirable
description of food. There are also, as already observed, the
" non-migratory" fishes both in the waters of the hills, as some
loaches and small siluroids, or in those of the plains, as the
Ambassis, &c. Lastly, the breeding-fish will have to be con-
sidered, the majority of which appear to be polygamous, but
some are monogamous : whilst the time of year at which they
deposit their eggs varies with seasons and localities, the mi-
gratory forms almost invariably selecting the monsoon
time.

XXVII. In the sub-class Teleostei, the spiny-rayed or

Acanthopterygian or spiny- ACAXTHOPTERYGIAN Ol'dei'S of fishes,
rayed order of fishes. arc not; found in any gl'Cat UlimbcrS

in the inland fresh- waters of India, but are mostly confined
to the plains, either within or but a short distance removed
from tidal reach, or above the sea level. The larger the river,
the greater the probability of these fishes extending their
range up it. There are some genera which possess species
that are able to exist some time after their removal from the
water, and even to dive down and remain in the mud of
tanks during the dry season, re-appearing with the returnin

( 16 )

rains. These hard-rayed fishes, which are taken in the fresh-
waters, mostly belong to the following 18 genera, some of
which are marine, others not so: — 1, Lates ; 2, Ambassis ;
3, Corvina ; 4, Mngil ; 5, Equula ; 6, Gobius ; 7, Euctenogo-
blus ; 8, Beriophthalmus ; 9, Eleotris ; 10, Badis ; 11, Nandus ;
12, Catopra; 13, An abas ; 1-1, B oly acanthus ; 15, Tricho-
(j aster ; 16, Ophiocephalus ; 17, Rhynchobdella ; 18, Masta-
cemblus.

XXVIII. The foregoing 18 genera are divisible into two

Divisible into purely fresh- distinct classes '. first, tllOSe which

water and pnniaiiy marine forms, entirely belong to the fresh-waters
(although some of the species of the same genus may have
marine representatives) ; secondly, those which are marine, and
only ascend rivers for predaceous or breeding purposes. Of
the true fresh- water ones (2, as Ambassis Thomassi ; 4, as
Mugil cascacia ; 6, as Gobius giuris ; 7, as Eucteuogoblus
striatiis ; 8, as Tcrlophtlialmus Schlosseri; 9, as Eleotris
nigra ; 10, as Badis dario ; 11, as Nandus marginatus ; 12, as
Catopra nandioides ; 13, as Anabas scandens ; 14, as Polya-
canthus citpanus ; 15, as Trichogaster fasciatus ; 16, as
Ophiocephalus gachua ; 17, as Rhynchobdella acideata ; and
18, as Mastacemblus armatus) — some of these are monoga-
moiis, as Xos. 13, 14, 15 and 16, and probably also Nos. 6 and
7, all of which appear peculiarly adapted for tanks and jhils,
as they live in the grass along their edges, where the larger
varieties lie in wait for frogs or other animals on which they
prey. Whilst the first four named genera being air-breathers
(see para. XLIII) they have only to raise their mouths out of
the water and take in their modicum of air. Others of these
fresh-water genera are apparently polygamous, as Nos. 2, 10,
11, 12, 17 and 18. Of those genera which possess marine repre-
sentatives, some of which breed in the sea, whilst others ascend
rivers for this purpose, are Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. But some of
these genera placed as polygamous, as the gobies, may even-
tually prove to be monogamous. Of the whole of these
Acanthopterygians but few are generally distributed through
the inland tanks far from the sea level or beds of large rivers ;
these exceptions are the little Ambassis ; a goby, Gobius giuris ;
the small Badis and pcrcoid Nandus ; the walking fishes,
Ophiocephalus, and the spined eels, namely, the llhynchobdella
and Mastacemblus. Of the second or marine division of this
order of fishes, some (1, as Bates calcarifer ; 3, as Corvina
coilor ; and 5, as Equula,) are marine, ascending rivers at
certain seasons, as in the rains, in order to obtain food,

( 17 )

sometimes going long distances up their course : thus, I have
taken Lates calcarifer at Mandalay in Upper Burma, about
G50 miles from the sea, evidently following the shoals of
shad, Clu-pea palasah, for predaceous purposes.

XXIX. Pishes of the order Physostomi, or those in

which the air-vessel communicates

Physotomatous order of fishes, . , , , -, -, i n

or those possessing a connecting with the pharynx by means oi a
duct between air-vessel and pneumatic duct, contain the largest
p arynx" proportion of the Indian fresh-water

fishes. One of these families (Siluridcej are destitute of
scales, whilst they are present in the Cyprinida?, which have
no teeth in the jaws or palate, and also in the herrings
( Clupeida?), the majority of which last have a trenchant or
cutting abdomen (as the hilsa, Qlupea palasah), or generally
a few minute teeth in the jaws or palate. The Notopterlda?,
which also belong to this order, furnish some species which
are esteemed by the natives.

XXX. The siluroid family, silurida, are commonly

Silnrid* or scaleless fishes, kn0Wn a* Cat-fislieS, becailSC they

often termed cat-fishes, as they generally possess a number of long
generally have long feelers. barbels, arranged around the mouth.

These fishes mostly prefer muddy to clear water, as such
conceals their presence. The more developed and numerous
these barbels, the better adapted these fish seem to be for an
inland and muddy fresh-water residence; whilst on the con-
trary, those which are strictly marine do not appear to be so
well furnished with these appendages. Siluroid fishes are also
generally armed with strong spines in the fin of the back
and pectoral fins, and which, as a rule, are serrated ; with these
severe wounds are often inflicted, which renders the handling
of them dangerous. Tropical countries, which possess large
and muddy rivers and tanks in their plains, such as Bengal
and Burma, are more adapted for siluroids than such localities
as Madras, where the rivers are smaller, and the waters
clearer. Irrespective of being scaleless or unclothed (if we
admit scales to be the clothing of fish), they would hardly
appear to be suited for cold climates, and we find that they
are much more numerous in tropical than in sub-tropical
or temperate parts of the globe. The siluroid fishes which
are captured in the fresh-waters mostly belong to the follow-
ing 25 genera, excluding Chaca, some of which are marine,
others not so: — 1, Akysis ; 2, Erethistes ; 3, M a crones ;
4, Rita; 5, Arius ; 6, JPangasius ; 7, Pseudeutropius ;
8, Callichroiis ; 9, Walla go ; 10, Olyra ; 11, Silurus ; 12,
Clarias ; 13, Saccobranchus ; 14, Silundia ; 15, Ailia ; 16,

B

( 18 )

Ailiiehthys; 17, Eutropiichthys ; 18, Sisor ; 19, Gagata ; 20,
Hcviipimelodits ; 21, Bagarius ; 22, Pseudecheneis ; 23, Glyp-
tostermim; 24, Ambtyceps, and 25, Exostoma. Out of the
foregoing 25 genera, some are residents in waters of the
plains, also in rivers of the hills with or without Alpine
sources. A nongst tlie 17 resident solely in waters of the
plains, and not extending their rauge into hilly regions, we
find that in eight, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the air-vessel
is free in the abdominal cavity and not enclosed in bone ;
whilst in ten, Nos. 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, it is
more or less so enclosed. Amongst those residing in
rivers of the plains, and extending their range into those
of the hills which have or are destitute of Alpine sources, we
perceive four, Nos. 22, 23, 24, 25, which are found in the
waters of the plains as well as in the hill rivers with Alpine
sources ; all have their air-vessels enclosed in bone, the
two first have a thoracic adhesive apparatus, whilst the last
three have representatives in the next division, and Nos 22
and 23 are furnished with a thoracic adhesive apparatus.
The remaining three genera, Nos. 1, 10, 11, are found in
rivers of the plains, and also in those of hills destitute of
Alpine sources, whilst in none is the air-vessel enclosed
in bone. Erom the foregoing it appears that the majority
of the genera of the Indian fresh-water siluroids have their
air-vessel enclosed in bone, whilst it is not so enclosed in any
of the marine forms ; that amongst the siluroids of hilly
regions, those which ascend rivers having Alpine sources
have the air-vessel enclosed in bone : whilst those which
ascend rivers not snow-fed do not appear of necessity to
have their air-vessel thus protected.

XXXI. The fresh-ioater siluroids may be divided
0., .. ,..„ . .. into those of the hills and those of

Siluroids of hills and plains. ... ,. , , „ ,, on

the plains; the former, or those ot the
hills, being small and often possessing a thoracic adhesive
apparatus to enable them to adhere to rocks, and prevent
their being carried away by descending torrents. The silu-
roids of the plains are very numerous, existing in almost
every piece of fresh-water, whilst the larger rivers contain
some, as the Pangashts Buchanani, Wallago attu, Sihtndia
Gangetica, and Bagarius Yarrellii, which attain to several feet
in length : in fact, up country, as in the upper portions of the
Jumna and Ganges and in the irrigation canals, where they
find abundance of food, and consequently grow to a very great
size, they are erroneously termed "sharks." None of these
siluroids possess any adhesive apparatus unless they are also

( 19 )

common to the hills as the Pseudecheneis and Ghjptostermim.
In some species which are thus provided, as the Glyptoster-
num striatum, not only is this thoracic apparatus very distinct
whilst residing in mountain streams, but even their pectoral
and ventral rays are plaited inferiorly ; but these additions
are indistinct or completely absent in specimens of the same
species when their size is larger, and they have been captured
in the rivers of the plains.

XXXII. The respiration of these siluroid fishes is as
„ , „ , varied as amongst those of other orders

Respiration of siluroid fishes. , _^T ^T j_i i_-\ yv>

(see para. XL1I1) : thus, the Clarias
and Saccobranclius, owing to the possession of accessory
organs to their branchiae, are compound-breathers, able
to reside in the mud of tanks, and are much employed for
stocking these places. Most of the siluroids are very long-
lived whilst out of the water, even when accessory breathing
organs appear to be absent, as in some of the Macrones and
in species of the genus Rita, which are very slimy fish.
As a rule, all which belong to this family are exceedingly foul
feeders, more especially when there are but few small fish
for them to prey upon ; still for anglers who do not care
whether the game affords play, these fishes give good sport
when large, freely taking a frog or small fish. Some of the
siluroids are migratory during the breeding season, and this
is generally in the rains. They appear to prefer muddy-
bottomed tanks and sluggish rivers, whilst pebbly streams,
especially if the waters are clear, are rather avoided by them
in the plains. Some even of the larger ones reside during
the dry months in places where there would be no means
of subsistence for them were it not for a sufficiency of small
fish, which likewise retreat there, and afford them sustenauce
until the rains re-commence, and they can again move about.

XXXIII. In the family Scombresociile, the Belone
„..„". .1 cancila is found throughout the

Family bcombresocidae. . , . , . -,•-,•,■> i

rivers and tanks, in which it breeds.
Amongst the Cyprlnodontid.e are several small fresh-water
species as Cyprinodon Stolickanus in Katch, and several
species of Haplochilus in India and Burma, mostly in large
rivers and near sea levels.

XXXIV. The carps or Cyprinida, as already observed,
., ., cn . ., belong to the order Phvsostomi;

Family of Cyprmidce or carps. ... " .. , ... / ,, .

First sub-family or loaches, with this iarnily are destitute oi teetn m
the air-vessel more or less eucios- their iaws and palate, only possess-

cd in bone ** **-

ing them on their inferior pharyn-
geal bones, whilst none of them have more than one fin

( 20 )

on the back. The family of carps is divided into three
sub-families; the little loaches, Cobitidince, which extend
throughout the length and breadth of the Indian and Burmese
fresh-waters, from a sea level to many thousand feet above
it, even breeding in places where the rivers are almost entire-
ly replenished by melting snows. In all is the air-vessel
more or less enclosed in bone. In those species found
high up amongst the hills and in snow-fed rivers when
ascending up to near their sources, as in Nemacheihis, it
appears to be invariably so : whilst in the larger Botia, which
mostly is taken in the plains or bases of hills, the posterior
portion of the air-vessel is wholly or partially free in the
abdominal cavity, only its anterior portion having an osseous
capsule. It is remarkable that the single genus of this sub-
family which is found high up in the hill ranges, Nemacheihis,
is destitute of any offensive or perhaps defensive spine under
the eye, but which is possessed by every genus in the plains,
as Apua, AcanthophthalmuSi Acanthopsis, Colitis, Lepido-
cephalichthyS) Botia and Jerdonia. Misgimins has been
omitted as not found in India, but it has been taken in the
hill ranges beyond Upper Burma ; it has no orbital spine.
Loaches form excellent food for the larger fishes, and are
also esteemed for this purpose by the natives of India.

XXXV. The second sub-family of the carps are the
second sub-family of carps, sand-grubbers, Bomalopterince : they

Sand-grubbers, having no air- have no air-vessel, are insignificant
vessel* in numbers and size, and reside under

stones in streams along the bases of hills or at moderate
elevations.

XXXVI. The third, largest and most important sub-
Tim-d sub-family of carps, air- family are the true carps, Cyprinince,

vessel not enclosed in bone. whicli are generally distributed and

ihe hill carps sub-divided into ° j /» 1 n i

non-migratory and migratory are most important as IOOCl I all liaVC

forms- the air-vessel free in the abdominal

cavity. Very few are merely vegetable feeders ; the barbels,
Barbus, appear to be all carnivorous or omnivorous, and take
the place in Indian rivers supplied by trout in the more
northern climes. These carps are divisible into those of
the hills and those of the plains. The hill carps, again, must
be sub-divided into those which " permanently" reside there,
and those which arc occasional or periodical visitants
that ascend for the purpose of breeding, or to obtain a
change in their food. Strictly predaceous fishes do not
appear to be found in hilly districts. The non-migratory hill
carps furnish some of the most valuable articles of food

( 21 )

there for the resident population. Thus, the mountain
barbel, Oreinus, often erroneously termed a " trout," because
it is sometimes spotted with red, the Oreinus sinuatus is
common in many of the Himalayan rivers ; fishes of this
genus possess a sucker on the lower jaw behiDd its broad
mouth, by means of which it is able to adhere to rocks, and
prevent its being swept away down stream ; it is taken as
high as Kulu, even to 5 or 6,000 feet elevation, and is
common in the Ussun River, not above 4 or 5 miles from
Simla. Also another small carp, Discognatlius, exists in
these elevated regions throughout the year (it is also found
in the plains), and is furnished with a sucker in same
situation as in Oreinus. As migratory hill carps, may be
classed those which breed in the hills, but descend to the
rivers of the plains, where they reside during the cold and
drier months of the year, when the small hill streams would
be unsuited for their residence, re-ascending to the base of
the hills during the hot months, and, if possible, ascending up
the rivers into the Sub-Himalayan range, or those of other
hills, as of the Nilghiris or the Western Ghats, with the first
burst of the monsoon.

XXXVII. Amongst the carps of the plains are a very

Carps of the plains. Migra- large and varied number of forms,

tory or non-migratory species. some of which are migratory, others

not so ; these migrations are mostly effected for breeding
purposes, and generally take place during the S. W. monsoon,
but a few do so during the N. E. ; but many of these latter
are fish re-ascending towards their breeding-grounds to be
ready for the S. W. monsoon of the succeeding year. The
numbers and varieties of these carps of the plains show as
great a difference as was remarked upon in the siluroids
(para. XXX). Commencing with Southern India, there
are innumerable small species of carps in the plains, but a
paucity of large ones. This is not merely due to the
universal slaughter which obtains there, but is also partly a
consequence of smaller rivers and a hotter climate. As the
Masulipatam District or the Kistna or Tambudra Eivers
are reached, larger varieties of this sub-family come to notice ;
many large Labeos and the Catla, unrecorded as existing
further south, as towards Madras, can now be taken.
Whilst in the rivers skirting the base of the Nilghiris, as
those along the Western or Malabar Coast, very large species
of barbels, termed mahaseers, become apparent. The finest
carps, as in the genera Labeo, Cirrhina, Catla, and the

( 22 )

sub-genus 'Barhodes in Barbus, are mostly found in the larger
rivers or pieees of water, whilst the latter are commonly
perceived in those affluents of the Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra, and other rivers that are near the bases of
hills.

XXXVIII, The herring family, Clupeidce, furnishes
Herring family. Migratory examples of both migratory and
and non-migratory forms. non-migratory forms to the fresh-

waters of India, some being marine which ascend rivers
solely for breeding purposes, whilst others are strictly fresh-
water and non-migratory, generally breeding in tanks.
The migratory herrings are those which ascend large rivers
from the sea for the purpose of breeding in fresh-water,
the most important of which is the shad, Clupea pcdasah,
known also as the Hilsa or Ilisha, the Palasah of the Telingis,
the Ulum of the Tamils, the Pulla of the Indus, the Nga-
tha-louk of the Burmese, and the sable fish of the Europeans
in Madras. There seem to be two classes of this fish
v hich ascend the large rivers : those below one year of age,
and which do not appear to breed, or if they do, it is at the
very end of the year, or commencement of the succeeding
one ; secondly, there are those which breed at the commence-
ment of, or during the monsoon. In the Cauveri and
Coleroon these fish ascend with the first burst of the S. W.
monsoon, and continue doing so the four succeeding months,
but in diminished quantities, some evidently being later
breeders or younger fish. In the Kistna, which has a great
velocity, the freshes commence in June and continue until
the end of October, after which the river subsides, but
it does not become fordable until the middle or end of
January. A few of these fishes arrive at the end of Septem-
ber, but it is not until the middle of October and the two
following months that their main body appears to ascend,
whilst they disappear by April. It is only when the rapidity
with which the Kistna flows during the freshes commences
to subside that they arrive in large numbers. In the neigh-
bouring river, the Godaveri, which has a less rapid current
than the Kistna, the fish ascend earlier, being most
numerous from July to September, when the fishermen believe
they migrate to the Kistna. In the Hoogli they continue
ascending throughout the S. W. monsoon, and many are
found to be still full of roe in September. Mr. Blanford
has observed them at Mandalay in Upper Burma at
the end of the year. In Sind, this fish ascends from the

( 23 )

sea about February for the purpose of breeding in the river,
from which it again descends to the salt-water about the
end of September or commencement of October, after which
none, even young, can be found. Tbey are only taken in
dhdnds, stagnant pieces of water or canals, due to some
accidental cause or unnatural obstruction having obliged
them to turn aside from their natural breeding-grounds.
The main body of these fish swarm up the large rivers of India
and Burma generally as soon as the S. W. monsoon
commences, but not always at the same period, such ap-
parently at times being dependant upon the rapidity of the
current and other causes. That it is not solely due to the
presence of rain-water is shown by the Indus and lrrawadi ;
in the former, the floods are mainly caused by melted snows
at this period (see para. VI), whilst in the lrrawadi these fish
push on to Upper Burma, to which country the S. TV,
moonson scarcely extends, and there the inundations are
also due to melting snows. One reason why periods of
flood are selected as those for breeding, appears to be due
to their being practically acquainted with the fact, that at these
times the shallows are covered with water, rendering ascent
practicable, consequently they now come up to deposit their
ova, which is always done in the rivers, never in tanks or
canals, Amongst the non-migratory herrings, some species, as
Engraulis Chatoessus and the Corica suborna, appear to breed
in rivers or even tanks.

XXXIX. There are also a few other fishes which,
Eels &c however, are not much esteemed as

food, some of which belong to the
order Physostomi. In the eel-like family, Symb ranch idee,
but generally in fresh -waters or marshy places not far
removed from the sea level, is found the curious Amphipnous
audita. Amongst the true eels, Ilurcenidcc, there are several
species which are taken in fresh and brackish waters, but it is
only An gu ilia Bengalensis that appears to live at some
distance inland.

XL. In the order Lophobranchii, a little pipe-fish
T , , ,. . , _ is very commonly found in rivers,

Lopkobranclnate order of , . " , * . _ ,

fishes. andm some places is termed the cro=

codile's tooth, from an idea that it is
the vivified tooth of one; of these reptiles, in other districts it is
called the crocodile's tooth-pick, from the use which it is said
to be to those animals. It is the Ichthyocampus carce, and as
food is useless.

( 24 )

XLI. In the order Plectognatiii, several of the

family Gymnodontes are found ascend-

i. locto^nit 111

ing rivers for some distance, espe-
cially species of the genus Tetrodon, but they do not appear
to be considered fit for food anywhere (except some sea
species amongst the Andamanese). Still in Burma, a closely
allied fish, Xenopterusnaritus, is extensively taken in the lower
provinces, and esteemed as food by the people of the country.
XLI I. In the Sub- Class Chondropterygii, order

Plagiostomata, there are some
Cartilaginous fishes. species which ascend rivers for preda-

ceous purposes, but are not esteemed
as food. Amongst the family of sharks, the Carcharias Gcmge-
tlcus ascends rivers, but not very often far beyond tidal influ-
ence; however, I have seen it at Cuttack, and in the Pegu river :
whilst a species of saw-fish, Prlstis, is likewise found to pro-
ceed as high; neither breed in the rivers. Amongst the Try go-
nidce, the T. uarnak is also frequently found above tidal
influence.

Respiration of Indian Pishes.

XLIII. Before commencing the subject of the sudden

appearance of fishes in Indian tanks

Respiration of fishes : water- after fa\\$ of rain, and llOW tliey mi-
breathers; compound-breathers. . , .'.. a n t n

grate during periods of floods, a lew
observations are necessary upon how they respire, as some
remarkable variations from the usual manner are observable,
evidently to enable certain tropical forms to resist causes
which are not in existence in most extra-tropical regions.
Three modes of respiration are perceptible : first, the usual
one of oxygen obtained, except under peculiar circumstances,
from air in solution in the water, and which is separated
at the gills ; these may be termed for description, not defini-
tion, "water-breathers," as the carps, Cyprinince, or some of the
siluroids, as 31acronesi and they can live, as a rule, without
rising to the surface. If any of these fishes are placed in a
globe of water at a moderate temperature, with a diaphragm
of net precluding their reaching the surface, their breathing
remains unaffected. If, on the contrary, a bandage is
stitched around the gill-opening, precluding their employing
their gills, they rapidly become suffocated. This result in
another form is perceived to occur in India, either artificially
or naturally. Thus, when the water in which they reside
becomes suddenly changed from clear to very muddy, their
gills become choked, respiration is impeded, and death results.

( 25 )

In the Haidarabad Assigned Districts, the Tehsildar of
Buldana (para. 238) observes that "disturbing the water
of a stream, so as to cause it to become muddy, is said some-
times to cause the fish to die." Also in Oudh, the Commis-
sioner of Faizabad (para. 276) reports fish being taken
in village ponds and jhils, in the months of Jeth and
Baisakh, by hand, the water being first mudded by gangs
of from 50 to 60 men. This sudden fouling with mud,
causing death to water-breathing fishes, is likewise observed
during the monsoon months, where a sudden descent of very
muddy water suffocates this class of fishes. The Collec-
tor of Tanna (para. 101) remarks that, when the rivers
become muddy at the commencement of the monsoon,
fish die in large numbers, also when they become
nearly dry at the close of the hot weather. Also (para.
187) "in Sittimungalum, it is observed of the Bhowany
Biver that fish die when the water is mixed with mud to a
large extent, as during the monsoons ; this has also been
observed in Malabar. Secondly, some species, which, although
they to a limited extent are " water-breathers," are more
essentially " air-breathers," having a compound respiration,
consequently muddy water hardly affects them. Thus, in
carrying live specimens of Ophiocephalus from the plains to
the Nilghiri hills, this was most successfully accomplished in
water largely mixed with mud. They never obtain oxygen
for any length of time from the air in solution in the sur-
rounding water, but inspire it direct from the atmosphere, no
matter how cool and charged with air the water may be ; and
if unable to inhale atmospheric air, become poisoned by
the carbon remaining in their circulation. The compound-
breathers expire in a longer or shorter interval if un-
able to reach the atmospheric air ; amongst these are the
climbing perch, An abas scandens, and the species of the
Acanthopterygian genera, Poly acanthus, Trichogaster, and
Ophiocephalus, all of which possess a cavity above the gills
for the purpose of the reception of air for respiratory require-
ments. The difference between the respiration of the " water-
breathers" and the "compound-breathers," as defined,
is very apparent when they are lying side by side at the
bottom of an aquarium. Thus, the Macrones carcio has its
gills in constant excited movement, whilst the Ophiocephalldce
scarcely move theirs, but at intervals rise to the surface,
open their mouths, and take in air. This latter phenomenon
0f breathing the air pure, and not subsequent to its solution

( 26 )

in the water, is especially visible in some species, as the
JPolf/acanthus cupanus, which dart up suddenly to the
surface, descending again as rapidly to the depths of the
water. I instituted a considerable number of experiments
(see Proc, Zoological Society of London, May 14th, 1868,
p. 274) to investigate this question. Some live specimens of
Ophiocephalus gachua were placed in a globe, which was
filled two-thirds full of fresh water. A diaphragm of fine
net was then stretched lightly across the inside of this globe,
one inch below the surface of the water, thus effectually pre-
venting them from ascending to the surface to obtain a direct
supply of atmospheric air ; death invariably ensued in a
longer or shorter time, generally in accordance with whether
they remained quiet or continued excited. A bandage stitched
tightly around the gill openings, whilst it prevented their
being used for respiratory purposes, did not appear to cause
any inconvenience so long as they could inhale atmospheric air
direct, and this although it was not removed for 21 hours.
But it must not be considered that these fish, are entirely
prevented from decarbonising their blood if they are unable
to obtain atmospheric air direct, as, although some died within
the first 40 minutes, others lived 7 and one 17 hours whilst
below the diaphragm. In wet grass, at the end of 3 hours,
those placed there were found as lively as when first
put there : one in a dry cloth lived for 3 hours and 25
minutes. The Anabas scandens are kept four or five days
alive by the fishermen in Calcutta in earthen pots destitute
of water, using daily what they require, the fish continuing
as lively as when captured. In Burma the fishermen
appear to be practically acquainted with the fact of some fish,
especially Ophiocephalidce, being air-breathers ; thus, after
nearly all the water has been removed from the tank to be
fished, leaving only about five feet of slimy mud, through
which their bamboo net fgyan} has been drawn, they are
aware that many fine fish still remain. A large cloth is
spread over the mud and left there two or three days, on remov-
ing which, the fish are seen stupefied and easily taken, their
blood having become carbonised from a deficiency of oxygen,
due to want of air for breathing. In short, my experiments,
I think, proved that these fishes died when deprived of access
to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either
in the water or apparatus employed, but due to being unable
to decarbonise their blood solely from the water, serial respi-
ration being indispensable. Also that they can live out

( 27 )

of water in moisture for lengthened periods, and for only a
short and variable time in water, provided they are unable
to obtain air direct : that the cavity above the gills does not
contain water, but has a moist secretiug surface in which the
air is retained for the purposes of respiration, whilst it seems
probable that the air, after having been employed for this
purpose, is ejected through the mouth. Some of the venous
blood appears in these fishes to be oxygenated at the gills,
and the remainder in the superbranchial cavity by means of
air ; but if they are kept under the water without being able
to obtain direct access to it, this cavity, which is surrounded
by bony tissue, becomes filled with water, which cannot
be discharged owing to its almost non-contractile powers.
Thus, there being no means of emptying it, and the contained
water probably becoming carbonised, the whole of the respi-
ration is thrown upon the gills. This accounts for the fact
that when the fish is in a quiescent state it lives longer than
when excited, whilst the sluggishness sometimes evinced, may
be due to poisoned or carbonised blood. An analogous
instance may be seen in an eel, Ophichthtjs boro, in which
the gills are contained in a large cavity in either side
of the head, and which do not communicate with one ano-
ther. The fish distends this receptacle with air taken in
by the mouth. It appears to be able to respire either directly
from the atmosphere, or by means of the air contained
in the water. On its small gill-openings being kept closed,
it takes in air bv the mouth ; should its mouth be held
shut, it struggles until its head is released so as to
be able to respire. If the gills are exposed by cutting
away the outer gill-coverings, and it is then returned to
the water, it begins to slowly move its branchiae, and appears
to feel little, if any, inconvenience in being unable to obtain
air direct through its mouth. In some of the siluroids, there
exists an accessory breathing apparatus ; thus, the Clarias
possesses a dendritic one on the convex side of the second
and fourth branchiae, which has much the appearance of a
bunch of red stick-coral ; this is received into a cavity
posterior to that existing solely for the gills. In the
Saccobranchus or scorpion-fish, a long air-vessel of a pul-
monic character (in addition to the air-vessel proper which
is enclosed in bone) extends throughout the length of the
muscles of the back, and anteriorly opens into the gill-cavity.
In the eel-like Symbranchitlce, the Ampliipnous cuchia has
a pulmonic sac for the reception of air connected with the

( 28 )

gill-cavity. This mode of respiration appears to be a wise
provision of Nature, to enable fish in tropical countries,
during periodic dry seasons or in the rains, to migrate from
pond to pond in search of water wherein their natural food ex-
ists. Also as they ascend small water-courses to breed during
seasons of inundations, they are always liable to have the
supply of wrater suddenly arrested, and then they regain
rivers, &c, through muddy channels or moist pieces of grass.
Thirdly, there are some fish which also appear to swallow air,
and perhaps absorb oxygen through the skin, as the loaches,
Cobltidwcu, and the spined eels, Hhynchobdellidce, but no
special air-breathing apparatus has as yet been detected.

Estivation of Fish.

XLIV. A curious phenomenon in Indian fresh-waters,
„ and one which has never been satis-

iEstivation of fishes. pj-i t • i • ,i -in

iactorily explained, is the sudden
appearance of healthy adult fish after a heavy fall of rain,
and in localities which for months previously had been dry.
When pieces of water inhabited by fish yearly dry up, what
becomes of them? On 18th January 1869, when examining
this question, I wras taken to a tank, of perhaps an acre
in extent, but which was then almost dry, having only about
four inches of water in its centre, whilst its circumference wras
sufficiently dried to walk upon. The soil was a thick and
consistent bluish clay, from which, and not nearer than 30
paces to the water, five live fish were extracted from at
least two feet below the surface of the mud. They consisted
of two of the Ophioccphalus punctatus, and three of the Jx/u/n-
chobdella aculeata. All were very lively and not in the
slightest degree torpid ; they were covered over with a thick
adherent slime. Amongst the specimens of fish in the
Calcutta Museum is one of Amphipnous cuchia, which was
dug up some feet below the surface of the mad, when
sinking the foundation for a bridge. If when the water
failed fish invariably died, the tanks would be depopulated
the succeeding year, unless a fresh supply was obtained from
some other source, whilst the distance from other pieces of
water at which they re-appear excludes, in many instances,
the possibility of migration, which must always to a certain
extent be regulated by distance, time, and other local cir-
cumstances. "Some species, especially " compound-breathers ':
(para. XLIII), are able to live in liquid mud, which they
cannot employ for the purposes of aquatic respiration. The

( 29 )

practical question is, whether, when food and water fails,
some fish do not aestivate until the return of a more
favourable season. Natives of India assert that they do thus
become torpid in the mud. As the water in tanks becomes
low, the fishes congregate together in holes and places in
which some still remains, where they may be frequently seen in
numbers, huddled together with only sufficient water to cover
their dorsal fins. If disturbed, they dive down into the thick
mud, so that a net is often found ineffectual to take them.
The plan employed to capture them is for the fisherman to
leave the net in the water, and to walk about in the surround-
ing thick mud ; in time they come to the surface to breathe,
and fall an easy prey. As the water gradually evaporates,
the fishes become more and more sluggish, and finally, there is
every reason to believe that some at least bury themselves in
the soft mud, and in a state of torpidity await the return of the
yearly rains. In Ceylon, Mr, Whiting, the Chief Officer
of the western province, informed Sir Emerson Tennent
that he had accidentally been twice present when the villagers
had been engaged in digging up fish. The ground was firm
and hard, and " as the men flung out lumps of it with a spade,
they fell to pieces, disclosing fish from nine to twelve inches
long, which were full-grown and healthy, and jumped on the
bank when exposed to light." Many other animals which
possess a higher vitality than fish aestivate during the hot
-months, as Batoachians, the Emys, the Lepidosiren anneclens,
and some of the Crocodiles. Molluscs and land-snails
are commonly found in this state during the hot and dry
seasons.

Migrations of Fish.

XLV. The subject of the migrations of fish during
„ , , the periods of rain is of great practical

Mi-rations of tisb. x ..,. j_i /*» i

importance, it being mostly eriected
for the purpose of breeding, but in some few instances
is due to predaceous fishes being in pursuit of their weaker
neighbours. At the commencement of the rains fish be-
come very excited and disturbed ; apparently unsatisfied
with the localities they inhabit, they restlessly seek a
change to other pieces of water. This may be owing to the
same instinct which causes the migration of marine fish
to the fresh-water, or the necessity of obtaining a suitable
place in which to deposit their ova. It is generally at this
season that some have been observed travelling on land, and
it has been imagined that places which are only occasionally

( 30 )

covered by water become populated by fish after heavy
showers of rain. The possession of the means necessary for
locomotion on land, combined with those for direct aerial re-
spiration, frequently leads to the almost sudden appearance of
fish in unexpected places, and has given rise to numerous
arguments and theories — amongst them, spontaneous genera-
tion, vivification of buried ova, migration, falling from the
clouds, &c. Amongst persons testifying to having witnessed the
migrations of fish is Mr. Morris, Government Agent at Trin-
comalee, who in 1857 stated, — " as the tanks dry up, the fish
congregate in the little pools, till at last you find them by
thousands in the moistest parts of the beds, rolling in the blue
mud which is at that time about the consistence of thick gruel.
As the moisture further evaporates, the surface fish are left
uncovered, and they crawl away in search of fresh pools. In
one place I saw hundreds diverging in every direction from
the tank they had just abandoned to a distance of fifty or
sixty yards, and still travelling onwards. In going this
distance, however, they must have used muscular exertion
sufficient to have taken them half a mile on level ground,
for at these places all the cattle and wild animals of the
neighbourhood had lately come to drink, so that the surface
was everywhere indented with foot-marks, in addition to the
cracks in the surrounding baked mud, into which the fish
tumbled in their progress. In those holes which were deep,
and the sides perpendicular, they remained to die, and were
carried off by kites and crows. My impression is that this
migration takes place at night or before sunrise, for it was
only early in the morning that I have seen them progressing,
and I found those I brought away with me in chatties
appeared quiet by day, but managed to get out of the
chatties at night. Some escaped altogether, others were
trodden on and killed." The Anabas scandens is able to
travel short distances on land, and has been seen by many
Europeans whilst thus engaged. This migrating propensity
of some of the fresh-water fishes of the East was no secret
to the ancient Greeks, who frequently commented upon it,
and although the truth of their statements were impugned
by the Romans, the accuracy of their facts is above dispute.
But the migrations of fishes during the rains is, perhaps,
what is of most consequence in fisheries. In fields irrigated
from rivers or tanks, breeding-fish swarm up all water-courses
for the purpose of depositing their ova, and should be
protected as much as possible. As regards the marine
fish which ascend rivers, as the hilsa (para. XXXVIII), the

( 31 )

weirs which span rivers bar their upward ascent, and thus
cut them off from their breeding-grounds.

Breeding oe Fishes in Eresh-waters.
XLVI. Closely allied, in fact, inseparably connected
Breeding of fish in fresh- wit]l their migration, is the question

waters, Migratory and non- of the breeding of fis!l€S* hi the

migratory ones of the plains. fresh-waters, which may be treated
of in the following order : — non-migratory and migra-
tory fish of the plains ; non-migratory and migratory ones
of the hills. Apparently, the migratory forms produce the
largest number of eggs, probably as a compensation for the
increased chances of their destruction. Thus, in a migratory
herring, Clupea palasah, there were computed to be 1,023,645
eggs, and in a migratory barbel, 410,500 eggs, whilst carps
in the hilly regions appear to have a larger proportion of
ova than those in the plains. Amongst the non-migratory
species, we likewise observe a difference : the monogamous
not depositing so many as the polygamous, as a general rule,
which is probably due to two causes, — -first, in some localities
the former appear to breed more frequently ; and, secondly,
they protect their offspring. Thus, a "monogamous" Ophio-
cephalus had only 4,700 eggs, whilst a "polygamous" non-
migratory carp, Cirrhina reba, had 41,500, and a siluroid,
Callichrous canio, 47,444. Amongst the shoals of hilsa which
I have seen, more female fish were captured than males.
The marine fish breeding in rivers usually deposit their ova
in the sand : the non-migratory fish of the plains generally
amongst the grass at the sides of rivers and at small water-
courses, or the margins of tanks, occasionally in the sand. Some
of these fish, as the hilsa, appear to deposit their eggs at one
time : others, as some of the barbels, &c, to do so at intervals.
XLVI I. Of the non-migratory hill fishes (see para.
Breeding of migratory and XXVII) in the higher ranges, there
non-migratory fish of the hiiis. are tw0 situations in which they may

breed : — the first is in water wholly or partially obtained from
melted snows ; the second is in tributaries or affluents of
the main streams, as already adverted to (para. VII). It
appears as if it were not merely the fact of eleva-
tion and difficulty of ascent which prevents more fish
residing in the hill streams, but because some influence
is exerted by the melted snow-water, deleterious at least
to the ova, if not to the fry. In the upper ranges of

* Whether fish, full of spawn, sestivate, and consequently are ready to deposit their ova
as soon as the rains commence, is a question not entered upon in this report. Unable to
prove it by observed facts, 1 have considered it best to omit its consideration for the present-

( 32 )

the Himalayas, personal enquiries lead me to believe
that only the loaches, Nemacheilus, deposited and hatched
their eggs in places where melted snow-water existed; however,
no climate appears too hot or too cold for them. The moun-
tain barbels, Oreinus, and all non-migratory fish (see para.
XXXVIII), breed in small or large streams off the main snow-
replenished ones, or even in rivers which contain snow-water
in the winter months, as in those around Simla, but such is not
present during the breeding season; whilst along with them
were likewise many of the little loaches. The parent fishes
appear to ascend these side streams with the firstmonsoon floods
(see para. XXXVII), and having deposited their ova, to return
to the main river as the amount of water diminishes, or their
retreat to the rivers of the plains would be cut off. The eggs
not hatching in sufficient time for the young to pass down in
any quantities to the rivers, the later fry become detained
in these side streams until the next floods. Thus, when
examining these places just prior to the burst of the S. W.
monsoon, thousands were seen in every small rivulet, whilst
probably, due to food being scarce, they seem to grow slowly.
Consequently for the first year they remain very small, until
the monsoon rains enable them to descend to the larger
rivers, when with the floods large quantities of food becomes
washed down.

XLVIII. Of the migratory hillfishes, or those which
Breeding of migratory hiii ascend for breeding purposes (see
fishes- para. VII), the various forms of large

barbels, Barbus, termed mahaseers, furnish good examples.
These fish do not breed in the main snow-fed rivers, but do
so in the side streams of the Sub-Himalayan range. On the
slopes of the Nilghiris I have observed the same occur, but
with this difference, that they can deposit their ova in the
main streams there, because they are small and not replen-
ished by melted snows. The mahaseers after breeding return
to the main rivers, but the young are not generally suffi-
ciently grown to descend to the plains. The foregoing ap-
pears to be the rule, to which, however, there are numerous ex-
ceptions : thus, if the mahaseers are very large, they may have
to deposit their ova in rivers near the base of the hills, due to
their being unable to ascend higher ; in these cases the young
easily find their way into the main rivers of the plains.
Mr. Thomas has observed in South Canara that almost the
whole of the rain-fall occurs during the S W. monsoon,
which commences with June and lasts about four months,
and from September the rivers continue steadily to subside

( 33 )

till the following June. When the rivers commence being in
flood, grown fish are enabled to ascend to new feeding-grounds
previously inaccessible to them, and ten-pound fish are to be
seen half-way up the Mercara Ghat. In the high waters, the
larger fish linger until the gradually subsiding streams warn
them to drop gently downwards. The early spawners stay
the longest to secure shallow water for spawning ; this done,
they keep dropping gently downwards with the continually
decreasing waters, and before the [spawn they have
deposited is hatched, they are probably completely cut off
from their fry, so that, till the commencement of the same
monsoon in the following year, they cannot return to devour
them. The fry thus not only have the heads of the rivers
securely to themselves, but they have them also beautifully
accommodated to their puny strength, the impassable torrent
having become a mere driblet of an inch or so in depth.
(Report on Pisciculture in South CVmam, pp. 11, 12). These
fine fish having deposited their ova in the hill streams, and
returned to the rivers of the plains, descend down their course
in search of food, and if the upper portions of these rivers are
not of much depth, their range is extended very far down :
thus, I have seen numbers of mahaseer netted in the Jumna
below Delhi whilst returning up river towards their breeding-
grounds. A drove of mahaseers also descending rivers with
weirs and irrigation canals, naturally turn into the latter,
and having descended over one of the vertical falls, become
unable to return to their breeding-grounds (see para. XVIII).
XLIX. Of the non-migratory fishes of the plains,

Non-migratory fish of the tbe monogamous and ubiquitous

plains, some being monogamous, Walkinjr-fislieS, OPHIOCEPHALID.E, are

others polygamous. perhaps best known. As a rule, these

fish do not deposit such a number of ova as the migratory
forms, but they appear to breed oftener. Some of them reside
in tanks, others prefer rivers, where they live in deserted holes
they find in the banks. The tank varieties delight in lying
in the grassy edges, where the water is only sufficiently deep
to cover them, so that they have no difficulty in respiring at-
mospheric air direct (see para. XLIII on air-breathing fishes).
In Mysor, Colonel Puckle observed that the striated walk-
ing-fish, Ophiocephalus striatus breeds twice a year, in June
and December ; the male constructing a nest with his tail
amongst the vegetation, and biting off the ends of the weeds
that grow in the water. Here the ova are deposited, the
male keeping guard, but should he be killed or captured,

( 34 )

the vacant post is filled by his partner. When the fry are
hatched out, they are defended by their parents with great
courage. They may generally be perceived swimming just
below the surface of the water in one or two lines a little
above their progenitors. As they increase in size they are
usually driven away by their parents, or are said to be even
eaten by them if they do not disperse and search for sub-
sistence for themselves. In South Canara, the Qphiocephalus
striatus, O. diplogramme, and O. marul'ms, are stated to breed
in December and January ; the last also to again do so in
June and July, at which period the O. gaclnia is believed
to lay its eggs. Mr. Thomas observes — the Nandus mar-
moratus and N. marginatus also build nests amongst the
rushes at the margin of the water, deposit their eggs therein,
and keep guard over them like sticklebacks. Some of the
gobies, Gobius, are probably monogamous, as they construct
regular nests for the reception of their young. The polyga-
mous non-migratory fishes of the plains are very numerous,
but by "non -migratory" must be understood that they do
not migrate long distances for breeding purposes. The
smaller carps are innumerable in places, as are also the
siluroid magurs, Clarias magur, and the scorpion fishes,
Saccobranchiis fossilis. All these sorts during the rains pass
up small water-courses or channels in order to deposit their
eggs in irrigated fields, flooded plains, temporary formed
tanks, or along the grassy sides of rivers.

L. Of the migratory fresh-water fishes of the plains,
Migratory fresh-water fishes and which do not apparently, as
of the plains. a TU\Q} ascend to the rivers of the

hills to breed during the freshes, they are generally larger
and stronger than the non-migratory. Amongst them there
do not appear to be any of the spiny-rayed or Acanthoptery-
gian order (see para. XXVII). Amongst the carps, Cypri-
nidcB (see para. XXXIV), a considerable number are
affected by the monsoons, and at periods of inundation
migrate for the purpose of breeding. A good illustration of
this may be seen at the bridge over the Hohri canal near
Sakkar, in Sind, and which is furnished with sluices,
which can be kept open or closed in accordance with the
amount of water which it is considered desirable should be
permitted to enter. A little further on is a fall in the bed
of the canal, which, however, becomes imperceptible when
the water is high. As the yearly floods commence, many of the
Dumra fish, Labeo rohita, go down the canal into the dhdnds

( 35 )

for breeding, but so soon as the waters begin to sub-
side, as about September, and for one to one and half months,
they attempt to return to the Indus, for which purpose they
have to re-ascend the Rohri canal. Arriving near the bridge,
the current is too strong, and they attempt to jump over
the obstruction to their onward progress, and for 100 yards
or more below the bridge they may be seen leaping out
of the water. Unable to pass through the bridge, owing
to the great force of water rushing through the under-sluices,
they spring at the piers, and an apparatus resembling a
native cot turned uspide down, or a cloth or a basket, or
anything equally suitable, is hung over the sides of the
piers, and into this they fall : thousands returning from,
breeding are thus captured.

LI. Of the migratory sea fishes, they are divisible

into those which ascend rivers in

Migratory sea-fishes. , , « , , ,. . ,., „

order to find a locality suitable for
depositing their eggs : and the predaceous sorts that also
enter rivers, but solely to prey upon their weaker neighbours.
Of those which ascend for breeding is a Scicena, the S. coitor,
some mullets, as Mugil corsula, and more especially the
hilsa or shad, Clupea j)a^asa^i already remarked upon
(para. XXXVIII) as ascending the larger Indian and Burmese
rivers during monsoon months for the purpose of breed-
ing. At these times there is too much water below such
weirs as those spanning the rivers in Madras or Orissa
for this purpose, whilst, should they deposit their ova in
shallows below them, they will be left high and dry as the
floods subside, and their fertility be destroyed : the same
destruction to their fertility would follow their being deposit-
ed in the deep and rapid parts of the rivers. More than one
official have questioned the accuracy of this, and given the
opinion of native fishermen that the ova is deposited in the
river water, and whilst being carried out to sea becomes
vivified ; therefore, weirs cannot injuriously affect the annual
supply of the hilsa fishes in the rivers. The lower Coleroon
weir, which was built in 1836, spans the river about 15^
miles below the town of Combaconum ; its perpendicular
height 8 '3 feet, and its width at its base 8 feet. It possesses
narrow under-sluices, up which these fishes cannot ascend,
whilst the rapidity of the current or other causes precludes
them from passing over it. Formerly the shad extended as
high as Trichinopoly in quantities, and were even taken miles
above that town ; the fishing, according to the Collector, prior

( 3G )

to the construction of this weir, extended over 80 or 100
miles of the river, instead of its being concentrated, as it
were, on a single spot. The fishing decreased until a breach
occurred, when it almost locally ceased, owing to the fish
being able to obtain access to their breeding- grounds, and
not being stopped by the weir, and they were taken even
above Trichinopoly. It decreased, doubtless due to the fish
being unable to breed : the year after this breach, when it
had been repaired, a great increase was observed in the fish,
evidently due to one season's breeding. Fruitless to deposit
their eggs below these constructions, when between the sea
and their spawning beds, and unable to pass them, extermina-
tion in such rivers will only be a question of time, should no
remedial measures be adopted. This fish never breeds in
tanks or canals. Amongst the predaceous sea fishes which
are migratory, a large sea perch, Lates calcarifer, ascends
sometimes hundreds of miles up large rivers as the Irrawadi,
pursuing the shad. Sharks, Carcharias Gangeticus, and saw-
fishes, Pristis, also ascend high up rivers, and a favourite
resort for them is below weirs, where they find ample means
of subsistence in the shoals of fish detained by those
structures.

The Fry of Fresh- Water Fish.

LII. The immature or the /h/ of fish, where they are

Fry of fresh-water fishes. found, and their means Of SUDsist-
How,' instead of being protected, ence, and opportunities of growth,
they are destroyed. ^Q questions which it ig very material

to offer a few remarks upon. I have already observed (para.
XLVIII) how the fry of fishes are protected from their voraci-
ous parents in hill streams and rivers, by those localities being
generally unequal to the supply of food for the mature or
large fish, which migrate up these water-courses in order to
deposit their ova : consequently, they drop down again into
the rivers of the plains as the waters begin to subside, leaving
the fry to descend with the next year's rains. These fry,
however, appear to likewise continue their descent in a very
quiet and gradual manner, but when they have an oppor-
tunity of going down-stream, they avail themselves of it.
In the Himalayas numbers of these young fish descend into
the kools or canals for turning mills (see para. XXII), where all
are captured. Those which reach pools in these streams appear
to often continue there throughout the dry months, unless des-
troyed, until the monsoon recommences. In the low country

( 37 )

it is in irrigated or flooded localities that the fry most abound,
and generally with the monsoon rains every little stream and
piece of water is resorted to by them to obtain food in. But
by irrigated fields are not here included those irrigated by
wells, but merely those in communication with running water
and large tanks. In a large extent of irrigated country,
the fields, which are divided off into embanked spaces in
order to disseminate the water obtained from an irrigation
canal, or embanked river or stream, the fry obtain an entrance
along with the water which is kept at a depth which suits
their puny size ; whilst insect life abounds, excepting birds,
they have but few natural enemies but man to contend with.
If irrigation is carried on by dipping water out of canals
at some depth, and this does not run off again into any other
water-course, the fry of course must perish as the water dries
up. But if the water is conducted from field to field,
these localities should be excellent nurseries for youno"
fish, but, as has been observed (para. XXI), they are now, as a
rule, more useful in destruction than in propagation, as man
is allowed to place traps at every outlet (and sometimes at
inlets), and destroy all the young fish as they drop down-
wards towards the larger river. Fry also are found in
abundance in sheltered spots at the edges of rivers and in
shallow pieces of water, where there is no current to wash
them away, and here an abundance of suitable food exists,
but where, as will be shown, they do escape the search of
the fisherman and man's destructive "-reed.

Fish in an Economic Point of View.

LIII. Before enquiring into whether a wasteful destruc-
what proportion of people tion of fish takes place in India, it will
use fish as food. ^e as wen to observe upon ichat propor-

tion of people in India and Burma use fish as food, or rather
can do so without infringing caste prejudices. Amongst the
various races inhabiting India and British Burma, this article,
as food, is held in different degrees of estimation, and in
proportion to such must be its economic importance. In the
Panjab, comparatively but few of the inhabitants are pro-
hibited by their religion from consuming fish, but there are
many Hindus who reject it, as well as the rural population
of some districts. But of those residing in towns and in
hilly ranges, it appears that, if the Brahmans are excepted,
the consumption of fish is only limited by the paucity of
the supply and the cost of the article. The price where fish

( 38 )

is sold is stated, respecting the better sorts, to bear the same
proportion to that of the best mutton, as the inferior
does to that of inferior mutton, and varies from one-third that
of mutton to an equal price with it. In Sind, fish is gener-
ally eaten by the population of the province, whether
Mussulman or Hindu, except the Brahmans. In the North-
Western Provinces, containing about 28 millions of popu-
lation (p. cxliv), out of 20 returns received from native
officials, 17 give more than half of the people as not for-
bidden by religious scruples to eat fish. In Oudh, the
majority of the people appear to eat fish, which seems to be
more of a necessity than a luxury, whilst a larger number
would consume it were the supply equal to the demand.
In the Bombay Presidency, the returns appear to show
conclusively that the majority of the inhabitants of the
inland districts are consumers of fish when they can pro-
cure it. In the Assigned Districts of Haidarabad, fish, as
food, is esteemed by a very large proportion of the residents.
In Mysor and Coorg, that at least half the people are fish-
eaters when they are able to obtain this species of food. In
the Madras Presidency great numbers are fish-eaters, the
largest exceptions being Brahmans, goldsmiths, high-caste
Suclras, the followers of Siva, Jains, &c. The Collector of South
Canara gives the proportion of fish-eaters at 89 per cent. ;
advancing southwards into Malabar, this proportion appears to
decrease. In Tanjor and further towards Madras, exceptions to
this strict carrying into effect of the rule of not consuming
that which possessed animal life begins to be observed, but in
many parts of the presidency salt-fish appears to be preferred
to the fresh, more especially by the lower castes. In Orissa,
all but the Brahmans and some religious fanatics seem to
eat it, but not in its salted state. In Bengal Proper, from 90
to 95 per cent. (p. clxxix), and in Assam and Chittagong,
almost the entire population (see Bengal Supplementary
Report, p. ccxxvii). In Burma, the population, as Buddists,
profess a religious horror at taking the lives of the lower
animals ; but being universally fond of a fish diet, they judi-
ciously condemn the fishermen to eternal perdition, whilst
they consume their fish in the form of nga-pee. Without
entering more fully into this subject, it may be fairly
advanced that fish is more suitable as a general food to the
natives of the Indian Empire than the flesh of village sheep,
pigs, and fowls, whilst the majority of the people eat it when
they can procure it.

( 39 )
LIV. How are the local markets supplied with fish ? In

Local markets insufficiently sup- the Panjab, Out of 76 tellSlls, in

plied with fish. only 7 are they reported to be fully

supplied, and in 48. insufficiently so throughout the year.
Where fish are sold, the price of it bears a relative proportion
to that of mutton. In Sind, markets near large dhdnds on
the River Indus are fairly supplied. In the North-Western
Provinces, the markets are sufficiently supplied in 13 locali-
ties, insufficiently in 23, occasionally in 2, and doubtful in 2
more. In the Doon the size of the fish brought is yearly
decreasing; whilst in Nynee Tal and Almorah a decrease
is very noticeable (p. cxlv). In Oudh (p. cxxvii)
three-fourths of the markets are stated to have a larger
demand than supply. In the Bombay Presidency, every
official who has answered this question, with the exception
of one mamlutdar, asserts that the local markets are insuffi-
ciently supplied with fresh fish. In the Assigned Districts
of Haidarabad, 7 native officials report that they are in-
sufficiently so, and the remaining 1 that the "weekly markets"
are well supplied, but that probably more could be sold, thus
evidencing that the supply is unequal to the demand. In
Mysor and Coorg, a generally insufficient supply of fresh
fish is obtained in the markets. In Madras, when within
easy reach of the sea, they would appear to be supplied : but out
of 39 tehsildars who report from inland, 4 state the supply is
sufficient, and 35 that it is insufficient, or absent. In Bengal
Proper, there is a deficiency of native returns (p. clxxix).
At Burdwan, the supply does not equal the demand. In
Hooghly, the markets are said to be fairly supplied, but " the
fishermen, however, try to keep up the market price by
limiting the supply." In Assam, the reports are contradictory ;
in most places the amount sold is sufficient, but in some
parts it is not. In Burma, only 18 returns from native
officials have been received ; 4 observe that the markets are
fully supplied, 1 that they are fairly so, 2 that they are at
times, 9 that they are insufficiently, and 2 that they are
sold sometimes in sufficient quantities — sometimes more, some-
times less. Thus, out of 243 returns received from native
officials giving definite answers, 180 observe that the
markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, 7 that they
are occasionally supplied, 3 that they are fairly so, but 1 of
these remarks that they are marine fishes ; 45 consider they
are fully supplied, but 9 state that the supply is chiefly of
sea species, often salted : the answers of 8 are doubtful.

( 40 )

Thus the bazars fully supplied are not one-fifth of the total,
and one-fifth of those which are so, obtain such from the sea.

The Fresh-water Fisheries op India and Burma.

LV. Where no regulations exist as to the method in
How wasteful injuries to fish- which fisheries should be worked, and
eries commence. should other circumstances be equal,

that country or district which is most populated by man will
be the most denuded of fish. Individuals would sooner live
by fishing than by agriculture, as the trouble of capturing
the finny tribes is less than tilling the soil, being simply
catching without any idea of preservation. Naturally, fish
have been endowed with certain means of increase, and
protection, such as producing an enormous number of eggs or
frequently breeding, or even by the action of periodic floods,
when small-meshed nets cannot be used in rapid streams,*
and by swamps covering a large extent of country, where
shelter is afforded by grass, rushes, &c, rendering vain
man's attempt to depopulate. But, as inhabitants augment,
watery wastes become drained and cultivated, predaceous
man increases his methods of destruction, and then a de-
crease of food becomes apparent. As the price of food rises,
so that of fish increases, and if the fish-eating population
yearly becomes larger, increased exertions are used
to capture fish to meet their demands : the size of the mesh
is decreased, weirs are augmented, and everything taken,
no matter how small, as fishermen never appear to consider
from whence the next year's supply is to come, but only the
easiest method to take at the present time all they are
able. Commencing in Burma, we observe in sparsely
populated districts fish abound, and in quantities amply
sufficient for the adjacent people ; but where the population
is larger and the means of disposing of the captures greater,
increased modes of destruction are called into existence :
streams are dammed and laded out, weirs of various forms
are erected, and the use of small meshed nets, and the
destruction of fry is carried on. In Sind, the Indus may
be considered one large preserve where fish are reared, for
owing to the constant change in its course, its banks (except
at certain places) are not well adapted for the permanent
residence of fishermen, the surrounding land being liable

* This amount of protection does not extend to any great extent to the fry of fishes,
as they would he washed away by a rapid current, consequently they seek the shallows.

( 41 )

to sudden and violent floods. The population near the river's
hanks are small, and sufficient large fish is ohtainable for them
without destroying the fry, and thus, during the yearly
inundations, they are carried into the dhdnds throughout
the country.

LVI. Before entering upon the various modes of cap-
Breeding-fish and fry waste- ture, and omitting the questions of
fully destroyed. taking migratory breeding, and the

poisoning of fish, I propose examining whether fish are allowed
to be icastefully destroyed either in the form of breeding
ones or as fry. Many fish, as already pointed out (para.
XLVI, &c. ), during the seasons of monsoons and inundations,
pass up small channels into irrigated fields for the purpose
of breeding ; at these times they appear to have lost much
of their natural timidity, and are only solicitous to reach a
suitable locality to deposit their ova. No portion of this
enquiry, as regards the non-migratory forms of fish, is more
important than this, and the following are the answers
received : — In the Panjab, in a few tehsils the trapping of
breeding-fish in the irrigated fields is recorded. In Sind,
partly due to its almost absence of rain, this species of fish-
ing can scarcely be carried on. In the North-Western Pro-
vinces, breeding-fish and the fry are destroyed in every division,
in any way in which they can be procured (p. cxlvi) ;
even if the simple destruction of fry is not waste, they are
also shown to be killed, and in places left to rot (p. cxlix),
as in damming hill streams ; or at fishing weirs (p. clxi),
where the large fish only are sold, the young left to
perish and decay : or standing weirs are permitted to span
whole rivers, and as the waters from above become mrwhole-
some, fish attempt in vain to descend, but the owners of these
weirs allow no passage, and as they die in myriads, cart
them off as manure (p. clxii.) Out of 16 answers
from native officials as to whether fish are trapped during
rains in irrigated fields, 3 state they are not, and 13 that
they are. In Oudh, some of the native officials assert
that breeding-fish are not trapped during the rains, and 20
assert that they are in their districts. In the Bombay
Presidency, every Collector who has answered this question
(except Kaladghi) considers they are destroyed, and a native
official in the Kaladghi Collectorate states they are in his
district during the rains. In the Haidarabad Assigned
Districts, but one opinion appears to prevail, namely, that
they are taken in every possible way, but in some districts

( 42 )

trapping is not employed. In Mysor and Coorg, the native
officials consider that fish, irrespective of time or condition,
are captured in every conceivable manner. In Madras,
trapping breeding- fish and young ones appears to be the rule.
Fishing weirs are permitted to extend across whole rivers,
not allowing even fry to pass ; there is no close time what-
ever anywhere. Damming and lading out and poisoning
waters are freely resorted to for fishing purposes. At Midnapur
(p. clxxxii), breeding-fish are said to be destroyed to a great
extent ; in Burdwan (p. clxxxiii), they are largely taken for
consumption ; in fact, they are killed, it appears from the
answers, throughout Bengal, whether in Orissa or in Assam.
The parent fish being thus shown to be slaughtered when-
ever and wherever procurable, it is necessary to enquire
whether the fry fare any better. In the Panjab, prior to
the introduction of the present rules regulating the mini-
mum size of the mesh at \\ inches between each knot, large
numbers of young fish were sold as chilwas ; the destruc-
tion is considered to be now diminishing. In Oudh, it is
asserted that in twenty districts fry are captured in large quan-
tities, but that this does not take place in two ; the reports
from four native officials give 68,300 maunds of fry as yearly
killed in their districts alone. If fry are calculated at
one grain each, a destruction in four districts of up-
wards of 14,000,000,000 grains of young fish, which,
in less than a year, would, taking an average of the sorts,
weigh as many pounds — so the opinion that nothing need be
done may be open to dispute. In Bombay, the fry of fish
appear to be almost universally captured throughout the
rains. In the Haidarabad Assigned Districts the same uni-
versal destruction is reported, as is it also in Mysor and
Coorg. In the Madras Presidency, the fry are wastefully
destroyed whenever and wherever they can be obtained ; nets
that will catch a " black-ant," or detain a mosquito, or even
the eggs of fish are recorded, whilst the interspace of the
substances forming traps is said to be less. In Bengal, fry
are stated not to be wastefully destroyed, but only to be cap-
tured whenever they can be caught, either for eating or
storing tanks with (p. clxxxi) ; as observes the Commissioner
of Bajshahye (p. clxxxvi), bamboo contrivances for fish-
catching are in use in every paddy-field ; in Assam
(p. ccxxix), " many of the river fish, some of which attain a
large size, come annually up the smaller streams and deposit
their spawn, and the young ones of these are during the

( 43 )

rains dispersed over the surface of the country in rice-fields,
swamps, drains and ditches. These endeavour subsequently
to make their way to the large rivers, but the dangers which
beset them on the road are more numerous than those which
Bunyan's Pilgrim had to encounter. In the shallow waters
in the rice-fields, women and children maybe seen in crowds,
fishing with baskets termed jakai, through the interstices
of which a tadpole could not pass. Those that escape this
danger, and, following the flow of the water, arrive at one of
the innumerable little bunds separating the various paddy-
fields, find their further progress barred by funnel-shaped
bamboo traps, through which the water is made to pass, but
whose outlets are so small that only the most minute fish
can get through. Escaping to the smaller water-courses, their
dangers seem to increase. The Assamese divide the chan-
nels into sections by erecting bunds, and from one of these
they proceed to bale out all the water, capturing every fish,
large and small : they then bund off another portion, and do
likewise. The fish finallv arrive at the smaller rivers, find
their exit barred by weirs, which will let nothing pass, and
not content with this, the Assamese will sometimes resort to
poison." In Burma at Rangoon (p. ccxxii), it is observed
that the riodit to catch breeding-fish onlv is rented out in
some parts, separate from the fishery itself ; so further re-
marks on how these fishes are treated in that province
appear unnecessary.

LVIL Seeing that a fish diet is popular throughout
The supply of fish in the India, that the markets are not sufii-
fresh-water decreasing. ciently supplied, that the breed-

ing-fishes are trapped ascending to their breeding-grounds,
and the fry by every conceivable device, the question arises —
Is the supply of fish in the fresh -water increasing, decreasing,
or stationary ? In the Panjab, out of 78 answers from
different talookas, an increase is reported in 13, a stationary
state in 32, and a decrease in 33. In Sind, no alteration.
In the North -Western Provinces, out of 17 answers
(p. cxlv), 6 report a statiorary state, 10 a decrease, but some
think the fisheries are recovering. In Oudh, 21 tehsildars
report an increase in 8, stationary in 10, a decrease in 2,
and doubtful in 1. In Bombav, that the fish in rivers and
tanks have generally decreased during late years. In the
Haidarabad Assigned Districts, there is only one opinion,
which is, that they have decreased. In Mysor and
Coorg, the great majority of reporters give a decrease;

( 44 )

the rest that they continue stationary. In Madras, out of
64 answers, 6 give an increase, 12 a stationary state, and 46
a large decrease or a decrease.

LVIII. Whose are these fisheries ? Those which are
Fisheries, whose property they leased out by Government of course are
are- Government property ; those in per-

manently-settled districts likewise would unquestionably
belong to the owners of the soil. But these are not the chief
ones in many places. In whole districts no rents have been
collected for a longer or shorter number of years on philan-
thropic grounds, — a license which has been abused by the
people, who have taken the advantage of slaughtering every-
thing they possibly can. Can this license be considered equi-
valent to Government having given up their rights, or can
they resume them ? Paterson in his legal work. The Fishery
Laws of Great Britain, observes respecting inhabitants of
towns in claiming a right to fish, on the ground of ancient
custom : — " In such cases the acts of such anglers are more
likely to be referable to the license of the owner, who, if he
pleases, may allow all the public or a portion of the public
to angle there. But no length of time, during which such
acts are capable of being explained on the ground of license,
can prevent the owner putting an end to such license. He
may resume his original rights at any moment and withdraw
the license, for no man ought to have his rights abridged by act-
ing liberally towards the public and his neighbour" (para. CV).
LIX. I now propose tracing out, from such records as

Why British rules and regu- ^ available, how it is that British

lations have had a disastrous rule appears to have had a most
effect on fisheries. disastrous effect upon the fresh-water

fisheries of the Indian Empire. I assume that it cannot now
be denied (see para. LVII) that the amount of fish in the fresh-
waters has decreased, and is yearly diminishing ; but many of
the reporters, erroneously as I believe, advance the opinion
that fishing is carried on as it has been from time imme-
morial, consequently laws are not required for regulating the
mode of capturing the finny tribes. I do not think that fishing
is now what it was during native rule, but I believe it can be
shown that great and most destructive innovations have been
or are being permitted, and that the British, with the most
philanthropic intentions, have given to the people license in
fishing that has been greatly abused, and is now destroying the
fisheries. The natives evidently perceive this themselves ; thus,
in the Central Provinccs; the Tehsildar of Sironcha (para. 266)

( 45 )

states that a decrease in the tank-produced fish is believed
to have occurred since the district has formed a portion of
the British territory : previously the people were prohibited
from killing fish in tanks unless they paid some fees or share
of fish to the local talukdar. If n a lias are completely
swept of fish, it is certain that the amount in the rivers will
likewise fall off. The Tehsildar of Nursingpur (para. 264)
remarks, — " it is to this wholesale destruction of small fish
that the fish have decreased." In Madras, the Tehsildar of
Bhimavaram (para. 173) observes, that it cannot be ascer-
tained if the fish have increased or decreased, " as every one
is allowed to fish as he likes since the abolition of the renting
system." In the North- Western Provinces, three tehsildars
in the Benares Division (p. clxxvii) consider that fish have
decreased, "owing to the indiscriminate destruction of the
young."

LX. How were fisheries worked under native rule ? —

Fisheries, how worked under is a question that but few have
native rule. thrown any light upon ; but still it

appears that it is possible to ascertain this,* and that fisheries
formed royalties, mostly let out to contractors, who alone in
the districts possessed the right to sell fish, and that they
permitted the people on payment (para. 7) to capture fish
for their own consumption. In fact, it was a license on pay-
ment resumable at will, as in the British law (see para. 88).
Remains of this custom still exist at Lahore (para. 27), and
the leasing of fisheries is even now pursued in many portions
of the Indian Empire. Thus, if the following reports are
looked through, it will be seen that the Deputy Commis-
sioner of Kangra (para. 30), in suggesting what steps are
advisable in future with reference to the fisheries in his
district, observes, these measures must be practically a system
of Government preserves, such as was always in force in the
time of the Bajahs, partly by giving licenses to monopolists
to supply the market, and partly by licenses for fishing with
small nets for home consumption and not for sale. At
Lahore, as already remarked, the system still exists, and none
but the contractor may obtain fish for sale, and no one is
permitted to sell this article unless it goes through his hands.
Also Burma, where it appears pretty clear (p. cxciii) that in

the time of native rule, this identical plan was carried on, there

* A most useful enquiry would be — how were fisheries under native rule worked in your
district ? But the investigation would be troublesome, and probably trustworthy answers
could not be obtained.

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were no free fisheries, but people were licensed to fish for home
consumption on payment of a stipulated sum yearly to the
contractor. In the Himalayas (p. clvii), it is observed that
" the right of erecting weirs was not, I believe, carried on to
the same extent in former days as now. They were not then
so regularly or so generally made, and were not of the same
impassible nature as those now erected." " The people
living high up one of oar rivers, an affluent of the Alek-
nunda, complained to me that, owing to the number of weirs,
they found that very few fish can find their way up as far as
their villages" (p. clvi). In Mysor and Coorg, I was in-
formed that under native rule indiscriminate fishing was not
permitted : contractors held the fisheries, and those not fisher-
men, who wished to capture fish for their own consumption but
not for sale, had to pay for such license. It appears to me that,
however beneficial our rule may have been in some respects, it
is most disastrous to fisheries, and future generations will have
even more reason to complain than those of the present time, if
we do not revert to native precedent, modified by British law,
not as proposed in India, but as existing in England. Lastly,
I would draw attention to the fact, that even in places where
Government permits an unlimited license, the native land-
owners do not, but raise an income from it. Thus, in Bom-
bay (para. 97), it is stated in Wullubpurand Waree, which are
on the banks of the Myhee, and are talookdaree villages, the
Thakoos who are proprietors of them receive a third share of
the fish caught within those limits. In the Central Provin-
ces (para. 258), it is observed that in some portions of these
provinces the land-owners claim the right to fishing in the
rivers and streams running through their estates, and receive
fees from fishermen resorting to them. It seems to be held
by some officials that, as of late years license to fish has been
permitted without the exaction of rent, therefore this
license may have obtained the force of right defensible by a
civil action by " the exercise of long practice having converted
it into communal rights,"— an error in law, as it will be seen
(para. 130) as no length of time can prevent an owner, in
which position Government stands, from putting an end to
such license. It will be perceived in the resolutions of the
Madras Revenue Board that the fisheries may be thrown
open to the public by their orders, and now the right of
Government to interfere with this license is questioned,
whereas, if it could have been legally permitted, why is it
not legally resumable ?

( 47 )

LXI. Ilozv are fisheries worked under British rule ? —
How fisheries are worked comes next for consideration. In
under British rule. permanently-settled estates, unless a

stipulation exists, of course they go with the land. In some
places the adjacent villagers or people are considered to
possess certain communal rights with respect to them, in
many cases, I suspect, through a misapprehension ; thus,
when proved that a land-owner has only received one-third
or two-thirds of the proceeds, it appears to have been ruled
that the remainder is the property of the neighbouring
people, whereas in reality it only expressed the share of
the fisherman in re-payment for his labour in taking the
fish. It is the rule in India and Burma to remunerate by
the proceeds obtained : sometimes the fisherman has to sell
his share to the contractor or lessee at a given rate ; more
rarely the fish are sold, and he obtains a proportion of the
money, or he may have it in kind. I do not propose enter-
ing upon how the fisheries have been or are being let, but
regarding any regulations which exist in regard to the pro-
tection of the fish from wasteful destruction, and how license to
capture the finny tribes has gradually crept in, until it has
become a great abuse. In but few localities has it been
stated that Government have never received some share of
the fisheries, although such has been collected in different
modes, either by selling direct, which is letting or leasing, or
by a moturfa tax, which is clearly a license to net, either in
the form of a capitation tax on the fisherman, or one on his
implement of chase, identical with the tax now imposed in
fishery districts in England, and has nothing whatever to do
with letting the fishery. In fact, it is the same as a person who
takes out a license to use a gun, but that license gives him
no right to trespass on his neighbour's property to shoot his
game. It may be generally asserted that Government have,
until of late years, exercised their right as landlord in letting
their fisheries, but they have not regulated in any way how
those fisheries should have been worked, and at last, in many
places, came to the decision to permit an unlimited license,
perhaps partly due to the deterioration in their value. Thus,
in Madras, the moturfa tax was abolished, and this doubtless
in districts was equivalent to, amongst the fishermen,
permitting them to capture fish without payment in any of
the Government waters ; and by the orders of the Revenue
Board in 1849, it will be seen (para. 146) many leased fisheries
were given up to the general public. This intended boon has

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eventuated in their almost depopulation, now termed " a free
industry," and with which it is proposed "no interference
should be permitted," although their almost ruined state
mast he evident in many localities where such license has been
allowed. The absolute giving-up of fresh-water fisheries to
the people without any restrictions, experience, in every part
of the globe, shows, always eventuates in their utter annihila-
tion. These " free industries" would be more aptly termed
"free poaching," or " wasteful destruction," and as such, I
consider, strongly to be condemned, and for the following
reasons : — That numerous individuals now fritter away their
time on these fisheries instead of working at their legitimate
occupations, and, whilst doing so, are being permitted to poach
the breeding-fish and fry as freely as they please — a license
which they are not slow in availing themselves of. I assert
that this is one of the chief causes of the present decrease of this
description of animal food (para. LVII), and that it is not only
unfair to the fisheries, but also to the legitimate fishermen,
whose occupation in many places is now a thing of the past. I
believe this free fishing has been one, if not the principal, cause
why they are in such an impoverished condition, and that
doing good to the fisheries will not only tend to augment the
food-supply to the general good, but also to improve the present
condition of the fishermen. If it is still decided that these
fisheries shall be continued open to all, and their comparative
utter annihilation is not wished for, restrictions as to the use
of fixed engines, poisoning of waters, and perhaps the size
of the meshes of the nets employed, &c, will have to be laid
down by authority, and to see them properly carried out,
watchers or water-bailiffs would be necessary. It appears
almost ludicrous, were it not lamentable, to observe many
well-informed officials, who, in the following reports, have
given their opinions, very strongly, that it will be hard on the
people if Government issue any regulations to protect their
own fisheries from a threatened destruction, and that the
license now permitted and so grossly abused should be allow-
ed to be continued in every species of poaching manner and
without limitation. If rules are to be framed and carried out,
who is to pay for them ? — if the general tax-payer, then the
very existence of these fisheries would be a pecuniary bur-
den. In Great Britain, this plan is not pursued, — there, local
taxation (irrespective of rent) on the fishermen (a moturfa
tax) is raised for this purpose. The Collector of Madias
(para. 117) believes "the Secretary of State ruled that the

( 49 )

right of fishiog was not to be rented out, except where the
practice had been previously in vogue ;" but as this rule was
promulgated in 1849, ten years prior to the appointment
of a Secretary of State for India, I am inclined to think it
was the Revenue Board's orders that were alluded to, as the
despatch cannot be found. Lastly, Burma will be especially
interesting as the country which has most recently come
under British rule. The " Een Thoogyee" was the contractor,
who alone might obtain fish for sale, and he permitted the
public, on a stipulated payment (generally, I understood,
one rupee yearly for every house), to take fish for their own
consumption, but not for sale. At the present time
(p. ccix), creeks not claimed by the fishery lessees fall to
the share of the villagers, who forthwith choke them up
in all directions with small dams. It appears, under the
Burmese Government, dams were not allowed in any of
the main streams. In the year 1861, the fishery laws
in Burma were passed, and from this date I believe
injuries to fisheries may be chiefly dated. Prom this period,
I was informed, the practice of employing fixed engines in
irrigated fields and water-courses, untaxed, commenced ; weirs
have largely augmented, any one being allowed to take fish
any way he pleases, without payment, for home consump-
tion, whilst no regulations were instituted for the protection
of the fisheries from wasteful destruction. Irrespective of this,
certain localities were set aside as free fisheries. The result
is, that the fish are reported to be decreasing ; for, if it is for
one moment considered as to what such a course inevitably
eventuates in, surely it must be admitted that unlimited
license will cause unlimited waste. If persons may help
themselves as they please, they will take those captured with
the least trouble, and thus breeding-fish and fry are destroyed
where they should be preserved. The people cannot be
blamed for this ; fishermen will do it, whether in Europe or
in India, if so permitted.

LXII. The fishermen who carry on their occupations
M „ , in the fresh-waters, or above where the

The fishermen. .., ,, , n t • -i t • (

tide ebbs and flows, are divisible into
those who follow it out as a single means of livelihood, or
merely as an occasional one, subsidiary to other employ-
ments. Tbe first question, then, for consideration is — Who
are the fishermen ? Here, again, great innovations have
crept in. Under native rule distinct crafts or castes followed
this occupation, at least in the plains, and still remnants of
fishing classes, transferred from one portion of India to

D

( 50 )

another, can be traced. At Combaconum in Madras, " tradi-
tion asserts that this race of men were originally brought by
some Hindu Rajah as bearers from Conjeveram." At Broach
in Bombay (p. lvi), two sub-divisions of the fishing caste have
" obtained their names from the villages whence they emi-
grated." Again, the moturfa tax in Madras affected all
fishermen, being a species of capitation tax, or one on their
trade or the implements with which it was being carried out,
and the abrogation of this must have eventuated in many
more persons following the occupation, especially as rents
were also remitted in Madras. In the present day, " there is
scarcely anywhere a numerous and distinct class dependant
this pursuit for subsistence " (p. lxx) . That such is the case, an
example is furnished in the Panjab, where taxes on fishing nets
have been imposed, with the result that " the new regulations
are admitted on all hands to have had a good effect in preserv-
ing the fish, whilst the fishermen have decreased." In Mysor,
in the time of Hyder Ali, very stringent fishing laws existed,
whereas now, we are informed, in the Nundidrug Division
(p. cv), about two-thirds of the population fish occasionally,
in addition to their other occupations. Nearly every ryot
keeps a net, to be used as occasion or opportunity arises. In
British Burma, fishermen must have increased since the
period when every one has been authorised to catch fish, with-
out payment, for home consumption, but not for sale, whereas
formerly the contractor received payment for such. In
short, in the time when districts were let, the contractors
would not have been so short-sighted as to permit the general
destruction now so freely carried on. At present every one
encroaches on the fishermen's calling, who, seeing others
slaughtering breeding-fish and fry, do the same : as
remarked to me in Burma, — why should we save them if others
kill them ? — or in the Panjab, where they complained that
their nets with 1 J-inch meshes could not take fry, whereas such
were permitted to be sold in the bazar by people not fisher-
men. The result has been in most parts of India that the
fisheries have become almost ruined, and amongst the argu-
ments against action advanced in Madras exists this — that the
fresh- water fishermen are amongst the most impoverished
class of the community — a result to be anticipated, and a
consequence of indiscriminate fishing. In fact, in some places
they have had to give up their calling : in the Central Pro-
vinces (p. cxxiv), many have ceased to follow their original
occupation owing to the demand for well-paid labour developed
by the railway. In Madras (p. lxxxii), " fewer men are said

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to fish than formerly, but the rise of wages has more to
do with it than the falling-off of fish." In Assam
(p. ccxxviii), "fish has become of late years much dearer in
Dunning ; the fisheries are falling in value, and many of the
Dome fishermen are, in consequence, I believe, taking to
agricultural pursuits." The same is seen in Orissa. Fisher-
men who follow this calling as a supplement to other means
of support have no interest in protecting fisheries, but only
in procuring for themselves as much as they can, and when-
ever they can. Such are the fishermen of the Panjab
(p. iv), where they are stated to number 10,450 (p. viii) :
also of Bombay, in which presidency " few, if any, of
the foregoing, numbering upwards of 50,000, are solely
engaged in fishing, but they also follow other occupations"
(p. xxxv). In Madras, the fishermen are, as a rule,
agriculturists, palanquin bearers, small traders, coolies and
others who carry on this pursuit when not engaged in their
ordinary avocations, and as there are no restrictions, their
only idea is to obtain what they can, when they can.
Were all the fisheries ruined, it would not pecuniarily
affect them, except in a secondary degree, as their living is
not dependant upon fishing. The number of persons recorded
as solely fishermen in the inland waters appears to be under
200 persons (p. lxiv). In Mysor and Coorg, the fishermen
who pursue that trade seem to be few, but those who fish in
addition to other avocations appear to be very numerous
(p. ci) : the same may be said of Haidarabad (p. cviii) : the
Central Provinces (p. cxv) : Oudh (p. cxxvii) and the North-
West Provinces (p. cxlv). In Bengal (p. clxxx), the fisher-
men, or people who fish, consist of three classes,—; fa'st,
regular fishermen who are exclusively employed as such ;
secondly, the wives of the men of some castes who fish whilst
their husbands pursue other occupations ; thirdly, the general
population. Thus, in Burdwan, out of 20,000 persons com-
puted as capturers of fish, one-third are stated to be exclu-
sively employed as such : in Hoogli, there are considered to
be 3,000 fishermen by trade. It is as we approach the sea-
board, and where large fish can ascend from the ocean,
and man has not yet managed to largely ruin the fisheries,
that we find the greatest proportion of people exclusively
fishermen. In Burma (p. cxcvi), the people are of necessity
boatmen and by choice fishermen. The present state
of the fresh-water fishermen of India, as regards what
would be the effect of legislation upon their calling,
may be summed up in the words of the Officiating

( 52 )

Commissioner, West Berar, (p. ex), "that whatever
restriction may be imposed, no class of people will be so
affected as to interfere with their means of livelihood." If
the fisheries are improved the fishing classes will be largely
benefitted, and those localities possessing the best stocked
waters (other things being equal) wTill have the most fisher-
men as a distinct class, because following this occupation
is easier than agricultural pursuits, although the exposure
is perhaps greater. Fishermen are an improvident class,
and in India, whether Hindus or Mahometans, are low
in the social scale, whilst in British Burma, as Bud-
dists, they are charitably doomed by the more righte-
ous of the sect to eternal perdition in the next state of
existence.

LXIII. The most economical way of working fisheries is
Fishermen, how they work by persons who make fishing a distinct
fisheries, occupation, provided there is a suffi-

ciency of work. They may be divided into the contractors or
lessees, who become tenants of rivers or portions of them,
canals, tanks or jhils, often having sub-partners, who take
shares in the fishery, and are remunerated by a proportion
either of the captures, or else of the money received for such,
after the payment of the rent and other expenses. Some have
coolies or paid servants, who either receive a stipulated sum
a day in money and fish, or else a certain or proportionate
amount of the captured fish, which they dispose of : and these
persons may be kept on regularly for merely the fishing sea-
son, or only occasionally as more hands are required. Second-
ly, there are those who, on payment of a license fee, are per-
mitted to fish in the Government waters otherwise unlet.
Thirdly, when the fisheries are declared free to all, and every
one is allowed to capture the fish as suits his convenience best.
Lastly, the general population may be given the right to take
sufficient for home consumption where they like, and how
they please, provided they neither sell nor preserve it. Con-
tractors almost invariably give the workers a personal inter-
est in the takes, and, whether sub-partners or coolies, they
generally have to provide their own nets, and for this purpose
the lessee or a banian advances money to purchase the raw
material, and thus the coolie becomes irrevocably involved in
debt. In some districts the fishing is free to every one with-
out any restrictions. This may be due to several independ-
ent causes, such as the difficulty in making the fishing
remunerative, owing to the rapidity of the current in rivers
or canals : to the paucity of fish, as in some hill streams and

( 53 )

depopulated rivers : the depth of tanks, or the presence of
foreign suhstances as roots, trees, &c., or the poverty of the
general population. In most of such districts, it is usually
seen that fishing is not followed out as a distinct employ-
ment, whilst the mesh of the nets is as small as the rapidity
of the current will allow to he used. Sometimes, even in
districts where the fishing is, or was good, the general
public have been permitted to act as fishermen, whether
adults, throughout the year, or only during the rains,
and even women and children assist, or a species of
scramble occurs as to who shall get the most — a plan
which soon eventuates in the poverty of fisheries, for only
the conscience of the fisherman stands between them and
their greed, the latter, as might be anticipated, rapidly
gaining the mastery. With the deterioration of these
fisheries the fishermen become poorer and poorer, unless
they turn to other sources of earning money. At first, no
doubt, pleased at not having to pay rent, and all restrictions
being removed, they employ redoubled energy, and increase
their profits ; but soon the population find they may fish as
well as the fishermen, and, taking advantage of this per-
mission, the supply becomes temporarily augmented, the price
slightly falling. At the end of one or two years, fish become
much scarcer, and those who, for a time became fishermen,
revert to their legitimate calling. As soon as the young fish
are moving about, or shortly after the monsoons have set in,
the wives of these men are sent out fishing, and they, with
the aid of their children, obtain myriads of fry from every
sheltered spot to where these small and immature fish retire
for shelter and security, they not being able to face strong
currents or live in deep waters. Every device that can be
imagined is now called into action ; nets, which will not
permit a mosquito to pass, are employed ; even the use of
cloths is called into exercise. The sides of the rivers are
denuded of fish, so far as human agency can contrive it.
Neither are the agricultural population idle ; they construct
wicker-work traps, baskets, and nets ; these traps do not
permit anything to pass : a fish, once in, cannot return, as
they resemble rat traps, having an easy entrance, but, once
in, retreat becomes impossible. So soon as mature fish
commence passing up the small water-courses at the sides of
the rivers and streams, these traps come into play, and the
breeding-fish are taken. The few which escape are not yet
safe, for, as they return and the fry move about, these traps
are reversed, so that every fish, down to those of the most

( 54 )

minute size, attempting to pass down these water-courses
towards the rivers or tanks, become entrapped. In irrigated
fields, where it becomes necessary to throw water from a
lower to the higher level, a basket is fixed to receive it and
through which it passes, thus acting as a strainer; all the
fish in it become a prey to the agriculturist. Nets of the
most divers forms are likewise employed, some being fixed,
others held in the hand, but all uniting in one character — that
they allow nothing to escape. In short, by not letting or
regulating fisheries, there is no headman or lessee whose
interest it is to prevent injury to his property, by the
slaughter of the breeding-fishes and the destruction of their
young : self-interest does not exist, the only certain cause
to prevent their annihilation. In British Burma, this trap-
ping of fish in the breeding season was locally sanction-
ed, and in general use, without being taxed, it, as well as
still more murderous forms, if possible, existed in 18C9,
and probably do so now. Even through the inundated
paddy-fields, which are the known haunts of the fry of
fish, the Burmese were being permitted to use an easy and
very destructive apparatus. No distinct channels being
present in which to place traps, while the ground was too
rough for netting, besides the water being low, a large
triangular-shaped basket was employed, and this, being
harnessed to a pair of bullocks or buffaloes, was dragged
through these muddy retreats of the fry. And how does
this principle of throwing open the fisheries, without any
restrictions, answer in practice ? It results in decreasing
the fish, and consequently diminishing the food of whole
districts. Water should be as valuable as land for producing
food, whilst indiscriminate farming is not permitted ; were
it, any farmer could easily foretell the result — how the strong
would hold the richest lands, which, when exhausted, they
wrould leave and move on somewhere else. There are districts,
as British Burma, in which certain portions of the waters
were set apart in every locality as free fisheries, where
any one might fish, and these have been supplemented by a
rule that any one may capture sufficient for home consump-
tion, where they liked and how they pleased, provided they
did not sell or preserve the spoil. Here we observe such
fishers could have no interest in the welfare of the fishery, but
would be merely intent on capturing, with the least possible
trouble, sufficient for household wants. During the monsoon
season they place traps in every likely run wherein breeding-
fish may pass up narrow entrances, in order to reach suitable

( 55 )

places wherein to deposit their eggs : they likewise slaughter
the young fish by every simple contrivance when they begin
to move about, and thus extensive damage to fisheries is
occasioned. To all persons possessing fisheries, the protec-
tion of these young fish should be an object, so that in due
season they may be able to recapture a remunerative number
of adults : but seeing the fry generally destroyed, and aware
that if they do not take when they can what they are able,
as others are not so particular, they unfortunately often join
in this suicidal occupation, thus assisting in the depopulation
of fisheries, and, when too late, lament the state of affairs, but
never admit that it is in a great measure owing to their greed,
whilst the idea of their destruction they philosophically con-
sider must affect the rising and not the present generation.
Even when there are no restrictions, nor rent to be paid,
fishermen after a time often discover the advantage of plying
their occupation in concert, especially with other fishermen.
It is by no means unfrequent for large bodies of villagers to
proceed at certain seasons of the year to rivers which can
be easily bunded, and there to kill every fish they are able.
Amongst all the foregoing classes of fishermen, amongst
every caste and creed, the invariable rule appears to obtain,
to get everything they are able to-day, irrespective of the
season, condition, or size of the fish, and entirely oblivious
to the next year's supply. I do not, however, see that the
natives, in acting thus, are more rapacious than fishermen
have been or would be in England, were the fresh-water
fisheries declared public property, and every one permitted
to work them in any way he pleased, without any sort of
restrictions being imposed. It becomes simply a scramble
on the principle — " Should I not catch them, somebody else
will." Neither do I think the fishermen, as described, are
more greedy than persons following other occupations : thus,
it is stated by Colonel Campbell, respecting the Orissa
range of hills : — " Of the science of agriculture the people
know absolutely nothing ; they exhaust the soil with unin-
termitted crops until the land is barren, then they abandon
their fields, and clear fresh jungle for future crops." The
fishermen are not more far-seeing than the forester or
the agriculturist, thinking of only to-day's wants, regardless
of to-morrow's requirements ; they only carry out, when
able, in the rivers the same description of misapplied energy,
until nothing but small fish remain, and the young have to
be raised from ova deposited by parents of two or at the

( 5G )

most three years of age, the more mature ones having been
destroyed. And what is the result of this mode of treating
fisheries, as regards the fisherman ? Would prohibiting the
wasteful destruction of breeding and young fish benefit or
ruin their occupation ? I am compelled to enter rather
fully upon this question, as the well-worn epithet experience
is so often advanced, and that without any arguments to
back it, that the fisheries should be let alone, the fisher-
men being permitted to continue fishing as they always
have done, such having been in operation for centuries, and
still fish being present in the fresh-waters. It will, however,
be apparent that such arguments entirely evade the points
at issue, as they assume that the fishermen continue fishing
as they have done from immemorial ages without any im-
provement in their means of capture : it also takes for grant-
ed that the captors of fish, the times employed in fishing, as
well as the fish-eating population, have remained stationary ;
and, lastly, that the fisheries are in an equally good condition
under the sway of Europeans, who mostly do not notice the
fresh-water fish, as they were in times gone-by, when natives
ruled who esteemed this article of food, and doubtless gave
protection to this legitimate source of revenue. The first
assumption being improbable, the second, doubtless, incor-
rect, and the last in wrell-populated districts being directly
opposed to the result of recent investigations. Even the
exponents of the let-alone system have not attempted to
demonstrate that these waters, where small fish are being
so wastefully destroyed, are insufficient to support a very
much larger number than they now contain. Every practi-
cal fisherman will assert they are, as a rule, insufficiently
stocked, and if such is the case, as I have no doubt it is,
and the fish were permitted fair play, a very much increased
supply would be the result. And what, it may be enquired,
would be the effect on the fisherman were restrictive rules
sanctioned, as regards his prospects ? Doubtless, many of
the women and children, who now destroy myriads of
fry and small fish, would have to cease such occupa-
tions, whilst agriculturists also would be unable to trap the
breeding-fish and fry in the paddy or irrigated fields. These,
however, would be temporary inconveniences, and would cease
with the season. One of the important results would,
however, be a vast increase in the non-migratory fishes, and
a considerable augmentation in this article of food, more
especially during the cold months. These rules being

( 57 )

general would be equally fair to all, and complaints could
not exist that the young fish, which were being protected
in one part, were being destroyed in another. If the sale of
the fry or fish under a certain size were illegal, much good
might also be effected, especially in the breeding season ; and
this would not injuriously affect the regular fisherman, but
quite the reverse. If fairly worked, the result must be an
increase of the amount of fish in the fresh-waters, and with
such at first the fisherman's gains will be much augmented,
because the price will not fall so rapidly as the fisheries im-
prove. Perhaps an increased supply would at first cause
decreased price ; but such can never occur to any great ex-
tent, where the price of fish in the bazar is regulated by the
cost of mutton, which is unlikely to become cheaper ; so the
fisheries must improve in value in accordance with the care
bestowed upon them. Should rent remain unraised, a great
increase in prosperity ought to be in store for this, at present,
poor class of persons, irrespective of the good which will be
felt by the general community in having a considerable
increase of wholesome animal food, and that obtained with-
out any corresponding pecuniary outlay, but simply by
making use of means now at hand, but at present left almost
uncared for.

Fixed Engines.

LXIV. Fixed engines employed in the capture of fresh-
. water fish are thus defined in the

fishery laws of England, — " stake-
nets, bag-nets, putts, putchers and all fixed implements or
engines for catching or facilitating the catching of fish," and
" the section confers a power on any one of the public,
whether interested or not, to destroy a fixed engine, and
therefore he is not liable to an action for trespass for doing
so." Eixed engines employed in India are mainly divisible
into two varieties, (1) those manufactured of cotton, hemp,
aloe fibre, coir or some such material ; and (2) others con-
structed of split bamboo, rattan, reed, grass or some more or
less inelastic substances.

LXV. Eixed engines manufactured of cotton or elastic
Fixed engines of elastic materials would include all stake-
materials- nets, but when the meshes are of

a fair size they may be considered as legitimate means
when properly employed for the capture of fish, unless they
are true fresh-water ones migrating for breeding purposes.

( 58 )

When these fixed nets have fairlv-sized meshes their
use does not call for notice, except so far as to deprecate
their employment in weired rivers not far below those con-
structions. But in some of these fixed nets the size of the
meshes is so minute that no fish can pass ; there it stands
immoveably fixed across a whole water-way capturing every-
thing, as the water is literally strained through it. The
meshes have been described as so minute that a big black-
ant could not pass, or that they would arrest a tama-
rind or a mustard seed, and several Europeans observe
on their being about the size of mosquito curtain net.
Thus (p. xiii) an instance is adduced in the Panjab of
how a whole drove of mahaseer were captured by fixing
a net across a river and dragging another down to it, which
caused wholesale destruction, and as a consequence there was
little or no rod-fishing that season. In fact, this mode of
capturing all the fish in certain portions of rivers is common
in India. In Amritsar, the moveable net is stated to be
dragged as much as a mile to the fixed one (p. xxv) : at
Mettapolliam, in the Coimbatore district of Madras, an
identical plan used to be pursued. In the Broach Collec-
torate of Bombay (p. xliv), nets are fixed across the stream
shaped like a wall : some have a bag in the middle. In
llatnagiri (p. liv) the practice of throwing nets across
creeks and rivers has done much to diminish the number of
fish. In the Central Provinces at Jabalpur (p. cxxiv), two
large nets are taken towards one central point, towards
which the fish are driven by beating the water and noises
of all sorts : or on a moonlight night a net is fixed
across a stream and the fish driven into it (p. cxxiii).
Even the greatest adherent of " communal" and prescrip-
tive rights, or for permitting unlimited massacre of small fish,
must admit that a net which will arrest the spawn of a frog,
permanently fixed across a whole water-way, down which the
fry must descend with the receding floods, before they can
obtain access to a river, can hardly be conducive to the
prosperity of a fishery. But as it may be suggested that
surely such wholesale destruction cannot be going on un-
checked in many places, I must here advert to where such
practices are in vogue, and for this purpose, it will only be
necessary to refer to a few of the appended reports. There
is hardly a district in India (Sind, portions of Burma, and
parts of the Panjab excepted) where these fine-meshed nets
are not employed as fixed engines. Likewise, as the floods

( 59 )

subside, earthen banks are constructed across water-courses,
each with an artificial opening cut for the current to pass ;
here a purse-net with minute meshes is firmly fixed, and all
the descending fish are captured ; this is employed in Bombay
(p. xxxvii) : in Madras, in the Central Provinces (p. cxxiii-iv),
and in fact in every place where such is possible, unless
wicker traps are preferred. Or these fine-meshed nets may
be fixed to the sluice of a tank (p. lxxix), so that the
water that is let out for irrigation purposes passes through it,
all the fish being arrested. Or at the yearly subsidence of the
floods which extend miles across the country, the water being
stocked with fry, bunds are raised, with an opening for the
escape of the water : but here a purse-net prevents any exit for
the young fish, consequently, as the waters will be entirely
drained off leaving the fields dry, the fry has only to select
whether it will be captured in the purse-net, or perish in the
drying-up fields. These nets of various forms and many
names are likewise fixed in the supply channels (p. xcvii)
in irrigated fields, and nothing escapes them, especially as
the water is not always flowing, so what is easier, when
the channel is full, than to fix a fine net across its entire
breadth, so that all the fish which have passed up for breed-
ing or feeding purposes are unable to return as the water is
being cut off? In the North- Western Provinces, "fish are
killed, more or less, throughout the year, but the largest
numbers are taken towards the end of the rainy season. As
the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are formed
on the low lands by the rivers. These, which were, during
the floods, mere extensions of the streams, now become lakes
with one narrow exit to the river. Across this, nets are
stretched, or a weir of grass constructed, and every fish that
has wandered up becomes a certain prey" (p. clx).

LXVI. Fixed engines constructed of non-elastic sub-
Fishing weirs of non-eiastic stances _ are, however, still more

substances. How breeding-fish destructive to fisll than those made
are destroyed. of ^ ^ wMch ^ mQYQ ^^ t()

rents. The different forms are so numerous, whilst so many
are fully described in the appendix, that a reference to them
is all that is needed, their general design being only neces-
sary to allude to, before commencing which, I may remark
on the favour they are held in Europe. Pishing weirs, which
prevent fish obtaining a free passage up a river, were pro-
nounced by the Lord Chief Justice of England to be " illegal
and a public nuisance." The size of the interstices between,

( 60 )

the substances of which weirs are composed, appears to be
everywhere much the same, whether examined in the ghats
of Canara, the yomas of Pegu, the Himalayas or the plains
of India and Burma, and that size is about sufficient to
permit water to flow, obstructing every fish attempting to
pass. First, are the weirs in the hilly districts or contiguous
localities erected simply for fishing ? — this is usually done
as the violence of the monsoon floods subside, and the
rush of the mountain torrent has decreased to that extent
that these erections are not liable to be swept away. It is
to the hills as already remarked (para. XXXVI) that some
of the most valuable of the carps of India proceed to breed ;
in fact, such are the only localities well adapted for the
reception of the eggs of a few species, and where their young
should be reared in quietude. Where irrigation weirs exist
en route to these hills as I have already observed (para. 12),
they serve to impede or arrest this upward progress of
the fish, some entirely so (para. 12), others to a lesser degree.
Even at some of these irrigation weirs trapping these fish
goes on, and in fact, in many places they experience the
greatest difficulty in reaching their spawning grounds. But
some overcome the difficulty of ascent, a few deposit their
spawn, and now the force of the water lessens ; it occasionally
becomes a little clear, and one may as well follow the course
of the parent fish trying to descend to the larger rivers of the
plains. Here spearing, snagging, netting, angling, &c, are
omitted, but only the existence of fixed engines will be investi-
gated. Weirs are now raised every few miles, absolutely strain-
ing the whole of the water of these hill streams, whilst in every
one are traps. The probabilities are that the great majority
of mahaseer that reach the rivers of the plains are the last
year's fry which have fortunately escaped destruction during
the dry months, and with the first floods, when the standing
weirs have been washed away, they have obtained a free high-
way. But the breeding-fish are unable to descend owing to
the present poaching practices permitted, and due to fishing
weirs beins? allowed, as the force of the floods abate, to
extend across all the streams in order to arrest their down-
ward passage. In the Himalayas (p. clvi), " weirs are erected
as soon as the monsoon begins to cease, and they remain
in existence till carried away by the first floods in the rains.
They are placed usually at the tail of each pool, and there
is almost always one at the junction of two rivers, thus
entirely preventing fish running up till the weir is carried

( 61 )

away by a flood " Another plan is to convert simple irriga-
tion weirs into fishing ones as well (p. cliv), by placing at
intervals from three to four feet, on such weirs, conical-
shaped baskets, the point of the cone being below, and the
open mouth of the cone on a level with the weir. This
device is chiefly successful at night. The baskets are
generally placed where the stream is strongest, and an
unwarv fish coming too close, finds himself hurled into a
basket from which it is quite impossible to escape. But not
only in the course of hill streams as they descend, but also
after they have arrived in the low country, has the descend-
ing breeding-fish to run the gauntlet of fishing weirs that
have no open time, whilst interstices between its component
parts would arrest the most minute fry. The following is
the plan of these constructions above South Canara (p. xci),
annually adopted by the Coorgs to capture the fish returning
from spawning. A line of strong stakes is driven in across
the full breadth of a river, the highway of these fish ; split
bamboos are interlaced, making it like a hurdle, and the
whole faced with bushes ; no fish whatever can pass, the
water is merely strained through. Gaps, however, are
formed, every one of which is fitted with a basket-trap
or cruive from one to twelve feet in length. These are
made on the mouse-trap principle, allowing an entrance, but
having springy bamboo spikes projecting inside, which
prevent any exit. Wicker traps are likewise placed across
convenient rapids, and so constructed that no fish can
descend without passing into them, and these are examined
twice daily. Or should there be no rapids, such are formed
by laying stones in a V-shape across a stream, and at
the apex of this is one of these traps. Or a mountain
river is conducted down a slope into a large concave
basket, so that descending fish are pitched into it, and
speedily suffocated by the rushing water or other falling
fish acting like a succession of blows, preventing their ever
rising up again. In the Central Provinces (p. cxxi), it
is reported from Jabalpur that breeding-fish are taken
in weirs thrown across the large rivers, and in the nar-
rows of them before the monsoons : nothing can pass,
whilst traps are also set up in shallow places. The Magis-
trate of Goruckpur (p. clix) gives a description of one
which he examined. " The dam resembles a screen made of
common reed : the reeds are so close together that the
smallest fry can hardly get through, and the dam is further

( 62 )

plastered at its foot with mud, and strengthened with matting,
so that no passage exists for anything. In mid-stream the
screen opens into a long and narrow passage, walled and
floored with the same materials, and this terminates in a
basket, which is a hamper made of reeds, into which a small
orifice in the side gives admittance to fish beneath the
surface of the water, whilst the lid remains above the surface,
and is opened from time to time for the removal of the spoil.
As the water hardly finds its way through the interstices of
the screen, it rushes in a strong current along the passage,
carrying the fish with it, and a fall from the passage into the
basket precludes all chance of escape."

LXVII. In addition to large weirs and traps, there are
„. , . , . . . minor sorts most extensively used in

Fixed traps tor capturing fish. . , , . . ", ,.

the plains — some to capture breeding-
fish ascending up minor water-ways during the rains to
deposit their spawn : others to arrest them and their fry at-
tempting to descend to the rivers, as the flood-waters recede,
and there is not a place, except perhaps in Sind, where fields
become flooded in the monsoon months, that this mode of
capture is not carried on. This trapping breeding and young
fish appears to be considered an inherent right of the land-
owners or tenants. In the Panjab it is considered in places
as the zemindar's property (p. xii). In Bombay, some
reporters suggest the license that has existed may now be
be claimed as a right. In Madras, the Revenue Board appear
to be of the same opinion, more than hinting that long cus-
tom may have converted it into communal rights, and without
further quotations the same erroneous ideas have been ad-
vanced almost everywhere. If the English law is the rule,
license gives no right, but is revocable at will (p. lxiv). And
how has the British legislature treated this question in the
British isles ? In " The Salmon Fishery {Ireland) Act, 1863,"
it prohibited bag-nets "within a distance of less than three
statute miles from the mouth of any river," and gave the
owners of such the following time to remove them : — " within
fourteen days after the passing of this Act," and, " for each
day of so placing or allowing the same to be continued, incur
a penalty of not less than five pounds, and not exceeding
twenty pounds." Weirs without gaps might be removed at
once, unless the owners undertook to erect a suitable fish-pass.
'Fixed engines were to be removed within fourteen days, unless
a license had been paid, when they were permitted to the end
of the year. Now, what do the reporters in the appendix

( 63 )

state of these small fixed engines in India — these devices so
destructive that the British Parliament allowed fourteen days
for their removal ; these traps which were deemed a public
nuisance that any one may destroy ? Why, these contrivances
are spoken of as communal and prescriptive rights, and their
prohibition an interference with private property ! I have
already pointed out how universal is then' use, and will now
adduce a few examples of how they are used. In Bombay, fish
in Nasik (p. xlvii) are "caught in shallows, small pools, and
irrigating channels, by nets, baskets, or funnel-shaped wicker
traps, placed where there is a current of water " : in Puna
(p. xlix), baskets are placed in openings constructed in arti-
ficial dams which are roughly thrown across streams." In
Batnagiri, that " banks are formed to make the fish pass
through narrow channels : nets are employed, also baskets,
and bag-like nets" (p. xliv). In Madras, the Revenue Board
suggest (p. lxxii) that these traps should only be prohibited
in rivers declared to be taken under Government conservancv.
In Kurnal (p. lxxxiv), the minimum mesh of the nets is
given at § th of an inch between each knot, but of the oodii-
lu, or traps of wicker work, the interstices are of infinitely
smaller dimensions, and these are placed in the smaller irri-
gation channels (p. xcvii). In Tinnevelli, baskets and traps
are used, whereby large numbers of fish are taken in a most
unfair and destructive manner, and (p. lxxxvi) that small fish
are caught in baskets and screens at the rapids below waste
weirs and sluices. In Coimbatore (p. lxxxvi), fry are caught
in wicker-work traps. In Malabar, baskets are placed in small
streams in such a way as to secure every fish in them. In
South Canara (p. lxxxviii), there are bamboo labyrinth weirs
to entrap fish going up stream, and bamboo labyrinth weirs
to entrap them going down stream, and these are set in every
tempting run, all other ways being stopped. At each drop
from rice-field to rice-field the cultivator places a basket
made of finely sp>lit bamboos, having a wide mouth, a nar-
row neck, and a wide bottom : it lets the water pass, but
stops every single fry. In Mysor (p. cvi), the native officials
of the Astragam Division report that during the rains large
quantities of fish are taken in baskets prepared for this pur-
pose, which are made with the fronds of the cocoanut palm :
these have large open mouths, whilst their floor is covered
by means of lattice-work of strings ; they are placed against
a current of water, which, rushing in, passes through the
interstices, leaving the fish deposited in the basket. In the

( 64 )

Central Provinces, at Jabaipur (p. cxix), every little stream-
let is dammed up, and woven bamboo weirs are placed in the
dams. At Bilaspur (p. cxxii), breeding and young fish are
wantonly and indiscriminately destroyed in all rivers, pools,
streams and tanks throughout the district, also in rice-fields :
in the latter they are caught at the outlets when the water
at the close of the rains is subsiding : it is impossible for
the smallest fish to get out of some of these traps. The
Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of these
Provinces observed that "in the Sagar and Mandla Dis-
tricts, extensive destruction of fish occurs, more especially
of the sor, and mahseer and paru. The occasion when this
occurs is the beginning of the rains, which is the season for
spawning ; and it is said that in Mandla at that season the
fish, while making their way to spawn in tanks and rice-fields
(the entries into which are small and narrow), are carefully
watched, and that large numbers of all sizes are killed by
the villagers ; while, again, on their return to the rivers, they
are met at every outlet by nets, baskets, weirs and traps, so
that few can get away altogether ; some of them are so small
as to be perfectly useless, and these are thrown away or left
as food for dogs and crows." In Haidarabad (p. cxiii), fish
are taken by means of goomlas, which somewhat resemble
the straw envelopes for bottles ; they are made of the reeds
of the nurgood plant : these traps are placed in shallow
streams in the rainy season ; the fish enter, but it prevents
their return. In Oudh, the same mode of using traps is advert-
ed to. Small nets or baskets of various forms and shapes are
hung over weirs just above the water; breeding-fish attempt-
ing to ascend the river find this barrier in their way, try to
overcome it by jumping, and many are captured by falling
into these fixed contrivances. The Commissioner of the
Rajshahye Division in Bengal observes (p. clxxxvi) that
bamboo contrivances for fish-catching are in use in every
paddy-field. They are also employed throughout Orissa and
the Midnapur Districts. Whilst in Assam, the Deputy Com-
missioner of Durrung reports (p. ccxxviii) that " everything,
from a weir to a basket, is used, and the meshes of the nets
are so small that no fry can escape." Also in Seebsagor
(p. ccxxix) that "what with dams, traps, baskets and nets
which the villagers use, very few fish escape to the larger
streams." In Jorehat (p. ccxxx), the villagers, if left to them-
selves, are very fond of damming streams at the end of the
rains, when fish, large and small, are running down : this

( 65 )

they do in such a way that scarcely anything can escape
the traps set in the dam." In British Burma, at Bassein
(p. ccxxiii), "young fish are captured to a considerable
extent by traps in the paddy-fields :" in fact, fishing weirs
and traps are universally employed in this province, and of
innumerable descriptions, whilst miniature ones were per-
mitted in every small stream, irrigating channel or water-
way to entrap fish ascending, and so finely constructed that
even fry could not pass. I found agriculturists with as
many as 60 or 80 traps in their possession, and working
them daily in every water-way where ingress or egress for
fish could occur (see p. cxlviii). In short, trapping breeding-
fish and fry is universal, wherever permitted, and nowhere is
it prohibited.

Moveable Pishing Implements.

LXVIII. Nets or moveable implements (in contradis-

Moveable engiues for taking tinction to those which are fixed),

fish- employed in capturing or facilitating

the capture offish, are composed of two varieties— (1) those
manufactured of cotton, hemp, aloe fibre, coir, or of some such
material, and (2) others constructed of split bamboo, rattan,
reed, grass or other more or less inelastic subtances.

LXIX. Large drag-nets with fair-sized meshes are used
a . . x. . , mostly during the dry months, and

Composed of elastic materials. , " •■ D ^ ,, " „ , .

employed tor the purpose of clearing
out the fish from pools in rivers to which they have retired,
awaiting the next year's floods. Thus, in the Godaveri
(p. xlvii), they are remarked upon as 100 yards long : in the
Kistna as 3 to 400 yards long (p. lxxvi), their length and
depth being in accordance with the waters they are going to
be employed in. But the moveable nets that do the most
injury are those with small meshes, and which are employed
for taking the fry of fish as they are first moving about. If
one just refers to the appendix to this report, we cannot but
observe how such are most wastefully destroyed all over the
country ; this is accomplished with cast-nets of fine meshes,
small wall-nets dragged up little water-courses, purse-nets
similarly used ; even sheets are thus employed. It has been
pointed out, however, that some fish never grow to any size,
consequently they will escape if nets with small meshes are
prohibited, and a very good idea has been propounded that
if such is the case, let them be captured after the month of
October, so that the majority of the fry have become more
able to take care of themselves. In Madras, the Revenue

E

( CG )

Board except casting-nets from their proposed regulations,
overlooking the fact that if such are not open to supervision,
a number may be joined together, and thus constitute a legal
net. In Haidarabad several casting-nets are used joined
together to stop up a stream, whilst others are employed
above the obstacles (p. cxii). In the CeDtral Provinces
(p. cxxiv) , pandi, or the smallest cast-net, is ordinarily about
15 feet long, weighted with iron : when it is considered
desirable to net a considerable breadth of stream, several of
these nets are used fastened together, making one very long
net : in this almost every kind of fish is caught. Another
plan of using casting-nets is, for several fishermen to
surround a pool, each armed with one, and they throw them
all together, so few fish have a chance of escape. A species
of lave-net is also used and in various ways ; their plan of
construction is in a triangular frame. In Sind, the fishermen
floats down the Indus on a gourd or hollow earthen pot, and
this net is let down below him : as a hilsa fish, ascending up
the muddy stream, strikes against the net, it is made to con-
tract like a purse by means of a string the fisherman holds
in his hand. These lave-nets are usually constructed of very
minute meshes, and employed at the sides of rivers, ditches,
irrigation channels or inundated spots where fry are feeding,
and the current is not strong, and here the poor people destroy
a few thousands for a single meal (pp. lviii, cxxiii, cxxiv).
LXX. Nets, or rather moveable contrivances of inelas-
composed of inelastic mate- tic substances, are more freely em-
rinls- ployed in some districts than in others.

In Orissa, a salioua or putti consists of very fine split
bamboos, bound together by means of grass, the interstices
between each piece being equal to J-th of an inch or less.
This putti is about five feet high, and is in the shape of a
regular wall-net. It is taken to a tank, and placed in the
water in a V-form, whilst the fishermen on either side
extend themselves outwards, and by beating the water drive
the fish into the enclosure. The two ends are now brought
together, and the fish penned into a small space. The sides
are advanced nearer and nearer until they almost touch, and
the fish are removed by a hand-net, or by the hand alone.
Besides this, there are contrivances for a single person to
use ; thus, a peculiar form is cone-shaped, open at both ends ;
this is thrust down in muddy water in places where fish
resort to, and the enclosed fish removed from the upper .
opening. It is used in the Panjab (pp. xxii, xxv), in the
Central Provinces (p. cxxiii) — in fact, throughout India and

( 67 )

Burma. Sometimes a line of men work a shallow piece of
water with them, and then they become rather destructive :
however, eels and walking-fish (Ophiocephalidce) are the sorts
most commonly captured thus. The triangular lave-net
adverted to in the last paragraph is often made of split
bamboo : it is used extensively for the purpose of capturing
breeding-fish passing into irrigated fields as observed upon in
Kurnal (p. xcvii). In Burma, rattan or bamboo nets termed
gyan (p. cxcix) have each piece fixed to its neighbour by grass
or fibre in the place of string, the interstices being of various
sizes from ^th of an inch to 1 inch. Yindoons are a species
of lave-net made of closely-woven split bamboos, and affixed
to a long pole ; it is employed to clear out all small water-
courses of the fry of fish ; it is pushed along them, and raised
every now and then. In some places fixed weirs are placed
in a piece of water, and one of the gyans is gradually
dragged up to the standing weir.

LXXI. What is the minimum size of the meshes of
The smallest size of the mesh nets in general use in India and
of nets which is employed. Burma (excluding Smd), where no

regulations exist declaring what such should be? I here
append the answers received from native officials ; 91 refer
to inches : —

Size, in respect to inches, between knot and knot of meshes.

—1

i

2

1

3

4

i

5

X
6

i

8

i

T(5

T3

i

Til

A

91 Native Officials ...

5

5

IS

5

24

1

5

18

4

2

3

1

Irrespective of the foregoing 91, answers have also
been received from 70 more, and they compare the minimum
size as follows : —

Size of finger or thumb

„ _ i ring finger ...
As big as a broomstick
Size of ^ a rupee

„ 4-anna bit

„ 3- of an anna ...

„ 2-anna bit

Size of a grain of wheat, mothi, mucca, gram, dboll, lamp-oil
seed, barley, tamarind seed, or a small pea, pepper-
corn, large needle, bodkin, quill, coarse muslin, en-
snare an ant, or hardly anything can pass

5
2

1
1
1

1
5

1

53

( G8 )

The foregoing 1G1 reports from native officials give the
minimum size of the meshes of nets employed in their
districts, and if one just considers the sized fish such minute
meshes will ensnare, it is impossible to avoid coming to the
conclusion that an immensity of wee ones must be destroyed
before they can attain a fair size. My own impression is that,
were very exact returns sent in, the proportion of finer
meshes would be even greater than is shown above. Although
this question was not put to the European officials of these
districts, some have observed upon the subject. My reasons
for wishing rather to obtain this information from natives
being, that it can hardly be expected civilians, who are
worked all day in cutcherry, have time, even had they inclina-
tion, to examine paddy-fields and inundated portions of the
country during the rains, and whilst the young fish are
moving about, in order to ascertain the smallest size of the
meshes of nets which are employed, whilst observations
made in the cold season would not afford the desired informa-
tion. In Bombay, out of 10 who reply, 1 says less than an
inch, and 1 at TVth, 1 at yVth, 1 at j^th, 1 at -g^nd, 1 at the
size of a grain of wheat, and 2 at that of a large needle.
But some even place it at a smaller size, as in Khandeisli
(p. xlv), where, when small-meshed nets are not available,
the Bhils use their sheets, saris and dhotars for the purpose
of taking fish. In Ahmednuggur, pieces of cloth are used
as nets (p. xlviii). In Madras, 21 observe upon this subject
as follows : — 1 places it at fth of an inch between each knot
of the meshes, 1 at J, 3 at Jth of an inch, 1 at |th, 2 at Jth, 1
at y^th, 1 at T'oth, say the meshes are small, 7 that they
are very small, of the size of a quill or red gram seed,
and 2 that they resemble mosquito curtain net. In Mysor
8 European officials give the size of the mesh of the nets as
follows : — 1 at \ an inch between each knot, 2 at Jth,
2 at T'-th, 2 as the size of mosquito curtain net, and 1 as
small enough to take the spawn of fish. In Haidarabad
1 Deputy Collector returns the minimum size employed at
Jrd of an inch between each knot, 1 at fth, 1 at Jth, 1
at -j'yth, whilst in 2 they are stated to be too small to be
measured. In the Central Provinces, out of 13 European
reports, 3 give it at Jth of an inch between each knot,
1 at J;th, 5 at Jth, 1 at TVth, and 3 as the size of coarse
muslin, a large needle, or very small. In Oudh, 9 European
officials report thus : — 1 that the minimum size of the
mesh of nets employed is fth of an inch between each knot :

( 69 )

2, Jth : 2, Jrd : 2, |th, and 1 that it will arrest a grain of
barley ; thus, 67 European officials give the minimum size
of the meshes of nets employed as follows : — from \ to 1 inch,
3 : from \\h to \ an inch, 2 : from ^th to Jth of an inch, 10 : up
to ^th of an inch, 25 : small, 2 : very small, 8 : size of a grain of
wheat or barley, 2 : of a large needle, 2 : of mosquito net or
coarse muslin, 7 : too small to be measured, 4. In the
N. W. Provinces, 16 European officials report as follows of
the minimum size of the mesh of nets which are employed : —
1 at \ an inch, 1 at f^th, 2 at ^th, 3 at Jth, 1 at
-J-thj 6 at so minute that the smallest fish are stopped, 1 at
the size of a grain of niucca, and 1 at that of a small pea.
The Civil Surgeon of Azimgurh's statement of 4 inches
between each knot is of course omitted from the foregoing.
In Bengal (p. clxxxii), 7 European officials answer as fol-
lows : — 1, that the meshes are minute : 1, 3*3 th of an inch :
1, ^th : 1, -i-th, and 3 as large as a grain of mustard seed,
rice, or mosquito net. Although the above gives the minimum
size of the mesh, it must not be overlooked that, when formed
of wicker-work, still smaller interstices, when possible, are
employed. In Burma, 10 European officials report as fol-
lows : — 2 give the smallest size at ^ an inch, 1 at f rds,
1 at Jth, 1 at ^th, 1 at T'¥ th, and 4 as minute.

LXXII. A few observations are here necessary upon
seasons when different meshes the meshes of the nets employed, and
are used- how it is that such different answers

may be given by persons residing in the same locality, as to
the minimum size which is used, whilst each merely reports
on what he personally observes. The meshes of nets vary
with the season of the year. Nets, whether used by one, two
or more individuals during the rainy season, in inundated parts
of the country, small water-courses, &c, have a very minute
mesh ; in fact, this is the period when those which will stop
a oraiu of wheat ensnare an ant, not allow a large needle
to pass, arrest the progress of a mosquito, or only permit
water to go through, are called into play ; now the fry are
moving about, and seeking food and security in shallows and
away from strong currents. As the muddy monsoon water
subsides a little, and fishermen are able to wade up to their
waists without the fear of being carried away by the current,
the size of the mesh is increased, for the fry are becoming lar-
ger, roving further for their food, and the distance between knot
and knot are found to have become as large as Ith or 4rd of

( 70 )

an inch. As the river begins to clear, in places where
large fish may still be taken in the plains, the distance
between the knots often reaches one inch, whilst in the dry
season even a greater rnesh becomes employed. In localities
as Burma, excluding the free fisheries, still larger meshes are
used ; likewise in Sind, where such would be considered an
unwise procedure, but it will be found to be carried on else-
where throughout the length and breadth of the plains,
except where there is a lessee, whose interests would be
affected thereby.

LXXIII. Were the minimum size of the mesh of the net
Effect of regulating the mini- regulated, could such be a secondary

mum size of the mesh of nets. cause of injury to fisheries ? Mr.

Thomas, in his excellent report on the fisheries of South
Canara, observes — the forbidding the use of a mesh of less than
four inches in diameter would be unfortunate, as " the smaller
sorts of fish, having an immunity from netting, must dispro-
portionately increase on the larger netted sorts. Nature has
arranged that the larger predatory fish shall balance the
smaller, and thus maintain due proportions, but if one sort
is netted by man and the other sort has immunity, the ba-
lance is disturbed, and the larger fish are no longer able to
maintain their position." The Madras "Revenue Board
(Proc, July 13th, 1871), in their report on the foregoing, ob-
serve of the small fish : — " If a minimum of four inches be
adopted, this quantity of fish will be, without any compen-
sating advantage, entirely lost to the fish-eating population :
further, the natural balance amongst the fishy tribes will
be disturbed by killing only large fish, while the smaller kinds,
which largely preponderate, are allowed by artificial protection
to increase to an extent which must eventually cause certain
kinds to disappear altogether." Now, I cannot coincide in this
belief ; I think it to be incorrect, and the proofs adduced, accu-
rate as doubtless they are, may not be analogous to the state of
affairs in India. I will, therefore, first examine this question
theoretically, and secondly, give the result of actual expe-
rience in this country. It is a self-evident fact that amongst
fish in the East, as in the other divisions of the animal
kingdom, the forms which prey upon their neighbours are
proportionately greater than in more temperate regions :
Nature is on a vaster scale, but a few examples will make
my meaning plainer. The wild-cat of Scotland is represent-
ed by the tiger and cheetah : the species of eagles and

( 71 )

hawks of England, by ten times the number and of far larger
sizes ; the lizards swell into crocodiles ; the dog-fishes of
European seas are seen in the form of many genera of sharks,
some of enormous size ; whilst, lastly, the herbivorous barbel
assumes the proportion of the predaceous mahaseer fishes
(for there are many species), all of which belong to the
identical genus of their European relative. In fact, the waters
of India are stocked with predaceous fish, and the question is,
whether, if the small herbivorous forms, up to six inches in
length, obtained immunity, they would destroy the larger
predaceous varieties, either as eggs, fry, or by consuming all
the food. It is here assumed that the fact is proved (which
I give no opinion upon) that, due to immunity from netting,
the smaller fish in the Thames are injuring the fisheries ; also
that minnows have starved out trout. It must be remem-
bered that, due to indiscriminate netting, poaching, and the
reception of filth in that river, salmon have disappeared and
trout are now being artificially re-introduced ; the state is
abnormal. At Whitchurch, in Hampshire, I have seen the
preservation of trout carried out so strictly that a sufficiency
of food has not existed, and the fish have been starved. Like-
wise the destruction of hen-pheasants in preserves has been so
energetically enforced, that the proportion between the males
and females has been disarranged. But these are not anala-
gous examples to what obtains in the East ; the influence of
over-protection is here unknown, whilst food for the fish is
always abundant. Excluding marine forms, which are com-
paratively infinitesimal in South Canara rivers, we may divide
the true fresh- water fishes as follows : — (1) large preda-
ceous ; (2) large herbivorous ; (3) small predaceous ; and (4>
small herbivorous kinds. Of the large predaceous ones we have
two sub-divisions — those, as the mahaseer, which ascend to the
hill streams to breed, leaving many of their young in the
small pools thereuntil the next year's monsoon permits them
to descend to the plains ; and secondly, those varieties, as the
Opliiocephalida1, which deposit their eggs in side channels in
the plains. None of these could be included amongst
the fish a four-inch, in circumference, mesh would not
take. As they augmented, due to preservation of their fry,
an increased supply of food would be desirable, and what
could be superior to small fish which never attain any size ?
As to the large herbivorous ones, protecting their fry could
not injure fisheries. We now arrive at the small predaceous

( 72 )

and small herbivorous kinds, which do not attain six
inches in length, and whose existence in quantities might
" eventually cause certain kinds to disappear altogether."
Now, the most valuable species spawn on the hills, and which
of the small predaceous fishes that do not attain six inches
in length are found there ? The solitary Nandus marginatum,
Jerdon, usually rare and only seen in certain places. In
the plains of Canara, are there more ? Perhaps two, Bagrus
3falabaricus and Belone cancila. I believe that, owing to the
spines in the fins of this first, and the long-toothed snout of the
second, they would be easily taken, when adults, in nets
having meshes of the size proposed. I do not know another
amongst these low-country predaceous fishes, able to destroy
many young fish that would not reach six inches in length
when adult. Lastly, we arrive at the small herbivorous
forms. Certainly, there are several, some very numerous,
but to accuse them of destroying the predaceous forms is
like the old fable of the wolf and the lamb. I now come to
the consideration of whether experience in India shows that
such a result occurs where a like minimum size of mesh as
.proposed has been actually tried. I will only adduce two
examples : others will be found in the appendix. First I
would point to Sind, where nets with meshes below this size
are not apparently in use (p. xxix, para. 47), but the due
proportions are maintained, fish abounding ; in fact, as the
smaller herbivorous forms increase, so do the predaceous,
which then appear to consume their neighbours instead of
their own young. Likewise in the North -Western Provinces
(pp. cxlix, cl), where, inadvertently having gone to a pro-
tected river, I reported how full it was stocked, a result due
to destruction of small fish having been prohibited, a state of
affairs differing from what was observed in contiguous pieces
of water. Which, then, is most practical — to prohibit the de-
struction of small fish with the certainty of increasing the
supply, or, fearing that if little fish were not taken, they might
injurously affect or starve the larger ones, to permit their
being freely captured ? Or if such did occur, why not per-
mit the capture of small fish during such months as fry are
not moving about ?

LXXIV. Damming waters may be done (1) for purposes

Damming waters for fish- of irrigation, (2) fol* irrigation COn-
ing purposes, jointly with fishing, or (3) solely to
obtain fish. Damming up waters for irrigation purposes has

( 73 )

already been discussed (pp. 7-14), as has likewise the con-
version of simple irrigation weirs into traps for the taking of
fish, and irrigation canals into vast slaughter-houses, besides
unduly obstructing fish proceeding to their natural breeding-
places, and by the use of fixed engines and traps in small
water-courses, and at every drop from field, to field, forming
a series of places for annihilation of fry. Here, therefore,
the subject for consideration is damming waters for fishing
purposes solely.

LXXV. Waters, as rivers or streams, may be dammed

Damming and diverting rivers or for fishing purposes with (1) Or

streams, Ac., for fishing. without (2) the assistance of weirs,

or (3) hill streams may be dammed and diverted, or simply a
a dam may be (4) employed to bund up, water, in order to
facilitate the poisoning of fish. Tanks or standing pieces of
wrater may be likewise dammed for fishing (5) as a common
occurrence, or (6) else as the waters are drying up ; (7) Holes
may be dug at the sides of rivers with which a connecting
channel is cut, the fish enticed in communication cut off, and
the water baled out ; or (8) small bunds be erected parallel to
the rivers' course, fry driven or enticed in, and all destroyed.
Hill streams may be dammed and diverted for fishing pur- *
poses — a plan which obtains in the Himalayas and elsewhere.
The effects of damming up and diverting the minor streams
into kools or channels for turning mills, and wThich is used
as a fertile instrument of destroying small fish (pp. iv, xviii)
has been already referred to. In the Panjab, at Kangra
(p. xvi), the zemindars do a great deal of mischief in the
early part of the rains, by bringing the fish into side streams,
and then draining off the water and leaving them on dry
ground : young and old are caught in this way. In Bombay,
at Satara (p. lix), fish are taken by diverting the natural
course of a stream so as to make all the water pass through
a large basket trap, or by throwing a bank of sand across a
river or nulla and obtaining the fish in the usual way, trie.,
by baling. In Haidarabad, it is observed (p. cxiii) that fish
are taken by traps, which is done by erecting rough stone
piles on both sides of a stream, then spreading a mat of the
nurgood plant over the piles ; the stream is then diverted
so as to pour over the mat, on which, as the water falls, the
fish are taken. Hill streams rnav be also diverted, and the
modes employed are as follows : — In the Doon (p. cxlix)
" from March to the beginning of the rains, streams are
dammed and turned. In this district the mountain torrents,

( 74 )

where they burst from the hills, have three or four different
beds, all of which are full during the rains, but after-
wards only one ; one year the stream is in one of these
beds, another year another, and so on. The poachers choose
a spot where the stream and an old bed are in close proxi-
mity : both have good pools in them ; they fix nets right
across the stream, about a mile or more below this spot ;
first nets with large meshes, and then nets with smaller
meshes. These nets are kept to the bottom with heavy
stones. When the nets are all ready, they dam up the
stream, and open a water-way into the old bed : the force
of the water soon cuts a deep way for itself, and then the
late bed of the stream is left dry, except in the deep holes :
all fish that try to escape down are stopped by the nets."
The large fish are taken away, the fry left to die as the
pools dry up, and there they sometimes lie six or eight inches
deep. The poachers do the same lower down, and after a
month or so begin again at the top of the hill river as before.
This is also carried on in Rohilcund (p. cliii). Or low-
country streams may be dammed for poisoning purposes,
as in Eatnagari (p. liv), in Belgaum (p. lii), or South
Canara (p. lxxxviii) : or for placing nets in artificial open-
ings constructed in them, as in Puna (p. xlix) : or to assist
in baling them out, as in Nasik (p. lviii), Colaba (p. lix),
and Dharwar (p. liii and lxii) ; also in Madras, as at Kurnal
(p. lxxxiv), or in the Kistna Collectorate (p. xcv), as
well as in Nellur (p. xcvij. In the Central Provinces, as at
Jabalpur (p. cxix and cxxiv), and in Oudh, as at Sultanpur
(p. cxxxviii). Tanks are drained at times solely for the
purpose of obtaining the contained fish, as at Cuddalore
in Madras; at Dharwar (p. liii): whilst at Tanjur it is
said that it is only small tanks that are annually drained
for the purpose of being filled with fresh-water from river
channels, at which period advantage is taken to capture the
fish in them (p. lxxix). In some cases as tanks are drying
up (p. clxxxix) a bank is thrown across them — first one
half is baled out, and then the other, and so all the fish taken ;
but this is said to be done to prevent them from dying in the
mud (see para. LXVII). Holes are sometimes dug by the sides
of rivers, as in the Panjab (p. xxiv), or Burma (p. cxcviii) ;
a connecting channel is cut ; when fish have been enticed
in, a bund is thrown across the connecting channel, the water
in the hole baled out, and the fish captured ; this is also done
in Haidarabad (p. cxiii). In Orissa (p. clxxxix), damming is

( 75 )

extensively practised ; as the rivers commence drying up,
earthen bunds are raised along its bed parallel with the
course of the stream, but narrowing towards its lower end ;
fish are driven in, the ends are stopped, and every one is
taken. This bunding and lading takes place everywhere
in India and Burma for the purpose of capturing fish. In
the latter province (p. ccviii) streams are bunded into tanks
by an earthen dam being thrown across them, which of
course causes the water to collect above : next smaller ones
are erected parallel to the course of the stream, and cutting
off a portion of it from the main channel. The water is laded
out, the whole of the fish captured, and this is continued
portion by portion till not a fish is left. In making the
earthen dam, two rows of strong stakes, six feet apart, are
driven in across the stream ; the interval is filled in with grass
and clayey mud.

LXXVI. Waters may be poisoned without such being

done for fishing purposes, but the

W aters may be poisoned. /v>i n i • 1 ••

enects 01 winch arc injurious or
even destructive on fisheries : such may be (1) accidental or
natural, as by monsoon floods washing a large amount of
mud suddenly into rivers and causing the fish to perish, as
in Coimbatore (p. lxxxvii) and elsewhere; (2) with the muddy
water some unwholesome agent may be conjoined, as decayed
leaves of trees and shrubs, or other vegetable substances. It is
observed in Satara (p. 1) that when the rivers become muddy at
the commencement of the monsoon, fish die in large numbers,
also when they become nearly dry at the close of the hot
weather ; (3; such may also be due to the inherent poisonous
nature of the fruit, leaves, or other component parts of trees
or shrubs, which during the dry or cold season have fallen into
contiguous streams, and there remaining, due to there being
no current, have become an infusion of poison, which with
the outburst of the rains is carried down to the main
rivers. None of these causes appear susceptible of allevia-
tion ; but it is observed in the IS ortk-Western Provinces that
in the Koana River (p. clxii), standing fishing weirs are per-
mitted to block up the whole of the wrater-way : as the water
becomes poisoned or otherwise unsuited for fish-life, all the
fishes up-stream endeavor to descend to the purer portions
of the river. But an impassable fishing weir quite stops
the way ; the owner allows no passage, so there they are
allowed to miserably perish, and, useless as food, become
carted away as manure. (4) In South Canara the refuse

( 76 )

of the coffee pulpers is stated to be poisonous to the fishes
of the rivers into which they are drained, but if no stand-
ing weirs exist below them, the injury thus occasioned
cannot be compared to that done by fixed engines permitted
to span streams. Coir is extensively manufactured in Mala-
bar by decomposing the outer shell of cocoanuts in large pits
dug by the sides of streams and backwaters. Here, covered
over by mud, they are left to rot, and when these offensive
pits are opened into the stream, the fluid decomposed vege-
table substance which is washed out is a cause of destruction
to fish-life. It is remarkable that putrid water does not
invariably destroy fish residing in it : near Berhampur, I
was shown a small tank in which the water was perfectly
putrid, and the natives asserted that it had been so for months,
but still fish resided there. The smell was most offensive, and
its bed was deep in dark slimy mud. After much persuasion
the fishermen were induced to net it, and the fish were as
numerous as in other pieces of water in the vicinity ; their
colour was somewhat darker, but they were reported to be
fit for food. However, the fishermen at last confessed that
they did not intend personally to eat them, but proposed dis-
posing of them in the bazar.

LXXVII. "Water or fish may be poisoned for the purpose
Waters poisoned for fishing of obtaining the finny tribes. This
purposes. is mostly done in one of the following

ways : — The use of poisonous substances, or by rendering the
water unfit to sustain their lives, or preventing the fish
access to air necessary for respiration. (1.) As regards poi-
sonous substances employed, these are numerous, and most
are detailed in the Appendix — milk bush, tobacco leaves,
Cocculus Indicus, many poisonous jungle fruits, &c. This is
usually carried on during the dry months of the year, when
the pools in rivers are still, and hardly any current exists.
It is very easy to collect the poisons, to throw them into a
deep still pool, and quietly await the fish floating up intoxi-
cated to the surface. It is immaterial that thousands of
immature fish and insects, &c, which form the food of adults,
are thus slaughtered. The poacher is in no need of them ; he
obtains as much as he can bear away, totally unconcerned
that his gains may be unwholesome, and tbe river water
rendered poisonous to human beings, birds and cattle that
imbibe it. He sells the proceeds of his nefarious work, and
that without molestation, and, if spoken to, calmly terms such
"a free industry" which is permitted by authority. InOudh

( 77 )

(p. cxxxi), it is stated that fishing is carried on by channels
of water being enclosed, and powders obtained from a poison-
ous wild fruit thrown in. An opening is cut to receive
fresh-water, as the humane people think it wrong to kill all,
and as the intoxicated fish float to the surface, they are beaten
on the head with sticks or caught by the hands, and this
wholesale destruction is done merely for sport, as those captur-
ed are not deemed good to eat, The same is reported from the
Central Provinces (p. cxix), whilst the poison employed may
render the water undrinkable for several seasons (p. lxxviii).
Again, fish may be choked (2) by means of mud. As I have
already explained (p. xl), some fish breathe by means of imbib-
ing oxygen directly from the water ; their blood goes to their
gills ; here the carbon formed by waste unites with the oxy-
gen of the air in solution in the water, and the simple process of
breathing is effected. Now, natives have discovered that if they
stir up the mud, so as to thicken the wTater, and also frighten
the fish they rush about, their increased movements require
increased respiratory action, but the mud chokes their gills,
and, half-suffocated, they become captured with ease. (3) Some
fish are what I termed compound-breathers (see p. 24) ; they
can imbibe air direct, and these are the tropical ophiocepha-
lidoe (see p. 26), &c. The Burmese know that mud mixed
with water will not affect them ; they put their mouths above
the surface and get what air they require. So here another
plan has to be followed. As the water gets low and muddy,
a large sail composed of cloth, split bamboo or anything of
that sort is spread over the fluid mud where they are ; this
precludes their rising to respire, their carbon cannot unite
with oxygen and be carried off; they become asphyxiated,
and are thus captured.

LXXVIII. Besides the foregoing modes of taking fish,
. . , there are many other minor plans

Minor modes or fishery. n o,, r , -i -i 1

pursued. Sheets have already been
remarked upon as used to take the fry of fishes which have
gone up small water-courses, or got into shallow water.
They are also used as dip-nets, being sunk in the water and
simply hauled up again when fry have swam over their
surface, as in the Pan jab (p. xx) ; or bushes may be placed
over these cloths, especially in shallows ; the fry seek shelter
under them, and the whole are lifted up, as in Orissa ; or
those sheets as dip-nets may be baited with gram or bread,
as in Bombay (p. lviii). Basket-work is also used by placing
two rattans crossing one another in the middle ; their ends

( 78 )

are Lent down, and the two arches thus formed are secured
by strings in the shape of a square ; here a net is attached,
and this is jammed down upon fish, as in Panjab (p. xxii),
Orissa, and throughout the East. Pish may be simply
frightened into permitting themselves to be captured : thus
ropes, bones, as in Orissa, cocoanut leaves, as in Malabar,
or other leaves, or the stalks of kurbl or joivaree, as in Bom-
bay (p. xlvii), or pieces of pith (solah) or light wood, as in
Bengal, or bundles of grass attached along their whole
length, and by stretching such across a stream, and constantly
jerking it, fish are driven into nets, or even take
refuge under the rivers' banks where they are captured by
the hand. When tanks are drying up, fish are taken in the
mud by the hand, as observed upon in Bombay (p. liv.).
Snares are universally employed, and these of most varied
descriptions are Csee pp. 1, lix, xciii, xciv, xcv, cxiii,
&c) used in rivers and nallas all the year round. Hooks
for fishing are not employed in some parts, as inland in
Orissa, or much in the hilly districts where poaching is pre-
ferred as easier and more killing : but there are many modes
of using hooks as barbarous as they are destructive. One
method is to fix a row of hooks on a line in a pass in a
hill stream (p. cl) by which many fish ascending or descend-
ing become foully hooked ; some are thus caught, more get
away horribly injured. Besides this, snagging is employed in
the Himalayan rivers ; in fact, such appears to have been sold
to the villagers in some places by the British revenue
authorities (p. clvi). This " right or amusement" (p. cliv),
which it is proposed should not be interfered with, consists
of arming a cord with large iron hooks at intervals of two or
three feet : by means of bits of wood they are retained wTith
their points uppermost. This line is thrown across a stream
and kept 18 inches or two feet below the surface : here it is
held on either bank by a man, others drive the fish towards
the spot, and, as one passes over this humane instrument of
capture, the cord is jerked for a hook to transfix the game.
Dexterity in the use of this line armed with hooks has
resulted from constant practice, and many fish are thus
captured. But if some are thus taken, very many more
are merely wounded. The poachers endeavour to hook
the fish by it under surface, but as may be anticipated,
although some hooks enter sufficiently deep to obtain
a firm hold of the abdominal walls, such is by no means
invariably the case. The struggles of the wounded creature

( 79 )

often causes it to break away, usually with a portion of its
intestines trailing behind it. If its gill-covers have been
injured, respiration may be wholly or entirely stopped : if
its mouth is much torn, feeding may be prevented Thus
crippled, it wanders away to sicken, and, unless death soon
puts an end to its miserable existence, it becomes emaciated,
and, should it be so captured, it is useless for food except to
the lower animals. Baited hooks are sometimes affixed to
lines which are attached to bamboos fixed in the bed of a
river, or to bushes at its edge, and these are so placed that
when a fish is hooked, the line runs out. Or a line is placed
across a suitable spot in a river, floated by gourds, so that
the baited hooks which are attached to it by short lines do
not touch the bottom : these are visited every few hours,
and are found to be very killing. In the same way, two
posts are fixed, one on either side of a stream or piece of
water, a rope stretches from one to the other, and short lines
with baited hooks are strung every yard or so along its entire
extent. Night-lines baited with frogs are employed in
places. Spearing fish is also extensively practised by torch
light, as in the Panjab (p. xx) or Bombay (p. lvii) :
or in the day-time, mostly during the cold months of
of the year when they are not very active, two persons
usually punt about as quietly as possible over places where
fish lie, and the one standing on the prow of the canoe spears
the game below him : this is done in Sind, the Panjab
(p. xxv), Madras, the Central Provinces (p. cxxiv), and
elsewhere. Shooting fish with guns is reported as carried on
iu Oudh (p. cxxxviii), whilst the use of cross-bows for
this purpose is not uncommon in Malabar. Breeding-fish are
knocked on the head with sticks, as in Bombay (p. lxi) ; and
in the Himalayas " breeding-fish are destroyed in the com-
mencement of the rains in every conceivable manner : they
at that time run up small streams, and are there killed
with sticks, caught in nets, in baskets, in temporary cruives, by
hooks fastened in sn.'eat numbers on lines, and manv other
ways" (p. cxlviii) ; or as observed in Mysore (p. cii) by
the amildars of the Nagar division, that fish are taken by
nets, traps, hooks, cloths, and by hand, by baskets of differ-
ent shapes, by damming and draining off the water, by shoot-
ing, by striking with clubs, with swords, or with choppers,
by weirs and fixed engines ; in short, by poaching- practices
of every kind, as well as by fishing with rods and lines, and
by poisoning the pools of water. Even the eggs of fish do

( SO )

not escape this general hunt, to which the persecuted piscine
tribes are subjected. In South Canara (p. xcii), men
search in the rivers for hillocks wherein spawn has been
left, gather the ova, and make it into cakes which are consi-
dered a delicacy. In the North- Western Provinces (p. clix) at
Goruckpur, the Mallahs and Kewats dig up the spawn of fish,
and after having prepared it, either sell or consume it.

Vermin which destroy Pish.

LXXIX. IVhat are the vermin which are mimical to

fish? A difficulty arises in commen-

Crocodiles as vermin. " . , -, . 1 • j i ■, , -,

cmg this subject, as to whether to
be<nn with those which are most destructive to them in their
ova state as fry, or when more mature. One Commissioner
(p. clxvii) considers that my proposition of offering
rewards for crocodiles appears to him absurd, and that " it
would be equally or more advisable to proscribe frogs and
paddy-birds which eat the spawn and young fry, and probably
destroy far more fish than the crocodile." One step further,
perhaps, might be suggested, that natives provided with
microscopes should be entertained to examine all the spawn-
ing beds of fishes, in order to detect and eradicate the micro-
scopic vermin which destroy the fertility of the fish-ova : or
peons armed with nets be sent to arrest the water-beetles
that make a meal of fish-eggs. Setting aside, however, such
ultra views, I propose commencing with the crocodiles, of
which there are two distinct genera in the waters of India.
The Assistant Commissioner of Delhi suggested one rupee per
running foot be paid for them : whilst the Madras Revenue
Board proposed a somewhat smaller scale (p. lxxiv). Also
in the Agra Division (p. clxxi), that "any effective measures
for reducing the enormous number of crocodiles in our rivers
would do much more, than any restriction on fishing, to
increase the quantity of fish in them. The destruction of
crocodiles' eggs could no doubt be extensively effected by
the offer of an adequate reward. But any such scheme, to be
of use, would have to be carried out, not only in these pro-
vinces, but all down the length of the rivers which traverse
them : otherwise, so fast as the crocodiles were destroyed here,
others would travel up and take their places from below."
Likewise the Officiating Collector of Etawah observes
(p. clxxi) that, "if Government will give a reward for
crocodiles' eggs, there is no doubt that plenty would be
brought in."

( 81 )

LXXX. The true fish-eating crocodile, Gavialis Gange*
^ J( . JM ticus. Gmelin, which attains upwards

The fish- eating crocodile. „ nr. n , -, ,1 • n i

of 20 feet m length, is found
throughout the Indus, Ganges, Jumna, Brahmaputra,
Mahanuddi and their affluents, also in some of the interven-
ing rivers, but I have not observed it in Burma or Madras.
This species has a long and slender snout, is usually timid
of man, excepting when the locality where its eggs are
deposited in the sand is invaded. It does not appear to be
a feeder on carrion, but fish, turtles and tortoises form its
diet. In 1868 it was deemed one of the sights at Cuttack
to watch these enormous reptiles feeding below the irriga-
tion weir, which was impeding the upward ascent of breed-
ing-fish. Their long brown snouts would be seen rising to
the surface of the water, with a fish cross- wise in their jaws :
they tossed their heads, the finny prey was thus flung up
into the air, descending head foremost fell into their captors'
comparatively small mouths. One could not resist thinking
that the crocodiles were attempting to teach the Europeans
and natives a lesson, by practically demonstrating to them
the folly of permitting a wholesale waste of good
animal food to nourish the carcasses of huge useless reptiles,
and which might better be employed for the same purpose
by man. To show their fecundity, I may mention that the
overseer in charge of the Narraje weir, meeting with a
brood, destroyed G9 in three hours by shooting. At this
place I obtained a young one which had become entangled
by its teeth in a fishing net, and on enquiring of the fisher-
men whether they ever killed them, they at once protested
against such a course. Their argument was — " are not we
both of the fish-destrovinsr races, and how could we be so
cruel as to slaughter them ?" As to the destruction they
occasioned, they merely remarked that they would do the
same if they could, and I can personally testify to their
catching all they were able. However, it must not be ex-
pected that fishermen will destroy those vermin when young,
neither will they shoot them when old, as they do not employ
guns. But will the native sportsman be likely to do this ?
Certainly not, as he has no inducement to do so, and he will
never waste his ammunition on crocodiles, which would be of
no advantage to him when killed. With fisheries that are
deteriorating, the presence of these large fish- eating rej^tiles
might be dispensed with, as they are not required to keep
up the balance of Nature, neither are they useful as

( 82 )

scavengers, whilst their destruction can only be effected by
the offering of rewards for them or their eggs.

LXXXI. The common crocodiles, Crocodilus palustris,

Less., and C. porosits. Schn., are found

The common crocodile. . . . * _ T ' '

in most parts 01 India. These rep-
tiles, although usually termed man-eaters or snub-nosed
crocodiles, also assist in depopulating the waters of fish,
and it may be that it is only when unable to obtain a
sufficiency of the finny tribes, or carrion, that they attack
man and large mammals ; but having once tasted blood, they
appear to be eager to do so again. In some of the irriga-
tion canals one or more of these creatures may usually
be seen below the lochs where there are pools stocked
with fish, and when the latter fails, they turn their atten-
tion to the cattle. To show how these monsters in-
crease in suitable localities, I may mention that in
December 1868 I saw four at Cuttack below the
large weir ; six weeks subsequently they had increased to
nine, besides many little ones. As it must be admitted that
10 seers of large fish a day would be absolutely necessary
for the sustenance of each of these nine adults, which mea-
sured from about ten to sixteen feet in length, or 90 seers in
all, whilst the bazar price at this period was about four annas
a seer, we see that good wholesome food to the value of
Es. 22-3 was being daily sacrificed at this one spot. My
suggestion of a reward of Es. 5 each was disregarded, al-
though the amount would have amply sufficed. If, for
argument's sake, we consider these nine have not increased,
nor the young lived to grow up, and the daily amount con-
sumed is computed to continue the same all the year round,
what must be the result ? As it is now upwards of 3^ years
since this saving, or rather non-expenditure of lis. 45 was
decided upon, and assuming the crocodiles' appetites have
only induced them to limit their captures to fish, we might
have a loss or waste of Es. 28,732 worth of fish used for
their support. I merely give this as an illustration of which
plan is the most practical. Of course there are many dis-
turbing elements, as they occasionally vary their diet by
eating a human being, horse, or cow, wThich would reduce
the amount of fish consumed ; but the above figures are only
intended to show the waste of food computed at the bazar
rates as existing at the period I was at Cuttack. The Com-
missioner of Assam observes, — " at all events, I have little
doubt but that the number of fishes destroyed by the croco-

( 83 )

dilcs cm tlie Brahmaputra is beyond all proportion greater
than what is destroyed by man, and it would seem, there-
fore, that the first duty of a system of fish-conservancy for
that river would be the killing of the crocodiles." The Col-
lector of South Canara considers (Oct. 25th, 1872) that a
most important subject is the destruction of crocodiles and
their eggs, as well as otters. " Much of the preservation
of fishes will be in vain if their natural enemies have liberty
to feed and increase on them." Also in the North- West
Provinces (p. clxiv), that " there is no doubt crocodiles de-
stroy large quantities of fish, and might themselves be de-
stroyed with very little trouble." Their destructivencss
is also referred to at Jhansi (pp. clxvi, clxvii). Doubt-
less crocodiles have a redeeming quality, being the na-
tural scavengers of rivers (p. clxxii), but against this
may be placed the destruction of the lives of human beings
and cattle yearly caused by them. If the fisheries become
much further depopulated, from whence are these reptiles
to obtain food ? Iluman beings are no longer permitted to
immolate themselves at the side of the Ganges, nor arc
relatives allowed, as a last filial duty, to fill their expiring
parents' mouths with mud from its sacred bed, neither are
corpses interred in that holy stream, so food must be dimi-
nishing. If fish likewise become insufficient, these reptiles
will be compelled by the natural law of self-preservation to
help themselves to cattle from the neighbouring country, or else
feed on such human beings as unwarily approach too close
to the waters they reside in. And this is no fancy sketch, but
the simple fact. I will only adduce two instances. At Cullara,
five miles below Kcndraputna in the Nuna river, is a hole
to which crocodiles resort in the dry season. Of course the
fish in such pools are soon exhausted, and a short time
before I was there in 1868 these monsters had carried off five
adults. Near the Baropa weir two women and one horse
were carried off in a single month by crocodiles in the
Mundapur tank. However, taking all things into consi-
derations, rewards for the destruction of crocodiles, usually
termed man-eaters, might be fairly offered in certain
localities for them or their esrs-s. Small rewards for the
latter, it is observed (p. cli), would aid in the extermina-
tion of the reptiles, and this could be easily arranged for.
Another result would be gained by demonstrating, and
may be convincing, even those who are now averse to
believe that destroying the eggs and the young, as well as

( W ) .

killing tlic adults, may in time eventuate in a decrease of a
breed of animals, even in India.

LXXXII. Otters do an immensity of injury in some

rivers, especially in those of hillv

Otters as vermin. ,. , . < x -, " ■, ,, , ^

districts ; and when they have ex-
hausted the fish, some turn their attention to frogs. Along
the Himalayas they abound, but at Gunval are reported not
to destroy fish in the proportion man does, and offering
sufficient rewards would be very expensive (p. clviii). In
Jhansi they are included amongst the real enemies to fish
(p. clxvi), and that they destroy the large ones in the deep
pools of the rivers (p. clxvii). In Knmaon they are said to do
some little injury (p. civ), also in Malabar and elsewhere;
but until the more serious evil of standing fishing weirs and
traps are dealt with, perhaps the otters might be left alone.
An otter is not a fair eater : he prefers fish, but being an
epicure, he limits himself to their most tasty portions, of
which he takes a few mouthfuls, and, returning to the water,
repeats the operation. "Where fisheries are protected, and
not wastefully fished, these animals would certainly form
good objects for rewards : thus, amongst the excellent rules
proposed by the Dehra Doon Association, exists one of rewards
for otters. In Malabar otters form an article of food to
some of the lower castes.

LXXXIII. There are other vermin destructive to fish,
. ..,,.,,-, but for which I do not propose any

Minor vermin which kill fish. ,, lin ~> iji

rewards should be onered ; there are
birds of many sorts too numerous to mention in this place.
Likewise snakes, which luxuriate in irrigation canals, and
revel at large weirs. At the Upper Coleroon weir, as the freshes
began to subside, and only a little water was passing over the
apron, I could plainly perceive them watching to capture the
fish which were vainly endeavouring to ascend. I should
imagine that I never saw less than twenty every evening on
the down-stream face of this weir. I was present when the
water was cut off from the Eastern Jumna Canal, and num-
bers of large snakes were then to be secu. Tortoises and
turtles likewise are fish-consumers, whilst predaceous fishes
prey on their weaker neighbours, amongst which fresh-
water sharks arc frequently mentioned as at (pp. civ, clxvi).
Near Ganjam an official informed me that he went out one
night to see how murrul, Opliioceplialus striatits, Bloch.,
were captured. The native fisherman had provided himself
with a long flexible bamboo as a rod, whilst his hook was

( 83 )

baited with a live frog. Hardly had the frog splashed into
the water, when a moderately sized rnnrrul seized and
swallowed it. Desirous of observing what would next ensue,
the fish was left as a bait. Before long a large water-snake
was perceived swimming towards it, and soon had the fish in
its capacious jaws, thus the three were pulled out of the
water at once, and the snake despatched. The porpoise,
Platanista Gangetlca, is stated likewise to be very destruc-
tive to fish (p. clxxi).

Objections to Legal Action being taken.

LXXXIV. Objections have been advanced against any
General objections to action action being taken upon the present
being taken. mode of working the fresh-water

fisheries of India, and that by many officials. Some appa-
rently judge from the district they are in; others from single
localities, or the report of a subordinate, whose very observa-
tions demonstrate his ignorance. A wide and general en-
quiry appears necessary before giving any definite opinions,
and those of others who have any knowledge upon the sub-
ject deserve most careful consideration. I, therefore, propose
shortly adverting to the various reasons that have been ad-
duced by those who advocate leaving matters alone, and
such may be arranged under the following heads : — (1) Op-
posed to Divine laws. (2) General objections. (3) Legal
objections. (1) As unnecessary. (5) On zoological grounds.
(G) On political grounds. (7) For social reasons. (8) As in-
terference with old customs. (9) Interference with trade.

LXXXV. First, prohibiting unrestricted capture of fry
Divine objections to prohibit- one official considered would be in

ing the capture and sale of fry. opposition to DivillC laWS, but, aS he

does not advance such to be contrary to the "laws of Nature,"
one can only quote a recent writer's observation — " The
laws of Nature are the voice of God." In Bombay at Kaira
(p. Ivii), the common superstitious belief is that the deities of
the river have been displeased by the withholding of the offer-
ings formerly made by travellers who crossed it in carts previ-
ously to the opening of the railway. As a consequence,
Divine anger has shown itself in decreasing the fishes in the
Mhye. Hindus think it better to take the life of one large fish
than many small ones p. xiv), as observed in the Panjab.
LXXXVI. Secondly, general objections. The Offi-
Generai objections to legal dating Chief Commissioner of
action- Oiulh (p. exxix) deprecates legislative

( 86 )

interference with the capture and sale of fish, as it seems to
him such can only he justifiahle when it can he demonstrat-
ed that, unless the Legislature step in, the existence of that
important article of diet will cease altogether. A contrary
opinion to that advanced in 1868 by the Officiating Chief Com-
missioner, and it may perhaps be open to discussion whether
waiting until fish have almost been exterminated is a wise and
prudent course. In Oudh, three-fourths of the markets are
said to have a larger demand than supply, and that fry are
extensively destroyed. The Chief Commissioner of the
Central Provinces (p. cxviii) considers that, should legisla-
tion be decided upon, a very wide discretion should be
given to Local Governments in framing the rules, leaving
such to be adapted to the case of each district and river.
Whilst it has been proposed in the Panjab tbat (p. xvi) every
Deputy Collector should be left to his own devices to stop the
destruction of fish, but it is here overlooked that they might
have done this before now, but apparently have neglected
the subject ; consequently, if no rules are framed, what
grounds exist for anticipating an improved state of affairs ?
It has been observed in Bombay that a general Act would
be unworkable, therefore it would be better to have one
which could be applied, when considered necessary, to
particular rivers and localities favourable for fish-breeding
(pp. xliii, xlviii), a subject which will have to be more
fully considered. In the North-Western Provinces, that
the irritation caused would be serious (p. cxlviii), al-
though no such result has followed identical regulations in
the Panjab (p. cxlvii), whilst in the Doon, in the North-
West, the zemindars (p. cxlix) have carried out the pro-
positions to prohibit nets with meshes having less than 1^
inches between each knot, and stopped the damming and
turning of streams for fishing purposes. In Burma, the
Chief Commissioner is satisfied " that any attempt to pro-
hibit the capture of small fish would be as impolitic as it
is unnecessary." Financial reasons have also been adduced
that a loss of revenue would at first be a consequence of
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets (p. xii),
" although it is probable that it would recover itself as large
fish increased in numbers, and the fishermen become accus-
tomed to the system. " That in Bombay additional police
would be rendered necessary (pp. 1, li), also in Madras
(pp. lxxxii, lxxxvii), and Oudh (p. exxi). However, in the
Panjab it is observed that for carrying out such a scheme

( 87 )

(p. ix), no separate establishment is proposed; and in
Haidarabad (p. cxi) that no establishment would be ne-
cessary.

LXXXVII. Thirdly, legal objections. Here, however,
. . such difficulties are advanced that

they can scarcely be replied to. The
principles of English law are entirely absent from some of
the reporters' replies, and statements are advanced so utterly
incorrect, that it has appeared better to reply to them where
raised, and to give a short synopsis of what the British law
really is : only drawing attention to the fact that license
gives no right (p. lxiv), but is revocable at will. The Col-
lector of Puna remarks — no private rights really exist, but
that of prescription may be claimed (p. xlviii). Without
reference to such being invalid by the law of Great Britain,
I here give the observations of an officer in the North-
Western Provinces (p. civ) on this subject: — "The prescrip-
tive rights of the people will possibly require legislative
action, but it is quite time that the common-sense principle
was declared, once for all, that no people in the world, other
than savages, who do whatever pleases them, have a pre-
scriptive right to do anything which destroys or diminishes
a spontaneous source of food. The same principle has been
applied in the use of water and timber ; why should it not be
applied to so important an article as human food ? * * Pre-
scriptive right to do wrong things, or injudiciously exter-
minate a natural source of food-supply, has only existed
until now, because there has not been a Government strong
or civilized enough to control it. Thus ' suttee,' ' thuggee',
4 human sacrifices' were all prescriptive rights in their way,
and had, moreover, a certain amount of legal sanction, and
yet, because they involved loss of human life, they were very
rightly swept away, and so can this right of wanton de-
struction of human food be." Plights exist, according to the
Madras Revenue Board (p. xc), for people to catch fish how
they please in their own fields, a right not admitted by the
British law, but highly punishable ; even if such is legal, as
observes the Collector of South Canara, — " I cannot but think
that the time has arrived when intelligence should interfere
between ignorance and waste." Communal rights are ob-
served upon (p. lxxviii), as existing amongst village commu-
nities to fisheries within the limits of their own villages ;
whilst the Collector of Tanjur (p. lxxix) remarks that the
right to the fishery of all tanks, as well as village

( 88 )

channels in his district, belongs to the nierassklars having
been conceded to them in the orders of Government of
11th June 1857. The Commissioner of West Berar, on
the other hand (p. ex), says fishing rights do not exist,
for under a ryotwari settlement, all fisheries are com-
mon property, indeed, belong properly to Government.
Finally, a curious legal objection to a law regulating
the minimum size of the mesh of nets is propounded
(p. lxxxiii) as follows: — "I do not believe any Magis-
trate would convict except under peculiar circumstances,"
and as this opinion comes from a gentleman, who, I believe is,
invested with magisterial powers, it deserves attention, as it
will hardly be of use framing rules if convictions under such
are unobtainable.

LXXXVIII. Fourthly, that regulations are unneces-
That regulations are unneces- sary. This plea is advanced under
sary- numerous heads. Thus, as remarked

upon by the Collector of Kurnal (p. lxxxi) — " if anything could
repress their destruction to any extent, it would be the for-
bidding to catch fish with roe ; but this would be tantamount
to depriving the people of a wholesome and pleasant diet, and
interfere with the great traffic in fish-roes that now takes
place." Whilst objections exist against prohibiting the sale
of the fry of fish as they are more tasty (p. xiv), and that an
esteemed delicacy are the fry of large fish (p. lxxv) ; that
temporarily they form an important article of food for a num-
ber of the poor classes, and stopping such an enjoyment would
be a hardship. It would be cruel (p. lxxxii) to stop the catch-
ing of little fish (p. lxix). That, of course, fishermen will
protect them in leased fisheries, elsewhere their destruction
is immaterial (p. ccxxii). That regulations are unnecessary,
as the fish in districts are valueless, so it does not matter
what becomes of them (p. xlvi) ; insignificant, so do not re-
quire protecting (p. lxxiv). That the supply of fish is said
to be inexhaustible in Bellary (p. lxxix), and their capture
requires encouragement, although the tehsildars consider a
decrease already apparent, and the demand always greater
than the supply (pp. xevi). That in the Kistna in the
Kurnal Collcctorate (p. lxxxii), " let man use any appli-
ances he can think of for taking fish, he will never be able
to affect the supply in any appreciable way as regards
this district ;" whilst the Tehsildar of Ramalkota (p. xcvii)
remarks of the same river in the same place, " that it is
asserted by all the fishermen of whom I have enquired that

( 89 )

the river stock has considerably decreased of late years."
That in Rohilcund (p. cli), " the size and areas of water in
the main streams of India are so great that the amount of
fish taken out is nothing as compared with the stock remain-
ing, and they need no protection." That it is locally unne-
cessary, as in portions of Sind, due to the paucity of popula-
tion, the rapidity and dangerous character of the River
Indus, and owing to the security the immature fish obtain
during the inundation season. The same is also observed
in Burma, where it is remarked that if the people may not
kill the little fish, a large number of persons will stop fishing
(p. ccxxii). Or that any such regulation would possibly de-
prive a poor man of his dinner (p. ccxxiv). Or that it is
no use legislating for perennial pieces of water as they do
not dry up, and fish may take care of themselves ( pp. lxxxii
and xlvi); whilst it would be equally useless legislating
for those that are not perennial, because as the water
dried up the contained fish would perish (pp. xi, xviii,
xxxii, xli, lxxviii, lxxxi, lxxxv). In fact, it may be
doubtful whether it is advisable or not to pass any rules
as regards the minimum size of the mesh of the net
which may be used in waters that yearly dry up, and
after all communication has been naturally cut off from
large contiguous tanks or running streams or rivers. No
irrigated field is perennial whilst fish and their fry can-
not be prevented from extending their range into such
localities. A general destruction of fry is pointed out by
some native officials as the cause of the present deteriora-
tion of the fresh-water fisheries (pp. exxiv, exxv, clxxv) of
India. One European, however, observes upon the following
strong reason for not regulating the minimum size of the
mesh in future " that another class of poor people would
be pestered with orders and regulations, which they and
their neighbours would not understand" (p. cxix).

LXXXIX. Fifthly, zoological grounds are adduced why

zoological reasons against prohibiting the capture and sale of

action being taken. tke fry 0f large fishes could not be

enforced. The ignorance of the common policeman is ad-
verted to as unable to discriminate between fry and adult
fish (p. exxxi) ; whilst in Bengal, Madras, and Burma the
want of a work on the fishes of the Indian Empire is spoken
of. Certainly, such a law, if passed, would be exceedingly
difficult to work until a comprehensive and illustrated
treatise is in the hands of executive officers. Thus, the term

( 90 )

maliasecr includes several of the large sorts of barbel; of
which India possesses upwards of sixty species.

XC. Sixthly, on political grounds, regulations, it

Political reasons against ac- is surmised, might in the Panjab

tion being taken. (p# ix} gjve rjse t0 irritation amongst

a border population ; or in Bombay, amongst the Bhils
of Kandeish (p. xli), the forest rules having curtailed
their privilege of cutting and selling timber from the
jungles. That such might cause discontent, as regulating
the minimum size of the mesh would be unpopular
in Bombay (pp. xlvii, 1), occasion great dissatisfaction
in Madras (pp. lxxxvi, lxxxviii), or be fraught with
annoyance and vexation to the fishing classes, or unpopular
(p. lxxi) in the Central Provinces (p. cxviii). Or that
regulations might set up alarm, due to " the natural dislike
and prejudice of the rustic population against any innova-
tion whatever in their implements for carrying on their
craft (p. exxxii), and that innovations would be opposed
by prejudice (p. xli). That prohibiting catching fry would
be interfering with a "free industry" (p. lxxi), and the
prohibition of destroying fish-in-roe would interfere with the
present traffic in fish-roe (p. lxxxi), whilst stopping the
sale of the fry in the bazars would be a measure " obnoxious
to sellers and consumers, and at present seems quite uncalled
for." If fry are not permitted to be publicly disposed of, it is
suggested that they will be privately sold or kept for home
consumption (p. cxii). In the North- Western Provinces,
that " the Tharoos who live in the Turai spend much of
their time in the rains in catching small-fish (fry), and would
be very discontented if their fishing were interfered with."
So it is proposed to let them do it in any way (p. cliii).

XCI. Seventhly, regulations are disliked for social

reasons : — thus, in Bombay at Ahmed-

Social objections. -, -, . , . . ■, -t -t ,• „ ii- i

abad, it is considered better that some
fry be destroyed than that further opportunities should be
afforded to the lower grades of Government servants, and
to bigottcd Hindus, to turn the intentions of Government to
their own profit (p. xliii). In the Central Provinces (p. cxviii),
that close and constant inspection would be necessary to
keep the nets up to the standard, and the uses to which the
opportunities thus given to petty officials would be put, can
easily be imagined. In Madras at Kurnal (p. lxxxi), that the
only way in which Government could interfere would be by
means of an establishment of subordinates, who would avail

( 91 )

themselves of their authority to practise extortion and op-
press the poor, and never really repress the destruction of
fish. That the police would find in such a law the means
of extortion in Oudh (p. exxxi). That in the North- Western
Provinces, their caste is so good that they could not be
expected to interfere regarding fish, except to cause op-
pression (p. cli). In Mirzapur (p. clxiii), that to carry out
rules, the police or revenue establishments who might have
to see to it are so venal, that they would expect to obtain
fish without payment. In Azimgurh, that any establish-
ments " would be mere engines of oppression and extortion"
(p. clxv). One official (p. clxx) considers the State has novv
enough to do " in carrying through public measures that are
not supported by the opinion of the country ;" therefore, regu-
lating the fisheries should be postponed : another (p. clxx),
that it is undesirable that the public mind should be disturb-
ed " by gratuitous interference on the part of an alien ad-
ministration, enforced by not very trustworthy agency." In
short, several of the officials of this province consider the
police, and subordinate natives under their supervi-
sion and control, are so very untrustworthy that regulations
would eventuate in unlimited extortion ! That it would be
unkind to the very poor to prohibit the capture of fry, and
enjoy the fish whilst obtainable without trouble ; thus, in
Madras, in the Coimbatore Collectorate (p. lxxxvii), "the
Collectors, out of consideration for the poorer classes, have
refrained from letting out tanks and streams," doubtless com-
mendable in a philanthropic spirit, if to-day's requirements
irrespective of to-morrow's wants is the only question, but,
unfortunately, permitting unlimited license has ended in un-
limited waste. The fishermen in Madras (p. lxxviii) are
said to be an impoverished class, so they will consider that
were renting re-imposed it would be a grievance : their
position in the social scale is not high in the Central Provinces,
so it is a question whether improving the fisheries will lead
to their condition being bettered or the reverse.

XCII. Eighthly, that the fishermen ply their trade as

they always have done, consequently,

Fishermen's objections. % , ,.{-, ,-, /■ ^

as fish still remain in the waters, no
interference is desirable (p. exxx). This, however, is an
assertion much similar to those answers which the Govern-
ment received in 1868, that the supply of fish was hardly
decreasing anywhere ; in fact, that in some places it was
augmenting, — general replies, in fact, which, unfortunately,

( 92 )

more minute enquiries have shown to have heen usually de-
rived from erroneous impressions. This subject, therefore,
has been more fully dwelt upon elsewhere.

XCIII. Ninthly, that doing anything would be an
» .. ,. .. interference with trade (p. lxxxi,

Trading objections. „ . „ . , . ,, ^ , . '

&c.) or " tree industries (p. lxxij ;
and doubtless if the present wasteful mode of fishing in some
parts of India is regulated, it will be an interference perhaps
with trade, certainly with poaching. It can hardly be denied
that a certain comparison may be drawn between fish and grain
employed as food. In the North-West Provinces (p. clxxv)
the poorest classes cat small fish instead of meal or
flour of any kind. It is observed in the Panjiib that the one
is exchanged for the other (p. xxv) : thus, when grain is
cheap, it obtains double its weight : when dear, an equal pro-
portion. Also (p. xxvii) that fish are not sold, but when-
ever the zemindars feel inclined to eat it, they generally
give the fishermen some grain in repayment for catching it.
In Bombay at Kandeish (p. xiv), that in a bad season
when grain is scarce and dear, fish forms a large proportion
of the food of the Bhils. In Madras, the sub-engineer at the
Dowlaisheram weir reported : — " The fish procured at the ani-
cuts in great numbers formed a great part of the food to
many poor classes of people in the late famine years" (before
186S). In Orissa, the Commissioner observed to the Famine
Commissioners: — " While the condition of the residents of this
place, where my camp is, is somewhat easier as living by
their fisheries, they arc not so affected by present circum-
stances." Now, if fish not only can be, but is, substituted in
times of scarcity for grain as food, surely it is an important
consideration whether a judicious interference which would
augment this source of nutriment, would be a politic or an
impolitic act. I cannot think that much would be believed
of a farmer's sagacity, who, desiring fish, the cost of which
was in accordance with the weight of grain, cut green
corn in exchange : neither do I think he would be much
more foolish than the fishermen who capture the fry or
young, whose food costs nothing. The Burmese suggested
that, if wrong, Government should stop it, and how could this
class of people be expected to leave immature fish alone,
when they would be liable to be taken in the next field or
piece of water. If, then, killing the fry is folly, does such
rest wholly with the fishermen ? In an English magazine
(June 1st, 1867) occurs the following : — " Sometimes free trade

( 03 )

in pearl-fishing lias been advocated, but this would lead to
an exhaustion of the banks by reckless fishing. The har-
vest of cinchona in South America, and that of teak timber
in the Malabar forests, are known to have been injured by a
greedy eagerness to bring as much to the market as possible,
to kill the goose that lays the golden egg." It may be asked
— is the use of fry as manure ( p. cxxxvii) a free industry ?
If the man who makes two grains of wheat grow where only
one was previously raised is a benefactor to his race, in what
position are we to place that individual in India, who, aware
how fish can be substituted for grain, not only connives at
but argues that its wasteful destruction should be freely per-
mitted ? Surely waste, when it is not wilful, is as a rule
the offspring of ignorance or prejudice, much as developing
the resources of an Empire ought to be the natural conse-
quence of matured investigations and conclusions based
upon careful scientific enquiries.

XCIV. The result of fishing without regulations has
Result of fishiug without re- generally been found to be destruc-
guiatious elsewhere. tive to fresh-water fisheries, so much

so that in Great Britain and elsewhere most stringent rules
are enforced for their protection, as liberty unrestrained
eventuates in license, which last degenerates into destructive
waste. 31. Soubeiran, in an excellent paper on this subject,
remarks that, although normally the fresh-waters of the
United States contain a large number of excellent fish, they
have for many years lost their old fertility, greatly due to
the erection of weirs, mill-dams and other obstacles that have
been constructed for the purpose of facilitating navigation
or manufactures. The chief cause of depopulation he holds
to be the very common employment of fixed engines, which
but too well fulfil their purpose. The salmon have almost
disappeared, and all-destructive man, in his greed, has
succeeded but too surely in depopulating the waters. Now,
the different States have officers whose duty it is to re-stock
the rivers. In Canada, the same decrease is observed, due
to the same cause. In Nova Scotia, Mr. Knight in 1867
observed of the river fisheries, that one can without exag-
geration compare them to the mines of Golconda, so far that
man has at his disposal an inexhaustible wealth, on the
sole condition of following the laws of Nature. Instead
of this, obstructions have been erected, destructive im-
plements of capture brought into use, and the fisheries
allowed no rest. Now, depopulation of those waters has

( 94 )

begun, and the people demand conservative and not further
destructive measures. Both the public and the fishermen
complain and call for legislation for the purpose of re-
stocking the waters, which they have been at such pains to
depopulate.

Suggestions as to what Legal Action siiould be taken.

XCV. Having now brought forward the various
Reasons for legal action being reasons that have been adduced for
takcu- leaving the fresh-water fisheries alone,

and permitting the present mode of working them to con-
tinue, on the general principle enunciated by one official
(p. xlvi) that perhaps the next generation will be riper for
protective legislation, it becomes requisite to examine the
opinions of those who consider action is now necessary. The
Secretary of State observed (p. lxviii) that the conservancy
and control of the fisheries, and the measures suggested for
the improvement of pisciculture throughout India, constitute
subjects which certainly deserve attention. The Governor-
General in Council (p. lxxii) remarked, — Is the present plan
of non-interference likely to ensure to future generatioDS the
fullest possible supply of this food staple ? Is it even such as
to ensure their inheriting a supply equal to that which now
exists ? The Governor- General in Council apprehends that
both these questions must be answered in the negative : and
that not only is thero no prospect, as matters now stand, of an
increased supply hereafter, but that, owing to the absence of
precautionary measures and reasonable restrictions, the exist-
ing supply is diminishing. His Excellency in Council be-
lieves, on the other hand, that it would be possible, by the
adoption of such measures and restrictions, to increase the
supply very largely in a few years. If this is so, it would
clearly be the duty of the State to take the necessary mea-
sures. In Canara, the Acting Collector (p. lv) considers, — By
the principles of the Jus gentium, large rivers belong to all
the people of the country : in other words, are the property of
Government which represents all the people of the
country, so far as such rights are concerned. Where
the fund of wealth is unlimited, it is better to leave
the right of using it unlimited : but where this is not
the case (and it is presumed all will admit it is
not the case with river or tank fisheries), some restricting
regulations arc necessary. If the above statement be correct,
the sooner the Legislature takes the fisheries of this district

( 95 )

under its cognizance the better. As regards the present
destructive modes of fishing, he continues, if these practices
be continued, the rivers of the district will soon be swept
clear of fish ; a means of innocent sport for some, and of
sustenance for many, will be stopped, and the chance of
Government ever deriving any revenue from the fisheries,
which, if they were protected, would be quite practicable and
might be desirable, will be lost. The principle of protecting
fish during the breeding season is too well known to need
comment (p. xiv), and fish might be augmented, " adding to
the food and comfort of the poorer classes, whose interests in
this particular point have been hitherto neglected" (p. liii).
Whilst in the North-West Provinces, the Commissioner of
Meerut (p. cxlviii) considers " there is a fear that, unless the
reckless system of wholesale destruction is stopped, the fish-
supply may become scant." There are two main causes
which lead to it: the facilities afforded by irrigation
works, and the absence of any check in respect of rivers.
The opinions will be collated in much the same way as those
of the officials who hold contrary views, excepting that Divine
laws have not been commenced with, although it might be
observed that this article of food was probably intended for
our use, not abuse, whilst destructive waste can hardly be
brought forward as a Divine command.

XCVI. First, general reasons for action being taken.

In Bombay, the Officiating Revenue

General reasons for action QfllCCr Of tllC Northern Division
being recommended. ; ^

(p. xlm) observes that it is a question
whether protective laws of moderate stringency would not be
very advisable. More officials, however, hold that a general
Act would be unworkable (p. xlviii), and would rather
have one which could bo applied, when considered neces-
sary, to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish-
breeding. That if such were commenced in selected
localities, considerable light might be thrown on the question,
and the advisability of extending such operations to other
places, or not doing so, would be more clearly established
(p. xliii) . It is well observed that attempts should be made
to remedy great rather than lesser evils (p. xv) ; but what are
those greater evils ? The remedy proposed is to make it cri-
minal to use a net with a mesh below a certain size. In
Assam (p. ccxxviii), it is remarked that, if the supply of fish
is to be kept up, fishery laws are necessary. On other grounds

( 00 )

also local action is proposed ; that only perennial lakes and
second-class rivers should be subject to legal restrictions in
Oudh (p. exxx), but that large rivers should be left alone
(p. exxxii) , but protection afforded in small streams to the
spawning and young fish. In Madras, that certain rivers be
taken under Government conservancy (p. lxxii), and officials be
absolutely prohibited from interfering with minor channels, &c.
In fact, amongst those who propose that legal action should be
taken, most are in favour of an Act which might be modified
to suit different localities, the same as in Great Britain, where
certain principles are laid down which cannot be deviated
from, but minor questions, which are subject to local varia-
tions due to local causes, may be dealt with by district boards.
Some officials propose protecting the second-rate and smaller
rivers, leaving the larger ones to take care of themselves ;
others would merely protect the larger ones, but not the
smaller channels, &c.

XCVII. The regulations proposed are exceedingly
_ , ,. , varied, some beim* simplv as appli-

Itegulations proposed. , , , , .,, ,. . °. . L •' ., , \ L

cable to hilly districts, whilst others
refer to the whole country, and local modifications have
been prominently adduced as desirable for certain places.
" Fence months' " have been proposed to be generally instituted,
in order that fish might be allowed to breed in security, as in
Bombay (pp. xliv, xlvii), but it is remarked that they would
probably be evaded. A close season is likewise observed to
be desirable in Ahmednuggur (p. xlviii) and the Central
Provinces (p. xcvii). At Sambalpur, two months' cessation
from fishing is also recommended (p. exxii), provided it could
be enforced, whilst at Seoni it is proposed that such should
be from July to September inclusive (p. cxx). At Batna-
ghiri, a close season of two months in the hilly districts is
advised (p. liv); it is also proposed in Mysore (pp. civ, cv),
in Haidarabad, at Buldana (p. cxi), and Akola (p. cxi),
although in this last locality this is said to be the best fishing
season in the district. In the Central Provinces, at Sagar
and Jabalpur (p. cxx) , a close season for the first two months
of the monsoon, whilst in Berar, July and August are recom-
mended as most suitable for this purpose. Again, close
seasons have been proposed as locally desirable ; thus, in the
irrigation canals when the young of marine species, as the
shad, are escaping down to the sea, it is thought that they had
better have a free highway, so it is suggested that October to

( 97 )

February are suitable (pp. lxxix, lxxiv) for then the
floods have subsided, and the bulk of the fish are
caught on their return to the sea : this period, however, is
considered as too long by the Madras Revenue Board.
Again, it has been suggested that in localities where the
water becomes very low in the rivers during the dry season,
certain pools should be protected, as the whole of the fish
can be swept out of them with the greatest ease. This is
especially recommended in hilly districts in the dry (not
cold) months of the year in the Himalayas (pp. vii, xiv, xvi) :
also in Trichinopoly and Tinnivelli, in pools of rivers below
irrigation weirs whenever a good stream does not exist
(pp. lxxx, lxxxv) : and in South Canara (p. xci). The
measures stated to be necessary in the Kangra District of
the Himalayas are, amongst others, " partially a system of
Government preserves, such as was always in force in the
time of the Rajas" (p. xvi). In some places, as the
Himalayas, it has been proposed that the young of
certain fish should be locally protected : also in Bombay
(p. lii) and in Madras (pp. lxxii, xcii), but, as has been ob-
served,— who is to decide what are the young ?

XCVIII. Omitting weirs, fixed engines and bunding

on the necessity of reguiat- which have been separately dealt with,
ing the minimum size of the the next most prominent question is
meshofnets- the necessity of regulating the mini-

mum size of the mesh of the nets, on which subject very con-
tradictory opinions have been advanced. Commencing with
the Panjab, in parts of which such have been tried, twenty-
one answers from European officials have been received :
seventeen (pp. x, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xvii) consider that no
objections exist, although one believes such to be unnecessary
(p. x), and another (p. xvii) that it is unadvisable. Out of
the four that object, one does so on account of a contiguous
and evidently unruly border population (p. ix) : a second,
due to the want of a legal enactment, coupled with a direct
loss of revenue which might accrue (p. xi) : a third, that
supervision would be impossible in the hills (p. xiv) : and
a fourth, that if the people might not eat the fry, what were
they to obtain at that season ? (p. xiv). In the Central Pro-
vinces it is observed that regulations must be legalised in
order to be carried out (p. 1.)

XCIX. Of those who have proposed that a minimum

Minimum mesh of net pro- size should be fixed by law, or
i)06ed- that if such were so decided upon,

( 98 )

what would be most desirable, the following answers have
been received : —

1

0

d

Size proposed

13
as

£

53 .

between knot
and knot of

,13

>>

iZ

,0
03
J-

C2

■ >

as

03

mesbes.

NC3

PL,

S
0

PQ

0
□a

T3

W

1* O

-^ s

O

.a

s

0

to
a
to

pa

u
a
PO

2 inches

3

1 1

-13 >>

...

...

...

1

...

...

...

...

j 2 »

3

...

...

...

"i

...

4

...

l-i-

X4 ,,

4

1

. .

1

. . .

3

...

...

1

3

3

1

1

4

5

3

1

. . .

4

4 »

...

1

...

• ••

1

...

...

3

•4 !>

1

...

...

3

2

...

...

1

i

2 J>

1

6

3

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2

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■ > *

. ■ .

. . .

• • •

. • •

. • •

.1

4 J> ••■

1

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1

8 5>

2 grains of barley

...

. . .

...

...

...

i

...

. . .

One official (p. xv) observes that only large meshed
nets ought to be permitted in the hills during the breeding
season. Village officers, it is suggested (p. lxxviii), should
be made responsible for the size of the meshes employed, or,
if regulations are merely to affect leased fisheries, the size
might be inserted in the contract (p. lxxix).

C. As to whether any difficulties exist as to prohi-
Probibiting the sale of fry biting the sale of the fry of fish
in bazars. in the bazars. Eighteen answers

from Panjab officials have been received. Seventeen see no
difficulties (pp. viii, ix, xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvii), but one
considers that persons might be permitted to sell small fish
between April 15th and May 15th, also during the month of
September (p. xiii). A second that, although such might be
stopped within municipal limits, elsewhere a legal enactment
would be necessary (p. xvii). One gentleman (p. xviii)
considers such an interference with fishermen whose tempers
might be irritated so much that they might relinquish their
trade, and consequently the little fish would escape. In the
Bombay Presidency, out of eight answers, six see no difficulty ;
one would rely upon regulating the size of the mesh of nets,
and one denounces such an idea as an arbitrary interference
with trade ! In Madras, such an order would cause conster-
nation in the Vizagapatam Collectorate, whilst at Nag-
pur, in the Central Provinces, the tehsildars are all unani-
mous in reporting that the sale of the fry of fish in the

( 99 )

bazars might be prohibited without causing any injury,
and the prohibition would have the effect of causing larger
fish to be brought to market. In Mysor, it is sug-
gested (p. civ) that if they might not be disposed of,
the people who caught them would eat them at home. In
the Nerbada Division two Collectors give their opinions :
the first considers such a rule (p. cxxi) would be a
beneficial one ; the second, that it would reduce the sales
by one-half, apparently overlooking the fact that if half
the amount of fish sold are merely fry, what a waste-
ful destruction must be taking place ; for, as observed in
South Canara of fishes of tliis size captured for eating, — " I
saw oue day some thousands as fine as a straw within the
compass of one earthen pot : they were to form the meal for
one labouring man, whereas they might have sufficed to
stock a lake or feed a town" (p. lxxxviii). Objections have
been raised to prohibiting the use of a mesh under a certain
size : one reason brought forward being, that some
species of Indian fish are always of a small size, and
you would thus prohibit their capture, to the great
loss of this sort of food to the people of the country.
Exclusive of the natural answer — that these are the young or
the food of the larger sorts, so should be preserved — other
propositions have been advanced. Thus chilwas and moree
nets (p. 1L), it has been suggested, should not be regulated,
or all these fish will escape. The Chief Commissioner
of the Panjab observed — chilwa nets were not approved of,
as such might be employed to take the young of larger fish
(p. ii). Chilwas are said to be taken in Peshawur (p. ix). The
Deputy Commissioner of Labor (p. xi) observes that this
fishing is carried on during July and August, the exact
period when young fish are moving about, and it would be
an extraordinary coincidence did these fish appear suddenly
at this period, and were absent during the remainder of the
year; the fact being that the vast majority of chilwas are in
reality the fry of larger species of fish. The Extra Assistant
Commissioner of Phillur sui^ests that chilwa fishing mi^ht
be permitted in the early spring when fry are not moving
about (p. xv) ; or in Kangra that taking chilwas might be
allowed in those streams to which larger sjDecies of fish
never resort (p. xvi). It has also been proposed that only
during certain fixed periods may small fish be disposed of,
whilst in Kangra (p. xvi), licensed fish-stalls, under a Govern-
ment official, have been advocated. In short, that even were

( 100 )

the proposition admitted, that small fish ought to be allowed
to be taken, why not permit such during the first four or
five months of the year during the time when the vast
majority of the fry of the more valuable sorts are not moving
about ? The destruction of the fry of fish, as already observed,
some native officials appear to deem the root of the present
evil (pp. exxiv, exxv), if a decrease of fish is one, as seems
to be doubted by some reporters (p. xlvi) ; one native official
volunteers the opinion in Madras (p. xcvii) that " nets
and traps ought to have holes large enough for a 2-anna
piece to go through" (yVths of an inch in diameter). In the
Panjab (p. xi), " Mian Mahbub Dhony, Magistrate, who is a
great sportsman, thinks the mesh should not be less than
nine inches all round."

CI. It has also been proposed that the use of nets
„ ^ , within a certain distance of weirs,

further proposals. n . , . ,

&c, spanning rivers and streams be
prohibited. That measures be taken to prevent indiscri-
minate destruction of fish in irrigation canals as will be
alluded to further on. That the use of loaded hooks be ille-
gal, also the poisoning of waters (pp. lxxii, lxxiv, lxxv, lxxx,
lxxxvi, cxvii, exx), drainage of tanks (pp. lxxiv, lxxv); that
the amount of captures be restricted (p. xvi), as well as the
number of days in which fishing is permitted (p. xvi). That
monopolists be allowed to rent fisheries and the sale of fish
in districts (p. xvi), whilst the rulers of foreign States,
whose territories are contiguous to those of the British, and
through which the same rivers run, be requested to join in
any plan adopted by the Legislature (p. xiv). That money
obtained from fisheries, by leasing out those now permit-
ted to run to waste and ruin, be applied for the protection and
•extension of their importance and usefulness (pp. lii, lxxii),
and the destruction of vermin, &c. Thus, as observed by the
Madras Revenue Board, that " with care a large prospective
income may be relied on from this source," and to obtain such,
care will be necessary, and waste must be stopped. Whilst as
" in several districts the whole subject is inadequately attended
to," anew regime must commence, not by introducing foreign
fish and killing their fry as well as the old as soon as intro-
duced, not by persecuting to destruction the indigenous races ;
not by artificially breeding fry to be indiscriminately destroyed
as soon as turned into the water, refusing to kill vermin, and
considering the poacher's interest as vested rights, but by
applying the English law in a modified form to Indian

( 101 )

waters, and considering the good of the fish consuming
millions as superior to that of the wasteful few.

Fishery Laws of Great Britain.

CII. In several of the following reports, such

exceedingly incorrect assertions have
Fishery Laws of Great Deen advanced respecting the Fishery

Laics of Great Britain that I consider it
advisable to give a few remarks on what really exists, unless
lately altered, and that with but few comments on my part.
Salmon and trout are not found in the fresh- waters of India,
their place being supplied by carps and perhaps herrings.
The reason why most of the laws in Great Britain appear to
allude to salmon, appears to be as stated in the law of Scot-
land that "salmon fishing is a paramount right to which
other fresh- water fishing must yield." Here, there being no
salmon, protective laws should embrace all fresh-water
fish. Whilst the fresh-water fisheries may be considered
briefly as such which exist in fresh-waters which are not
within tidal influence. There are four descriptions of
fishery. A common fishery is that kind of right which all
the public have alike to fish in the sea or a navigable
river. A several fishery is the right of an individual to
fish exclusively in a particular water, and it is not
necessarily united with the right to the soil, though origin-
ally all owners of the bed of a river or water must have
had a several fishery in such water as a constituent part of
the right of property until they parted with it to another.
A free fishery is the right of fishing along with other
individuals in a water. A common of fishery is the right of
a person to fish in waters of which the soil belongs to a
different person.

GUI. " The next question is — Who is the person who
„. . . „ „ , . has the legal right of fishing for

Right of fishing-. r« T J • j.1 i -i j

trout Lm India the word would
be * fish,' not ' trout,' for the reasons specified in the last
paragraph] generally, i. e., with nets and other compe-
tent means ? The answer is, that all riparian owners
have this right as an incident of ownership. Where
the owner has, however, let the land to a tenant, the
question may arise, whether the owner or the tenant
is to enjoy the trout-fishing. If the lease expressly
let the fishing to the tenant, there is an end of the question ;
but the difficulty arises whether, when the lease is silent,

( 102 )

the right of fishing is in the tenant also." This point was
decided (Duke of Bichmnod v. Dempster, 14th January
1860, Just. c. 33, sc. Jur. 133^ The Court of Justiciary,
consisting of five Judges, per Tnglis, C. J., came to the
following conclusion: — "We are of opinion that an agri-
cultural tenant has not, as such, any right to fish in a stream
running by or through his farm, "with any net of any kind
or description" (Pater son) — a decision said to be open to
question.

CIV. "The nature of a right of fishery proper is an

incorporal hereditament, and as such

Nature of right of fishing. f , , , , , .

can be conveyed only by deed. A
license of fishing is distinct from the right of fishery, and
is at most only a justification for what would otherwise be
a trespass. A license is revocable at will, and in order to
be binding, even for an hour, must be granted by deed"
(Paterson, p. &7J. A " fishery may be let by verbal agree-
ment ; and even where no rent has been agreed upon, the
landlord is entitled to sue the tenant for a reasonable rent
under an indebitatus count for use and occupation" (p. 67.)
" The purchasers of a fishery in the River Galway and Lough
Corrib petitioned the Court of Chancery to be quieted in
the possession and enjoyment of their several fishery. The
defendants were represented by ten persons, who were paupers,
who set up as a defence that the river was, except in a cer-
tain specified portion, open to the public, and had been so
from time immemorial. Evidence was given on both sides,
and the plaintiffs, who produced grants from the Crown,
and evidence of user, contended that the evidence of user
on the part of the defendants was evidence merely of a
succession of trespasses. There had been a trial of an issue
some years previously which settled the right to the fishery
in the plaintiffs. The M. 11. accordingly, without put-
ting the plaintiffs to any further trial, granted the decree
declaring the petitioners' rights and continuing the injunc-
tion (p. 117-8).

CV. " Property is essentially an exclusive thing, and

the incident of fishing is also so.
ig i o proper y 1 ^^ other persons, therefore, except

the owner of the soil beneath, or the riparian owner, have
no more right to fish in his water, than they have a right to
seize any other perquisite of the soil. Whether a stranger
fishes with a net or a rod can make no difference in point of
law ; it is the taking of the fish, not the manner of taking

( 103 )

it, that is important" (p. 120). " Sometimes an owner
is careless of his rights, and tolerates strangers, wlio,
knowing this lenience, invade his fields to angle or fish
with nets, especially to angle. This, however, is a gratuitous
concession on his part, and he can at any moment, without
notice, resume his rights, and treat all such intruders as
trespassers. Whether the land on which the trespasser goes
is waste or cultivated, fenced or unfenced, it is equally
a trespass for him to go there without the owner's permis-
sion. This has always been the law, and is still the law, as
regards all rivers and streams whatever" (p. 120). "Some-
times the inhabitants of a village or town set up a claim
to angle in a part of a river or water on the ground of
of ancient custom. * * * In such cases the acts of such
anglers are more likely to be referable to the license of the
owner, who, if he pleases, may allow all the public, or a
portion of the public, to angle there. But no length of time,
during which such acts are capable of being explained on
the ground of license, can prevent the owner putting an end
to such license. He may resume his original rights at any
moment, and withdraw the license, for no man ought to have
his rights abridged, by acting liberally towards the public
or his neighbours." " It may happen that after a number
of years' use by the public promiscuously of the angling
in a particular water or river, the public may begin to claim
as a right what at first was merely a license, and litigation
may arise as to whether the public have acquired the right
or not. There seems, however, no trace of any such right
beinsc established in this way."

CVI. " The chief substantial interference with a

common fishery is where a weir or
Fishing weirs only legal in simiiar contrivance exists. As already

England, provided they were . ^ ~ «7

so prior to Magna Charta. De- Stated, SUCll Wdl'S VLYQ, prima jade, a

clared a nuisance and regulations miisance ancl illegal" (]). 103).

aflecting those which are legal. O VI u"/'

" Lord Ellen borough, U.J., said: — the
erection of weirs across rivers was reprobated in the earliest
periods of our law, and they were considered as public nui-
sances. Magna Charta ancl subsequent Acts so treated them,
and forbad the erection of new ones, and the enhancing,
straitening, or enlargening of those which had aforetime exist-
ed" (p. 39). " No fishing mill-dam or fishing weir is legal,
except it be ancient, and even ancient fishing weirs must
have a free gap, and ancient fishing mill-dams must have
a proper fish-pass, and no fishing is allowed at the head or tail

( 104 )

of a mill, or within fifty yards below a dam, unless these have
a fish-pass. As already stated, no weir or dam for fishing is
legal unless its origin can be presumed to be older than
Magna Charta" (p. 147). "A fishing weir is defined by the
Act (section 4) a dam used for the exclusive purpose of
catching, or facilitating the catching of fish. In all fishing
weirs that are legal (i. e., w^hich have had a legal origin
before Magna Charta), and which at lowest water extend
more than half-way across the stream, a free gap must be
made of a size and form and situation prescribed by
the statute, which can only be departed from by authority
of the Home Office. The owners of such a weir were
bound, within twelve months after 1st October 1861, to
make sucb a gap under a penalty of £5 per day. The gap
must also be maintained under a penalty of £1 per day ; and
any alteration or obstruction, or contrivance to deter the fish
from entering the gap, is punishable by a penalty of £5 and
upwards. The boxes and cribs used in fishing weirs or fish-
ing mill-dams (i. e., dams used partly for fishing and partly
for milling purposes) must be of a certain situation, and the
bars or inscales of the heck or up-stream side shall not be
nearer each other than two inches, under a penalty of £5
per day, and the same must be maintained under a penalty
of £1 a day. Spur-walls, &c., more than 20 feet from the
upper or lower side of the box or crib are always prohibited,
under a penalty of £1 per day" (p. 159). "In all dams
made in salmon waters after 1861, or raised or altered after that
date, which obstruct salmon, a fish-pass of a form approved
of by the Home Office must be made at the expense
of the person making or altering the dam" (p. 158).
In Scotland, respecting fixed engines, it is stated — "indeed
the general rule has been repeatedly laid down that fishing
by means of any fixed machinery, or apparatus whatever,
or in any way except by net and coble, is illegal " (p. 179).
CVII. " It is an offence to use fixed engines of any de-
Fixed engines irrespective of scription in any waters for the purpose
fishing weirs or fishing mill- of catching salmon. The engine is

dams : regulations in England. forfeited as weU as tlie Salmon CaUgllt,

and a penalty of £10 a day is incurred besides. This section
has nothing to do with fishing weirs and fishing mill-dams,
which are dealt with in section 12. All possible waters which
salmon frequent are comprehended in the phrase, inland or
tidal waters. Fixed engines by the interpretation clause,
section 4, include stake-nets, bag-nets, putts, putchers, and

( 105 )

all fixed implements or engines for catching or facilitating
the catching of fish. Where there is no several fishery, but
the public generally are entitled to fish, they are prohibited
by this section from using fixed engines, whether they have
been accustomed to do so from time immemorial or not"
(p. 146). "That both weirs and fixed nets and all other
apparatus which prevent fish passing to and fro are illegal at
common law, and form a good ground of action, seems to follow
on principle. A fishery is merely one of the natural uses
of the water to which all riparian owners are entitled" (p. 42).
" Hence even independently of any statute, any fixed appara-
tus in a river or stream, which prevents the fish going up
to the other riparian owners, is a good cause of action at
common law, as it deprives him of one of the natural ripa-
rian rights" (p. 43).

CVIII. "No person, whether the owner of a fishery or
size of mesh of nets in Eng- a poacher, is entitled to fish salmon
land- with a net less than two inches from

knot to knot, otherwise he forfeits the nets, and incurs a
penalty of £5. The offence consists either in taking or
attempting to take salmon with illegal nets. The nets and
tackle become forfeited, provided a conviction takes place"
(p. 145).

CIX. " Another illegal obstruction to fisheries was
. „ ,. , the practice of attaching nets to the

Laws for the preservation of .x . 1 ■» 1 -i i

the fry in England, and prohi- posts on river banks, by day and

sLtructcdieh passage beiug °b" niS}lt' across rivers, which destroyed

the brood and fry of fish" (p. 41).
" It is an offence to take, destroy, buy, sell or possess,
obstruct or injure the young of salmon, or disturb a spawning
bed. There is no definite age implied in the expression
1 young of the salmon,' which is defined in section 4"
(p. 150). "The third offence — ' placing a device obstructing
the passage' — is difficult of interpretation. It must mean a
substantial obstruction, but the device need not extend to the
whole width of the stream, nor is there any restriction as to
where the device is to be put. The object in view was pro-
bably to render illegal all gratings put across the tributary
streams of salmon rivers which would have the effect of ob-
structing the young salmon from going upwards. In order
to convict of the third offence, it is not necessary to prove the
actual obstruction, if in the ordinary course of things the de-
vice is calculated so to obstruct young of salmon coming there"
(p. 150). Penalties for taking young salmon, or having them

( 10G )

in possession, — to forfeit all the young of salmon found in his
possession ; all rods, lines, nets, devices and instruments used
in committing any of the above offences : and shall for each
offence pay a penalty not exceeding £5.

CX. " No person, whether the owner of a salmon
_„ .„ , , „„,. fishery or a trespasser, is permitted

Other illegal mode of fashing. jni'jiTij no i i

to fish with lights, spears, gaits, stroke-
halls, snatches, or the like instruments, or even to have such
things in his possession with the intent to catch salmon"
(p. 143).

CXI. " The section prima facie subjects to a penalty
_ . . all who knowingly put poisonous

Poisoning waters. .. . . j_ j • • i

matter into waters containing salmon
or any tributaries thereof. Therefore, the waters include
the sea, mouths of rivers, and even tributaries where
no salmon may usually be found. The test of poison-
ing is one of quantity, and of course the quantity of matter
must be greater to poison fish in a large river than in a small
stream. But it is not necessary that the fish be actually
killed, if the quantity was reasonably calculated to kill fish
which at the time might be there" (p. 136). " If any fish
are killed, whether salmon or not, this is conclusive evidence
of the killing power of the quantity put into the stream"
(p. 137). "The tributary need not contain salmon in order
to be protected" (p. 137). " The common law gives no right
to any person to pour offensive matter into streams so as to
prejudice the rights of those living nearer the sea" (p. 138).
Penalty — first conviction, not above £5 ; second, not exceed-
ing £10, and £2 for every day during which such offence is
continued ; on third or subsequent conviction, £20 per day
during which such offence is continued, commencing from
the date of the third conviction.

CXII. " It is a criminal offence for any fisher, whether
„ , the owner of a fishery or a poacher,

Fish -roe. , n -, n n , • ji

to use fish-roe lor fishing, or to buy
or to sell or have salmon roe in one's possession." " Scientific
and other legitimate purposes are expressly excepted." "If a
person were to buy some salmon roe, offer to sell some to A,
then sell some to B, and keep the rest, it seems he may be
guilty of four offences in one day" (p. 145).

CXIII. " During the open or fishing season, a space of
„ „ , , nearly two clays is given, i. e., from

Weekly close time in England. _ _ " nj.ii/i

12 noon on Saturday to 6 a. m. on
Monday, for fish to have a free run. Hence no fishermen are

( 107 )

allowed to fish, for or catch fish during this weekly close time,
by any means whatever, except rod and line. The penalty is
a forfeiture of the net or moveable instrument used, and a
penalty of £5 and £1 per fish taken" (p. 156). " The
owners of putts or putchers are not obliged to draw them up
during weekly close time, but they must let down a net
or other device, so as to put them out of gear during those
hours, and the owners of all fisheries where fixed engines are
lawfully used shall leave all their cribs, boxes or cruives
open during the weekly close time" under the above penal-
ties.

CXIV. " The close time for salmon fishing is fixed by

the statute, and it is illegal to fish sal-
t^LJ^JL^"^- ™» between the 1st day of September

and the 1st of Februarv following,
inclusive, or for anglers to fish between 2nd of November
and 1st of February following, both inclusive. The fish are
forfeited, and the penalty increases with the number of fish
caught." " All proprietors of fixed engines must remove their
apparatus of boxes, cribs, &c, within 36 hours after the com-
mencement of the close season, i.e., of 1st September, so as
to allow the fish free course, otherwise the engines are forfeit-
ed, and £10 per day is the penalty" (p. 155J.

CXV. "No person, whether the owner of a fishery or
m , . . or not, is allowed to take, buy or

Taking unclean fish. ,, , -i i

sell or possess unclean or unseasonable
salmon, excepting accidents and scientific purposes." " ' To
take' does not imply manual possession of, or dominion over,
the fish. The buying seems to be one offence, selling another,
&c, even though in reference to one and the same individual
fish, and the penalty attaches on each fish bought, &c. ; thus
cumulative offences may attach to one fish" (p. M9j; penalty
for each offence, £5.

CXV I. " The wilful disturbance or catching of salmon

when spawning or near their spawn-

Spawmng salmon. . i i • • i l l 'j.i nl n

mg beds is punishable with a fine of
£ 5 ; but catching salmon for scientific purposes is excepted"
(p. 151).

CXVII. Prom the foregoing extracts it will be seen
_,.. ,, .. . "that the fishing that a subject hath

Fishmg amenable to the laws. . , . H . V , . .

in tins or any private or public river
or creek, fresh or salt, is subject to the laws for the conserva-
tion of fish and fry, which are many" (Kale). Patterson
observes respecting the fishery law — " the chief object of the

( 108 )

statute is to prevent owners of fisheries from doing what
they like with their own, that is, it prevents them from kill-
ing salmon at certain times and by certain kinds of means, in
order to secure fair play to the fish and to the adjoining own-
ers, and with a view to the public interest. It may be safely
assumed that the law, as previously stated, applies equally
to salmon as to other fish, except so far as varied by what
follows in this statute" (p. 136).

CXVIII. " For the better protection of the proprietors
_, . „ _ of salmon fisheries, it is provided that

Uoards 01 Conservators. . , T . . . f _

the Justices in general or Quarter
Sessions, may appoint conservators or overseers for the pre-
servation of salmon and enforcing the provisions of the law
within the jurisdiction of such Justices — 24 & 25 Vic, c. 109,
s. 33. They may apply to the Home Secretary and have
a fishery district formed, and the committee is to elect the
chairman and they appoint a Board of Conservators." Con-
servators, appointed under " The Salmon Fishery Act, 1865,"
have power within their district to appoint a sufficient
number of water bailiffs ; * * to issue licenses for fishing
as provided in the schedule ; * * for removing such weirs
or other fixed engines as are illegal ; and generally to do
such acts as they may deem expedient for the improve-
ment of the salmon fisheries (" Baker, p. 44s.") In any
fishery district, subject to the control of conservators, licen-
ses are to be granted at fixed prices to all persons using rod
and line for fishing for salmon, and in respect of all fishing
weirs, fishing mill dams, putts, putchers, nets or other in-
struments or devices, except rods and lines, whereby salmon
are caught : and the produce of such licenses is to be applied
in defraying the expenses of carrying into effect in such
districts " The Salmon Fishery Acts, 1861 and 1865" (28 &
29 Vic, c 121, s. 33).

CXIX. From the foregoing it will be seen that in Eng-
land fishing weirs are considered a

Weirs and fish -passes. . ° -, •o^^ 1

nuisance, and, even if legal, must
have a fish-pass in them or free gap : that other fixed engines
are illegal : that the size of the mesh of nets and interstices
between substances forming weirs is laid down : fry are
protected, the very possession of them being a punishable
offence : unfair modes of fishing are prohibited as well as
poisoning of waters : a weekly close time is insisted upon to
allow a free passage for the fish, whilst, during certain months
of the year, all fishing with nets or at weirs is illegal, and

even the disturbing of spawning fish, or the possession of
unseasonable ones. To carry this out, District Boards of
Conservators are appointed, who levy a license tax on every
one who fishes for salmon, whether with a rod and line, net,
weir, or any other appliance whatever.

CXX. Having now enumerated the various opinions

Respecting any remedies that of those wllO hold that the present

may have been tried. mode of working the fresh- water

fisheries of India is causing their deterioration, and of others
who deny such, it appears desirable, prior to summing up
the lessons which these reports seem to convey, to ask these
questions : — Have any remedies been attempted by those who
advocate them ? If so, what has been the result of such
attempts ? Even did no wasteful destruction now take place,
could it be clearly demonstrated that a great augmentation
of animal food must be ensured by moderately and well-
considered restrictive measures, the strongest advocates for
the prescriptive right of the people to ruin fisheries, and
thus diminish their neighbours' food, and the philanthropists
who denounce fishery laws as engines of oppression and
instruments of cruelty, surely must pause, and accord this
enquiry that attentive consideration it so well deserves, but
unfortunately does not always appear to obtain. It is not a
subject in which assertions should convince, or statements
unbacked by facts be allowed much weight. It is not merely
in one quarter of the globe that the ruinous mode in which
fresh-water fisheries have been worked, has escaped the
observations of legislatures and even of their owners : in
short, it is only of late years that mankind has commenced
being aware that his mode of treating these fisheries may
be, and probably is, based upon error. The license accorded
by " man" is not invariably in accordance with the laws
ordained by " nature ;" and we have now to enquire whether
any conservative measures have been attempted, and, if so,
with what result.

CXXI. The measures for the protection of the fresh-
Restrictive regulations have water fisheries of the Indian Empire

had a beneficial result locally may be divided into two. First, tllOSe

111 Iudia* which are natural ones, as described

in Sind (pp. xxix — xxxii), and, consequently, do not call for
further remarks. Secondly, those carried out by human
agency. Fortunately, we are able to examine the reports
from officials who have attempted such in two widely
separated localities, — the one in South Canara in Madras,
the other in the Doon in the North- Western Provinces.

( no )

Consequently two attempts have been made ; if no destructive
waste was occurring; prior to these experiments, no aug-
mentation of the fish in the fisheries would be apparent :
if moderate restrictions had extensively beneficial results,
such might lead to the enquiry whether it would not
be possible to extend such elsewhere, and give to others
benefits now confined to small localities, and due to
the individual exertions of single officials. In South
Canara, Mr. R. S. Thomas observes, that (p. lxxxix) it may
be doubted whether poisoning rivers, or the wholesale destruc-
tion of fry, is most injurious to fisheries ; whilst prohibiting the
former, and also the closely woven bamboo cruives " has been
that the most ignorant, and, therefore, the most obstinate
opponents have been convinced by the testimony of their
own senses, and have exclaimed to use their own words, ' truly
the river is everywhere bubbling with fry ; ' and what is still
more to the point, their practice has not belied their words,
for they have taken to fishing on grounds that were before
considered profitless. * * * Two years' discouragement of
poisoning, and one year's discouragement of fine cruives, has
worked such a change, that it has been demonstrated,
beyond the cavil, even of the ignorant and of the most inter-
estedly opposing, that marked advantages can be reaped from
the adoption of these two simple measures alone.'' This is
also interesting, because the Madras Revenue Board especially
selected South Canara (p. lxxi) as one of the two Collectorates,
wherein they urged Government to do nothing. In the
Doon, Mr. Ross, with the consent of the landowners, has
limited the size of the mesh of the nets employed to not
less than 1^ inches between each knot, and also prohibited
the damming and turning of hill streams for the purpose of
capturing fish. I went to the Song River in 1871, and was
astonished at the amount of fry in it, reporting that " I never
saw so many yearlings in the plains of India in such a
small volume of running water." When I wrote this, I was
in entire ignorance that any conservative measures were
being carried out (p. cl). The foregoing showing that
restrictive regulations tend largely to an increase in the fish
supply, and are again arguments that some are generally
necessary, if this description of animal food is deemed worth
increasing, and its still further diminution undesirable.

CXXII. What are the results of this enquiry ? Here I

propose briefly bringing together what

Eesults of this enquiry. r r, . ^ » & => , ,

conclusions appear to me to be shown
by personal investigations, or from the answers received from

( 111 )

the European and Native officials of the British Empire in
India and Burma3 several of whom have evidently taken
considerable pains in obtaining the desired information.
It appears that — (1) all the people of Sind, Assam and Burma,
and the majority of those residing in other parts, are not
precluded by their religion from eating fish (para. LIII) ; (2)
that from the returns received (excepting Sind) more than
half the markets are insufficiently supplied with fresh fish
when away from the sea (para. LIV) ; (3) that breeding-
fish and their fry are indiscriminately destroyed throughout
the British possessions (para. LVI) ; (4t) that the supply of
fish in the waters (excepting Sind) is generally decreasing
(para. LVII) ; (5) that the fisheries are mostly Govern-
ment property (para. 'LVII I) ; (6) that non-regulating the
fisheries under British rule has had a disastrous effect (para.
LIX) ; (7) that the natives let out tracts of the country to
contractors, who alone might dispose of fish, and certain
conservative measures were likewise in existence (para. LX) ;

(8) that the contractors under British rule have in many
places been abolished, every one being permitted to pro-
miscuously fish as he pleases, great innovations have crept
in, and fixed engines are now universally employed, whereas
they w7ere not previously generally permitted (para. LXI) ;

(9) that the fishermen, as a rule, unless in the vicinity of
tidal rivers, are only thus engaged in addition to their other
occupations, so are not dependant for their living on fishing
(para. LXII) ; (10) that regular fishermen in places have
been compelled to give up this trade, and turn to other
means of gaining a livelihood (para. LXII) ; (11) that fish-
ing weirs and fixed engines obstructing waterways, the
high roads of fish, are everywhere employed, from entirely
spanning rivers to every outlet in each irrigated field from
whence water is flowing, whilst the mesh employed is so
minute that the smallest fry cannot escape (paras. LXV,
LXVI, LXVII) ; (12) that fishing nets with meshes of the
most minute size arc used for the purpose of letting nothing
escape, and this in every district where the water will permit of
it (paras. LXIX, LXX) ; (13) that, as a rule, more than half
the minimun sized mesh of the nets is less than one-fourth of an
inch between each knot, but even coarse cloths are employed
to capture fry with (para. LXXI) ; (14) that rivers and
streams are dammed and the water laded out for fishing pur-
poses (para. LXXV) ; (15) that waters are poisoned almost
everywhere to obtain the fish (para. LXX VI) ; (16) that

( 112 )

the minor modes of fishing are most numerous (para.
LXXVIII), destructive and wasteful ; (17) that fish are in
some places only killed to be thrown away, or carted off as
manure, and that in localities where the supply does not
equal the bazar demands (paras. LXXVI, LXXVII) ; (18)
that irrigation weirs are largely destructive by impeding the
ascent of fish to the waters where they breed, or the downward
passage of those attempting to descend (paras. XII — XV) ;
(19) that irrigation canals are exceedingly injurious, if
they have vertical falls in them, up which fish are unable
to ascend, for, as the old ones descend down stream to feeding
grounds, they find a stone wall in their way, but a fine stream
of water not so obstructed which leads them into one of these
canals and once over a fall, they cannot re-ascend, but are
destroyed there every time the water is cut off; (20) that the
same destructive plan exists in nearly every irrigated field in
India; (21) that there are certain vermin very inimical to
fish, as crocodiles and otters, whose destruction would be most
advantageous ; (22) that in Great Britain and other civilized
countries, the poaching of fish is forbidden (paras. XCVII,
CXIX) ; (23) that where local restrictions on poaching fish
have been tried in India, the result has been most beneficial
(paras. CXX, CXXI).

Proposition as to what Action is Necessary.

CXXI III. The result of this enquiry has, unfortu-
Proposition that legal action nately, given but too good reasons
is now required. for believing that fish are wastefully

destroyed as breeding ones or their fry, and the fisheries are
almost everywhere deteriorating. The causes which have
apparently led to this have been traced as closely as
materials have permitted, and the remedies suggested have
been as fully recorded. I now propose offering my single
opinion on these points, premising that destructive waste
seems to be proved, and a supply insufficient for the wants
of the people to be brought for sale to the bazars. Respect-
ing the carrying out of remedial measures, much will depend
upon the cordial co-operation and tact of local officers : sud-
den and too stringent regulations would appear to be injudi-
cious, as the folly of years cannot be entirely grappled with
at once. In fact, in places it may be desirable at first to
leave some breaches in regulations unnoticed, until the bene-
ficial results of partial measures are clearly discernible. The
natives, judging from the native officials' replies and personal

( 113 )

enquiries, appear more alive to the destructive waste in the
fresh-water fisheries that is now being carried on than do the
Europeans. Such might be anticipated ; it comes more home
to them, whilst a very little trouble would disarm their oppo-
sition.

A General Fishery Act.

CXXIV. It would seem then that, if any action is

taken, a " Fishery Act" will be neces-

A Fishery Act necessary. -,-,- . -. * , . . , . ■

sary. Here the question arises at the
outset — should such be one adapted for all India ? Should it
be made applicable to certain places ? Or should the general
principles be laid down, leaving details to Local Administra-
tions ? In practice, it would probably be most efficient to fol-
low the spirit of the British law, considering each " Local
Administration" as a " board of conservators" who could
enact bye-laws, and so modify general rules as to meet each
different district.

CXXV. Should anv such general skeleton Act be con-
„ . . ._ , sidered necessarv, I would propose

Skeleton of General Act. . , . ., .. i it t .,

that its action should be simple,
but still feel confident that if only a modicum of trouble
is taken in carrying its provisions into effect, the re-
sults must be most beneficial. First, that poisoning of
waters for fishing purposes, or permitting any poisonous sub-
stance entering into pieces of water so as to become delete-
rious to fish, be generally prohibited. Secondly, that all fixed
engines be declared illegal. This probably will meet with
some opposition, but fixed engines are at the root of
the destructive waste which is proved to be going on in India.
They are now used where previously they were never per-
mitted (para. LX and LXI) ; whilst, due to there being no
lessees or fishery contractors in large districts of country, the
agriculturists are employing fixed traps in every irrigated and
inundated field. Nothing is now spared. But whilst deciding
that weirs and fixed traps are generally illegal, modifications
or exceptions might be allowed by Local Governments with
this proviso, that no fixed engines (excluding fishing weirs
that are subject to rent in Government waters, or situated
in permanently settled estates) may be employed between
ist June and 1st December, whilst, to be legal in the remain-
ing six months of the year, a license must be obtained from
the civil officer of the district, that, if destitute of a fish-
pass, they should never entirely obstruct a water-way, and
that 1 inch at least exists between the substances forming

H

( 114 )

the traps fixed in fishing weirs, whilst a notice of all sanc-
tioned should be ye:a*ly given in the district gazettes.
Thirdly, that the bunding and turning of streams for fishing
purposes, especially in hill-ranges, be entirely prohibited,
which rule should also (subject to local exceptions) be applied
to tanks in the low country, unless they yearly dry up, but
it should only then be allowed after all communication with
running water has naturally ceased. Fourthly, that every
irrigation weir spanning a river have a practicable fish-pass
in it ; and that all irrigation canals have either a grating
or other contrivance at their entrance to prevent fish going
down them, or fish-passes at every fall, and gratings at each
distributary, whilst the killing of fish during such periods
as the canals are closed be absolutely interdicted.

Bye-laws or Local Acts.

CXXVI. — Local Acts or bye-laws will be most essential,
T , , .. in order to suit the requirements of

Local regulations. , . . ,.. T x .

districts, and here 1 propose adverting
to what such seem to me to be necessary, and how some whicli
are now approved of, I cannot think will work well when
practically tried. In the appendix under the heads of the
various Governments, I have observed upon such local regu-
lations as appear to be desirable : so, here only general re-
marks are necessitated.

CXXVII. — Fence months, seasons, times, or in respect

to species of fish, whether in the hills

Fence months. f .. , . . n ,

or m the plains, appear to nnd many
advocates, and may be briefly examined under the following
heads. First, in the plains ; secondly, in the hilly regions ;
thirdly, in certain peculiar localities as at the tail of irriga-
tion or other weirs; fourthly, as the institution of stock-pools
in rivers ; and, lastly, as regards certain species of fish, of
which it is proposed to declare it illegal to be possessed of
their fry or young. Of course, the first local enquiry should
be, — will the imposition of fence month act injuriously on the
health of the people at large by depriving them at certain
seasons of a necessary article of diet ? Secondly, will the
entire occupation of fishermen be cut off, leaving any num-
ber of them without any means of subsistence ? If we now
examine the five enquiries which I have suggested, the first
(1) is the policy or necessity of instituting fence months in
the plains of India, I am unable to see how such could be
practicably imposed, except at excessive cost, and if not

( 115 )

practicable, the use of issuing such a prohibition appears
still more questionable. The period, were one imposed,
would of course be that of the breeding season, from about
June to November inclusive, but it is during this period
that the shad ascends from the sea to breed, and it is only-
prior to such time that it is in good condition as food. That
fixed engines with small meshes at this period ought to be
abolished no two opinions are possible, but, that all netting
should cease, is, I think, open to a grave doubt, and would
not propose such a course. Secondly (2), in the hilly re-
gions, during the breeding season the mahaseer and other
large carps which ascend to breed (irrespective of the dry
season) most certainly need some protection : at any rate,
weirs spanning streams to arrest breeding-fish going up, or
capture them, or the most minute fry coming down, should
be prohibited as destructive to the general fish-supply of the
country at large. Whilst to protect the shad, one day a
week might be kept free from fishing anywhere within 1J
miles below an irrigation weir spanning a river up whicli
they ascend to breed. Also, lines armed with hooks should
not be allowed in passes in hill streams, as they not only
capture some ascending breeding-fishes, but wound others
that only escape to die a lingering death. Thirdly (3), there
are certain localities in which netting, or fishermen engaged
in the process, or servants employed by them, should be
prohibited, as within a reasonable distance of irrigation weirs
which span rivers. What this reasonable distance may be,
must depend upon the character of the under-sluices, and
the existence or the reverse of fish-passes. The same pro-
tection is also necessary in the canals. Fourthly (4), certain
pools in rivers during the dry season of the year should be
protected from being fished, except by anglers ; this would
keep up a stock of breeding-fish in certain localities where
now the larger fish obtain no immunity. Lastly (5), as
regards rendering it penal to capture or possess the fry of
certain kinds of fish. This is a subject which is most inter-
esting, and one in which, could all informers and magistrates
be quite clear about, I would urge should be the law
as in Europe. But I fear that very great difficulties
will arise in defining what fish are alluded to. Thus,
it is easy to decide that a mahaseer under 1 or 2 lbs weight
should be an under-sized fish. But what is a mahaseer ? Of
course, the reply is that it is a carp of the genus Barbus, but,
unfortunately, several of the large species of this genus

( HO )

come under the generic name of mahaseers. Near Simla,
in the Girri, the Barbus hexastichus is a mahaseer; in the
neighbouring Ussun River, the B. Uimalayanus is thus
termed, whilst in the Hurriapore River, only a few miles off,
the B. tor is so called. All of these are closely allied
together ; so, perhaps, it might be considered that such distinc-
tions are immaterial. In answer to this is the reply that
there are upwards of 60 species of this genus in India,
some of which never exceed a few inches in length.
This is not a solitary case ; the genus Ophiocephalus offers
equal difficulties (see page ccv). Seeing the obstacles in
England where every fish that is protected has a very pecu-
liar and distinct fin, which does not exist in any of the
other sorts found there, I doubt if such rules could be carried
out in India where no such distinct peculiarity demonstrates
which fish it is that is to be preserved until it attains a cer-
tain age.

CXXVIII. Respecting the necessity, or the reverse,
Regulating the minimum size of regulating the minimum size of the
of the mesh of nets employed. meshes of nets, is another very im-
portant question that can be locally dealt with. Opinions vary
so widely that, to disarm opposition, I think local Civil
authorities might fix it, in doing which it should be
remembered that it is in hilly districts during the breed-
ing season that small-meshed nets are doing an immensity
of injury to breeding-fish and their fry; also, that in the
plains myriads of very minute fish are captured by this
poaching practice In the Panjab, 1^ inches between each
knot of the meshes as the minimum size is found to work
well, whereas amongst the pixmositions received from Euro-
pean Civil Officers (p. 98), we observe that in Oudh, meshes
of the size of two grains of barley, in Mysore, ^ of an inch, in
the Central Provinces, J of an inch are suggested. There can
never be a necessity of having the distance between each
knot less than J of an inch ; and even were such a minute
minimum size decided upon, it would in certain districts
do an immensity of good. A medium course is likewise
open, instead of stopping all fishing during the breeding
season to prohibit the use of fixed engines entirely span-
ning pieces of water, and regulating the minimum size
of the mesh of nets from June 1st to November or De-
cember 1st only, so that the capture of fish which never
attain any size be permitted during those months when
the fry of the larger sorts have grown and are able to

( 117 )

take care of themselves. Nothing will he gained in regulat-
ing the size of the mesh of nets in waters that yearly dry up,
and after all communication icith running water has naturally
ceased. Neither should regulations extend to private ponds
that never communicate with running water, and stand in
the light of fish ponds in Europe. Moveable contrivances
(para. LXX) made of inelastic substances, as fine split
bamboos fastened together and forming a sort of net, are most
destructive, and regulations regarding the interstices between
each piece of the substance of which they are formed are
desirable.

CXXIX. — There are other local means of destruction

pursued (para. LXXVIII), several of

Minor modes of fishing. -i • 1 i -t 1 i

which are most reprehensible, and
may well be made penal by local bye-laws, especially fixing
hooks or lines and snagging or snatching at fish. But many
of the plans pursued which are considered poaching in Europe,
I would suggest, should not be interfered with, at least at pre-
sent. The greater evils had first better be grappled with,
leaving the minor ones for future consideration.

CXXX. — Vermin, as crocodiles, are most injurious

(paras. LXXIXtoLXXXIl) and their
destruction very desirable. If the fish
are preserved, these great foes to them should not be permitted
to live upon this species of food which is adapted for human
beings; also otters are very ruinous to hill fisheries and those
in their vicinity.

CXXXI. — Lastly, I would shortly draw attention to the

following question that, — if anything
Who is to w for regulations, j d t improve the fisheries, who is

it any are to be carried out. . * . '

to pay for it r Are the fisheries to be
improved for the good of the fishermen at the public expense,
and are they to pocket the increased numbers of the finny
tribes, but not pay towards such a result ? In Great Britain, a
tax (the moturfa) has been imposed for this purpose on all
instruments used for taking fish, but in India angling may
well be left free. There are three chief modes by which
funds maybe raised for this purpose, — (1) by again letting
the fisheries, as of old, to contractors under certain specified
stipulations, such as the size of the mesh of the nets to be em-
ployed, the protection of certain stock-pools, &c, and leaving
them to protect the fisheries ; this will save a great outlay, but
to be effectually carried out, leases of from three to five years
will be necessary ; (2) nets may be licensed, as in the Punjab,

( 118 )

where the payment of the fee permits the fisherman to use his
implement of capture in any Government waters, but the mini-
mum size of the mesh of the nets is restricted to 1J- inches.
There is this objection that there are no overlookers as there are
when contractors lease the waters ; (3) Government may
permit any one to fish, under certain conditions, keeping a staff
of water 'bailiffs at the public expense to see their orders
carried out — a plan which probably would fail in practice,
and certainly be very expensive. But the modes in which
free fisheries are worked deserve the most attentive con-
sideration, as they are almost invariably carried on in a waste-
ful and destructive manner.

APPENDICES.

PANJAB.

1. The territories under the Government of the Panjab and its

Dependencies, excluding independent States,

Territory under the Panjab Go- rise the Cis and Tra.lS-Sutlej Districts,

vernment. Physical geography. * •«•*-« • • -to a-

placed under a Chief Commissioner in 184o ;
the Panjab Proper annexed in 1849, and the Delhi territories transferred
in 1858, the whole lying between the 28th and 35th parallels of north
latitude, and the 70th and 78th degrees of east longitude. It is com-
puted at 102,001 square miles : bounded on the north and north-east by
the Himalayan mountains; on the east by the river Jumna; on the
south by the North- Western Provinces, Rajputana and the river Sutlej ;
on the west by the Sulimani hills and Afghanistan. The large rivers
afford water communication for 2,902 miles, but the channels are shallow,
sandy, and shifting, whilst during the rains the currents are very rapid.
The river Jumna, as already observed, forms the eastern boundary of this
province, as it emerges from the Sewalik range of hills, and between it
and the Indus, on the extreme west of the Himalayan range, are five
intermediate rivers, the Sutlej, Bias, Ravi, Chenab, and Jhilam, all of
which eventually find their way into the Indus. These rivers are the
drainage lines of the Himalayas, containing their least amount of water
during the cold season, and subsequently increasing up to the monsoon
time, owing to the increased heat augmenting the melting of the snows
at their sources. " A remarkable feature in the topography of the
province is the number of large rivers, which after pursuing their course
for hundreds of miles in the valleys and glens of the mountain ranges to
the north, debouch on to the plain country, dividing it into Doabs, and
flow on in a direction generally southerly to the ocean. These rivers
usually overflow their banks, sometimes to the extent of miles during
the seasons of the heavy rains, and contract in the dry season till the
slender stream is spanned by a bridge of a few boats, leaving dry beds
of sand or mud on either side, which are brought under cultivation.
Such being the character of the Panjab rivers, changes in their course, of
greater or less extent, are not infrequent/' Certain hollows or holes in
the rivers, which are only united with the main stream during the inun-

11

dation season, are termed ' Bood/ts,' whilst ' Lhunds' will be alluded to
in Sinde. Besides these rivers and streams large irrigation works are
being or have been constructed in the province.

2. Of the people of the Panjab, but few comparatively are abso-

_ , .. . ,, t, ■ x. lutely prohibited by their religion from con-
Population of the Panjab j ■ n i imi j_i tt- i
those in towns or in hills great- suming fish ; still there are many Hindus,

er consumers of fish than those particularly large zemindars, who have scruples
in rural districts. on the subject, and these re-act upon the

general rural population (always more superstitious than an urban one,
and therefore more amenable to priestly craft), especially those depend-
ant on and living around them. Thus the ' Deputy Commissioner of
Delhi'' observed (1870) of the people of the district, "none of the Hindu
zemindars eat fish, whilst the Mahomedans are very much Hinduised in
their habits. Hindu zemindars object on religious grounds to fish being
caught in their village waters, and hotly contend with any Delhi fish-
ermen caught poaching in their village ponds/' But of those residing
in towns and in the hilly districts, it appears as if, excluding the Brah-
mins, the consumption of fish is only limited by the paucity of the
supply and the cost of the article.

3. In 1869-70 an enquiry was made into the fisheries of this pro-

vince, as to whether a wasteful destruction of
Enquiry in 1869-70 as to fig]l was taking place, and, if so, the best

whether a wasteful destruction . -.. .°. f e • ■ r

of fish existed. Prohibition of means to diminish any causes of injury tor
fixed engines, and the damming the future. The various reports gave the
of hill streams. Introduction impression that a large amount of immature

chiLfnTs? system for nets' fish were yearly killed for food before they

had been permitted to attain a fair size ; and
that this destruction was in many places being effected in Government
waters, which had, or had not, been leased out for fishing purposes : con-
sequently action was taken on the matter. In the Kangra valley the
system of catching fish by means of dams, weirs, and stake-nets wTas
prohibited, as being the chief cause of the destruction and diminution of
the fish in the narrow hill streams, whilst throughout the Panjab a license
for nets was ordered to be introduced gradually into localities where no
revenue was derived from fisheries ; the only description of net sanctioned
being that which could be thrown from or held in the hand, the meshes of
which were not less than 1^ inches between knot and knot, or 5 inches
all round. The license tax was proposed at Ks. 5 yearly for large nets,
and Rs. 2 for small ' Chilwa' nets (see para. 13), but a discretion was
left as to the amount with the local civil authorities. It was remarked
that ' Chilwa' nets were not approved of, as such might be employed in
taking the young of large fish. The license empowers the holder to fish
generally, whether in Government waters or on private estates. For
fishing in Government waters no further fee would be payable, but to
enable him to fish on private estates, the holder would have to make his
own arrangement with the landowner. By this plan, every person who
professed to fish would require to hold a license. The license could only
extend to fishing by net, and some officials insert in it the
minimum size of the mesh that may be used ; others have the. nets
brought to be inspected at the time the license is issued.

Ill

4. With reference to the questions issued with my letter of Septem-
ber 17th, 1871, the following- is a synopsis of
What is the proportion of the t]ie answers reCeived. First, as to the propor-

general population who consume ,. n l7 7 7 . . 7 A 7i

fish p tion of the general, population who would eat

fish, could they obtain it? Out of 41 native
officials who have replied, the following are the figures given—

5

per

cent.

eat fish

in

1 Tehsil.

12

?»

j)

jj

99

j»

2

jj

20

JJ

9J

99

)J

j»

1

JJ

25

JJ

JJ

99

99

jj

5

J>

33

jj

JJ

JJ

JJ

>>

2

J)

44

jj

99

JJ

JJ

99

1

J»

50

;j

99

99

JJ

JJ

9

JJ

66

P* "

jj

JJ

JJ

J)

JJ

5

7

JJ

7o

jj

99

99

J?

JJ

JJ

80

jj

JJ

JJ

J)

JJ

2

JJ

90 to 95

Jj

>>

JJ

J)

JJ

6

JJ

Irrespective of these, in 10 ' the majority of the people/ in 5 ' a small
proportion/ and in 1 ' none' of population are said to eat fish, but in the
last, the reason given is, ' because there are none to eat/ The Mahomedans,
except the Sheeas at Jalandur, as a rule do so, unless prevented by local
objections (see para. 2) : most of the Hindus in towns or along the banks
of large rivers, unless they are Brahmins, whilst the rural population is
more averse to it.

5. How are the local markets supplied with fish ? is a question

answered by some Tehsildars directly ; by
supLpneaa JSSSL iusufficie^ others more indirectly. Seventy-six give de-

finite answers, which may be thus divided :
in 7 tehsils the markets are fully supplied ; in 2 they are moderately so ;
in 10 sufficiently only during the cold season; in 1 only during the
rains; in 48 insufficiently all the year rouud, and in 8 not at all. In
Hushiarpur there are said to be no markets, the people only capturing fish
for their own consumption; in 2 tehsils fish are exchanged for grain.
Where fish are sold, the price of the better sorts bears the same pro-
portion to that of the best mutton, as the price of inferior fish to that
of inferior mutton, and varies from one-third that of mutton to an equal
price with it. Salt-fish does not find much of a sale.

6. Have the fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary ? is

replied to by 78 Tehsildars, an increase being
Present state of the fisheries. reported by 13, a stationary state by 32, and

Destruction of breeding fish in j -lqq a £J

hilly districts. a decrease by 66. A cause ot decrease is

stated at Delhi to be the Okla weir, which
crosses the Jumna near that city, and does not possess any fish pass in
it (see para. 43). In the Sialkot Division the wholesale destruction of
Mahaseer by means of fixed nets is adverted to in the affluents of the
Chenab. ' Colonel Macpherson' observes, that he " can testify to the
fisheries in the Ganges and Jumna having deteriorated very greatly in
the last eight years. * * One can hardly see fish moving now-a-day,
whereas in the years I have mentioued (1861 — 63) we used to hear and
see shoals of large mahaseer on the feed, three or four times a day/"

IV

7. As to whose the fisheries are ? is, I conclude, a question which,

though raised by some persons, scarcely ad-

The fisheries the property of mjts Qf an argument. The residents, doubt-
Government. How the Raiahs -, i ,-, 1 • • j \ ,,
let them J less, have the same claims m respect to them

as they have to the land, but no license gives
a right. In the Panjab, under native rule, the fisheries are stated to
have been annually let to a contractor, but whether he was bound to see
the fisheries were not impoverished, there appear to be no records to show.
' The Deputy Commissioner of Kangra' observes, when proposing pro-
tective measures, that they must be partially a system of Government
preserves, such as was always in force in the time of the Rajahs, partly
by giving licenses to monopolists to supply the markets, and partly
by licenses for fishing with small nets for home consumption, and not
for sale.

8. The fishermen of this province do not appear to follow this

occupation alone, but only as a supplement to

Panjab fishermen not depend- other means 0f support, SO none have an
ant upon this occupation, as a . . . .. x\-. n , , . .

sole means of subsistence. interest in protecting the fisheries, but only in

procuring as much as they can, and whenever
they can, for themselves. Consequently, regulations would not interfere
with any sole means of subsistence affecting a class.

9. Are breeding fish or fry destroyed ? is a most important enquiry.
Are breeding fish or fry de- Previous to the introduction of the present

stroyed ? Result of regulating rules into the Panjab, of regulating the miui-
the minimum size of the mesh mum s}ze 0f tne mesn Qf tne netg at 11

inches between each knot, large numbers of
young fish were sold as ' Chilwas/ Since this time in many of the dis-
tricts this destruction has been partially stopped ; in others the regulations
have not as yet been carried out. ' The Officiating Deputy Commissioner
of AmbalaJ observes, that the restriction as to the size of the mesh of
the net has only been held to apply to rivers, whilst in fields, tanks,
and hollows, the smallest meshes are used ; indeed, sheets are employed.
In a few tehsils the trapping of fish in irrigated or inundated fields is
recorded. The regulation as to the minimum size of the mesh at 1^
inches between the knots appears a very good one, and does not entail
much difficulty in being carried out.

10. The modes of fishing pursued are exceedingly diversified, and

the wholesale ones may be first adverted to.
Mode of capturing fish whole- ln Kangra the zemindars are stated to do a

sale in canals in the hills which j -i i p . . . „ . .

are constructed for working good deal ot mischief, in the early part of
mills. Impediment to their the rains, by bringing the fish into side
entrance should be imperative streams, then draining off the water and leav-
on the mill-owners. , , ' n ° , tit

ing them on dry ground; young and old are

caught in this manner. Mr. Carleton observes, that the grain in the
Himalayas is ground by hundreds of mills moved by water power, canals
are constructed into which water is diverted to turn these mills, and into
these, numerous small fishes, especially the young of the more valuable
sorts, find their way. By shutting off the water from these fkools' or
canals, the fish become left on dry ground, and are thus captured. Person-
ally I tried this mode of taking fish between Kutla and Kangra : by stopping
the flow of water into this miniature canal, fish were seen struggling-

upwards to attain the head of this ' kool/ or else left in its dried-up bed :
one native stands at the head of the channel, and by making- a great
splashing he frightens the fish from coming up to the stream, and thus,
without using a net at all, numerous small fishes are taken, whilst these,
or most of them, ought to be for the next year's supply. This mode of
destruction must be very injurious to hill fisheries, but could be easily
remedied, by compelling the owner of each canal to make a matted grat-
ing of boughs or bamboos or a similar obstruction at the head of each,
which, without impeding the water, would prevent the entrance of the
fish.

11. Analogous to the foregoing, is the diverting of hill streams
tv ,. ,.„ , and thus capturing- all the fishes therein,

Diverting hill streams, dam- ... ' to tit .

mingthem, the erection of weirs also damming them up and lading them out,
and barriers and poisoning the and the existence of weirs and impassable
water- barriers, which are made instrumental in the

capture of fish, and it was properly decided in the Kangra valley that
" the system of catching fish by means of dams, weirs, and stake-nets was
prohibited, as being the chief cause of the destruction and diminution of
the fish in the narrow hill streams." Poisoning streams is not reputed
to be carried on in the Panjab.

12. Another mode of destroying large numbers of fish in the

Panjab, is the existence of irrigation weirs
Irrigation weirs and canals without fish passes, across large rivers, and

as at present existing, destructive i • i •; 1 i 1 c 1 \l\ i

to fisheries. which permit valuable fishes, as the mahaseer,

which breeds along the bases of the hills, to
descend, but prevents any return to its breeding places as already de-
scribed. Worse, if possible, probably, are the irrigation weirs which have
impassable falls up which fish cannot ascend, but over which they may
descend, and so become trapped. Thus the mahaseer go down these large
channels, but cannot return. It has been suggested that they might
continue their descent, and thus find an exit at the lower end, but this they
will not do. As the canal becomes shallower towards its termination, the
falls are lower, the holes formed below them less deep, and there is not so
much food, consecmently they will not be found there. This is not a
theoretical opinion, but deduced from actual observation made when a
canal was dried off. These canals are emptied at certain periods for
repairs or other causes, and at this period many fish are left dry in the
bed and are easily killed, but a large number retreat into the holes which
exist and contain water. In some of these canals a custom obtains to
permit the employees to kill all they are able, in any manner they can ;
in other places this is more or less prohibited ; whilst in some the fishing4
is let out and every living fish destroyed, no matter how small ; and as
none can ascend out of the canals, the destruction is enormous and suffi-
cient to ruin any fisheries. ' Dr. Allen/ of the 2nd Ghurkas, thus
observed on these constructions : — " The fisheries are certainly decreasing
as regards the number of fish, both in the Ganges and Jumna rivers.
The chief cause of this, 1 believe, to be the drain on them caused by
the canals. Mahaseer, rohoo, kalabeinse, &c, abound in all the canals
both from the Jumna and Ganges. The mahaseer are very plentiful
in the Jumna canal (Kumal branch, which runs down to Hansi and
Hissar) and in the Ganges canal. When these canals silt up, or the

VI

water is cut off from their head, for cleaning-, repairing*, or other pur-
poses, hundreds of thousands of fish of all kinds and of all sizes are
destroyed. When the water shallows sufficiently, men and boys go into it
with sticks, and kill the fish in thousands, and this occurs every year. It
must be very evident that so great a drain as this must decrease and injure
the supply of fish in the main streams, as before the canals were cut,
the whole of those now entering them remained in the Ganges and
Jumna rivers and their tributary streams. The tributary streams may
be netted and bunded, but such an amount of injury to the fishing from
this cause would not happen in a series of years, as is produced in one
year by the indiscriminate slaughter in the canals, when fish from a
maund in weight downwards are destroyed through a hundred or more
miles of country."

13. Respecting the prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the

0 ,. .. bazars. — This question opens up the enquiry —

Suggestions respecting pro- , 1 -i o i,1 r ,■, /.*■, J

hibit'mo- the sale of the fry of what are chilwas r as these small fish are

fish in the bazars, or whether it largely sold throughout the Panjab, and are

should be only from June until asserted never to attain any size. That

November, so that chilwas might , n r> 1 i • , • , ,

be taken during the cold season. many su.ch sma11 nsh do exist> 1S not °Pen to

doubt ; in fact, chilwas may be defined, as
any scaled fish not above a span in length, and which does not attain
a larger size. I personally witnessed young mahaseer being taken as
chilwas, and the young of other species of large and valuable fishes.
There is a great difficulty doubtless in its being very clear to every one
which are young fish and which adults of small sorts ; and to obviate
pressing rather unduly on all classes by prohibiting entirely the sale of
small fish, one gentleman proposes that the fry of fish should not be
allowed to be sold in the bazars from June to November, and this would
certainly embrace the months when the young are moving about. At
Ambala the fishermen complained that it was very hard that they might
not capture small fish, whilst other persons who were not fishermen were
allowed to sell such in the bazars. Twelve European officials would
prohibit its sale entirely, one would not interfere. In several districts it
is observed that such a regulation would be useless, as no fish is publicly
sold. The possession of salmon fry is illegal in England.

14. Respecting the applicability or the reverse of close months. —
Fence months ; its advisability Th(;y appear to be generally considered as

for two months during the rains desirable, more especially in the hilly ranges
in the hilly districts. to which mahaseer and other valuable fish

resort to breed, ascending rivers to the bases of the hills, in order to
reach their breeding grounds with the filling of the mountain streams
due to the commencement of the monsoon, generally in the first half of
the month of June. Then ascending the larger streams, they turn aside
into the tributaries, which are not replenished by melted snows, to deposit
their ova, which are hatched out but do not generally descend to the
plains until the next season. Now it seems desirable that these breeding
fish should have free ingress and egress, and it is only by declaring a close
season for these districts that such could be effected. The range wherein
this should be carried out, and the time at which these two months
should be insisted upon, about July and August, could be well left to the
local civil authorities.

Vll

15. It has also been suggested, that certain deep pools in which
. ~ , , . ,.,, . fish take shelter during the dry (not cold)

A few ciGGP pools in hill streams «/ \ /

it is proposed, should be selected months of the year should be protected in
and preserved during the dry the hills, as they are very easily netted there,
(not cold) months in the hill Mr Carleton proposes that certain streams

should be considered preserves and kept for
the breeding of the fish.

16. Trapping fish in irrigated fields ought to be most strictly
m . a , , . , , , , prohibited, at least during the monsoon

1 rapping fish objected to, at l .. ; . ° „ . .

least from April to November, months, as an immense amount of injury
Size of interstices should be the must occur by destroying all, both young and
same as m uets. 0^ jf this mode of using fixed engines is

to be permitted at all, the interstices between the materials of which
such traps is composed should be at least 1J inches, or that laid down
for the meshes of fishing nets, whilst they should be prohibited from
April to November.

1 7. It has, in addition to the foregoing, been ' suggested in the

„ . _ ' Sialkot district* (paragraph 28) that the

Cashmere Government and /-, j_i»/-iiTii j

those of Bilaspur and Sialkot Government of Cashmere be keenly urged

to be requested to assist in pro- to carry out whatever system of preservation

tecting valuable fish ascending [s decided upon for India, as efforts in our

their hilly streams to breed. • , ,i • • i <* i> j

territory to preserve this main staple or food
must be considerably retarded without their support, because the affluents
of the large rivers up which the fish ascend to breed are out of our dis-
tricts. ' Mr. Carleton' also observes that the two States, Bilaspur and
Sialkot, remain without a single restraint as regards fishing. Those
States situated on the Sutlej occupy its finest fishing ground, and some
of the best, if not the very best, streams for fish breeding, and no hill
people are more addicted to fishing than those living within these two
territories. He continues : — " I have lived three seasons along the head
waters of the Ravi at Chumba, and five seasons along the head waters of
the Bias at Kulu, and traversed over the Sutlej valley for ten years as far
as Rampur, and nowhere have I seen such destruction of fish as in
those two States, especially Sialkot. * * Many of the people have
little close hand-nets, with which they regularly clean out the gorges of
young fry."

18. Throughout the various portions of India which I have visited

in investigating the fish and fisheries, in none

tionrentPanJabfishinSreSUla" have such excellent rules been framed as in

this province, embracing as they do protection
to the immature fish by prohibiting the use of nets having a mesh less
than 1| inches between each knot, disallowing the use of dams, weirs,
and stake-nets, and only permitting in the hill streams the employment
of such nets as can be held by or thrown from the hand.

19. The further regulations which it is suggested by the ' Officiat-

-c ,, , ing Secretary to the Paniab Government/

Further ones proposed. & ., ./ . , _«» „ „ „ . .'

are, prohibiting the sale of the try of fishes in

the bazars or mahaseer under lib. weight ; a close season during July

and August ; the establishment of breeding tanks in connection with

the irrigation canals, and by gratings or otherwise to prevent the fish

going down these canals.

vlll

20. In addition I would suggest to the foregoing (paragraphs 10

.,,.,. , L , and 33). the owners of mills in hill streams

Additional ones suggested. "

should make obstructions, as matted gratings,

at the commencement of their c kools' or canals, which would prevent the
entrance of young fish now so extensively destroyed therein. Fish-passes
should be placed in all ascents in irrigation canals or at weirs, and the
destruction of fish when the canals are closed should be strictly prohibit-
ed. Close seasons would probably only be required along the hilly ranges,
and netting might be prohibited in a few deep pools in the hill streams
during the dry months. Trapping fish, or having fixed engines for taking
them, should be prohibited, at least between April and November, and
even then the interstices in substances forming traps should be equal to
the minimum size permitted between the knots of the meshes of nets.

21. The following are condensed from the opinions of the European
Contents of the following sy- and Native officials of the Panjab, received

nopsis of papers received from either in 18G9-70, or else in answer to the
the Panjab. questions circulated in September 1871.

22. The Officiating Secretary to the Government of the Panjab

(July 1 6th, 1872) reports that there are 10,450
Officiating Secretary to the fishermen in the province, but in no district

Panjab Government. Summary i ,1 , p n a \ • _ ^u„4„ i„

of opinions received from the d° the^. Seem *° f«lloW fishm^ aS thelV S°le

local officials of the province. occupation. The fishermen castes are mostly

Jewars, Machis, Kahars, and Kashmiris: those
who also engage in fishing are Jats, Sunnias, Mains, Jhils, Singharis,
Maithans, Pakhiwaras, Julahas, Jhabails, Sukkais, Mullahs, Dindars,
Magus, Dhunniahs, Beluchis, Rahras, Pathans, Khokars, Bhattis,
Manjiis, Jhabals, Pan wars, Patries, and Mahanas. Fish are largely eaten,
the cost of the better sorts bearing the same proportion to that of the
best mutton, as the price of inferior fish to that of inferior mutton, and
varies from one-third that of mutton to an equal price with it. Under
the present licensing system \\ inches square is the smallest size of
mesh permissible to use ; previous to its introduction large numbers
of young fish were sold as " chilwas," and met with a ready sale.
Even now in some districts very fine meshed nets are locally employed.
The greatest destruction takes place after the rains, when the floods
subside, leaving large quantities of small fish in the fields. It is
generally considered that prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazar
would entail no difficulty and but little hardship. The markets as a
rule are well supplied (see para. 5), the new regulations are admitted, on
all hands to have had a good effect in preserving the fish, whilst the
fishermen have decreased. Probably due to the late hot seasons, no
marked increase has yet been observed in the amount of fish. Several
officers advise a close season during July and August. One and a quarter
inches between knot and knot of the meshes of nets is generally con-
sidered the smallest that should be allowed. On the whole the reports
show that the present system of licenses is working well,
though the following additional measures might with advantage be
taken for the preservation of the fisheries. To enjoin two close
months, July and August; in districts where fish are very plentiful,
to impose some limit on the amount of fish which may be caught
under each license ; to prohibit the sale of fry in the bazars, and that

IX

of ' mahaseer' of less than one pound in weight ; to establish breeding"
tanks in connection with the canals j and by gratings or otherwise to pre-
vent the fish from going down the irrigation canals.

The Commissioner of the Peshawar Division observes, that he does

not think fishermen do so much injury to the
Peshawar Division.— Opinions fisn in his district as he has seen done in

would be verv right to give the fish a better
chance of multiplying by insisting on the stoppage of all kinds of fishing
during the close months, for carrying out which no separate establish-
ment is advised. The size of the mesh of nets might be regulated to
protect the fry, which, however, are not taken to any extent by the people
of the country; but the Hindustani and Panjabi kahars in the military
stations make for themselves casting nets with which they catch f chilwas/
The Deputy Commissioner of Peshawar states, that breeding fish and very
young ones are destroyed in his district to a great extent, and at all sea-
sons, by means of nets, fish-hooks and sheets, in the Indus, Cabul and
Swat rivers, and in Lotaie and Banih streams and the Boodnee canal, the
smallest size of the mesh of the nets being \ of an inch between
knot and knot. No difficulties would exist in regulating the minimum
size to be employed, which he proposes should be \ of an inch for small
fish, and 1 inch for large sorts. There would be no objection to prohibit-
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner
of Hazara gives the smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed at
about f of an inch square. If the minimum size were regulated, it would
give rise to irritation amongst a border population, and require an estab-
lishment to see it carried out ; but fishing might be prohibited for two
months without much inconvenience. The Deputy Commissioner of
Kohdt considers that breeding fish and very young ones are not destroyed
to any great extent in his district, and the smallest mesh employed is \
of an inch between knot and knot; that there would be no difficulty in
regulating its minimum size, but has no opinion as to what that should
be. As fry is never sold, its sale might be prohibited.

24. The Commissioner of Raw a I Pindi observed in 1870 that "fish-
ing licenses are the only check we have upon
Rdwal Pindi Division.— the wholesale destruction of young fish, and I
Answers of the Enropean offi- ^ acCount relax them/' The Deputy

cials oi Kawal Pmdi, Jmlam, .. ^ ■>

Shahpur, and Gujrat. Commissioner of Rawal Pinch reports that

breeding and young fish are not destroyed to
any perceptible extent. The usual nets allowed have a mesh of 1^ inches
between knot and knot, but two licenses are given for ' ckilwa' fishermen
who use a much finer mesh for the purpose of taking small fish which
never grow to any size. There are no difficulties in regulating the mi-
nimum size of the mesh, 1 inch between knot and knot is recommended.
The people of these parts do not depend upon fish as their food ; a very few
touch it, therefore prohibiting the sale of the fry iu the bazar would
be a wholesome measure and strike at the root of the evil. There
would be no objection to having a close season for two months in the hilly
ranges. The Deputy Commissioner of Jhilam states that breeding and
young fish are not destroyed to any great extent, as care is taken that
the meshes of all nets have 1 j- inches between knot and knot. The

hill streams termed ' kus ' dry up during the greater part of the year
and are not fished, whilst there are no jhils or pools. In the river
along the Pind Dadun Khan tehsil, 45 miles in length, no fishing is
practised, due to there being no markets for the sale of fish, as the
natives will not eat them. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of
Shdhpur reports, that neither breeding nor young fish are destroyed in
his district ; only one license was taken out, and that to supply fish to
officers and Babus in the station. The Deputy Commissioner of
Gujrat reports, that breeding and young fish are not destroyed in his
district, whilst there are no breeding fish so low down the river. The
minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is ^ of an inch ; no diffi-
culties exist in regulating it, and 1^ inches is proposed as suitable.
Respecting what objections exist against prohibiting the sale of the fry
of fish in the bazars ? he remarks, " the fry of fish is not understood.
Jheewurs, ' Hindus/ commonly sell fried fish in the bazars, and I hear
of no objection to it." He considers that two months close time
in the hilly districts might be introduced.

25. The Officiating Commissioner of the Derajat Division merely

forwards papers received. The Officiating
Derajat Division. — Answers of Deputy Commissioner of Bdnu reports that

the European officials of Banu, bree(]ing. figh and very gmall oneg are not
Dera Gazi Khan, and Dera , » •> . ,.-,.,•, ,, ,

Ismail Khan. destroyed to any extent m his district ; that

the smallest size of the mesh of nets is \ of

an inch between knot and knot, whilst, as very few fish are caught, it is

unnecessary to regulate the minimum size of the mesh employed. No

fish are sold in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Dera Gazi

Khan observes, that very little fish are caught in the northern part of the

district ; the local market is well supplied, but by fishermen belonging

to the Muzaffargarh side of the Indus. A certain quantity of fish is

caught in Jampur, but they are principally taken in the cold season

in dhunds left by the subsidence of the Indus. A considerable amount

of small fry is captured, and minute-meshed nets are in common use.

There would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh to be

employed, but such restrictions are considered to be unnecessary. He

continues that gulls take more small fish than fishermen ! The Officiating

Deputy Commissioner of Dera Ismail Khan observes, breeding fish and

very young ones are not destroyed to a great extent. The smallest size

mesh of the nets is ^ an inch between knot and knot. There would be no

difficulty in regulating it, and \ an inch between knot and knot is

proposed as the minimum size. The fry of fish are said not to be sold

in the bazars.

26. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Jhang, observes, that he

thinks there is a tendency to destroy breeding
Multan Division.— Answers of and very young fish in the rainy season

the European officials of Jhang , th uge f jj meghed netg but iu his
Muzaihugarh, Montgomery, and ■¥,.,,, ... , . , ,,

Multan. district the evil is not general, owing to the

fishing population consisting of but few

persons. The meshes of some of the nets are as small as about one-eighth

of an inch square, and no difficulty stands in the way of the enforcement

of any enactment on the subject of regulating the minimum size to be

employed, which it is proposed should be one inch square. No objections

XI

whatever exist against prohibiting- the sale of the fry of fish in the
bazars. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Muzaffargarh, reports
that there does not appear to be any very extensive destruction of
breeding* and young fish, as fishing is chiefly carried on in pools formed
by inundations, which soon dry up after the river subsides. Nets are
not used with a mesh less than 1 \ inches between knot and knot, which
might be increased by further regulations to 2 or even 3 inches. " Mian
Mahbub Dhony, Magistrate, who is a great sportsman, thinks the mesh
should not be less than 9 inches all round/'' There is no difficulty in
regulating the minimum size of the meshes of nets ; the sale of fry by
fishermen should be prohibited, for, if they have been purchased by the
retailers, it will be difficult to interfere with them. In 1870 the Deputy
Commissioner of this place reported : " there is a great and wanton de-
struction of young fish by men with purse nets of small meshes," which he
considered should be prohibited during June, July and August. The Officiat-
ing Deputy Commissioner , Montgomery, states that breeding fish and very
young ones are destroyed to some extent in ' boodhs/ or hollow places in the
rivers, which, during the rainy season, are united with the stream, but be-
come detached as inundations cease. About \ of an inch between knot and
knot of the nets appears to be the smallest size employed, and there seems
no difficulty in regulating what it should be ; 1^ inches is proposed for
this purpose. No objections exist against prohibiting the sale of the
fry of fish in the bazars. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of
Multan replies, that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to
a considerable extent. Various kinds of traps and snares are employed in
the district during the cold season in the l dhunds' ; a species of basket
is commonly in use. The smallest size mesh of nets used is \ an inch
square, but these are rarely employed, they being generally from 1 to 2
inches. No difficulty is anticipated in regulating the minimum size to be
sanctioned, which it is suggested should be 2 inches between knot and
knot, and thus destruction of young fish, which is at present considerable,
will be avoided. No objection exists against prohibiting the sale of the
fry of fish in the bazars, which is considered to be desirable.

27. The Deputy Commissioner of Lahor reports, that breeding

fish are not destroyed to a very great extent,
«,f t^^TZ^^T^ as, owing to the period fish breed being in

the European officials of Lahor i • , l P1 • &

and Gujranwala. the rains, the current of the river is such,

that netting is difficult. ' Chilwa' fishing is
carried on in July and August, and small fish of all kinds are taken by
hand-nets. " Breeding fish and their young are caught in July and August
in the Deg, and in the chumbs and creeks connected with it ; the former
in ordinary nets, and the latter in small hand-nets writh fine meshes.
The zemindars catch the small fish in the chumbs in a variety of ways,
with baskets or cloth bags, or fine nets, Sec" The smallest size of the
mesh of nets employed is about that of a pea. " The difficulties about
regulating the size of the meshes of nets are mainly two : the legal
difficulty in enforcing any rules on the subject ; at present forfeiture of
the license is the only penalty. Secondly, the financial difficulty : any
attempt to introduce the license system or to regulating the size of the
meshes would be attended with an immediate loss of revenue. It is
probable, however, that the revenue would in time recover itself as large

Xll

fish increased in numbers, and the fishermen become accustomed
to the system. As already stated, the attempt was made in this
district, but had to be abandoned on financial grounds." £ I must
here point out that other local reasons exist at Labor, the fishery
at this place being" let in a peculiar manner at Rs. 2,228 yearly,
and the mode was thus described by the Officiating Commissioner
in February 1870: "The lease is current for the financial year, and
is put up annually to auction. It embraces the Deg nullah, the
river Ravi, and the jhils and creeks connected with those rivers.
Zemindars owning land on the rivers' bank may, without hindrance
from the lessee, catch fish for their own consumption, but they are
not allowed to sell any fish. Practically also, any one may fish with
a hook, provided only he does not sell the fish which he catches.
None but fishermen, authorised by the lessee, are allowed to catch fish
with a net. The fishermen are well known ; they congregate in a few
villages near the river, and carry on their calling in gangs. Each
fishing party is accompanied by a servant of the lessee, whose duty it is
to see that all the fish caught are brought to the market which the lessee
has established for the sale of fish at Data Gung Buksh, in the vicinity
of Lahor, and that none are sold elsewhere by the fishermen. The fish,
when brought to the market, are sold wholesale to dealers for what they
will fetch. The sale proceeds of fish caught in the Deg are divided
equally between the lessee and the fishermen ; but as regards fish
caught in the Ravi, the lessee's share of the proceeds is only 4 annas
in the rupee, while the fisherman's is 12 annas. These rates were,
however, altered thus in 1861 ; it was agreed that the following should
be the lessee's share : — Fish from the Deg, 8^ annas in the rupee ;
from the Ravi, 6 \ annas in the rupee; from other districts, 4^ annas
in the rupee. Fish are sometimes brought to Lahor from Montgomery
by rail, and from other districts. In this case they are brought to
market and sold through the lessee, who charges a commission of 1^
annas a rupee on the sale proceeds. In the Lahor District, it is
chiefly from the Deg that fish are caught ; a considerable number
are caught from jhils and chuppurs fed from the Deg. These jhils and
chuppurs are regarded as the private property of the zemindars, with
whom the lessee makes his own arrangement in regard to being
allowed to fish in them. * * * Netting in the Ravi is a difficult
operation, and is seldom attempted. The fish, which are taken nominally
from the Ravi, are caught almost entirely in the nallas and pools left
after the floods of the rainy season have subsided." Thus it can
hardly be considered that it is simply the fisheries that are let, but
fisheries and an octroi duty on fish that is disposed of. ] One and a quarter
of an inch is suggested as the proper minimum size at which the meshes
of nets should be fixed, and there exists no objection to prohibiting the sale
of the fry of fishes in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Gujran-
walla observes, that in the Chenab very young fish known as ' chahil'
are largely caught ; the smallest sized mesh employed is j of an
inch. There would be no difficulty in regulating the minimum size to be
employed in future, " but the small meshed nets already in existence
would continue to be used until worn out." No objections against
prohibiting thc*sale of the fry of fish are known.

Xlll

28. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Amritsar, does not con-
sider that breeding fish are destroyed to any
Amritsar Dh-ision.-Avwers deleterious extent ; a large number of young

of the European officials of Am- ' . ,, • • . V ^

ritsar, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur. ones are killed during the rains in irrigated

fields, the smallest mesh employed being
1 inch square. There are no objections to prohibiting the sale of
the fry of fish in bazars ; it could be easily carried out. Numbers of
fish are said to be destroyed here in the irrigation canals, whenever they
aie dried off, irrespective of size, whilst all the holes are netted. The
presence of a few tanks, it is suggested, connected with, but lower
than the bed of, the canal, would not only enable many fish to escape the
annual slaughter, but be valuable for fishing purposes throughout the
year. The Deputy Commissioner, Sialkot, reports, that he does not think
very young fish to any great extent are destroyed in the rivers and nal-
las of his district ; but he holds the opinion that the fishermen net (as
indeed do all native fishermen) indiscriminately and without considera-
tion as to breeding time, and considers that it would be most necessary to
enter a strict prohibition in the licenses against their fishing at all
during breeding months, viz., July and August. The meshes of the nets,
since 1870, have not been used smaller than 1^ inches between knot
and knot, and no difficulties exist respecting regulating the minimum size,
which he proposes should be H inches in future. He would advocate
that as the bazar demand is great at times for the smaller or fry of fish
(which are more of a luxury than an actual necessary staple of food)
licenses be given for their sale between April 15th and May loth; and
again between September 1st and October 1st, but would prohibit their
being sold in the markets or elsewhere during any other time. The
following opinion of an officer of the district, who has much indulged
in fishing, is enclosed : " First, if the proposal (of only permitting the
employment of such nets as can be held by the hand) were carried into
effect, nothing more need be done in these parts. In the Chenab, which
encloses two sides of this district (north and east), the ' mahaseer' run
in shoals, and are thick at one particular spot, and perhaps are not to be
found for a distance of 10 miles. They abound chiefly where a tributary
runs in, and where the water is usually warmer and there is good feeding.
Iu the spring rains, they ascend these tributaries to breed, returning in
the monsoons. If there is no depth of water where the tributary joins
the Chenab, they probably drop in the winter into the deeper pools. I re-
member one instance in this district which was brought to my notice in
1869, and shortly after my arrival here. There was a large school of fish
collected at the junction of the ' Tavia/ running from Kajowri (in the
Cashmere Illakah) and the ' Chenab'. This could be easily netted, and
the consequence was, a large net of about 40 to 60 yards in length was
placed across the stream, and another dragged down the river for about
1 00 yards. Thus an innumerable number of fish were caught, and the
result was, there was little or no rod fishing that season, which to a
certain extent demonstrates the fact that the place had been denuded of
fish. I have drawn the attention of the Cashmere authorities to the evil
of this wholesale system of destruction in the tributaries of the Chenab
within tbat territory, and I have also prohibited the practice as much as

XIV

possible in this district. There is no doubt that even now the mahaseer
especially are a persecuted fish, particularly at that seasou of the year
when the water is low (just before the rains), and especially in the hillstreams
(where they are spawning) , when they are nearly all destroyed. I would
strongly advocate, as regards this district, that the Government of Cashmere
be keenly urged to carry out whatever system of preservation Government
intends to enforce, as our efforts to preserve this main staple of food
must be considerably retarded without their support/' The Deputy
Commissioner of Gurdaspur states, that since licenses have been issued
the destruction of breeding and very young fish has diminished, but
that the capture of fry during the rains is still carried on ; they are taken
with baskets, cloths, &c, in all shallow places in streams, after the rains
have subsided. The minimum size of the authorized mesh is \\ inches.
The impossibility of supervision is the chief difficulty in regulating the
size of the mesh. This can only be met by finding out all men who
make any part of their living by fishing and compelling them take out
licenses. The recorded license-holders could be visited periodically, and
their nets examined year by year, thus the fishing of the rivers could be
brought more under control. The objection against prohibiting the
snle of the fry of fish in the bazar, is, that they are more tasty ; but
on the other hand, Hindus think that it is better to take the life of one
large fish than of many small ones. "The principle of protecting fish,
and in fact all game, during the breeding season, is too well established to
need comment. Should it entail any hardship on the population of the
hills, it seems to me that they must bear it, as the fish are protected in
the interests of the community at large."

29. The Commissioner of Ambala forwards the following from the

Officiating Deputy Commissioner : that he
Ambala Division.— Answers of thinks breeding and immature fish are de-

the European officials of Ambala j , , ,-> , ,i . • i-

and Ludhiana. stroyed to a great extent ; that the restriction

as to the size of the mesh of the net has only
been held to apply to rivers, whilst in fields, tanks, and hollows, the
smallest meshes are used; indeed, sheets are employed. No difficulties exist
against regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets ; but if the sale
of fry is prohibited, it would simply deprive the public of a valued
article of food. No objection obtains against prohibiting the capture of
fish in hilly districts during the first two months of the monsoon season
when they are breeding ; in fact, he considers the suggestion expedient.
The Deputy Commissioner, in 1870, stated, that " there are numbers of
kahars and others, who at different reasons of the floods, when at leisure,
catch great numbers of small fish, which appear principally to be washed
down from the hills, and which if uncaught must perish in the drying
up of the water. These fish form an important article of food temporarily
for a number of the poor classes, and any attempt to prevent them from
enjoying this article of food would be a hardship." The Officiating*
Deputy Collector of Ludhiana considers, that the breeding fish and very
young are not destroyed to any great extent in the district, since the size of
the mesh of the nets has been regulated. It is considered expedient
to prohibit the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars.

XV

30. The Commissioner of Jalandar observed in 1870 — "I would

remark that there is the most wanton de-
Jalandar Divmon.-Anmen stmctjon 0f nsh jn some 0f our jhils, which
of European officials ot Jataii- . . . T ,. . , , . , . J„ ' _.

dar, Phillur, Hushiarpur. should I think be put a stop to. The De-

puty Commissioner , the same year, stated —
u I inspected some nets now in use : one was brought to me used for
fishing in ponds, nine of whose meshes went to a square inch/'' The
Extra Assistant Commissioner, Phillur, reports that breeding and very-
young fish are not destroyed ' wantonly' in this district to any extent ;
if they are at all, it must be in the rainy season, or a short time before,
and then only by being caught in common with other fish ; 1^ inches
between knot and knot of the meshes is the smallest size employed, and
there is no difficulty in regulating this or any other minimum size.
"When a chowkeydar sees a man fishing, he looks at his license and ex-
amines his net. Would propose that only large-meshed nets are per-
mitted during the breeding season, but in the early spring when ' chilwa*
fishing is carried on, would permit one inch between knot and knot.
Respecting prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar, he remarks — ■
" Considered merely as an article of food, there is no objection to the
fry of fish being sold in the bazar ; but I think it would tend to an in-
crease of the supply of large fish in the markets if the fry were not
allowed to be sold." The Deputy Commissioner of Hushiarpur observes
that his replies must be accepted in a general way, and are not intended
as touching upon the customs of his district alone, but the result of
experience obtained in several. In the ponds and jhils left in the course
of the Bizu river through the Jalandar district, and in similar
places in other districts, there is a great destruction of young fish by
netting with sheets, &c. Prior to the issue of the circular in 1870 regulat-
ing the minimum size of the mesh at 1£ inches between knot and knot,
great destruction with fine-meshed nets was personally witnessed. The
only difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of the nets are such as
are general in preventing smuggling and poaching. The sale of the
fry of fish is so small that it is hardly worth interfering with ; its capture
is generally effected for home consumption ; what was sad to witness, was
the huge numbers of very small fish dragged up with the weeds, &c, and
left to perish as useless. In all out-lying villages fish are caught by
men who require to eat them, not as a luxury, but as a necessary article
of food; and if deprived of this, other means of subsistence should be
provided for them, which would be no easy matter, if at all practicable.
Attempts should be confined to the remedy of great evils rather than to
an interference with small ones, which could be done by making it crimi-
nal to use nets with meshes smaller than prescribed. The Deputy Commis-
sioner of Kangra reports, that he believes that young fish used to be caught
and breeding checked until the new rules about licenses and limiting"
the size of the mesh were introduced. Doubtless, the Jeewun and
Kahar castes catch fish by stealth all over the district, as there are no
means of preventing this. The places in which they used to be most
destroyed, were in those streams which become very shallow during
the dry months, leaving, however, some deep pools in which the fish
take shelter as the floods decline, and where they are easily netted.
By way of testing the quantity and breeds of fish in one of these pools

XVI

opposite Haripur in the river Ban-gunga, one was dragged. The fish
were all driven into a corner, and there they swarmed ; round hand-nets
were used to catch them. Some four or five maunds were taken in a
very short time ; any number of nets were produced immediately they
were asked for, but all, except hand-nets, had 1^ inches between knot
and knot of the meshes. Drag-nets are prohibited, but steps should
be taken to preserve these pools. Would propose keeping a watchman
at this place out of the license fees, which should be raised to Rs. 20 per
annum, the number of fishing days to be restricted, as well as the amount
captured on any one day. Each Deputy Commissioner should be left to
his own devices to stop the destruction of fish. Arrangements should be
made to bring the fish to market, which now is never done. By-and-
bye we should find out what succeeded and what failed, and be able
to frame some defined rules for the district. It is in the dry months
that fish are destroyed, and in the early rains, rarely in the winter, when
they take to the bottom and under the rocks, and are not easily disturbed.
From March to July poaching goes on to the greatest extent. There
are no difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of nets. When
licenses are granted the nets have to be produced; 1^ inches is consi-
dered a very good size for the minimum : it certainly should not be less.
Small ' chilwa* nets might be allowed in streams never frequented
by the larger kinds of fish. So few fish are brought into the markets
that no measures are necessary for prohibiting the sale of the fry.
Would like to have a licensed fish stall under the supervision of
Government officials at each chief market town, and take such steps
from time to time as may be necessary for preventing the sale of fry.
No objections exist to stopping fishing during the breeding season,
except for special purposes under a special license. The zemindars do
a great deal of mischief in the early part of the rains by bringing the
fish into side streams and then draining off the water and leaving them
on dry ground ; young and old are caught in this way. The system
of poaching fish and game wholesale should be made a penal offence,
and district officers will soon find that other measures can be dispensed
with. There are still abundance of fish in all the chief rivers, the
Bias, Ravi, Chaki, Ban-gunga, Auvale, Niggul, and some others ; but
doubtless measures are necessary to prevent the population from reckless
systems of netting them. These measures must be, partially, a system
of Government preserves, such as was always in force in the time of the
Rajahs, partly by giving licenses to monopolists to supply the market,
and partly by licenses for fishing with small nets for home consumption
and not for sale.

31 . The Officiating Commissioner of Hissdr (January 16th, 1872,) sug-
Xwdr Division -Answers of gests wire gratings at the top of the first fall
the Officiating Commissioner and in the canal to arrest the downward progress
Deputy Commissioner. 0f ]arge fish, if practicable in an engineer-

ing point of view; if not, that fish-ladders should be placed at the canal
falls. He continues with reference to constructing fish-ladders at weirs
spanning rivers : " I took up this suggestion some time ago when Deputy
Commissioner of Delhi, and ascertained from the Superintending Engi-
neer of the Agra Canal, that the construction of a fish-ladder would not
cost more than Rs. 800 or Rs. 1,000. If it is found, whcu the weir in

XV11

the Jumna at Okla is finished, that the bed is not dry below the weir at
seasons during- which fish ascend and descend the river, I think a fish-
ladder should undoubtedly be made. The original cost of outlay and
the extra loss of water entailed by fish-ladders are hardly to be set
against the benefits to be derived from them. "With reference to the
construction of breeding tanks in connection with canals, I would remark
that in this division there are tanks in direct communication with the
canal, suitable for the breeding of fish at the following* places (enumerat-
ed) which are sufficient for this division. Similar breeding tanks should
be formed in connection with canals in other districts where they do not
exist. At present the Engineers of the Western Jumna canal in this
division prohibit fishing in the canal itself, but allow it (except during
the breeding- season) in the tanks, on payment of a fee of Re. 1 per
net. I think this course should be reversed. I would permit fishing
in the canal provided the meshes of the nets used are not smaller than
2J inches from knot to knot, but would prohibit fishing in the breeding
tanks altogether. These tanks should not be disturbed, and fish should
be allowed to freely escape into them when the water in the canal is
turned off, and the tanks themselves should not be drained of water."
The Deputy Commissioner of Hissdr reports, that breeding- fish and very
young ones are not destroyed to a great extent; but, as a general rule, the
fishermen pay no attention to the condition of the fish. The smallest
size of the mesh of the nets employed here is \ of an inch between knot
and knot of the meshes. No difficulty is apprehended in regulating the
size of the mesh of nets, although there would naturally be a tendency
on the part of the licensees to reduce the size to their own standard for
catching small fry as well as large fish. From 2 to 2^ inches be-
tween the knots of the meshes is proposed as the minimum size that
should be permitted. Fish being so rarely bought and sold, owing to
its scarcity and want of appreciation, save hy a very small percentage of
the population, no objections are anticipated against prohibiting the sale
of fry in the bazars.

32. The Commissioner of the Delhi Division (March 14th, 1872)

Delhi Divmon.-Aus^ers of forwarded reports from the following officers,

the European officials of Delhi, observing, that instructions have been issued

Gurgaon, Sarsa and Kurnal. tnjs JaVj fchat for the future, no licenses to

use nets of meshes below 1J inches between knot and knot shall be
granted. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of Delhi states, that
many young fish are no doubt destroyed, but few breeding ones owing
to the paucity of breeding grounds. The time at which the young fish
are destroyed, is in the river from the first monsoon inundations until
the month of November or later. No restriction exists as to the size
of the meshes of nets employed, which is about \ of an inch between
knot and knot. If the taking of small fish is to be prohibited, there
would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the meshes by a clause
in the license, and f of an inch between knot and knot is recommended.
No objections exist against prohibiting the sale of fry within municipal
limits, elsewhere legal sanction would be necessary, where the sales,
however, are insignificant : would prohibit the use of small-meshed
nets from June to November, so that the taking of those sorts which are
mature, when of small size, would not be prevented. The Deputy Com-
missioner of Gurgaon replies, that as the Jumna is the only river in his

b

XV111

district, people are not given to fishing as a rule, and no destruction to

breeding fish takes place ; neither are the fry destroyed. The smallest size

of the mesh of the nets being | of an inch between knot and knot,

no difficulties exist against regulating it, but he does not consider

interference advisable. Fry are not sold in the bazars. The Officiating

Deputy Commissioner of Sarsa reports, that breeding fish aud very

young ones, are not destroyed to any great extent; T3<j of an inch

between knot and knot of the meshes is the smallest size employed ; and

he considers, as to what difficulties there are against regulating its size,

that it is as well that all the fish in pools which dry up should be caught,

but that one inch between knot and knot is advisable for nets used in waters

that do not dry up. The objection against prohibiting the sale of fry

is, that they are chiefly taken in pools which dry up, and would die if

left uncaught. No reasons exist against a close season of two months

in the hilly districts. The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Karnal

states, that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed, but

not to any great extent, the latter are taken in larger quantities than

the former. In the Jumna, in tanks and jhils, very young ones are

captured in the rainy season and floods, and large ones in all seasons

when procurable. The smallest meshes employed in nets are from \ to

^ an inch in circumference, and are used for taking prawns. The only

difficulty against regulating the size of the mesh of nets is, that it would

interfere with the fishermen, and, probably, many would give up their

occupation if not permitted their own discretionary powers in keeping

nets to their own liking. The size proposed is I5- inches between knot

and knot of the meshes, leaving nets for taking prawns as they are.

The fry of fish are said not to be generally used, as their sale would not

be profitable. As to whether there are any objections against prohibiting

the capture of fish in hilly districts for the first two months of the

monsoon season when they are breeding, it is stated : " Capturing of

breeding fish in hilly districts in the spawning time will, in a certain

extent, decrease their generation."

33. The Revd. W. Carleton, of the American Mission, who has been

™ „ , ttt r, 1 x . u ten or eleven years amongst the people of the
The Revd. W. Carleton's ob- TT. , J , ., to . , \ , L , , ,.

servations on fishing in the hilly Himalayas, and paid considerable attention

districts, and how fry are de- to natural history, was good enough to
stroyed in mill streams. favour me with his independent views re-

specting the fisheries of the hill streams at the Kangra valley and
elsewhere. He observes that the laws or regulations that c< have been
introduced to preserve the Himalayan fish, do not meet the real difficulty
in the way of making the products of the Himalayan rivers an abundant
source of food." " I do not/'' he continued, " write in the interests of
Government, so much as I do in behalf of the common people, who, fond
of meat, get at present a scanty supply from the rivers ; while, if a
proper conservancy of the fish could be introduced, there would be a very
good supply of food for the poor or common people. There are two or
three species of fish of remarkable fecundity in the Himalayas, which, if
they were properly cared for when young, would yield yearly a great
supply of food. But there is one custom in many parts of the hills,
which, more than any others, is ' ruinous* to the natural growth of these
fish, and which the present laws about fishing do not in the slightest
degree affect. The grain in the Himalayas is all ground in little mills

XIX

moved by water. These mills are all situated on the hundreds of small
streams in the hill gorges. To get a good water power, the people
construct small canals, or ducts, on a higher level than the streams, and
by erecting a dam across the stream, most of the water is diverted into
these canals, and carried along until a good head is attained, the fall of
which carries or puts in motion these mills. Now the most valuable
species of fish breed in these gorges, and the young do not euter, in any
considerable numbers, the large rivers till after one or two years,
and as these little canals are numerous in all the gorges, and at
seasons take in nearly all the waters of the streams, the young
of these several species of fish naturally find their way into these
canals, and whether the men who own these canals have nets or not
to catch fish, all they have to do when they want a meal of fish, is to
shut off the water from their ' kools' or canals, and in twenty minutes
it becomes dry, and they can go along and pick up the fish that were in
it. A few years ago I wished to collect the species of fish in the Mandi
riveiv, a branch of the Bias, which enters the Bias at the city of Mandi.
I had but two hours to stay at that place, and I called a fisherman, an
old man, and told him to take a close net to a small stream and bring
me any living thing he could obtain from it ; in less than an hour he
brought me a basket-full of life, the sight of which would have gladdened
the heart of a naturalist, six species of fish, and several sorts of
aquarium insects, shells, crabs, &c. I wondered how he alone got that
basket- full. He told me he owned a mill, and all he had to do was to
shut off the water from the ' hoof and pick up his basket-full from dry
land." One species was Oreinus sinuatus, Heckel, " the most valuable
for food to the common people on account of its wide limits of distribu-
tion and great fecundity. An intelligent native on the Bias river observed
that it wrent up to the high hill gorges in the early summer to feed on
rich food and returned in the cold season down the rivers very fat.
* * * I have known females of 3lbs. in weight to ascend small
streams 8 miles, in a few hours, after the first heavy shower of the rainy
season." [As a corroboration of this I may mention, that on going across
the Himalayas from Chumba to Choaree, I stopped at a little rill that
formed small pools here and there, and in which were numerous immature
fish. Having a net with me I procured a few, some were young
loaches, NemacJieilus rupecula, McClelland, but the majority consisted
of the fry of the mountain barbels, Oreinus sinuatus, Heckel, whilst
none could be that year's fish. The locality was upwards of one hundred
feet above the main stream, with a very steep ascent, and sufficient rain
not having fallen so as to permit fish ascending so high, they must have
been the fry of the preceding season ; and from observations made in diff-
erent places, it appeared to me most probable, that rapid growth does not
commence until the presence of rain water in the rivers, which it is said,
and probably correctly, brings down some peculiarly nourishing food. J
34. In the Peshawar Division the Tehsildar of Peshawar reports
Peshawar Division. — Answers there are 190 fishermen who also pursue
of native officials of Peshawar, other occupations ; their castes are Jhewurs,
Haripur, Mausera, and Kohat. Jhub^ Afghan &nd Meen Lo(jal markefcs

are not fully supplied with fish ; more could be sold. About 10 per cent, of
the people are fish-eaters. Fish have decreased of late years, very small ones
are taken during the rains in nets made of thread, and occasionally

XX

with sheets ; these last are spread out and sunk in the water and raised
when filled with fish. The smallest mesh of the nets is £ of an inch
between the knots. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields along the
banks of rivers, during1 the rains. The Tehsildar of Haripur observes,
that zemindars and others fish when not otherwise occupied ; the markets
are not fully supplied, more fish could be sold. A small proportion
of the people eat fish, the supply of which has slightly decreased.
Immature ones are not caught in the rains, the smallest mesh being 1 inch
between each knot of the meshes. Fish are not trapped in the irrigat-
ed fields ; some are speared by torch-light. The Tehsildar of Mausera
reports, that there are 160 fishermen, but they follow other occupations;
the markets are not fully supplied ; more fish could be sold ; the majority
of the people eat it, but more as a luxury than a staple of food. The
supply has decreased of late years. During the rains quantities of the
immature are taken, but breeding fish are not trapped in the irrigated
fields. The Tehsildar of Kohdl states, that only a few Kahars of the
regiments in garrison occasionally net fish, and boatmen on the Indus
capture siome with hooks and lines. The consumption of fish is small,
and confined to the city and cantonments, a very few of the general
population being fish-eaters.

35. In the Rawal Pindi district, the five Tehsildar s report as fol-
lows :— In Rawal Pindi there are 30 fisher-
Rdwal Pindi Division.- An- m £ Attock %Q . G • Khan Q . p thJ

swers of lehsildars ot Kawal ' . -««-••, n n ■> n

Pindi, Attock, Gujer Khan, Fathi J<™g 4, in Mum 1, all ot whom follow

Jang, Muni, Jhilam, Piud D&dan other occupations. All the Kahars, the

5t6KhSSWmdIahfmg' GUJ" Machi; and Bhuttiara castes 6sh, and the

Jhewurs and Mullas amongst the Mahome-
dans. The supply is insufficient or absent in four tehsils, and sufficient
in one. In Rawal Pindi 75 per cent, of the population eat fish, in
Attock (being Mahomed ans) nearly the whole, the same in Gujer
Khan and Fathi Jang, but only 10 per cent, in Muni. In Rawal
Pindi and Muni the supply is stated to have decreased, in Attock
to be stationary, and in the other two tehsils to have slightly increased.
At Mouzah Gungal in Rawal Pindi, fish are said to be trapped to a
limited extent. In the Jhilam district four Tehsildars state, that in Jhilam
there are 15 fishermen, but in the other three tehsils fishing is merely carried
on in addition to other occupations. In Jhilam, only, are the markets
fully supplied, and there about three-fourths of the population eat fish,
the remaining 25 per cent., who are chiefly Brahmins, never do so; in
Piud Dadan Khan |5 (eight-tenth ?, this being the proportion of Mahome-
dans to Hindus,) eat fish. Hindus have an aversion to it. In Chakwal it
is not touched. In Talegang the people in the vicinty of the Soan river
eat fish. In Jhilam fish are said to be increasing ; in Pind Daxian
Khan to have decreased, but to have remained stationary in the two other
tehsils. Small ones are said to be taken in Jhilam during the rains. The
minimum size of the meshes of nets vary from 1 inch between the
knots in the larger nets, to from \ to ^ an inch in the ' chilwa' nets.
Fish are not trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. In the
Gvjrat district, the three Tehsildars report as follows : in Gujrat there are
7 fishermen, in Kharim 2, and in Sahem 1, all of whom follow other
occupations. The local markets are not fully supplied, more fish could
be sold. In Gujrat more than half the people eat fish, in Kharim

XXI

nine-tenths, Sahem one-fourth. In two of the tehsils fish are said to
have decreased of late years, and in one to have remained stationary. Small
ones are caught during- the rains, the minimum sized mesh employed
being* from | to ^ an inch between the knots. Fish are not trapped
during the rains in two tehsils, but are in the remainiug one.

36. Inthe Berajat division, the four Tehsildars of Banu report as fol-

lows:— There are no regular fishermen, the
JS£a2£l££»5£ ™™"A™ occasionally catch fish, as do also the
Miamaoli, Lakki, Dera Gazi Mahomedans tor their own eating : the mar-
Khan, Sangarh, Rajanpur, Jam- kets are not supplied. The Tehsildar of Band
pur, Dera, Liah, Bhakkar, Kola- reportg that figfc fc very little eaten in his

tehsil ; in Isakhel that all the Mahomedans
will when they can procure it ; in Miamaoli that most classes will eat it
when they happen to get it, but they do not take any trouble about
it ; and at Lakki that no one eats fish because there are none to eat.
The supply appears to have remained stationary : very small ones are not
taken in any quantity during the rains. The minimum size of the mesh
employed is about ^ an inch between knot and knot. Fish are not trapped
in the irrigated fields during the rains. The four Teshildars of Dera
Gazi Khan state that in Dera Gazi Khan and Sangarh there are no fisher-
men, in Rajanpur there are 125, in Jampur 16, they follow other occu-
pations. The markets in two tehsils are moderately supplied, but insuffi-
ciently so in the others, still in most more could be sold. In Dera Gazi
Khan most of the city people are said to eat fish when it is in season ;
in Rajanpur three quarters of those who are within reach of the markets :
in Jampur the majority. The supply has decreased in Dera Gazi
Khan, but largely increased in Rajanpur and Jampur. Small fish are not
taken during the rains, neither are breeding ones trapped in the irrigated
fields. The minimum size of the meshes of nets employed is ^ an inch
between the knots. In Dera Ismail Khan the four Tehsildars stated that
there are 40 fishermen in the Dera tehsil, 10 or 12 in Liah, about the
same number in Bhakkar, but only 4 or 5 in Kolachi. During the hot
weather, as the river rises, all cultivate land : they are of the Jat caste,
section Muchiarrah. The local markets are not fully supplied, and
much more could be profitably sold. The proportion of people who
eat fish is not large, even in the town of Dera Ismail Khan, and few
depend on it in the district as a source of food. They have decreased
this year owing to the heavy floods of last season. The smallest mesh
employed in the nets is ^ an inch in size. Fish are rarely trapped during
the freshes of the river.

37. In the Mid tan Division the Tehsildars report that there are

28 fishermen, all of whom are Mahomedans,

JwS£?rf M^Tdt <"\tt, lPnT °thel; °<=™P?«™\ Fish are never

trict; Ala dal Khau, Honorary sold in the markets, although about 50 per

Magistrate, Kbangarh : Daro- cent, of the people eat them; the supply in the

gahSh^e Shah (Hyatolla Khan); waters js more this year than last season.

Alian Mahbab Gurhuiani; the -r,. , , . •'. . .

Tehsildars of Muzaffargarh, Kot *ish are not taken during the rams, as it is a

Adu, Montgomery, Gugaira, Pak- popular belief that if used as food at this period

patan, Kiaz Hoss.iu Multan, tlie occasion sickness. The smallest mesh
bhooiabad, Lodhran, Mailsi, be- J, ■, . , ,, n , -,-,.,

raieSaidhu. employed is |th or an inch square. *ish are

not trapped in the irrigated fields. There

XX11

are three sorts of fishing : 1st, by means of baskets covered over by a piece
of net termed ' km-'; 2ndly, by means of hooks ' kundee'; and lastly, by
nets. In the Muzaffargarh district, Ala Dal Khan, Honorary Magistrate,
Khdngarh, replies that the fishermen caste are Jhabel ; the supply of fish is
insufficient; the population as a rule eat it, but the Mahomedans more so
than the Hindus. Daroga/i Shere Shah (Hyatolla Khan) reports that
there are 128 fishermen on the Chenab, all of whom cultivate land. The
markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, but it is generally eaten by
the people. Fishing is not carried on during the rains ; the smallest mesh
used is 4 an inch square. Mian Mahbdb Garhmani replies, that there
are 60 fishermen in his ilaqa; they fish during the cold season, and
cultivate in the hot weather ; their castes are Jhabel, Mahana, Sumeri
and Manjri. The markets are insufficiently supplied, although most of
the people eat fish, especially the Mahomedans. The supply remains
stationary. Fish are not taken during the rains. The smallest mesh used is
1 inch square. The Tehsildar of Muzaffargarh states that there are 50
fishermen, who also employ themselves in cultivation. The markets are
very insufficiently supplied, although two-thirds of the people eat fish, the
supply of which has continued stationary. Fish are not taken in any quan-
tity during the rains, nor trapped in the irrigated fields ; the smallest mesh
employed is 1 inch between the knots. The Tehsildar of Kot Adu
replies that there are 326 fishermen who have likewise other occupa-
tions. The local market is -not sufficiently supplied. The population
generally eat fish ; none are captured during the rains, or in the irrigated
fields ; the smallest-sized mesh employed is 1^ inch between the knots.
hi the Montgomery district, the Tehsildar of Montgomery observes, that the
fishermen are of the Jhumail caste, and they likewise cultivate land.
The local market is fully supplied ; some fish are exported to Labor ; the
supply has remained stationary during the last few years : very small
ones are taken in the rains ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is
f of an inch between the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irrigated
fields during the rains. The Tehsildar of Gugaira reports, that there are
125 fishermen who also follow other occupations. The local markets
are not fully supplied, although two-thirds of the population eat fish. Very
small ones are captured during the rains, with nets having minute meshes,
and also by sheets ; the minimum size of the meshes is \ an inch between
the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains.
The Tehsildar of Pakjpatan replies, that there are 45 fishermen in his
range, but they are also cultivators. The markets are insufficiently
supplied with fish, although 90 per cent, of the people eat it. The
amount in the waters has decreased until last year ; a few small ones are
taken during the rains ; the minimun size of the mesh of the nets is 1 inch
between the knots ; a few fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during
the rains. The following are the modes of fishing : ' kanta' or 'koondi :'
' koorli/ which is similar in shape to the f kkaneha' or ' tapa' used for
keeping fowls. Nets, ' jal/ of the following descriptions :• — 'ittar/
'soomhi/ large net called 'kuclnY or 'leva/ and 'sathwan.' The
Tehsildar of liiaz Hoossain reports 60 fishermen in his range; they
follow other occupations, and all are Mussalmen. The local markets
are not fully supplied with fish, although about -ffths of the
population eat it; the amount in the waters has decreased

XX111

of late. Very few small fishes are taken during the rains, nor
are large ones trapped in the irrigated fields ; the minimum size of the
mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. The five Tehsildars in the
Multan district report 95 fishermen, viz., 6 in Multan, 13 in Shoojabad,
35 in Lodhran, 26 in Mailsi, and 15 in Seraie Saidhu ; they also pursue
other occupations. During the cold season the markets are fully supplied
with fish, which are eaten by 90 per cent, of the Mahomedans and 14
per cent, of the Hindu population. The fish supply has remained
stationary of late years ; small ones are not taken during the rains, nor
are any trapped in the irrigated fields ; the minimum size of the mesh
of the nets is \ an inch between each knot. The local names of nets
and traps employed for taking fish in this district are ' jals,' ' koor/
' koondees •/ the last is of three descriptions which are termed ' khatha/
f nurra/ and ' satla.'

38. In the Lahor District, the Tehsildar of that place states there

are 150 fishermen who also follow other call-

Lahor Division.— Answers of ing-s. The markets are not fully supplied with

ctItSi'Stkp^G°;j™[: «*. ""eh species of food is eatea by five-sixths

la, Wazirabad, Hafizabad. of the population. The amount m the waters

has decreased of late years, due to a defi-
ciency of rain ; very small ones are taken during the rains with nets called
'satna/ the minimum size of its meshes about equal that of a grain of
gram. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. The
Tehsildar of Kdsur states, that in his range there are 50 fishermen of the
' Main' caste, who do not pursue any other occupation. The markets are
not fully supplied. The amount in the waters is said to have decreased
until this year, when an increase is reported. Very small fish are taken
during the rains with a net termed ' sumbi ; ' the minimum size of the
meshes employed is £ an inch between each kuot ; none are trapped in
the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Chunia reports 25 fishermen in
his range, they also have other callings. The markets are insufficiently
supplied ; about half the population eat fish ; the amount in the waters has
decreased until the present year, when it has increased, due to the opening
of the ' Kabora' canal. Very small fish are not taken during the rains,
nor trapped in the irrigated fields ; the minimum size of the mesh of
nets employed is ^ an inch between each knot. The Tehsildar of
Sharkpur states that there are 50 fishermen in his range, all of whom
pursue other callings ; the markets are insufficiently supplied ;
95 per cent, of the population are fish consumers. The supply has decreas-
ed ; small fish are not taken during the rains, but large ones are trapped
at this season in the irrigated fields; the minimum size of the mesh of the
nets is given at 1| inches between each knot. In the Gujranwalla dis-
trict, the three tehsildars give the number of fishermen at 105, viz.,
Gujranwalla 50, Wazirabad 25, Hafizabad 30, all of whom follow other
occupations. None of the markets are sufficiently supplied. All the Mus-
sulmen and generally two-thirds of the Hindus are fish-eaters, but the
Brahmins and women usually reject it. In the first-named tehsil the
fish are said to have decreased, but to have remained stationary in the
other two ; small ones are stated no longer to be taken during the rains ;
in one tehsil it is believed that they are unwholesome at this period. The
minimum sized mesh of the nets employed is } of an inch between

XXIV

the knots at Wazirabad, and | at Hafizabad ; in this last tehsil only are
fish said to be trapped in the irrigated fields during- the rains.

39. In the Amritsar district, the tehsildars and two Extra Assistant

. . _. . . Commissioners report, that in the whole of

Amritsar Division. — Answers ji v x • j. t-- ii • 1 i i i

of Tehsildars audExtra Assistant the district which is bordered by two rivers,

Commissioners of the Amritsar there are from 80 to 90 fisherman of several

district ; of the Tehsildars of castes, viz., the ' Machees' and ' Jheenumrs/

Reyah, Pasrur, Zaffarwal, Sial- —.y,- ~..^ „1™ 1 „l „ 1 a j.i_

kot, Shakergarh, Batala, and jl? ,? , * S° l^™ ^d Water-Carriers ; the

Pathankot. Mullas or boatmen; the 'Jhubhail/ who

also trap birds, and the ' Summi/ who are mat-
makers. During the cold season the markets are generally well supplied,
but Amritsar is insufficiently so. All the Mahomedans and half the
Hindus eat fish, the supply of which is considered to have remained sta-
tionary. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains, and
numbers of small ones are also taken at this period ; the minimum size of
the mesh of the nets is given at 1 inch between each knot. The fol-
lowing modes are employed for taking fish : — Rods, nets, harpooning,
digging holes in rivers' banks and allowing them to fill from the river,
then cutting off communication with the stream, and lading out the
water ; also with baskets and ghurras and various sorts of nets. In the
Sialhot district the Tehsildar of Reyah replies, that there are 70 fishermen
in his range, all of whom follow other callings : they are Pnkheewarahs,
Machees and Kahars. The markets are insufficiently supplied with fish,
which are eaten by two-thirds of the population. The amount in the
waters has decreased of late years ; many small ones are not taken during
the rains; the minimum size of the meshes of nets are 1^ inches between
each knot. The Tehsildar of Pasrur reports, that there are 29 fishermen
in his range, and that they all follow other occupations. The markets are
very insufficiently supplied; some 11,000 Hindus out of 244,397 per-
sons, or about 1 in 22, do not eat fish, the supply of which in the waters
has decreased. The smallest, sized mesh of nets employed is 1^ inches
between each knot. The Tehsildar of Zaffarwal states, that there are
34 fishermen in his range, all of whom pursue other callings. The
local markets are not sufficiently supplied with fish, which article of
food is consumed by half the population. The minimum size of the
mesh of nets employed is ^ of an inch between each knot. The Teh-
sildar of Sialkot reports, that there are 534 fishermen in his district,
all of whom have other occupations. The markets are very badly sup-
plied with fish, which are eaten by three-fourths of the population. Fish
have decreased of late years ; they are taken during the rains, but to no
great extent, by the construction of dams across nalas, which are then
netted; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is one-third of an inch
between the knots. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields during
the rains to any extent. In the Gurdaspur district, the Tehsildar states,
that there are 80 fishermen in his range, who have also other occupations.
The bazars are insufficiently supplied with fish, which is used as food by
all the people, except Bunias, Bhabras, and Hindustani Brahmins. The
amount in the waters has greatly decreased during the last ten years, for,
owing to the scantiness of rain, the chumbs and pools have not been
replenished from inundations of the rivers, which is a great impediment
to their spawning. During the rains small fish are caught to a great extent

XXV

by hand-nets, the minimum size of the meshes being \ of an inch
between the knots. Fish are also trapped in the irrigated fields during
periods of inundation. The modes of fishing are, by large and small nets,
baskets, traps, spears and rods. ' MahajaP or drag-nets are worked by
several persons, who drag it as much as a mile to where another net has
been previously kept stretched across the river which is weighted below,
and floated above by bundles of grass. ' Goodur jaP is fastened at the
mouth of a pool or stream as a purse net. 'Veerajal/ or hand-net, is
like a 'gughra' having iron rings all round the lower end, it is thrown
by hand, and then gently pulled out of the water. ' Kooncha' or
' koorlee' is made of reed or bamboo in the shape of a cone with the two
ends open, this is jammed down in shallow water, and the fish removed
by the hand from the upper end. Spearing is pursued during the winter
months when the fish are less active and the water still, the fisherman
rows about in a small boat from which he uses his spear. ' Chip' is made
in the shape of a chick, it is placed over the mouth of an outlet of a
pool, the fish finding an obstruction there, fall back into a hole which
had been previously dug on the side of the outlet, and are there taken
by the hand. The Tehsildar of Shakergarh reports, that there are
1 04 fishermen who pursue other callings as well ; the supply of fish in
the towns is scanty, but they are generally sold in the villages to a large
extent or rather exchanged for grain, when the latter article is cheap it
obtains double weight, when dear equal proportions. Half the population
eat fish, the supply of which has increased during the past year. Small
ones are taken during the rains by nets and sheets : the minimum size of
the mesh of the former is given at 1 inch between each knot. Fish are
also trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of
Batala replies, that 23 licenses have been granted to fishermen (Jhee-
wurs) during the year ; besides these there are several persons who take
fish as well as follow other occupations. The supply in the
market is sufficient ; one-third of the population eat it, but its amount
has lately decreased owing to deficiency of rain, whilst the mini-
mum size of the mesh of the nets is \ of an inch between each knot.
The Tehsildar of Pathankot reports, that there are 130 fishermen in his
range, they also work as laborers. The supply in the bazars is equal to
the demand ; three- fourths of the people eat fish, the amount of which has
remained stationary during the past few years. Small ones are taken to a
great extent during the rains, but none are trapped in the irrigated fields.
40. In the Ambala Division the six Tehsildars report as follows : that

there are 357 fishermen divided thus : Ambala

Ambala Division.— Answers 30, Jagadri Irrigation Canal 75, Raossur

of the Tehsildars of Ambala, 30 Kharar a8 Narayangarh 94, Pipli 100, all

Jagadri, Kaossur, Kharar, ' _ ' i /• t j_i

Narayangarh, Pipli. of whom follow other occupations. In the

first five tehsils the markets are not fully sup-
plied ; in the last they are said to be so. The following are the propor-
tions of the population who eat fish : Ambala one-fifth; Jagadri two-thirds;
Raossur one-fourth ; Kharar two-thirds ; Narayangarh only the Maho-
medans, and the Kutrees and Kyuts amongst the Hindus; whilst in Pipli
very few do so. They have decreased in tehsils Nos. 1, 3, 4, increased in
Nos. 2 and 6, but remained stationary in No. 5. Small fish and those in
irrigated fields are not destroyed during the rains in Ambala and Raossur,

XXVI

but are in Jagadri ; whilst young- only are in Kharar, Narayangarh and
Pipli. The minimum size of the meshes of nets employed, is given at
Ambala and Narayangarh about sufficiently large to allow a grain of
wheat to pass ; at Pipli about J of an inch between the knots ; at Jagadri
2 an inch, and Raossur 5 fingers.

41. In the Jalandar division, Tehsildar Fuiteh Been Khan of
T , , _. . . Jalandar reports that there are five fishermen

Jalandar Division. — Answers . . . . , ., , •. ,» „ v1

of the Tehsildars of Jalandar, ln the tehsil WllO also IollOW other OCClipa-

Phiiiur, Nawashahr, Nacodar, tions. The local markets are only well supplied
H dSDapuf' Unah' Garhsankar' during the rains. The whole of the population

eat fish, except Brahmins, Bhabras, Banias,
Vishnus and Mahomedan Sheeas. The amount in the waters has
decreased : small ones are captured during the rains, and some are trapped
in the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Phillur reports that there are
four fishermen in his tehsil who hold licenses, and others who do not.
The markets are not well supplied. Five per cent, of the people eat fish.
The amount in the waters continued stationary for a few years, but
latterly it has decreased. Small ones are netted during the rains,
but none are trapped in the irrigated fields; the minimum size
of the mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. The Tehsil-
dar of Naivashahr reports, 120 fishing licenses have been taken out,
these fishermen likewise pursue other callings. The supply in the
markets is not one-fifth of the demand; 33 per cent of the people eat
fish, which has increased of late. During the rains fishes are taken in
the fields. The Tehsildar of Nacodar states, that prior to the introduc-
tion of the license system, there were about 200 fishermen, now there
are only 8 license-holders ; they likewise engage in other work. The
markets are not half supplied. Fifty per cent, of the population eat fish :
the amount in the waters has much decreased of late, in fact scarcely
any can be found. Small fish are not taken during the rains, but large
ones are sometimes trapped in the fields. The minimum size of the
mesh of the nets is 1 inch between each knot. The Tehsildar of Hu-
shiarpur reports, that there are no regular fishermen in his range, there
being no large river, but the Kahars and Bhatis generally net the small
streams for the purpose of procuring fish for their own consumption, but
their regular occupation is working mills. There are no local markets,
but any quantity offish offered is sure to find a ready sale, as three-fourths
of the population are fish-eaters. The supply in the waters has remained
stationary ; small ones are not taken during the rains. The minimum
size of the mesh of the nets is \ of an inch between the knots. The
modes of fishing pursued are as follow : — By 'maha jal/ which is em-
ployed for taking large fish, and is worked by five or six persons jointly ;
by a smaller net, which is used by a single man, and one rather larger
used by two men. The local names of the nets in use are ' sittawan jal/
' dundaiwala jal/ ' tup/ ' koondi/ ' moon/ ' douruh gulli/ 'chadur/
The Tehsildar of Unah replies, that there are about 37 licensed fishermen ;
the supply of fish is insufficient : about one-fourth of the population,
mostly Mussalmen, eat it. The amount in the waters is stated to have
increased ; small ones are not captured during the raius. The minimum
size of the meshes of the nets which are used is 1| inches between the
knots. The Tehsildar of Garhsankar reports, that there are 7 fishermen

XXV11

in his range ; the supply of fish is insufficient for local requirements. It
is eaten by 90 per cent, of the people. The amount during- late years has
been stationary. Some small fishes are trapped in irrigated fields during*
the rains. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets used is | of an
inch between each knot. The Tehsildar of Dasuha replies, that about
200 persons fish in addition to other occupations; the supply is in-
sufficient for local requirements ; 75 per cent, of the population are fish-
eaters ; the supply has decreased of late years owing to a diminution of
rain. Small ones are not taken during the rains ; no nets are used with
a mesh less than 1 inch between the knots. Some fish are trapped in
the irrigated fields during the rains : they also are taken by diverting a
stream through a narrow opening in which a net is fixed, and by
spearing.

42. In the Hissdr division, the Tehsildar of that place states, there
-rr. , -n- • • a is onlv one fisherman in his range, and who

Missar Division. — Answers . . J , t r\ /» 1

of the Tehsildars of Hissar, also has other work. Out ol a rural popula-
Hansi, Fathiabad, Bhawani, and tion of 107,442 persons, only one-third could
Barwdla- eat fish, but not 2 in 1,000 are fond of it ;

at this rate there are not more than 70 individuals in the tehsil who
care to eat it. The supply in the waters remains stationary. The only
net has above 1 inch between each knot of the meshes. The Tehsildar of
Hdnsi replies, that there is only one fisherman in his range ; 10 per cent,
of the population eat fish, the supply of which has remaiued stationary.
The Tehsildar of Fathiabad reports, that there are 13 fishermen in his
range, all of whom have other occupations as well. Only the Mussal-
men eat fish, but they are not very fond of it ; about one-eighth, out of
a population of about 32,047, consume it. The supply continues
stationary ; small ones are not taken during the rains ; the minimum size
of the mesh of the nets employed is ^ of an inch between each knot. The
Tehsildar of Bhaivani states, that there are no fishermen and no fish.
The Tehsildar of Barwdla replies, that there are 10 fishermen, all of
whom follow other occupations. Fish are never sold, but whenever the
zemindars feel inclined to eat it, they generally give the fishermen some
grain in repayment for catching it. About one-eighth of the people
may eat fish, the supply of which remains stationary.

43. In the Delhi division, the Tehsildar of Delhi gives the number
...... of fishermen at 4,810, only pursuing this

Delhi Division. — Answers of .• j • n • j i

the Tehsildars of Delhi, Lar- occupation during the winter and summer
sauli, Baiiabhgarh.Gurgaon, Re- months, whilst during the rains they are
wari, Palwal, Nuh, Fazilka, dooly-bearers. The castes are Sheikhs,
Ia"thal.KUrna1, P*nipat' and Pathans, Mullas, and Kahars. The local

markets are sufficiently supplied ; the demand
in the summer and during the rains decreases, and during the winter
from 2 to 2^ maunds is consumed. The fish-eating portion of the
population is given at 96,268 out of 608,450 fa proportion widely
differing from that given in 1870 by the { Deputy Commissioner/ who
reported that 44 per cent, of the people were fish-eaters, when the price
was sufficiently low to enable them to obtain it]. Fish are stated to be
decreasing, due to the Okla weir across the Jumna. Immature fish are
not taken in large quantities during the rains : the minimum size of the
mesh of the nets employed is | of an inch between the knots. The

xxvm

zemindars do not permit fish to be taken in the irrigated fields. The
Tehsildar of Larsauli states, that the Dheewur caste, to the extent of
1,061, catch fish, and otherwise subsist by labour. Out of 167,857 people
the fish-eating- community is 56,914. The supply is stationary ; none are
taken in the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Ballabhgarh replies, that
the Dheewur or Kubar castes, of which some 520 inhabit the tehsil,
during the summer catch fish for their own subsistence. The markets
are insufficiently supplied ; 50 per cent, of the people can eat fish ; the
population is 132,657. The amount in the waters has decreased. In
the Gurgdon district the four Tehsildars report as follows : — In Gurgaon,
Rewari, and Palwal no fishermen live, but there are 15 in Nuh. Fish are
not sold. In the first-named tehsil 5 per cent., in the second no answer,
in the third one-third or less, and in the fourth two-thirds of the population
can eat fish ; the amount in the waters has increased of late in the first two
tehsils, decreased in the third, and appai-eutly the fourth. The minimum
size of the mesh of the nets mentioned is \ of an inch In the Sarsa District,
the Tehsildar of Fazilha reports 15 fishermen, who pursue other occupa-
tions. The local markets are not fully supplied with fish ; all the people
living along the river eat it, so do those in the towns, except the Brah-
mins and Mohajuns : it is not much eaten in rural districts away from
the river, whilst Baguries reject it as food. The supply has decreased.
A quantity of small ones are taken during the rains ; T3y of an inch is the
minimum size between each knot of the meshes. A few fish are trap-
ped during the inundations in the irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of Sarsa
states there are 18 fishermen in his range, who also have other occupa-
tions ; they are Mullas and Deendars. The supply of fish exceeds the
demand; they are generally exchanged for grain. Less than 5 per cent,
of the people eat fish, the amount of which in the waters, continues
stationary. One inch between the knots is the smallest-sized mesh used.
In the Kurnal district there are 42 fishermen, all of whom have other
means of livelihood; in the Kurnal Tehsil there are 22, in Panipat 10, in
Kaithal 10; the castes are Mayo and Jheewur Mussalmen. The supply in
the markets is enough in Kurnal and Kaithal, but insufficient in Panipat,
owing to a paucity of fishermen. In Kurnal half, in Panipat one-fourth,
and in Kaithal a little above one-fourth, of the population may eat fish.
The amount in the waters is reported as stationary. Small fish are taken
during the rains with nets having minute meshes, whilst the poorer classes
use cloths : the minimum size of the meshes of nets is \ of an inch
between the knots. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields.

XXIX

SIND.

44. The fresh-water fisheries of this Province are mainly divisible

_, , „ , . „ „. , into those which exist in the river Indus, or

Fresh-water fisheries or bind. „ -., .. , . , ,. '

are tormed by its yearly inundations, these

last being" principally in Upper and Central Sind. The portion of the
river between the right bank of the Indus and the ' Phut' is slightly
concave, owing to which circumstance/when the river overflows, the whole
of this part of the country becomes more or less inundated. The ' Phut*
is the tract of land along the base of the hills which divide Sind from
Beluchistan, it averages about nine miles broad, and irrigated by water ob-
tained from the hill streams, which is arrested by bunds and diverted into
irrigation canals. The inundations on the left bank of the Indus do not
appear to be so extensive as those on its right.

45. The river Indus is usually at its lowest in January or February :

„. x . at the commencement of March the snow-

River Indus. „ j , j ., .. ,.

floods begin, and its rise continues spasmodi-
cally until about August ; whilst in September the subsidence is usually
very rapid, and by November zero is attained. The floods, as a rule, may
be expected to subside about the middle of September, when, or shortly
subsequently, fishing commences.

46. The tanks or 'dhands/ as they are locally termed, are chiefly

of two sorts as regards their relationship to the
Tanks or dhands, isolated or incius viz the ' isolated' and the < connected/

connected with Indus: their T .-, r. -, • nl . „

finny inhabitants. fn tne former, weeds rapidly spring up form-

ing a refuge for the fish. In the connected
dhands weeds are not so numerous, and the finny tribes appear to vary :
if the water is very muddy, the siluroids abound, whilst the Dumra, Labeo
rohita, a fine carp, although not so plentiful as in the dhands where it is
clear, still is rarely absent. In places where the water is clear, the
largest amount of ' dumra' are to be seen : thus at Trigarti I found the
connected dhand in the river quite dark with them. Tanks useful for
fishing extend in Upper Sind over a large extent of the country, and
appear to be most valuable as affording animal food to the population
inhabiting these malarious districts.

47. As to canal fisheries, the capture of the finny tribes is here pro-
Canal fisheries. Proofs that if J>iWted,to obviate the chance of the canals

small-meshed nets are prohibit- being injured ; thus a most excellent opportu-
ed, the little fish do not dispro- nity was afforded of testing the correctness

WCT^te iUCreaSe °Ver tLe or the reverse of the opinion advanced by the

Collector of South Canara, in his exhaustive
report on the fisheries of that district, that were a minimum-sized mesh
of four inches in circumference instituted, " the smaller sorts of fish,
having an immunity from netting, must disproportionately increase on the
larger netted sorts. Nature has arranged that the larger predatory fish
shall balance the smaller, and thus maintain due proportions ; but if one
sort is netted by man, and the other sort has immunity, the balance is
disturbed, and the larger fish are no longer able to maintain their position."

XXX

Theoretically this may be very correct, but how is it practically ?
In Sind, nets for capturing- fry do not exist, but still Nature maintains the
due proportions, of which I will adduce one instance out of several that
I have personally witnessed. At Muhu, the canal from the Indus joins
the bed of the old Narrah, and fishing- was prohibited. A deep hole
existed at the confluence of these two pieces of water, and fish were most
numerous. The muddy water of the Indus here joined the compara-
tively clear stream from the old Narrah, for, due to its more circuitous
route, much of its mud and silt had become deposited. If a small fish
appeared, it seemed to be at once disposed of by the large siluroids. At
the first throw of a cast net, 10 of these fish weighing about 30 lbs. were
captured : having- crossed the old Narrah, in one more throw into the
conjoined stream, 18 more were taken, weighing about 50 lbs. The same
is seen in the thinly populated districts in Burma. Larger fish prey
upon the smaller ones ; thus I have taken a barbel out of a hard-rayed fish,
Nandus marmoratus, that was one-third the length of its captor.

48. As to the fishing in the Indus itself, this chiefly consists in

capturing the shoals of shad, which ascend
^Fishery iu Indus, mostly of fr()m ^ gea f Qr ^ pm,poge of breedingj

about February, and return to the salt water
about the end of September, for, " owing to the dangerous character of the
river at all times, but especially during the inundations, there are
strong contending currents," and other fishing is but little resorted to.
Another reason that the river is but slightly fished, is, that the population
in its vicinity is scanty, for, owing to the constant and occasionally
sudden variations in its course, the neighbouring land is always liable
to be ruined by the silt deposited upon it during inundations, and villages
are in danger of being swept away.

49. The fishes in the fresh waters of Sind are mainly of two

descriptions — -first, the river fish common to the

Fresh-water fishes consist of Panjab, and the pulla, which ascends from the

river and inundation sorts No gea f breeding purposes, and it is this latter

preventible destruction of the , . . ° ,x L , e. ■. n -,

immature appears to obtain. only that is much sought alter by fishermen ;

secondly, the inundation fish, which are of two
descriptions: (1) river fish, which have been carried by the overflowing
of the Indus over the neighbouring country ; (2) tank fish, which,
from the same cause, have in like manner been distributed everywhere.
No undue and preventible destruction of small fish appears to exist in
Upper and Central Sind— -first due to the paucity of population ; secondly,
because of the rapidity and dangerous character of the river Indus and
the constant variations in its channel ; and thirdly, owing to the security
the immature fish obtain during the inundation season.

50. As to the proportion of people who eat fish ? — Its use is almost

universal, and here the Mahomedans do not
Fish universally eaten. ^^ ^ ^ gcaleless formgj under the Delief

that, if they have gill openings, it is a proof that they are allowed to the
faithful, as the prophet cut their throats.

51. The markets seem to be sufficiently supplied during certain

seasons of the year. The amount of fish

Fisheries peculiar. Wasteful appears to De stationary : breeding ones are

destruction not observed. rf , . -. n i • i i jj

not destroyed, as fishing has to be suspended

XXXI

during the inundation season ; for like reason the fry escapes. Minute
meshed nets are not employed, so far as I could ascertain, by the inhabit-
ants of Upper and Central Sind, as it is found more profitable to permit
the young fish to attain a fair size before capturing- them. As the waters
in the tanks subside and food begins to decrease, then netting is carried
on. Owing to the peculiar character of the fisheries of this province and
the smallness of the population, remedial measures do not appear at present
called for (see Report on fisheries of Sind, March 18th, 1872).

52. The Commissioner of Sind (September 9th, 1868) reported, "the

pulla [Clupea palasah, Cuv. & Val.] is the
Report by the Commissioner Qn}y description 0£ fisn caught in the river.

Their appearance is restricted to a particular
season, from March until September ; they are not local, but come up
from the sea to spawn, and are secured in nets capable of catching not
more than one, two, or three at a time. Owing to the dangerous charac-
ter of the river at all times, but especially during the inundations,
when there are strong contending currents, fishing of any other descrip-
tion is never resorted to. In the 'dhands' and hollows, considerable
quantities of fish are caught in drag-nets ; these are consumed by the
inhabitants in adjacent towns and villages, and the residue is salted and
sold in remote localities ; but during the inundations these receptacles be-
come very deep and extensive, when the use of nets is abandoned, and
the supply of fish becomes renewed. Some loss of small fish is no doubt
occasioned when the hollows dry up after the inundation has subsided ;
this, however, is unavoidable in consequence of the isolation of many
places from their main feeder (the Indus), and cannot therefore be con-
sidered as a wanton destruction of fish."

53. The Acting Collector of Shikarpnr reported (1871), that the

fisheries in the Collectorate are of two kinds,
Shikarpnr Collectorate ; its th th Indug d th { th <dh£uds>

tislicriGS*

or depressions which are supplied with water
every year from the overflow of the Indus or the larger canals. All
fisheries, with the exception of a few included in some jaghirs, and those in
the territory of His Highness Meer Ali Morad, Chief of Khypur, are the
property of Government, and the farm of Government fisheries is sold
yearly to the highest bidder. The revenue from this source varies but
little from year to year; in 1869 it was Rs. 32,023-7-6 for the whole
Collectorate. In the Indus the fishing is restricted to that for the pulla,
which annually ascends from the sea to breed, appearing about the end
of February; it returns to the sea in September. The fishermen or
Mahanas now resort to the dhands to ply their occupation. Many of
these dhands dry up before the annual rise of the river replenishes the
supply of water in them, others again are sufficiently deep to retain water
all the year round. With the yearly inundations are brought a number
of fish which are sufficient for the year's supply, so no system of pre-
serving these fisheries seems necessaiy.

54. The Collector of Karachi observed (March 15th, 1872), that

the rights of private parties in the fisheries

Kurachi Collectorate jits fish- have never been accurately defined, but that

such rights exist by immemorial custom is
well known. The Government right is to levy one-third of the fish

enes.

xxxn

caught. It cannot, however, be said that even this has been accurately
tie lined, but whenever a dispute has arisen between the Mahanas and the
farmers, it has been ruled by the Revenue authorities that one-third of
the fish was the limit of the latter's right. This third has never, so
far as he is aware, been levied direct. The fishery revenue of the
Kurachi Collectorate for a cycle of five years ending' 1870-71 has aver-
aged, for ordinary fish, i. e., dhand fishing, Us. 13,593-6-0 ; for pulla
fish, i. e., river fishing in the Indus, Us. 20,716-10-9 per annum.

55. The Collector of Haidarabad (May 27th, 1871) replied, that

numbers of breeding fish, the pulla, are des-
Haidarabad Collectorate ; its t (1 f rQm Febmary to August in the Indus.

Capturing these herrings, however, will not
decrease their numbers if there are no weirs in rivers, and they can
ascend to their breeding grounds. The fry of other sorts of fish
are, however, met with in the shallow lakes of water left in many
places, and are consumed by the people; these form but a minute
portion of what the great river must always contain; and, more-
over, as all such lakes, termed 'dhands/ dry up, these fish, if left,
would die; consecpiently their consumption is not hurtful. It is not
advisable to regulate the size of the mesh by law : firstly, because
no necessity exists, secondly, because of the difficulty there would be in
carrying out such rules, if made. For the same reasons the sale of the
fiy of fish should not be prohibited. The fisheries in this Collectorate
consist, firstly, of the Indus itself ; secondly of tanks or dhands ; and
Government has a prescriptive right to a share of all these, ranging
according to custom, from one-third to one-fifth. Private rig'hts in these
fisheries have also been long settled and prescribed by custom. The
fishermen almost always belong to, and fish in, the limits of their own
' meanees' or fisheries : and even on the river Indus, no fisherman is
allowed to encroach on the limits of a fishery to which he does not belong.
The farmers arrange with the fishermen as to the payments to them,
representing the Government shares. As regards fisheries in jaghir lands,
unless the sunnud contains a special grant, the produce of such is credited
to local funds, and is not enjoyed by the jaghirdar.

56. In the Haidarabad Collectorate the native officials compute the

fishermen at 3,230 ; they are also almost inva-
Opinions of native officials in riabl cultivators of the soil and labourers.

the Haidarabad Collectorate. mi r> r> i • c -\ir i >

The common name ol fishermen is Manana,
but others who are not actual fishermen, as the ' Khebranees/ use the
hand-nets in canals. The markets are well supplied with fish in the
season of the pulla, and during the remaining five months, only those in
the neighbourhood of the lakes or tanks obtain it. The whole popula-
tion, Mussulmen and Hindu, except Brahmins, are eaters of fish, the sup-
ply of which is as abundant as ever, whilst Sind being in a rainless zone,
young fish are not captured during the rainy season. The following are
the usual modes of fishing : — " koondee," hook and line; "jbx" a cast
net ; " matlee/' a pulla pot ; " stunbokee/' a pulla net ; " bhun," a cast
net used from a boat ; " korree/' a basket net, besides fishing stakes
and weirs.

xxxm

BOMBAY.

5 7 . The following are the Returns of the European and Native officials

respecting- the 'fresh-water' fisheries of the

Fresh-water fisheries of the Bombay Presidency, those of Sind having

Bombay Presidency, excluding been g.iven separately (see ante). Thus limited,

these fisheries may, for the sake of convenience,
be sub-divided into two fishery districts. First, the inland ones, the rivers
in which, north of the city of Bombay, have mostly a westerly direction;
whilst those to the south, many of which are tributaries of the Kristna,
take a more easterly course. Secondly, the coast ones, viz., those bordering
or near to the sea, which form a narrow strip from the Gulf of Cambay to
Bombay itself, and are continued down the Concan and Canara, and might
properly include those Madras districts which extend along the Malabar
Coast to Cape Comorin.

58. Some Returns have been excluded from the following analysis,

as not being direct answers to questions ;
Some few Returns omitted. likewise those in which the official, although

sending in a reply, appears not to have
made full investigations, considering it " premature to harass the fisher-
men by enquiries into the size of the mesh now used in their nets/'

59. The inland fisheries of Bombay, as above limited, do not possess

such fine rivers as Northern and Eastern India ;
The rivers and inland tanks ^ {n m j th ^ h { t

suitable for fisheries. .. - ii i \ £ . ■> ■ £ni

evidently well adapted tor the rearing of fish,

and partially supplying the local markets with this wholesome article of

food. Its numerous tanks are also well suited for the same purpose.

60. The first consideration which arises must be, what proportion of

the people eat fish ? In this enquiry, it is not
^Proportion of people who eat ^ pfoportion that now do SO, but what it

would be could they obtain it. Unfortunately
some answers specify the number of individuals in the talookas that do so,
whilst the total of the population is omitted, and some replies are too
vague to be of any service. It appears, however, that the proportion of
fish-eaters to the remainder of the population is, in the Collectorate of
Satara, from 25 to 96 per cent. ; in Puna the majority ; in Nasik, from 5
to 66, 75, or even 94 per cent. ; whilst in one district, inhabited by Bhils
and Kolis, all do so, except the Brahmins ; in Ahmednugger 66 per cent. ;
in Khandeish 75 per cent.; in Sholapur 33 per cent.; in Kaladgi 25 per
cent.; in Belgaum 20 per cent. In Darwar the numbers of fish-eaters are
given in seven talookas at 205,000, whilst in an eighth talooka 20,000, or half
the total of the population, consume fish. The foregoing figures appear
to show conclusively that the majority of the inhabitants of the inland
districts of the Bombay Presidency are consumers of fish, when they can
procure it.

61. Are the local markets sufficiently supplied with fresh fish to meet

the local demands ? is the next question for
ciently supphed wXft fishT^" investigation . Every official who has answered

this question, except one mamlutdar, asserts

XXXIV

that the local markets are insufficiently supplied. In some, however,
there is a fair supply of salted or dried fish from the coast, but this does
not affect the general enquiry. In short, it is self-evident that the local
markets are either entirely unsupplied, or inadequately so, with fresh fish,
except occasionally, as during- the rains, when young ones and those breed-
ing can be destroyed by traps or any clumsy contrivance.

62. As regards the market prices of large and small fish ? it is

quite clear that the latter, weight for weight, are
Comparative prices of fish, not nearly so valuable as the former. As a
large and small. -. J, -ii ,1 ■ • j_i • £

general rule, with the increase m the size or a

fish, its value per pound largely augments; the smaller the fish, the less is its

price per pound. Although the comparative price of mutton and fish

appears in some districts to have a relative value, such does not seem to be

the case in all.

63. As it has been shown that the majority of the people would

eat fish could they obtain it, but that the

creIsedam°Unt 0f ^ haVe **" markets are insufficiently supplied to meet the

local demands, the next enquiry that suggests
itself is, have the fresh-water fish in the rivers and tanks increased,
decreased, or remained stationary of late years ? Twenty-two distinct
answers to this question have been received from the native officials,
comprising one who considers they have increased, fourteen who report
they have decreased, and seven who assert they have remained sta-
tionary. In Ahmenabad one reports an increase, one a decrease, and two
a stationary state of the fisheries ; in Khandeish, Nasik, Ahmednuggur,
Satara, and Sholapur, only a decrease is given ; in Belgaum one asserts a
decrease, another that the fisheries are stationaiy, which latter is also
the report from Kaladgi : whilst in Darwar seven report a decrease, and
three a stationary state of affairs. Thus in nine Collectorates we have
the following results : —

Nine Collectorates.

Supply increased.

Supply decreased.

Supply stationary.

In 5 Collectorates ...

>» -L >» •••

>> 1 >»

»> * » •••

It

5 *
It
It

7t

2t
It
1 *

3t

Total 9

1

14

7

* Collectors' Reports.
t Marulutdars' Reports.

From the foregoing it appears to be very evident that the supply of fish
in the fisheries is generally decreasing; only one out of twenty-two

XXXV

reporters asserts an increase, whilst two-thirds of the remainder consider
the supply to have decreased.

64. Whose are these fisheries? is a question for consideration. With

some very immaterial exceptions, the whole of
The fisheries mostly Gov- thoge in the {^an([ waters of the Bombay

eminent property. -r. • n j i j_i em

J Presidency appear to be the property or Gov-

ernment, which, however, for many years at least, has not disposed of the
same, but permitted the adjacent villagers to capture the fish in any
method which has best suited their convenience ; so that every poaching-
practice known is freely carried on without check. In Nasik the people
adjacent to fisheries consider them as their property, not to the exclusion
of Government rights, but as against strangers netting these waters.
Also in certain places there are religious objections raised against cap-
turing fish, by the Brahmins, either on account of the sacred character of
the locality or else of certain of the species of fish inhabiting a given
piece of water, and which are fed in honour of a Hindu idol. The sup-
ply of fish from the rivers and tanks having thus been shown to have
decreased in these Government fresh-water fisheries, the next question is,
how has this injury to the fisheries been occasioned ? This may be examin-
ed under the following heads : — First, who are the fishermen ? secondly,
are mature breeding fish destroyed, and if so, how? and lastly, are the fiy
killed to any great extent when they are first moving about in the shal-
low waters ?

65. Who are the fishermen ? is the first enquiry, and is fishing con-

fined to any distinct class of the people, or is
Fishermen as a rule follow it general ? In answering this question, one

other occupations as well, & . , . . °, u j, . ,

official, in summing up the answers or the
mamlutdars, includes " women and children'" amongst the 1,000 " fisher-
men :" these numbers will consequently not find a place in the following
analysis, but it seems to show that fishing in Sholapur is not confined to
one class. In Ahmenabad the question is not answered. In Khandeish
the number of fishermen is given at 23,600, Nasik 4,000, Ahmednuggur
2,000 to 3,000, Puna 800, Satara from 5 to 700 in each talooka, Kaladgi
400, Belgaum 435, Dharwar 17,393, exclusive of two talookas in which
the numbers are omitted. Besides these, during the rains, many of the
labouring- population join in. Pew, if any, of the foregoing, numbering
upwards of 50,000, are solely engaged in fishing, but they also follow other
occupations. In fact, there appear to be very few persons indeed who
live solely by capturing fresh-water fish.

GG. Are mature breeding fish destroyed, and, if so, how ? Every Col-
lector who has answered this question (except
pSSSr '""• °f Kaladgi) considers they are destroyed ; but

as the native official of the Inch ialooka of
the Kaladgi Collectorate reports that fish are trapped there during the
rains, it becomes evident that breeding fish do not even obtain an
immunity there. The principal and easiest mode of taking breeding
fish, is by placing wicker traps during the rains in the small streams and
irrigation channels up which they ascend for the purpose of depositing
their eggs. Where ' well-irrigation' is employed, there would not be any
opportunity for breeding fish to ascend into such irrigation channels,
and in these districts of course this mode of taking fish is not employed,

XXXVI

simply because it would not be of any avail. In the various Collec-
torates the following" are the returns : — In Khandeish, Nasik, Sholapur,
and Belgaum, fish are reported to be so trapped during- the rains. In
Ahmenabad they are in two talookas, not so in one. In Dharwar
they are in five, not so in five others. In Ahmednuggur, Satara, and
Puna, they are asserted not to be trapped, but the Assistant Collector
of the last district reports the use of basket traps, so it may be
considered doubtful whether they are not employed to take breeding-
fish should opportunities occur. The other modes in which these fish
are destroyed in the inland waters of the Bombay Presidency will come
under consideration with the implements employed in capturing fish.

67. Are the fry hilled to any great extent token they are first

moving about in the shallow water ? The
gr™6 extent!'' destroyed to a majority of Indian fresh-water fishes breed

chiefly during- the rains, at which time the
adults deposit their eg-g-s at the sides of rivers and tanks where the
water is shallow, or in small channels or water-courses. The delicate
fry can only inhabit such localities, due to two principal causes, the
first is for the purpose of procuring- food, and secondly, to prevent
being- carried away by a strong current. Now are these young fish
thus situated protected or destroyed ? Every Collector who has answered
this question (except of Kaladgi) reports that they are destroyed to a
very great extent during the rains. If we examine the returns from
the Kaladgi Collectorate, we find that nets are stated to be employed
for fishing, having meshes the minimum size of which only equals that
of a grain of wheat : it consequently follows that fry must also be des-
troyed in Kaladgi, because there is no mature Indian fresh-water fish
that requires such a small mesh for the purpose of its capture.

68. What are the various modes resorted to for capturing fish ?

is a question upon which very full answers

Modes of capturing fisn j size h been received. Th be divided into

ot the meshes or nets. . . , J . J . . 0

netting, trapping, damming, poisoning, ecc«

As regards nets, the first subject that presents itself, is, not their size and

form, but the minimum size of the mesh employed for the capture of

fish. It is clearly manifest that if a very small one is freely used, very

small fish must be extensively captured. The following returns have

been given of the minimum size of the meshes of the nets employed,

measured between knot and knot : —

•3

(3
O
ft

Size of mesh between knot and knot in

&

INCHES.

a
u

a

a

o

a
5>g

Officials.

Less
than

S3 —

N O

A

,1

A

1
TO

1

1

4

1

3

1

European ...

2

1

1

1

1

1

...

...

1

Native

4

9

1

...

1

...

2

5

1

1

XXXV11

Thus, out of 32 returns, 16 reporters give the minimum size of the
mesh of the nets to be that of a grain of gram or wheat or less, whilst
14 more state it to be one-third of an inch or less between knot and
knot of the meshes, and two below one inch. But if the reports of
those who assert that about an inch, or less than one, exists between
knot and knot of the meshes are examined, one must be led to the
conclusion that some error has occurred, as they state that very small
fish are captured during the rains. In many places where the fish are so
minute, that a net however small cannot capture them, a cloth is
employed, and, as one official observed, this may be said to have no mesh
at all. Consequently, if any fry do escape, it must not be attributed
to the will of the fishermen, but rather to their inability to capture
them.

69. Trapping fish is carried out in various ways, but the most

common one appears to be by wicker cages

Breeding and young fish resembling rat traps, into which a fish having
trapped in various forms or , j v1, • ., <> mi

cruives. entered cannot obtain exit from. These are

made of such a fine texture, that the most

minute cannot escape through the interstices of the various pieces of

wicker work of which they are formed ; even fry are taken in them.

The course of streams is also sometimes diverted so that all the water

has to pass through a wicker cage or over a wicker platform, b}- which

means all the fish are captured. Bamming streams or portions of tanks,

emptying out the water and thus obtaining all the contained fish, is also

carried on. On a dam being raised, an artificial opening is cut in it,

and a wicker cage or an apparatus of bamboo and net is made use of, to

take all the fish which are carried down in the current with the escaping

water.

70. Poisoning fish does not seem to be unknown in the Bombay

Presidency. It is reported in Khandeish
Waters are poisoned to ob- w means 0f hinganbet, yathil, ffir. and
tain fisli in some of the Collec- .J -vr -i \ ,i /, ,',",,

torates- tnor; in JNasik by the "sooph, tobacco

leaves, and the milk bush, as well as by the
fruit of the "jel phul;" in Ahmednuggur and Dharwar by the milk
bush ; whilst in Nasik it is observed that this mode of taking fish used
to be very common, but every attempt has been made to put down the
objectionable custom. They are also reported to poison fish in the Puna
and Belgaum Collectorates, but in the Grokah Talooka, in the latter, it is
stated that the practice has to a certain extent been stopped, owing
to the rules of the Forest Department, under which it is prohibited to
cut the small twigs and leaves from which the stupefying drugs are
made. This is a destructive method of obtaining all the fish in a nearly
or quite stagnant pool or piece of water, which, irrespective of destroying
old and young indiscriminately, cannot be supposed to obtain the
proceeds in so wholesome a state, as if they had been taken by means of
nets. The water itself is thus sometimes rendered deleterious to human
beings and cattle that unwarily partake of it.

71. There are other modes of fishing which are carried on by

. ,. , v „ , . various means, as employing" hooks and lines

Angling and line fishing. .., \ , l ,J ? .,

either suspended to poles m the water or
used merely by anglers.

XXXV111

72. Before passing on to the second set of fisheries of Bombay,

I think the following" must be admitted : —
Resume of conclusions res- (1) th&t the majorit o£ th inhabitants of
pecting the inland tresh-water ,■.'•-, it,-, j t i n , „ ,

fisheries. "the inland districts would eat fish could they

obtain it; (2) that the markets are not

sufficiently supplied to meet the local demands ; (3) that the fish in the

rivers and tanks have generally decreased of late years ; (1) that the

fisheries are Government property ; (5) that every one fishes how he likes

and where he pleases ; (6) that breeding fish are extensively trapped ;

(7) that fry are killed whenever they can be obtained ; (8) that nets with

very minute meshes, and even cloths are used, wherewith to capture the

immature fish ; (9) that traps are also employed, made of wicker work

of such fine texture that the most minute fish are killed ; (10) that

streams and tanks are dammed and every fish destroyed; (11) that

poisoning whole pieces of water in order to obtain the fish is practised in

many of these inland Collectorates. Whether it is or is not worth while

to do anything to mitigate this evil, is a cpiestion I propose considering

further on.

73. The coast fisheries, viz., those bordering on or near to the sea,

must not be considered as consisting entirely
Coast fresh-water fisheries of 0f sea-coast and marine or estuary fishes,

land oneseCIUenCe aU * "*" as some °f these Collectorates extend some

distance inland ; and it is in such localities
that distinct fresh-water fisheries exist. But, as a rule, the value of such
is not of much consequence, when there is a well-stocked and regularly
fished sea-board within easy distance. These fresh-water fisheries on
the coast may be briefly examined in the same manner as the inland
ones have been.

71. As to the proportion of persons tvho consume fish to the general

population ? It is set down in Broach at
ajonyo peop e ea s . from one-third to one-fourth ; in Kaira at
one-sixth ; whilst in four talookas in Colaba it is given thus, in one at
seven-eighths, in two at three-fourths, and in one at one-half. As a
rule, in the other Collectorates the questions were not circulated to the
native officials, or at least the answers have not been received; consequently
some details are not so full as they might have been. The Acting- Collector
of Kaira, for instance, observes, " the majority of the population being
vegetarians," &c, but does not furnish the mamlutdars' answers.
However, it would seem from the reports that fish are not consumed so
largely by the population on the sea-coast as they are along the inland
districts of this Presidency. Some of the local markets appear to be fully
supplied with salted and dried sea-fish, in others the supply is less than the
demand, whilst from the majority of the talookas the returns are a blank.

75. "Whether the fresh- water fish have increased, decreased, or re-

mained stationary, there are only eight an-
State of the fisheries. swers, which report a stationary state in six,

and a decrease in two.

76. All these fisheries, with but very few exceptions, appear to be

Government property, but no right has been
Jlert6 fisherieS Government exercised over them "for a long period, owing

to their being of little or no pecuniary value.

XSX1X

From this, however, must be excluded the fresh-water fisheries along the
sea-coast south of Bombay, some of which appear to be valuable ; and
the Collector of North Canara reports that they are Government pro-
perty, except in those tanks formed by private persons at their own
expense.

77. As to the number of fishermen, the answers again become

vague, except in Broach, where they are corn-
Number of fishermen. puted ^ g9Q>

78. The mature fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields

during the rains, except where only fwell-irri-
Fish trapped daring the rains. g.ation' jg employed.

79. The fry also are reported to be destroyed to a large extent

during or after the rains, in most of those

great talookas from wThich answers have been re-
ceived.

80. The following returns have been
given of the minimum size of the mesh of
nets employed : —

Fry destroyed to
extent.

Smallest size of the mesh of
nets that are employed.

Officials.

Size of a large needle
or mosquito net.

Size of mesh between knot and
knot in inches.

i i

J

European
Native...

2

1

I
1

1
3

0
1

Thus out of 10 returns, three reporters give the minimum size of the
mesh of the nets to be about that of mosquito nets, and all the rest
at or less than one-third of an inch between knot and knot.

81. The modes of fishing in the fresh waters of these sea-coast

districts hardly vary from those more inland.
Modes of fishing. Nets of all forms and sizes are employed, some

being fixed, others not so. Dams are erected
and openings made, where nets or basket traps are placed, so as to capture
every fish. In the Colaba, Rutnaghari, and North Canara Collectorates
fish are also said to be killed by poison, whilst in Kaira torch-fishing by
night appears to be carried on.

82. It would appear from the foregoing that in the fresh -water
Resume of conclusions res- fisheries of the coast districts (1) the propor-

pecting the coast fresh-water tion of people who eat fish is less than in
fisheries, the inland districts; (2) that the markets

which are sufficiently supplied with fish obtain them from the sea ; (3)
that the fresh-water fish appear to be stationary or decreasing ; (4) that
the fisheries are Government property ; (5) that there are no restrictions
as to the modes of fishing; (6) that breeding fish are trapped; (7) that
fry are killed wherever obtainable ; (8) that nets with minute meshes
are employed to destroy small fish ; (9) that wicker traps are in use ;
(10) that streams are dammed; (11) that waters are poisoned, and (12)
that torch-light fishing is pursued, at least in one Collectorate.

xl

83. Having thus briefly analysed the opinions given in the ensuing-

returns, they all more or less clearly show the
Conclusions. great use to which the fresh-water fisheries

might be turned; their present impover-
ished state and inefficiency to meet the demands of the local markets,
owing to which thousands of persons who would eat fish, could
they obtain it, are now entirely deprived of this wholesome article of
food. That this appears to have been produced by the permission of
reckless and indiscriminate fishing in fisheries the property of Govern-
ment, and how the slaughter of the breeding fish and the destruction
of the fry by every conceivable means, even to nets with such fine
meshes, and wicker traps the interstices of which will not permit even
the passage of a fish's egg, down to damming streams and standing
pieces of water, trapping the breeding fish and the fry, and even
poisoning the fisheries by which everything is obtained to the most
minute, the latter of which being sometimes killed only to be thrown
away. Lastly, that the fishing classes, as a rule, do not solely pursue this
occupation for a living, but only as an addition to their ordinary7 means
of livelihood, so that the passing of any measures which might even tem-
porarily put a check to this pursuit could not bear hardly upon any class.

84. Having thus briefly adverted to the present state of affairs, the

consideration arises, would it be better to leave

Is it advisable to let matters matters alone and trust to chance, or might

S^ZMJSiS\^JS it be advisable to put a stop to the present

exist ? wasteful manner in which these fisheries are

being worked, and by some simple, but effective,
measures permit the adult fish to breed in peace, and the young to grow
out of their babyhood before being caught, and thus to afford a very
largely increased amount of animal food to the poorer classes ?

85. It will be well first to examine the views of those who would leave

these deteriorating fisheries alone, the prin-
toSSSL™* l0Cal °bjections cipal reasons which are adduced for such a

course being as follows : — The Assistant Col-
lector of Khandeish denies that inland fisheries in small rivers have ever
proved of any economic or commercial advantage, unless protected as
private property, &c, therefore it is no matter what becomes of them in
Khandeish and the Deccan, whilst in the larger rivers the fish may take
care of themselves ; and with such views, would give out the fishery tenures
as far as possible to those who now employ themselves in these fisheries,
and thus at one stroke render them private property, &c. Thus, without
placing any limitation on the minimum size of the mesh of the nets
made use of, he would give the monopoly of these fisheries, without any
restrictions, to some of the very people who are now impoverishing them
by every means which their ingenuity can suggest. In Ahmenabad it
is considered " better that some fry be destroyed than that further oppor-
tunities should be afforded to the lower grade of Government servants
and bigotted Hindus to turn the intentions of Government to their own
profit " In Kaira it is considered that restrictions, if imposed, would be
of little or no benefit. In Nasik that such would be unpopular and
difficult of enforcement in outlying districts. In Tanna no restrictions
are recommended, whilst any would render additional police necessary.

xli

In Dharwar it is thought that it would be extremely difficult and un-
popular to regulate the minimum size of the meshes of nets employed
in those small tanks which dry up every hot season, because, as the water
subsides, the fish are taken in the mud even with the hands. In Khan-
deish it would be impossible to curtail the present privileges of the Bhils
by regulating how the fisheries should be worked, because the forest rules
have deprived them of one source of livelihood, viz., the sale of timber
cut in the forest ; but that prohibiting the poisoning of water-courses
for fishing purposes should be the only first step taken. Thus the general
objections appear to be that the fisheries are of little, if any, economic
value at present, and no benefit would accrue from trying to improve them,
whilst any regulations respecting the nets would be difficult to carry out.
The local objections against regulations are, that it would be impolitic as
in Khandeish ; in Dharwar that such should not extend to tanks that
yearly dry up ; whilst in Ahmenabad that they would be used as a means
of extortion by the lower grades of Government servants.

86. On the other hand, the following opinions have been advanced,

by those ivho would do somethinn to improve
_ .Proposals to interfere ana i/iese fisheries and render them more economic-

increase the importance ot the •> _ ^T .

fisheries. a^i/ usejul. The Acting Collector ot JNorth

Canara observes that the fish are the public
property, the public being represented by Government. Were these
fisheries an unlimited fund of wealth or inexhaustible, it would be better
to leave the right of using them unlimited ; but as they are not inex-
haustible, but are deteriorating, restrictions have become necessaiy. The
Acting First Assistant Collector of Ahmednuggur considers that legisla-
tion will be the only effectual stop to the present mode of depopulating
the fisheries, but that a general Act would be unworkable, therefore it
would be better to have one which could be applied when considered
necessary to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish breeding.
The Second Assistant observes that a prohibitive measure regulating the
size of the mesh of the nets would not be unpopular. In Satara that
no difficulties exist against regulating the size of the meshes of the
nets, except the want of some legal provision by which offenders might
be punished. In Broach that there would be no objection in regulating
the minimum size of the meshes of the nets to be henceforth used,
beyond the prejudices of the fishermen. The Collector of Ahmednuggur
considers that, if an Act were passed, one or two years' notice woidd be
necessary, as the nets with smaller meshes would become useless. In
Kaladgi and Rutnaghari the only objections appear to be the difficulty of
detecting infringements of any regulations that may be decided upon.
In Belgaum that there would be no trouble, but prawn and ' moree ' nets
should be exempted; the Assistant Collector likewise sees no difficulty
in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets to be used at different
seasons. The Acting Collector of Dharwar considers that there would
be difficulties, but in no degree insuperable ones, to regulating the mini-
mum size of the meshes of nets used in the rivers and in the large
tanks that do not dry up. Thus some legislative interference to stop
the present mode of depopulating the fisheries appears to be consider-
ed necessary by the majority of the European civil officials who have
given their opinions, and regulating the minimum size of the meshes

xlii

of the nets to be employed, appears to be looked upon as the most
effectual measure. It is said that such will be difficult to be carried out
in some districts, and it is suggested that a general Act applicable to the
whole of India would be unworkable, and it would be better to have
one which may be applied (with modifications) to particular rivers and
localities.

87. Should any regulation be enacted defining the minimum size

of the mesh of the nets to be hereafter used

Opinions _ as to what the in any fresh- water fishery, the following are
minimum size ot the mesh of ., J . . „ ., J ' » .

nets should be. the opinions ot the various .European officials

as to what that size should be. Eight answers
are given : one proposes from half an inch to one inch ; a second, half an inch
for bag-nets, and one inch for drag-nets ; three others suggest half an inch,
and the remaining three 1 inch. Such propositions would of them-
selves be sufficient to show to how small a size the mesh of the nets in this
Presidency has dwindled down. One inch between knot and knot,
however, appears to be the most generally approved size.

88. Along with the size of the mesh of the nets, must be considered

the question as to whether it is advisable to

ftfSTtheVofS 8 p™hibit the sale of the K,oi fishes, in

the bazars, or those which could not be taken
in the legal nets, and so must have been obtained by unfair means. The
Assistant Collector of Surat denounces the idea as " an arbitrary inter-
ference with trade, such as could not be enforced save by a penal statute
of an obnoxious character/'' " No such restrictions are enforced any-
where in Europe that I am aware of." F"No person is allowed wilfully to
take or destroy the young of salmon, to buy, sell, or expose for sale, or
have in his possession the young of salmon, to place any device for
obstructing their passage, to wilfully injure them, or to disturb any
spawning bed, or any bank or shallow on which the spawn of salmon
may be ; and any person acting in contravention of these provisions is
liable to f erfeit all the young of salmon found in his possession, as well as all
rods, lines, nets, devices, and instruments used in committing any of
such offences, and to incur a penalty not exceeding five pounds for each
offence." (Laws relating to Salmon Fisheries of Great Britain, J. Baker,
1868.)] The Collector of Puna also objects, but on the grounds, that
instead he would rely on regulating the size of the meshes of the nets.
The Collectors of Broach, Nasik, Ahmednuggur, Satara, and Belgaum, as
well as the Assistant Collector in the latter district, see no objections to
this prohibition.

89. As regards fence-months, more especially in the hilly districts,

r, . . ,. ,, in the rivers of which localities the larger

Opinions respecting the neces- „ ,, , . . -.^ . . *5

sity or the reverse of fence- sorts or fish, as the Mahaseers, resort tor

months, and poisoning of waters breeding during the first few months of the
for fishing purposes. monsoon. In Kaira it is observed a fence

season would be no hardship. In Nasik and Rutnaghari that no objec-
tions exist against prohibiting the capture of fish for the first two months
of monsoons in the hilly regions where they are breeding, except the
difficulty of carrying out such a regulation. The Collector of Ahmed-
nuggur considers a close season desirable. As regards poisoning waters
to obtain the fish, this is universally condemned where practised, but

xliii

more stringent laws appear to be necessary before it can be put a

stop to.

90. The Chief Secretary to the Government of Bombay, in forward-

ing* the returns from which the following
ern°menr 0f ^ ^^ were compiled, observes that very little is

known regarding the fresh- water fisheries of
this Presidency, or the practicability of increasing and developing this
source of food supply ; whilst it is clear that a great deal of wasteful
destruction takes place.

91. The Officiating Revenue Commissioner, Northern Division (Oc-

tober 1st, 1868) stated: — " I believe a large
mi?sionlrs.S 0f *" ^^ destruction, both of fish and of small game/is

caused more or less throughout India by net-
ting during the spawning and breeding season, and it is a question whe-
ther protective laws of moderate stringency would not be very advisable.
* * The subject is not without importance, and I think it would be
advisable to prohibit netting, both fish and game, during the spawning
and breeding season." The Acting Revenue Commissioner, Southern Divi-
sion (October 9th, 1868) observed : — " I consider that it would be almost
impracticable to enforce laws for the preservation of fish throughout
India ; but that if certain localities were selected for preserves, and guard-
ed under a legal enactment for the purpose, considerable light might be
thrown upon the question, and the advisability of extending such opera-
tions to other places, or not doing so, would be more clearly established
than at present/''

92. The Acting Collector of Ahmedabad reported (June 10th, 1871)

that fish exist in the Saburmuttee, the Mesh wa,
mthTilmedabSSectorate. and the Kharee rivers, also in the Bokh and

in all the larger tanks. In the rivers and in
the Bokh they are often of a large size, but in the tanks their average
weight is half a pound, although large fish are also caught there.
There are no private rights in the fishing. The Acting Collector (Febru-
ary 20th, 1872) merely observed that there are no fisheries proper in his
district, and that he deprecates any attempt to regulate, as suggested, the
capture of fish, considering that it is better that some fry be destroyed
than that further opportunities should be afforded to the lower grades of
Government servants, and to bigotted Hindus, to turn the intentions of
Government to their own profit.

93. The Acting Collector of Broach reported (May 26th, 1871)

. that there are fresh-water fisheries in the
lX%Z£ cZltZ^""' Nerbudda, the Mhye, and the Dhadur, but no

special rights are enjo}^ed by any class of
people or the Government, the fisheries being open to all persons wishing
to make use of them. The Acting Collector (March 8th, 1872) observed
that as the fisheries of the district are open to all persons wishing to
make use of them, and every sort of net is used, there is reason to believe
that breeding and very young fish are destroyed to a considerable extent.
This destruction occurs chiefly in the Nerbudda during the rains, and
within about five or six miles of Broach both up and down stream ; it
also takes place at Hansote on the same river. The smallest size of the
mesh of the nets used is one-sixth of an inch in diameter, but there

xliv

would be no difficulty in regulating- its size for the future, beyond the
prejudices of the fishing communities, who have never been subjected to
any restrictions in the exercise of their calling. There would be no ob-
jection to prohibit the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. The First
Assistant Collector reported that at Ahmode there are different ways of
catching fish : — (1) — By a net termed nadi by the Bhoees, and bhandar
by the Wagris ; it is fixed across the stream, shaped like a wall, and
strengthened at intervals by stakes ; these stakes are not stuck into the
ground, but tightened by a couple of ropes at either end ; it is sometimes
dragged by these ropes along the river. Another very similar one has a
bag in the middle ; it is termed soopra-jhal by the Bhoees and beheri
by the Wagris. The ordinary cast-net is called hath-jhal by both
castes.

94. The Acting Collector of Kaira (February 7th, 1872) reported
. that the rivers in which fresh-water fisheries

cialsTtheK^raCoUectorate." exist> are the Mhye, Watruck, Sheree, and

Meshwa. The majority of the population
being vegetarians, the principal fish trade is with Baroda, and mostly
confined to marine fish which are taken in the tidal waters. The Assist-
ant Collector observed, a certain quantity of fry are destroyed, but the
supply exceeds the demand. The fishermen claim no exclusive right to the
fisheries, and would easily submit to any restrictions imposed by Govern-
ment in the way of a " fence season," &c, and such would be no hardship
to them. He continued that he is disposed to think that such restrictions
would prove of little or no benefit to any one, and are therefore not desir-
able. Moreover, he is of opinion "that until the general principles of
interference in the fisheries of this country are settled, it would be
premature to harass the fishermen by enquiries into the size of the mesh
now used in their nets/'' " My own opinion is, that we know too little
as yet of the habits of the fresh-water fishes of India to devise any
scheme of interference which would be practically operative,
it is necessary to ascertain in what months the fish of particular dis-
tricts spawn," and this, he continued, he is unable to ascertain, so is
opposed to fence-months.

95. The Collector of Surat reported (May 25th, 1871) that there
_ . . are no regular fresh- water fisheries in his

Opinions of the European offi- •n n t i • i ■ • p n

cials iu the Surat Collectorate. Zllla'. fish hemS captured in most of the rivers

running through the talookas, and also in
some of the larger tanks. The amount of fish taken is stated to be incon-
siderable, Dooblas and other Kallipuruf people of the low aboriginal castes
being the chief fishers ; but they do not confine their operations to any
particular part of the river, nor do they fish for trade purposes.
" Machees" (fishermen by caste) fish generally for retail sale. Govern-
ment derive no rent or revenue, as also there are no private rights. Sub-
sequently (March 12th, 1872), whilst forwarding the opinions of the
Assistant Collectors, he observed that they contained all the information
which he had on the subject owing to want of local experience. The
Secretary to the Surat Municipality stated that between Variov and the
camp there is so little fishing carried on that he is unable to say whether
breeding fish or fry are destroyed, but judging from those brought to the
markets, he considers they are not. The size of the mesh of the prawn nets

xlv

is one quarter of an inch. The First Assistant Collector reported that all
fish are taken indiscriminately in nets, but owing* to the proximity to the
sea, fresh-water fish are not much sought after ; those captured in the
rivers and tanks are mostly taken during the monsoon and autumn
months. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets is one-fourth of an
inch in diameter; it would be difficult to regulate such, owing to the close
supervision of the fishing classes which would be entailed, but one inch
between knot and knot of the meshes is considered to be a fair size. Pro-
hibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars " would be an arbitrary
interference with trade, such as could not be enforced save by a penal
statute of an obnoxious character ; no such restrictions are enforced any-
where in Europe that I am aware of" (see para. 88) . The Assistant
Collector observed that in these districts there seems to be a very small
trade in fish except at Mandvi ; the fishermen generally using all they
catch for home consumption. The chief places for fishing in Bardoli are
upon the Mindhola, which runs past Kamalchool and Bardoli Kasba. In
Walod fish are caught at Buhari, Walod, and Banjipura or Kamalchool;
in Mandvi only in the Tapti. In Bardoli the fry appear in July, but are
let alone until the end of September or beginning of October, and are
then taken. In Walod there are more fishermen than in Bardoli, and the
destruction of young fry is very great. The nets used are extremely fine-
meshed, some containing four meshes within the space of three quarters
of an inch. The people chiefly eat all they capture, but send any large
ones to Gundevi. However, they say they cannot catch mature ones, so
they get the fry. In Mandvi and Bodhon they catch fish down to the
smallest fry, and therefore use the very finest meshes. There must be
large fish in the Tapti, but the people say they cannot get hold of them,
and therefore destroy the fry. The latter come up in May and Septem-
ber, and are caught indiscriminately. These people live entirely by fish-
ing, and could not be willingly induced to allow the fish a chance of
stocking the waters before they are killed.

96. The Collector of Khandeish reported (April 22nd, 1871) that

there are no fresh-water fisheries in the dis-

Opinions of European officials ^^ but that figh exigt fn aU the rf

in the Khandeish Lollectorate. - ' , , ., „. ., , ,

and are caught by the Bhils and low castes,

forming an important article in their food, but that they are not of suffi-
cient importance to be called fisheries, and Government has never exercised
any control over them. On April 22nd, 1872, he reported that breeding-
and very young fish are destroyed wherever they can be obtained, in the
few rivers and streams that yield fish, by means of nets, baskets, weirs,
traps, cloths, poison, and in fact anyhow. As regards what is the mini-
mum size of the mesh of nets, this question may perhaps best be answer-
ed by stating that when small-meshed nets are not available, the Bhils
use their sheets, saris, and dhotars for the purpose of taking fish. This
may be said to be no mesh at all. Respecting what difficulty exists
against regulating the size of the meshes of nets, the Collector forwards
the following opinion of Major Probyn, in which he fully concurs : — " The
objection to interference at present is, that the fish caught by the Bhils,
in all but the large rivers, forms a great portion of their food, especially
in a bad season when grain is scarce and dear, and it is the more neces-
sary to avoid curtailing their privileges in this matter, because our forest

xlvi

rules have deprived them of one source of livelihood, viz., the sale of
timber cut in the forest. The catching' of fish by poisoning- the water-
courses, causing- the most wholesale destruction of spawn and everything'
else that should be spared, if put a stop to, will be a first and great
step towards the preservation of fish, without causing alarm to the Bhils,
which would probably follow any more pointed measure of fish conser-
vancy." The Assistant Collector observes : — " In no country have inland
fisheries in small rivers ever proved of any economic or commercial im-
portance, except when such fisheries were protected by rig-hts of private
property, special legislation, and special police, besides possessing- the
advantages of markets, transport, available capital, and means of pre-
servation. Not a sing-le one of these advantages is possessed by the
fisheries of Khandeish and the Deccan, and consequently it is veiy little
matter what becomes of them/'' [Without giving any opinion on this
statement, I would point out that the native officials report that three-
fourths of the people eat fish, that there are 23,600 fishermen in the
district, and the markets are not fully supplied.] The Assistant Collector
continues, " in the case of larg-e rivers like the Tapti and Nerbadda, the
fish will take care of themselves ag-ainst any onslaught likely to be
made by the miserable Bhils (professional fishermen) of this generation,
and perhaps the next will be riper for protective legislation. If, however,
Government are bent on protecting- the fish, two courses are open to
them ; either to apply the Survey Act to water as well as to land, giving
out the tenures as far as possible to those now employed in the fisheries,
and thus at one stroke rendering all fisheries in the country private
property, and applying the most powerful stimulus to improvement
known to economists ; or else to give the District Officers power to call
the fishermen together, and frame rules for the fisheries separately
after the practice obtaining in Ireland, and I believe in Scotland and
England/'' [This is all a mistake.] " Disobedience to rules so framed
might be made punishable by fine and forfeiture of the instruments
and fish."

97. The Acting Extra First Assistant Collector in charge of the

Punch Mahals reported, on May 6th, 1871,
Opinions of European officials that nQ nsheries exist in the district, as
in the "unch Mahals. ,. -, . . . , -.r ,

there are no large rivers except the lVlynee,
which runs on the western frontier, and only touches two or three
villages. In these there are no fishermen who earn a living by catch-
ing fish, and the few who reside there generally catch them more
for home consumption than for sale. The tank at Godra contains
fish of small size. Government in connection with fishing has never
exercised any restriction, because, owing to the demand being limited,
they are only taken to a small extent, and not for trade. In the
villages of Wullubpur and Waree, which are on the banks of the Myhee,
and are talookdaree villages, the Thakoos who are proprietors of them,
receive a third share of the fish caught within those limits. The Extra
First Assistant observed (March 11th, 1872) that the district produces
few fish or fishermen. There is no fish market whatever, and the very
small number of mud-flavoured, worthless fish caught in the tanks
and half-dry rivers of the country are really not worth being reported
on.

xlvii

98. The Collector of Nasik reported (June 14th, 1871) that there

are no organized fisheries in the Collectorate,

. Opinions of European °mcials though almost every river is more or less
in the Nasik Collectorate. ^ i i i ,1 -n *v -j_ i i

fished by the villagers residing on its banks.

The principal fishermen are the Bhils and Kolis, and also the Bhoees,
and they fish principally for the purpose of providing food for home
consumption, but not for sale. In the Godaveri, there are in some of the
pools vast numbers of fish. Although there are no defined rights as regards
fisheries, the people of villages look upon the fishing places adjoining
their domiciles as belonging to them, not to the exclusion of fishing on
behalf of Government, but as against any other villagers with large nets
fishing within their boundaries. Indeed in some places they object to
even a small net being thrown by any stranger. In a later report
(April 10th, 1872) the Collector observed that breeding and very
young ones are destroyed to a great extent. Fish are caught all the
year round, and little or no regard is paid to breeding seasons, nor are
any, however small, ever returned to the water. They are destroyed in
the pools in rivers and in tanks by means of large drag-nets. He observes
that he has seen a net of nearly one hundred yards long, used for the purpose
of dragging a large pool in the river Godaveri ; after it had been stretched
across this river, one end was gradually taken round, thus enclosing a
considerable space. While the dragging was going on, many fish com-
menced jumping over the net, when men with smaller nets placed behind
the larger one, caught them as they jumped. Cart-loads were taken in
this trial, and of many kinds. Smaller nets are more numerous than
drag ones, especially cast, purse and other varieties. Fish are also caught
in shallows, small pools, and irrigating channels, by nets, baskets, or
funnel-shaped wicker traps placed where there is a current of water.
Poisoning used to be very common, but eveiy attempt has been made to
put down this objectionable custom. But there are many other ways of
catching fish. Bhils fish in the following manner := — At every six or eight
feet of a long rope, a piece of the stalk of kurbi or jowaree is tied. The
rope is then stretched across the river, the men holding* it going up stream,
and three or four others coming after the rope beating the water. The
fish take refuge under the river's banks, whilst other Bhils catch them
with their hands. These fish are generallv under two inches in length.
Dams are also used in shallow waters, and the places so enclosed are dragged
with cloths or baled out, and all the fish taken. The meshes of some of
the nets are very small, as any are permitted, Government never having
attempted to frame any rules or to interfere in any way. There would be
considerable difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of nets : first, it
would be unpopular with a large class who gain their livelihood by catch-
ing small fish, and no one would interfere to prevent breaches of the law ;
secondly, there are so many out-of-the-way places that it would be difficult
to enforce any order if issued. The sale of fry might be prohibited,
and this would be effective as regards bazars in large towns, but not in
the majority of the villages. No objection exists to prohibiting the cap-
ture of fish in the hilly districts during the first two months of the
monsoon, when they ascend there for breeding purposes, execept that such
an order could not be enforced. The Bhils and others would endeavour to
evade it, and there would be no way in the hills to compel obedience.

xlviii

99. The Collector of Ahmednugger reported (July 8th, 1871) that

the rivers Bheema, Seena, Godaveri, Goor,
Opinions of European officials proura and Moolla, which pass through or
in the Abniediiunrgur Coliec- , , ,, 3. . . , , . x.-, , , °

torate. border the district, contain considerable quan-

tities of fish, which, however, are mostly of
an inferior description, and have little market value. The " Dohs" or holes
where the fish congregate are fished by all persons without restriction.
No rights in the fisheries, in opposition to those of Government, are
known or acknowledged, and it is not likely that the right of Government
to sell or restrict fishing would anywhere be disputed. The Collector
subsequently (February 22nd, 1872) observed, that the rivers in the
Collectorate are dragged and fished by all persons without restriction as
to season, and there is no doubt that destruction of small fishes is the
consequence. The Acting First Assistant Collector reported as follows : —
" As far as my own knowledge goes, I am sure that in places where fish-
ing is carried on to any extent, there is a great and indiscriminate des-
truction of spawning and under-sized fish. I do not see that there is
any way of preventing this except by legislation, and even then consider-
able difficulties would arise, for any general Act would be unworkable,
and must in most parts of the country remain a dead letter. It would,
I think, be better to have an Act which could be applied, when considered
necessary, to particular rivers and localities favourable for fish breeding'.'"
The Acting Second Assistant Collector remarked as follows : — "From con-
versation with fishermen here, I have ascertained that they are quite
aware that the quantity of fish in the rivers is less than it was, and that
a prohibitive measure regulating the size of the nets would not be un-
popular, and I do not think any great hardship would be caused by
closing the fisheries during breeding time, as the greater number of the
fishermen are then employed in agriculture or other pursuits. I think
some measure for the conservation of the fish is necessary.'''' The Collector
likewise observed : — " No doubt very young fish are destroyed in nallas,
shallows, &c, by persons who are not regular fishermen, and at all seasons
with nets, pieces of cloth used as nets, &c. The smallest mesh of the
nets is less than an inch ; it has never been attempted to regulate their
size, but such might be done ; still one or two years' notice should be given
beforehand, as the nets with smaller meshes would become useless ; the
minimum size might be from half an inch to one inch between knot and
knot. The' sale of fry might be prohibited, and a close season is desirable."
100. The Collector of Puna reported (June 30th, 1871) that in the

district there are two large rivers, viz., the
. Opinions of European officials Bheema and the Neera the f ormer has seven
in the Puna Collectorate. . m . . . ' , . . „ ,

large affluents, viz., the Fooshpawuttee, Jxook-

ree, Meena, Goar, Bhama, Indrayunee, and Moola Moota ; the latter has
one, viz., the Kurra : each of these has its large and small feeders. Most
of these streams retain large pools during the hottest season ; in some the
water flows perennially. The fisheries are generally appropriated by the
villages within which they are situated. Government have hitherto never
claimed rent. No private rights really exist, but that of prescription may
be claimed. [License, however long enjoyed, gives no right according to
the British law.] The Assistant Collector at the same time observed that
the natives of the Deccan refuse to eat crabs, turtles and tortoises for reli-

xlix

gious reasons, whilst the Kolis eat both. The turtles or tortoises are put into
wells where they eat up any rubbish that may fall in, and keep down the crabs,
who are great enemies of all masonry work. Although only Government
rights in respect to the fisheries exist, there is half an exception in the
case of so-called sacred fish at Wozre Talooka, Indapoor. A similar case
is at Wozer in the Joonere Talooka, a village belonging in Dewusthan
Inam to a temple of Gunputi. The inhabitants objected to any persons
catching fish in their pool of the Kookree river, and first brought false
accusations against the Joonere fishermen of poisoning the water. After-
wards they said that the Joonere Mussulmen who came to fish insulted
the women drawing water. On a personal investigation, it came out
that " these fish are fed in honour of our god, and we do not like their being
killed.'" At Chinchwad, where the village on one side belongs to the
god who does not even pay joodee, and the other shore is his inam
garden, the Karbharee stated the god claimed no proprietary right in
the fish fed from the temple steps. The existence, however, of a
few sanctuaries is probably useful to the fisheries. The First Assistant
Collector of Puna (April lOtk, 1872) remarked that there is a strong
Brahmin element in the district, which is sufficient to deter fishermen
from prying their trade in many places. When, however, they are not
interfered with, they catch fish in all seasons by every means in their
power, chiefly by netting, sometimes by poison, and less frequently by
baited hooks. In the large rivers fishing cannot be carried on during
heavy floods, and throughout the year the priestly influence, above noted,
greatly protects the fish. Breeding and very young ones are caught to
some extent, whilst, on the subsidence of the floods, bag nets and baskets
are placed in openings constructed in artificial dams which are roughly
thrown across streams. During the rainless season, the large deep pools,
which abound in the rivers, are netted. These rivers cannot be said to
be perennial, so far as the fish are concerned, for in many places the
stream that flows during the hot weather is so slender as to be useless
for them, and occasionally merely oozes through the gravelly bed of the
river. No size of the mesh of nets is disallowed ; the minimum size
obtained is y\jth of an inch between knot and knot (sample enclosed) . As
regards the appropriate regulation-size for the mesh of nets, it should
not be less than half an inch between knot and knot for bag nets, and one
inch for drag nets. He objects to prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish
in the bazar at first, but would rely upon regulating the size of the
mesh of the nets.

101. The Collector of Tanna reported (August 12th, 1871) that no

large fresh-water rivers exist in his district, all

Tanna?''011 °f ^ C°lleCt°r °f of that description being large streams formed

as natural outlets for the rainfall flowing
from the Ghats and high lands. During the monsoon months these
rivers are full, the body of water flowing down these outlets towards the
sea with great force. During the dry weather the beds of these rivers are
dry, excepting where large and deep reaches exist. Here fish are found,
and fishing is resorted to by the various villagers dwelling in the vicinity ;
in hardly any instance, however, have they any right in such fisheries,
other than that of a prescriptive one. At Callian there is a place into
which fresh water pours during the rains. The right of fishing is held

d

1

by a Parsee, who pays five rupees a year, and has done so sinee the
time of the Peshwas. The rights in all instances, except in that at
Callian, appear to be of custom, and in respect to which the parties can
claim none under documentary title. Government has never exer-
cised its right, simply because the fisheries are of little, if any, value; to
now do so would no way benefit the State, and would merely lead
to discontent. Subsequently (January 6th, 1872) the Collector observed,
that his being a sea- coast district the fresh -water fisheries are but small,
the only waters being in the rivers Bheema and Seena. No distinction is
made between breeding fish and others, whilst the young are also caught.
There is no restriction whatever, none is recommended, whilst any restric-
tive law would render additional police necessary to prevent its infringe-
ment.

103. The Collector of Colaba (March 23rd, 1872) observed, that, owing

to the flatness of the country, the tides run so
Cokba!iOD °f thS Collector of fax up the different creeks that the fresh-
water fisheries are very restricted and of little
value. A Statement appended shows the rights of Government and
private parties with respect to the fresh- water fisheries in the Collectorate.
Sheets of water, more or less deep, formed in a hollow in the bed of a
river, are termed " Doho's." All these fisheries belong to Government,
but any one is allowed to fish in them without payment, with the excep-
tion of two small ones in the talooka of Peun which are the property of
the Inamdar of the village. Breeding and very young fish are destroyed
to a great extent by snares both in rivers and nallas during all seasons
of the year. The smallest size of the mesh is one which will just admit
a large needle. One inch between knot and knot should be the minimum
size, but the fishermen wrould not obey any such regulation unless it were
legalised.

103. The Acting Collector of Salara reported (June 22nd, 1871)

that fish of about fifty kinds are caught in

. ?,pin'0f °f European officiate th k streams in the district, viz., the

in the &atara Collectorate. <=> ' / .

Kristna, Yeana, (Jormooree, J aria, Koma,

Wama, Yerla, Maun, Neera, and Bheema. They are chiefly taken in the
long deep reaches of the larger streams in which there is always water.
No rights over particular spots are legally reserved either to Government
or to the villagers, but the inhabitants of each village fish in the con-
tiguous waters. In certain places on the Kristna, near temples, the
Brahmins, on religious grounds, prevent any fish being caught. The
Collector observed (March 16th, 1872) that breeding and very young fish
are destroyed to a considerable extent by means of nets in pools both in
great rivers and in nallas. When the rivers become muddy at the com-
mencement of the monsoon, fish die in large numbers, also when they
become nearly dry at the close of the hot weather. The smallest size
of the mesh of the nets varies from three-quarters to one-eighth of an
inch in circumference (f^ths to ^nd of an inch between knot and
knot of the meshes). No difficulties exist against regulating the size
of these meshes, except some legal provision in order to punish offenders.
Half an inch between each knot is proposed. There are no objections
of any weight, against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the
bazars.

li

104. The Collector of Kaladgi reported (March 1st, 1872) that it is

believed breeding- fish and very young- ones
Ka?id"i°U °f the CoUecfc°r °f are not destroyed to any great extent in his
o1' district, but the smallest size of the mesh

of the nets is about equal to a grain of wheat. There are no persons
who are strictly fishermen, nor are there any considerable fisheries, and,
were the size of the mesh of the nets regulated in future, it would
probably be difficult to detect any infringement, as it would not be easy
to discover in which part of the river the people were netting. Beyond
this, there is no reason why the size of the meshes of the nets should
not be regulated, and half an inch between each knot is proposed as the
minimum size. Fry of fish are said not to be sold in the bazars.

105. The Acting Collector of Sholapur reported (May 24th, 1871)

that there are two rivers in the district, the
Show" °f the Collector °f Bheema and the Seena. The right to net fish

in these rivers or in other places is not sold
by auction, because of their not containing fish enough to render it
worth while for people to become purchasers. Subsecpiently (February
7th, 1872) he reported that fishermen take eveiy sort and size of fish
without distinction, that no restriction exists as to the size of the mesh
of the nets employed, and he does not recommend any for the future,
as additional police would be necessary, and the necessity for such a
prohibition is not apparent to him.

10G. The Collector of Belgaum reported (May 25th, 1871) that

fish in abundance, but for the most part small
. °/nT]9 of B£Ta? ofl?cials and of inconsiderable value, are caught in the

in the Belgaum Collectorate. -.T -, ,, mi • r^ 1 1 i

Mulpurbna, lambraparni, (jrataprabha, and
Markundya rivers. As regards fisheries, the respective rights of Govern-
ment and of private parties have never been determined. Neither
Government nor private individuals reserve rights, and the inhabitants
of any of the villages on the banks of the rivers are in the habit of
catching the fish for their own consumption. The Collector subsequently
(March 19th, 1872) submitted a report compiled from information
furnished by the First Assistant, the Assistant Collector, and Deputy
Collector, who are severally in charge of districts. He observed that
there would appear from the various reports to be no difficulty
in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets used, ruling that
none smaller should be employed except for prawns and " moree"
fishing. Moreover, by doing this, there would be no inconvenience caused
to fishermen. There exists no objection against prohibiting the sale of
the fiy of fish in the bazars. The First Assistant Collector observes
that breeding and young fish are not systematically destroyed, although
fishermen have no compunction in slaughtering them when they come
to hand. In consequence, however, of the Mulpurbha, the only river of
any size in the district, being flooded during the rainy season, fishing is
suspended at this time, which is the breeding period for fish : consequently
they become spared to a certain extent. Breeding fish and young ones
are caught in nets, and no fisherman ever thinks of throwing them
back on account of their condition or puny size ; the fishermen in the
villages on the banks of the rivers throughout the district being equally
glad to catch them at any time in hauling their nets. Bottom-fishing

lii

is carried on by persons from the banks throughout the year, and a number
of breeding fish must be victimised in this way. However, the mis-
chievous practices of poisoning the waters and trapping the fish appear to
be unknown. The smallest distance between the knots of the meshes
of the nets, it is considered, should be half an inch ; the public sale of the
fry does not appear to be known, they being consumed by their takers, or,
should there be a surplus, being privately disposed of. The Assistant Col-
lector remarked of his district, that in addition to fishing by means of nets
and trapping, nallas, rivers, and tanks are in the hot weather dammed up
with bunds, and poisonous drugs are thrown into the water, so that the fish
either die, or, becoming stupefied, float on the surface, and are easily caught.
Angling is occasionally resorted to, but only, as a rule, where the water
is too deep to admit of a bund being erected. The practice of
jooisoning fish has, to a certain extent, been stopped in the Gokah Talooka,
owing to the rules of the Forest Department, under which is prohibited
the cutting the small twigs and leaves from which the stupefying drugs are
made. The size of the mesh of the nets does not seem to vary very
much in the different talookas, the smallest being from one-sixth to one
quarter of an inch between the knots. In Belgaum, however, and
the neighbourhood, a net with even smaller meshes is used for the purpose
of catching prawns and a small fish called " moree." Nets with minute
meshes are used, as a rule, during the rains, and with larger meshes during
the cold season and hot weather, but this is not strictly observed. No
difficulty is considered to exist, in organising a scheme to prevent the
present wholesale destruction of fish, by regulating the size of the small-
est mesh of the nets that will be permitted, by determining at what
seasons nets with different sized meshes may be employed, by pro-
hibiting the sale of the fry of fishes in the bazars, and forbidding the
capture of fish at any rate during the first two months of the breeding
season.

107. The Acting Collector of Dharwar (March 29th, 1870) propos-
ed selling the fisheries by auction, either
Opinions of the European early or for a perio(i o£ three or four years
ofhunils ot the Dharwar Collec- J , ,J.> . ,r . ,, -, ••

torate. at a time, in order to give the lessee time to

improve them. He observed that a former
Collector on several occasions had done so at Seerburdghee in Bankipur
Talooka ; selling that in one tank for 200 rupees, for others as much
as 80 to 100 rupees have been given. There are, taking the district
all round, upwards of two hundred tanks in which the right to net
fish might be sold. There should be strict rides as to the size of cer-
tain fish that should not be allowed to be removed, but beyond fixing a
minimum of mesh, and protecting the young of certain descriptions, other
restrictions are not advocated. The money collected from this source
would, in this Collectorate, probably yield about 16,000 rupees per
annum, and should be credited to local funds, to be expended on the
tanks which afford fishing. In many cases, steps might be taken to
provide an inner and deeper tank into which the fish might be driven on
the water becoming veiy low. Thus, not only the tanks would be im-
proved, but the amount of fish might be augmented, adding to the
food and comfort of the poorer classes, whose interests in this particular point
have been hitherto neglected. Subsequently (November 29th, 1871), the

liii

Acting Collector reported that the fresh-water fisheries existing in the
eleven talc-okas in his district are as follows : — In Nowlgoond and Roan
fish are caught in the Mulprabha river, which skirts the northern bound-
ary of these talookas. In Dharwah fish are taken in some of the
large tanks which retain water all the year round ; in a few they
are large and plentiful, chiefly the " murrell" and "parah." In Hooblee
there are no streams from which fish are to be had, but thev are found
in large tanks which do not dry. In Dumhull they are obtained from
the Toongbhudra river which skirts its southern boundary, and
also in the larger tanks that do not dry up. In Kulghutghee they are
found in one or two small streams, also in the larger tanks which do not
become dry, viz., Devikope, Budneeguttee, and Tumboor; these always con-
tain a large supply of fish. In Bunkapur there are numerous tanks contain-
ing fish, but those of the largest size and the most numerous are found in
those which retain water all the year round. In Kurujghee numerous fish
are obtained in the rivers Wardah and Toongbhudra, as also in a few of the
tanks. In Hangul the river Wardah and numerous tanks and ponds that
are perennial contain them, likewise in similar ponds and tanks in Kode and
Raneebednore ; in the former talooka is also the Toongbhudra skirting its
southern boundary, and in the latter the same river forms its eastern
limits. The only private right of fishing is in the Bunkapur Talooka at
Nagpoor, which the Collector in 1832 declared belonged exclusively to
the Wuttundar Patel of Husan Aga. In Kurujghee formerly, the
fisheries in some of the tanks and in the Toongbhudra river used to be
sold by Government by auction, but this has not been done of late years.
In a third Report (March 28th, 1872) it is observed that fishing in the
talookas is carried on all the year round in the rivers and large and small
tanks. Fish are caught wherever they can be found ; whatever is brought
ashore by the net is kept. The minimum size of the mesh is very small ;
in some samples appended, it varied from one-tenth to one-thirteenth of
an inch between the knots ; even the veiy smallest fry cannot escape.
In the larger rivers, the Wardah and Toongbhudra, fishing is continued
throughout the year, except when they are in flood. In the smaller
rivers which soon dry up, it is carried on during the rains. It is
also continued all the year round in the large tanks that do not become
dry ; such, however, are rare in the black soil districts of Dharwar, Nowl-
goond, Roan, and Dumbul. Fish appear to exist in larger cpiantities in
tanks situated in red soil. Besides the long nets dragged by a number of
men, cast-nets with very fine meshes are used in the rivers. In the
tanks, besides nets, night lines are employed, and people daily visit them
to secure the captures. In some cases the tanks are drained, or nearly
so, and then everything that can be caught is taken ; thousands, not one
and a half inches in length, being captured by various sorts of nets by
the hand, and by fishermen throwing a large sort of basket-net over them.
There is no limit either by law or custom as to the size of the meshes of
the nets, fishing not being interfered with. Were it proposed to regulate
the size of the meshes of the nets, there would be difficulties, but in no
degree insuperable ones, the chief being in the supervision that would
be recuiired. The Acting Collector observed, that he concurs in the Assist-
ant Collector's views on this subject, namely, that it would be extremely
difficult and unpopular to fix the size of the meshes of nets to be employed

liv

in catching1 fish in the small tanks which dry up at every hot reason,
and it would be of little use, because the fish are caught by the hand
even in the mud as the water subsides, and the quantity captured by man
is small in comparison to the enormous numbers destroyed by the large
flocks of birds that prey upon fish. The Collector continues, that in
large tanks that do not dry up and in the rivers the mesh might be re-
gulated by law, but in tanks and rivers that dry up during the hot sea-
son it is proposed that nets should not be interfered with. For the
former localities the minimum size of the mesh proposed is one inch
between knot and knot. To attempt to make a larger limit would be very
unpopular, because there are so many descriptions of fish that are eaten,
and which never grow to any great size.

108. The Acting Collector of Batnaghari, with his report of June

16th, 1871, enclosed one from the Deputy
Opinions of the European Conservator, who stated that he had obtained
officials of the Ratnaghan Col- j <■ i j. c-\.- ■ ru t

lectorate good fresh-water fishing in the J og river near

Dapoolee. No private parties exercise any
exclusive rights in regard to such fisheries. One reason probably
why the fish are so few in number, is that they are caught in vast numbers
when they have only just spawned, as is thus described by the Assistant
Collector. The people in this part of the country are not in the habit
of catching fish either by means of hues or nets. In some places they
raise dams across streams, which do not allow the water to run off, and
into the pools thus formed they throw the juice of the hoora plant,
which blinds the fish, after which they are easily taken. The usual
method, however, is by placing baskets in convenient situations in
the current. Such a system of capturing fish newly spawned, and the
practice of throwing nets across creeks and rivers, has done much to
diminish the number of the fish in this country. The Acting Collector
subsequently (March 20th, 1872) observed that there are no fresh-water
fisheries, properly so called, in his zilla. The chief fisheries, exclusive of
the sea ones, are those up the numerous creeks or arms of the sea, which
penetrate inland for several miles along the whole length of this coast dis-
trict. Far inland, in depths too shallow for navigation, at low tides and
during the monsoon, some parts of these creeks contain fresh water, and in
regard to them, both breeding and very young fish a re destroyed to a great
extent. The rivers are swept with close nets at all seasons of the year
from their source, and principally by Bhoees, but also by the villagers
generally. Banks are formed to make the fish pass through narrow
channels; nets are employed, also baskets and bag-like nets. Fish of
a very small description are caught all the year round, but the principal
time for this pursuit is during July and August. There is no doubt that
breeding fish and very young ones are not spared. Any sized mesh is used
which the fishermen choose, and the difficulty in regulating the minimum
to be employed in future is the want of supervision in remote vil-
lages. Half an inch between the knots of meshes is proposed as the
smallest legal size. Fry do not appear to be sold in the bazars, but
used for home consumption. Prohibiting* the capture of fish in hilly
districts for the first two months of the monsoon season, when they are
breeding, would be of great advantage to the country, but rules would
be difficult of enforcement.

lv

109. The Acting Collector of Canara observed (January 13th, 1873),

the fisheries may be roughly divided into
Opinion of the Collector of t k d ruimirjg. streams. The former exist

in considerable numbers and size above the
Ghats ; below the Ghats they are neither so large nor so numerous. The
principal rivers in the district are the Kalanuddee, Gungawutty, Yuddry,
and Sirawutty ; it is the last named which forms the Geirsoppa falls.
There are other small streams where fish are to be found, but not in such
numbers as in the rivers above mentioned. The Kalanuddee and Sira-
wutty in particular, with their deep pools and large rocks, afford a shelter
for fish not to be found in smaller streams. There is a general agreement
amongst those who have given their opinions on the subject, that the
rivers and nallas, and the greater number of the tanks, are the undoubt-
ed property of Government. Tanks have been constructed by individuals
at their own expense ; some are attached to temples and other religious
edifices ■ the right of private parties to the fish therein contained would,
I apprehend, be admitted. But the fish in tanks constructed by Govern-
ment, at the public expense, are morally and legally Government property.
As a further proof, it is stated that Major Peyton has known in Canara,
when the tanks became low and likely to dry up, the tehsildars and
mamlutdars selling on account of Government the right of catching fish.
By the principles of the Jus gentium, large rivers belong to all the
people of the country; in other words, are the property of Government
which represents all the people of the country, so far as such rights are
concerned. Where the fund of wealth is unlimited, it is better to leave
the right of using' it unlimited ; but where this is not the case (and it
is to be presumed all will admit it is not the case with river or tank
fisheries) , some restricting* regulations are necessary. If the above state-
ment be correct, the sooner the Legislature takes the fisheries of this
district under its cognizance, the better ; not only do the fishing class of
natives use nets fitted to catch everything, from a quarter of an inch
upwards, but they continually kill by poison the whole of the fish in a pool.
The bark of certain trees, such as the Chapal karu, Garooda, Koorada,
&c, is pounded and thrown into the water ; the fish come to the surface
floating on their backs, and are carried off. If this practice be continued,
the rivers of the district will soon be swept clear of fish ; a means of
innocent sport for some, and of sustenance for many, will be stopped, and
the chance of Government ever deriving any revenue from the fisheries,
which, if they were protected, would be quite practicable and might be
desirable, will be lost.

110. In the Ahneclabacl Collectorate eight native officials have sent
. . .in returns, and those who have answered the

IntheThmedabaTcoikcteate!3 first question have apparently considered the

" number of fishermen" as the " number of
castes of fishermen ;" consequently it does not appear how many persons
following this employment would be affected by any new rules. How-
ever, it is evident they must be few. The Mamluidar of Duslcroee reports
the Mahomedans, Purdessees, Bhoees, and Boochas as the fishermen
which are in his district, amongst whom the Bhoees are also employed
as palanquin-bearers and the Boochas as grass-cutters. The local fish
markets are not fully supplied ; more could be sold. As regards the pro-

lvi

portion of people who eat fish ? it is remarked that Brahmins and high-
caste Hindus do not, but the rest, who are allowed by their religion, do.
The fish are said to have increased, and that very small ones are not
captured during' the rains, but the minimum size of the mesh of the nets
will only let a needle go through, whilst fish are trapped in the irrigated
fields during the rains. The Mamlutdar of Gogo observes that Kharwas
and Bhugwagurees take fish ; the former do not engage in other occu-
pations ; the latter do, being sailors. The markets are sufficiently supplied
with fish. A list of several castes is given, as the proportion of people
who eat fish, the supply of which article of food is said to have decreased.
Very small ones are taken during the rains by means of hand nets ; the
minimum size of the meshes will allow " half the last fina-er" to so
through. Fish are said not to be trapped in the irrigated fields during the
rains. The Mamlutdar of Purantey says, the fishermen are Kolees and
Bhoees, who also pursue other occupations. The markets are not fully
supplied with fish. The proportion of the population who eat fish is not
given, but a few castes are, terminating with " and such others eat fish."
The supply of late years has been stationary. Very small ones are captured
by children during the rains. A finger can go through the minimum
sized mesh of the nets. Breeding fish are trapped by children in the
irrigated fields during the rains in a cage called " Jako." The Mamlut-
dar of Sanund reports an absence of fishermen, a market insufficiently
supplied with fish, the quantity of which in late years has remained sta-
tionary ; notwithstanding, he continues, very small fish are captured with
cloths during the rains, whilst the smallest sized mesh of nets that are
employed is almost of the size of a toour seed. The Mamlutdar of
JJhuudooha observes that there are neither fish nor fishermen. The
Mamlutdars of Dhollca, Veerumgam and Morassa give such vague returns
that an analysis of them is of no practical use.

111. In the Broach Collector ate, the Mamlutdars report that there

are about 110 fishermen in Broach, 100 in
1hS«S-m Jumioo^riO in AiMode, and 150 ia *„-

sote j besides fishing they all twist coir ropes,

build and repair houses, and work as day-labourers. The following

are the castes of fishermen in Broach ; Dheemar machee, Maktomporia

machee, Hansoteea machee, the last two having obtained their names

from the villages whence they have emigrated. In Hansote the fishermen

are by caste Talabda coolies, or Jumboosur machee, &c, and in Ahmode

AYagris and Bhoees. The markets in Jumboosur, Broach, and Hansote

are fully supplied with fish, and large quantities, both salt and dried, are

exported : in Ahmode and Anklesur the supply is less than the demand ;

between one-third and a quarter of the population of the Broach District

would appear to consume it. The supply at Broach and Ahmode has

decreased of late years, whilst that in Jumboosur and Hansote has remained

stationary. Little fish during the rains are captured with small nets at

Broach and Hansote, but not elsewhere at that season. The smallest size

of mesh employed in Jumboosur at the seaward end of the net is one inch,

landwards half an inch : at Ahmode one quarter of an inch, and in Broach

one-sixth of an inch. Breeding fishes are not trapped in the irrigated

fields, during the rains, as a rule. In Broach and Hansote nets are fixed

across the stream where the water is shallow. Cast-nets are likewise

lvii

used in deeper water. Large nets supported at intervals by light hollow
gourds are stretched out in the river, one end being attached to a
boat.

112. The Mamlutdars of the Kaira CoUectorate report that it is

difficult to give the exact number of fisher-

Opinions of native officials in m ag tj are as a rule agriculturists like-

the kaira CoUectorate. . ' , i, , , , ' ■■ -, , i n

wise, and otten employ themselves during* the

monsoon in plying feny -boats on the larger rivers. On the banks of the

Mhye there are probably about 500 persons employed in supplying the

Baroda market with fish, both fresh and salt. The only fisherman caste

is the " Machee/-' but many coolies and Mussulmen engage in fishing as

well. There is stated to be little or no demand for fresh fish in the local

markets. Possibly about one-sixth of the population have no religious

scruples about eating it, but few comparatively use this food from

choice. It is supposed that the supply of fish in the Mhye has decreased

of late years. The common superstitious belief is, that the deities of the

river have been displeased by the withholding of the offerings formerly

made by travellers who crossed it in carts, previously to the opening of

the railway. Fishing is common during the rains ; all sorts are captured ;

the nets allow none to escape ; the minimum size of the mesh is about one

quarter of an inch in diameter. Fish are not trapped in irrigated fields

during the rains, as irrigation is chiefly derived from wells. The following

are the principal implements employed in fishing : rod and line " gul" ;

torch-fishing by night, "Ook"; hand nets, "hath jhal" ; or cast-nets,

(" fulolu") ; and large nets, " maha jhal."

113. The Mamlutdars in the Khandeish CoUectorate report that

there are 23,600 fishermen in the whole of
Opinions of native officials in the district, but they do not depend upon fish-
the Khandeish CoUectorate. . . J „ ,. \., -, x ,,

mg alone as a means ot livelihood, as they

also pursue different occupations. The names of the fishermen castes are
Kofi, Pardi, Kokne, Wanjari, Bhui, Mahar, Baradi, Bhil, Diwar, Kotil,
Mussulman, Mawache, and Thudwi. The local markets are insufficiently
supplied with fish, that captured being principally for home consumption.
Three-fourths of the people eat fish, the amount of which in the district
has decreased of late. During the rains many small ones are captured in
every possible way. The smallest mesh employed is down to one quarter
of an inch, after which a cloth is used, or no mesh at all. Fish are
trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains. The different means used
for capturing fish are jali, nets; basket traps; gul, a hook used only
in the rains, cloth, poison of sorts as follows, hinganbet, yathil, gir
and thor.

111. The Mamlutdars of the NasiJc CoUectorate report that there
_ . . „ . „ . , are about 1,000 fishermen in the district, but

Opinions or native officials i ,■ i i j_i i j

in the Nasik CoUectorate. some only are at tmies solel7 thus employed,

as they are also agriculturists and day-labour-
ers. The fishermen castes are Maratha, Bhoee, Kahar, Koli, Bhil, Taroo,
Taral, Kokne', Warli. Many Mussulmen and Koonbees also fish. None
of the markets are sufficiently supplied. AVith respect to the propor-
tion of persons who eat fish, the reports vary, in some talookas only
one in twenty-two of the population are stated to do so, in others two-
thirds or three-fourths, or| even fifteen-sixteenths do. In the Penit State,

lviii

chiefly inhabited by Bhils or Kolis, all but Brahmins are said to eat fish,
Of late years the amount in the waters has decreased j small ones are
taken in greater or less quantities everywhere during the rains, by means
of small nets, baskets placed under water with bread and gram in them,
basket traps fixed in currents, and by hooks. The smallest mesh of the
nets employed is of the size of a grain of gram. Breeding fish are trap-
ped in the irrigated fields during the rains in some of the talookas. The
modes of taking fish are given as follows ; nets of sorts, as drag-nets for
the pools in the rivers, cast-nets of various sizes, also others somewhat simi-
lar to shrimp nets, termed " Chabha" and " Peine," namely, those fixed
to a triangular frame of wood, with a handle for fishing; these are
used in the shallow streams. Basket traps, " Malai," are of the usual
kind, or the rat-trap principle, so that no fish once in can get out. Large
cloths, " Jholes," are often used as a substitute for nets. Poison is frequently
had resort to in order to kill or stupefy fish. The leaves of a plant called
" Soopli," Clitorea turnalea, are much used for this purpose, also tobacco
leaves and the milk bush, as well as the " Gel Phul" or fruit of the
Vangneria spinosa, which is powdered and thrown into the water. Dams
are also constructed in small streams ; the water laded out and the fish
captured, or else after the completion of the dam they are driven into traps
or nets of different kinds.

115. The Mamlutdars in the Ahmednuggwr Collector ate report that

there are from 2 to 3,000 fishermen in the
Opinions of native officials in district but th f n th occupations

the Ahmeunuggur Collectorate. , . , ' „ ■ f, . . ,' 7

besides that ot fishing', such as cultivation,
day-labourers ; &c. ; their castes are Bhoee, Koli, Kahar. The markets
are said to be insufficiently supplied. On an average two-thirds of the
population will eat fish, but it does not, unless they are fishermen, form
a portion of their regular diet. The number of fish are said to have
decreased of late years owing to the deficiency of rain. The minimum
size of the mesh of the nets is stated to be equal to that of a grain of
gram. Fish are said not to be trapped in the irrigated fields during* the
rains. Besides the use of nets and hooks, waters are poisoned with the
milk bush.

11G. The native officials in the Puna Collectorate state that there

are about 800 fishermen, but they do not confine

thfpunrCollecSe!*50^ °f themselves to nshing" for a livelihood ; their

castes are Murathu Bhoee, Kolis, Kongadee
Bhoee, Kar Bhoee (Purdesee), Wuradee Bhoee. The markets are in-
sufficiently supplied. There is nothing to prevent the majority of the
people eating fish. Many small ones are captured during the rains, but
they are not trapped in the irrigated fields, as there are but few of such.
The implements employed are a large casting net, " Pagur ;" a small drag-
net with poles attached resembling a cricket net, " Zilla •" small nets
termed " Bhoosu" and " Waoree •" large drag-nets " Pundee" and
" Luhowkaree ;" " Tivree/' which resembles the Bhoosu, but has a larger
mesh ; " Patee" and " Challum," made of bamboo and net, and placed
at the opening in a dam constructed across a stream ; " Ganjwa" is
a sort of drag- net, and " Surkee," a small net; " Basgul," " Chhudigul,"
and " Lumdore" are reels containing different lengths of line with baited
hooks attached.

lix

117. The native officials in the Colaba Collectorate report as

follows : — The Mamluldar of Alibog gives the
Opinions of native officials in fishermen at 2,000, the majority pursuing other
e o a a o occupations; their castes are Koli and Bhoee,

both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not brought for sale ; one-half the
population eat fish, whilst the supply has remained stationary. Very small
ones are taken by snares, by " Bhokshee," a round cane basket with a hole
at the top ; Koin, Bugadee, and Buggala, whilst the smallest mesh of the
nets is only sufficient to admit a large needle. Fish are trapped in the
irrigated fields during the rains. The various modes of fishing employed
are, killing with sticks, damming up and lading out water, snaring,
poisoning, and netting. The Mamlutdar of Penn states, the fishermen
are 4,000, most of whom pursue other callings as well; their caste is Koli.
The local markets are fully supplied with sea-fish ; seven-eighths of the
people are fish-eaters, the supply of which has remained stationary of
late. Very small ones are captured to a great extent during- the rains
by snares and basket traps. The smallest mesh of the nets is given at
one-quarter of an inch. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the
rains. Damming is reported to be carried on in this talooka. The
Mamlutdar of lioha observes that there are 200 fishermen, who mostly
pursue other occupations in his talooka ; their castes are Koli and Bhoee,
both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not brought to market ; one-half of
the population eat fish, the supply of which has remained stationary. The
smallest sized mesh of the nets is one-third of an inch, and fish are trapped
in the irrigated fields during the rains. The Mamlutdar of Man gam
computes the fishermen at 500, most of whom have also other employ-
ments ; they are Koli and Bhoee, both Marathas. Fresh-water fish are not
brought to market ; three-fourths of the people eat fish, the supply of
which has remained stationary of late. Very small ones are captured
during the rains in cane baskets, whilst the minimum mesh of the nets
is one-quarter of an inch. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields
during the rains. The Mamlutdar of Mhar gives the fishermen at 100, of
the Bhoee caste. The local markets are fully supplied with marine fish ;
three-quarters of the people are fish-eaters ; the supply of late years has
remained stationary. Very small and other fish are trapped and caught
during the rains ; the smallest sized mesh is given at one inch (in circum-
ference ?)

118. The Mamlutdars of Satara report that the number of fisher-
men in the several talookas of the district

JRSS&SZSF* '" ™ries from t6 10 700< m°st of rhom foIlow

other occupations as coolies and agricultural
labourers, and their castes are Bhoees and Kolis. Sometimes Mahomedans
and Conbus also take fish for their own use. The local markets are not
fully supplied with fish, and the proportion of people who consume it
varies in the different talookas from 25 to 96 per cent. The amount of
late years has decreased ; small ones are taken in large quantities during
the rains by netting, hooks, &c, whilst the minimum mesh of the nets
is one-eighth of an inch in circumference (one thirty-second part of an
inch between knot and knot) . Fish are not trapped in irrigated fields
during the rains. Fishing is carried on by various descriptions of nets,
by angling, and by diverting the natural course of a stream so as to

make all the water pass thiough an open receptacle resembling a large
basket, also by erecting- a bank of sand across a river or nalla and
obtaining the fish in the usual way.

119. The native officials in the Kaladgi Collector ate report that

there are about 400 persons who follow fish-
Opinions of native officials in • in coniuuction with otlier occupations,

the Kaladgi Collectorate. -, , ,, ,., • ,. .. , n 1 •

but there are likewise distinct nshing castes.
Fish are but rarely sold in the bazars ; about one-quarter of the people
are fish-eaters ; the supply of late years is considered to have remained
stationary. Very small ones are not taken in any quantity during the rains,
whilst the minimum mesh employed is about the size of a grain of wheat.
In the Indee Talooka fish are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields.

120. The native officials at Sholapur give the number of fisher-

men in the district at 1,000, including women

ShSf urnS °f nath'e °ffiCialS ^ aud cnildren ! The Bhoees are the fishermen

caste ; they are also palkee-bearers. The

markets are insufficiently supplied with fish ; one-third of the population

eat it when obtainable ; the supply is said to have decreased of late ;

very small ones are captured with nets and baskets, the latter of which

are of such a fine texture that nothing can escape through the interstices.

121. The Maml/itdars of Belgaum report through the Assistant

Collector as follows : — Mr. Stewart states that
Opinions of the native officials * h{ digtrict there are onl about 250 figh

01 the Belgaum Collectorate. . J

men, who also engage m other occupations ;
they are chiefly of the Bhoee, Koli, and Takur castes, but a few Mussul-
men likewise carry on this pursuit in a small measure, mostly for home
consumption. The markets are glutted with salt-fish imported from Goa
and the sea-coast, there being but a slight demand for fresh fish ;
but if the opportunity were given to the natives to purchase fresh fish
cheap and good, there could be no doubt that the use of this wholesome
article of consumption would be more wide-spread. The relative price of
fish and mutton is much the same in the different talookas, but the cost
of the former is considerably more than that of the latter. About 20
per cent, of the population eat fish, the supply of which has remained
stationary of late years, but very young ones are not destroyed during
the rains to any great extent. Mr. Fleet states that in his district there
are about 60 fishermen of the Bhoee, Madrassi Holler, Koli, and Takur
castes in Belgaum and its neighbourhood, whilst there are from 25 to 30
in the Gokak Talooka of the Kabalge, Mussulmen, and Rajput castes ;
most of them are likewise palkee-bearers or Hamals. The Belgaum
market is insufficiently supplied with fish, but in the Gokak Talooka the
supply equals the demand ; the same may be said of the other two talookas.
The supply in the rivers has seriously diminished of late years, due to
increased demand and decreased rainfall. Many very small ones are
captured during the rainy months ; fish are very generally caught with nets,
or trapped in the fields that are permanently irrigated. Mr. Luxmon
Jagoonoth reports that there are fifteen villages in his district on the banks
of the rivers, and which contain about 125 fishermen, chiefly of the
Maratha, Mussulmen, Kidbodee, Bagaee, and Bhoee castes. A large num-
ber of very small fishes are captured during the rains with nets having
minute meshes.

lxi

122. In the Dhanoar Collectorate the native officials report as

follows : — In the Dhanoar Talooka there are
Opinions of native officials of 6(J0 fishermen wh0 likewise pursue other occu-

the Dharwar Collectorate. . . . , . ' . . ~ \ ^ tt- n

pations ; their castes are Surdur Bhoee, Village
Bhoees, Maratha, Bedur, Wudurs, Mussulmen, Maratha Dhobies, Gungi
Makalu, Kuber, and Amiger. The local markets are fully supplied with
dried sea-fish imported from Goa, hut very insufficiently with fresh fish.
About 50,000 persons eat it, the supply of which has decreased of late
years owing- to diminished rainfall. Very small ones are taken during
the rains, the minimum size of the mesh of nets employed being about
equal to that of a grain of gram ; fish are also trapped in the irrigated
fields during the rains. The modes of taking are " Gana," hook and
bait ; ' ' Bis-buli/' casting net ; " Tatabuli/' and " Khandelbuli," drag-nets ;
" Kooni/' wicker baskets ; also by hands. The Wudurs make use of
dams. In the Pet la Moogud Talooka there are about 32 fishermen, who
also pursue other occupations ; most are of the Bhoee caste, but the
Rajputs and Mussulmen catch fish occasionally. The local market
is not fully supplied; half the population (which is about 20,000)
are fish-eaters. Small ones are taken during the rains; the minimum size of
the mesh of the nets employed is equal to that of a grain of gram ; fish
are not trapped in the irrigated fields : the means for catching them
are by " Toputti," a triangular casting net with minute meshes, and which
is extensively employed; " Bis-buli/' a casting net with larger meshes;
" Khandelbuli/'' and " Gana," this last being of two kinds : " Want
gana" is a pole to which a line having a hook and bait is suspended ;
" Dawani gana" consists of two poles which are fixed in the ground in
the water at some distance apart ; a string connects the two, and from
this, lines with hooks and baits are suspended and descend into the water.
In the Hooblee Talooka there are three professional fishermen, but 50 other
persons occasionally join in ; the castes are Bhoee, Mussulmen, &c. The
local market is insufficiently supplied ; the fish have decreased of late
years ; the minimum size of the meshes of the nets is equal to that of a
grain of gram ; fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields ; they are taken
by nets and baits. In the Noivlgoond Talooka there are 150 fishermen,
but they also follow other occupations ; the castes are Bhoee and Mussul-
men. The fish supply has remained stationary of late ; veiy small ones
are taken during the rains, the minimum size of the meshes of the nets
being about equal to a grain of gram ; fish are not trapped in the
irrigated fields. In the Dumbitl Talooka there are about 50 fishermen,
who also pursue other occupations ; their castes are Bhoee, Mussulmen,
Ambiger, Killikyat, and Boodboorki. The local market is not fully
supplied with fresh fish, but salt fish is imported from the Bellaiy
District. About 10,000 persons in this talooka are said to eat fish, the
local supply of which is decreasing. Small ones are taken during the
rains, but are not trapped in the irrigated fields. In the tanks and
nallas in the Doni hills the Lumbanees poison the waters with the
milk bush. In the Bunkapur Talooka there are about 6,000 fishermen,
who also pursue other occupations ; their castes are Bhoee, Aree, Wudur,
Killikyat, Dombaru, Bedur, Guiigimakalu, Mussulmen, Boodboodkeroo,
Jateegaroo, Korwaroo, &c. The local market is not fully supplied with
fish, whilst about 50,000 persons eat it ; the supply of late has remained

lxii

stationary ; very small ones are netted during- the rains, the minimum size
of the mesh being equal to one-fourth of an inch between knot and knot ;
fish are also trapped in the irrigated fields. In the Hangul Talooka there
are 9,000 fishermen, who also pursue other occupations ; the castes are
Areroo, Golaroo, Telaga sunajageroo, Yeeleegerroo, Lumbani, Mucheejar,
Hulepaki, Rungari, Oopar, Rajput, Mussulmen, Hunamarroo, Kamatti,
Kuber, Wudur, Mahars, Dhors, Koorbus, Chetreroo, Dasroo, Byadroo,
Jataroo, Korwaroo, Telgaroo, Kotagar, and Erguntti. The local fish
market is fairly supplied, especially with marine sorts. About 30,000 persons
eat fish, the supply of which has decreased of late ; very small ones are
taken during the rains, the minimum size of the mesh of the nets being-
equal to that of a grain of gram ; fish are also trapped in the irrigated
fields and poisoned with the milk bush and powder of Mungari-kai. In
the Ranebedume Talooka there are several castes that fish, Mussulmen,
Koorbur, Tulwar, Ambiger, Telgaroo, Sabroo, Madgeroo, Areroo,
Rungareroo, Neikaroo, Bhoee, and Wudur. The local markets are not
fully supplied with fresh fish, but dining the hot months salt-fish comes
from Coompta. Three-sevenths of the population (of 70,000) eat fish, the
supply of which has decreased of late years ; very small ones are taken
in quantities during the rains, the minimum size of the mesh of the nets
being only equal to that of a grain of gram ; none are trapped in the
irrigated fields. In the Kurujghee Talooka there are 1,000 fishermen, but
they also follow other occupations. The local market is fully supplied
with salted marine fish from Coompta; about 15,000 persons are stated to
be fish-eaters, the supply of fresh-water ones has decreased of late; very
small ones are captured during the rains, the minimum size of the mesh
of the nets equalling that of a grain of gram ; fish are not trapped
in the irrigated fields. In the RutghUghee Talooka there are about 150
fishermen, who also pursue other occupations; the castes are Gungimakaloo,
Gowreemakaloo, Wudur, Maratha, Mussulmen, Hubsi, Chundi, Mydar,
Korwarroo, Holeroo, Lumbani, Kuber, and Byad. The local market is
fully supplied with salted marine fish which are brought from Coompta,
whilst the supply of fresh-water sorts has remained stationary of late.
About 25,000 persons are said to be fish-consumers ; very small ones
are captured during the rains ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets
is given at one inch in circumference ; none are trapped in the irrigated
fields. Wicker traps are employed for taking fish ; they are likewise
poisoned by the milk bush and the powdered fruit of the Mungari. Dams
are also erected, and water laded out in order to obtain all the fish. In
the Rode Talooka there are about 500 fishermen, who also have other
occupations ; the castes are Mussulmen, Kuber, Wudur, Bedur, Killikyat,
Holer, Chulwadi, Arer, Lumbani, and Korwar. The markets are
insufficiently supplied with fish, whilst there are about 25,000 persons
who eat it ; the supply is decreasing ; very small ones are captured during
the rains; the minimum size of the meshes of the nets are said to be equal
to a two-anna silver piece, and even less; fish are trapped in the
irrigated fields.

1 • • 9

lxin

MADE AS.

123. The following- reports from the European and native officials

of the Madras Presidency are mostly the

Origin of the present answers result f irfes made in the years 1867,

concerning the fisheries ot „„„»., * . . . ■, , ■, • -?,,--, ■, . '

Madras. 68, 69, the questions circulated in 1871 having

only been replied to by two Collectors. As,
however, the two series were rather similar, this summary has not
been further delayed awaiting them. In some of the Collectorates full
answers, in others only a few, from the native officials have been received,
whilst in some they have been entirely omitted.

124. The fresh-water fisheries of this Presidency may be divided

into those of rivers and tanks in all their
The fresh-water fisheries being various forms and sub-divisions ; some of
or rivers and tanks. ... -1,1 ,

which are perennial, others not so, a most
important consideration with respect to the following draft instructions
for the guidance of Collectors, issued by the Revenue Board (December
]8th, 1869) : — " Collectors will understand that these orders apply only to
tidal estuaries of considerable extent, and to inland tanks and streams,
which, as a rule, retain water throughout the year/''

125. The rivers of Madras are not of that large size observed in

the west of India, as the Indus : or to the
<&22 t^^fS ~> » the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddi,
respecting the fisheries. ana kalween in Burma, and lew retain a

perennial supply of water. These rivers are
chiefly the Godaveri, the Toongbhudra, Kristna, Cauvery, and those
of Malabar, most of the remainder being more or less dry during- the hot
months. As the Board of Revenue objects to making- any order applica-
ble to the rivers that are not perennial, so the Collectors, as of Kurnal and
Malabar, object to anything being done for those which are so, consider-
ing- they should be left alone.

126. Respecting- tank fisheries, those existing- in inundated

_ , . „ districts and in irrigated fields, the above-

Rules framed not to affect < i • ,. , -, -,0\ v ,1 , ,, •,

any but perennial rivers and quoted instructions (para. 123; direct that it

tanks that do not dry up. is not intended to interfere with the usual

practice of catching fish in small tauks which
do not retain water throughout the year, nor with any rivers excepting-
those possessing a perennial supply of water," and even here large
exceptions appear to be admitted.

127. The first consideration is, what proportion of the people eat

__ . . „ fish ? or perhaps, may do so without infringine-

Majority of people fish-eaters- „„„+ • v n n 1. ■ •. o ■?,

J J ^ F caste prejudices, could they obtain it? It

will be seen from the following- answers of both European and

native officials, that the great majority of the population can

eat fish, the largest exceptions being Brahmins, goldsmiths, hig-h-

caste Sudras, the followers of Siva, the Jains, &c. ; that fresh fish is

usually chosen in preference to the salted article, except in some

few talookas, whilst low-caste people and Mahomedans in some districts

lxiv

prefer gait-fish to fresh. Even at Bellary there appears to be a good
demand for salt-fish, but in a few of the inland talookas it cannot be sold.
This seems to have reference in some places to the proportion and caste
of the Hindus.

128. Are the markets well supplied? Along the coasts and in places

within easy reach of the sea they would

• ut' SMUedn*rk0t" iUSUffi' Seem t0 be so' but not inland- 0ut of 39
cien y supp 11 Tehsildars of Collectorates not, or only slight-

ly, bordering on the sea, the following are the replies, that the markets
are sufficiently supplied in 4 : insufficiently or hardly, if at all, in 35.

129. Have the fish in the fresh waters increased, decreased, or remain-

ed stationary ? Omitting vague answers, 64
Fish supply in the waters has T h il(k , replies have been received ; they
generally decreased. r . • .-i

are as follows : — o report an increase in the

amount in their talookas ; 46 either a large decrease or a decrease ; and

12 that the supply remains stationary, or else that no decrease is perceived

this year.

130. IF hose are the fisheries ? is a question adverted to by some of

the reporters, and it appears to be almost uni-
Fisheries Government pro- versally considered that those existing in inland
pei y' waters, with a few exceptions, are Government

property, but doubts are entertained by the Revenue Board whether the
" sanction of a legal enactment may not be necessary to enable the Gov-
ernment to interfere with the exercise of practices which long custom may
have converted into communal rights.'" £Paterson, ' Fishery Laws of
Great Britain/ observes of persons who claim right of fishing due to long
custom — " no length of time during which such acts are capable of being
explained on the ground of license, can prevent the owner putting an
end to such license. He may resume his original rights at any moment
and withdraw the license, for no man ought to have his rights abridged
by acting liberally towards the public or his neighbours."] How and
when numbers of the fishery rents ceased to be collected is adverted to in
para. 146.

131. The fishermen, as a rule, are the agriculturists, palanquin -

... , . „ bearers, small traders, coolies, and others, who
The fishermen, with but few ' . . .? . ' , .

exceptions, only, follow this carry on this pursuit when not engaged in
occupation in addition to their their ordinary avocations, and as there are no
usual work. restrictions, their only idea is to obtain what

they can, when they can. Were all the fisheries ruined, it would not
pecuniarily affect them, except to a secondary degree, as their living is not
dependant upon fishing. In some districts, as Bajahmundry, Chingle-
put, Combaconum, and a portion of Coimbatore, some few persons exist,
who appear to be entirely dependant on this occupation.

132. Are breeding fish destroyed, and, if so, how? In every dis-

trict this can be said to be carried on,

Breeding fish arc destroyed ■ { ]} [n f th f f0H0Wingr

by irrigation weirs arresting their 1 1 J . . . . .&

progress, being trapped whilst manners: — tirst, irrigation weirs which detain
ascending to breed or returning breeding fish ascending or descending, and
to the rivers, by weira and other their being allowed to be netted at those
y po places; this seems to be considered unavoidable,

due to the want of fish passes. Irrigation canals, where there are deep

lxv

falls, without passes, likewise exercise the same deleterious effects ; also
drying- off irrigation canals. Secondly, fish during the monsoon time
frequently migrate for breeding purposes, and often into ponds that
are not perennial ; it consequently occurs that should the floods cease
before they can regain the rivers, their retreat is cut off, and with the
evaporation of the waters they are captured. Thirdly, and much more
effectually, by the use of fixed engines as cruives or traps made of
wicker work, and placed in every run where fish are likely to ascend to
breed or to return after having done so. Or in the form of fishing weirs
across whole streams and minor rivers in which not a single means of
passing is left, the only gaps being where a cruive or trap is fixed.
Fourthly, by poisoning the water both in rivers and ponds.

133. Are the fry killed to any extent when just moving about?

Evidently they are, and in every district, by

Fry destroyed in large quail- t] } th[vd d f fch fe ^j

titles; modes enumerated. » 190>, , J , ,

the breeding fish (para. 132) have been stated

to be destroyed. Besides this, nets of minute meshes are employed, and

what should be the succeeding year's supply is cut off. In some irrigated

fields, if there were not fixed traps in every opening and fall, these fry

might return to the rivers in the waste water, provided open channels were

left permitting them to do so (see para. 169); in other places the water is

entirely expended on the field, and if the fry once get access, they must

be destroyed as evaporation takes place.

131. As to the various methods resorted to for capturing fish, they are

almost innumerable. Without describing the

Minimum size of the mesh of different forms of nets, an important question
nets employed and interspaces in . . . . . 3 .x „ . *• ,

cruives. ls) what is the minimum size of the mesh-

es of those employed in the fresh waters ? As
far as can be calculated from the answers received from 18 Tehsildars
or subordinate officials, either the minimum size of the meshes in use
or the usual size may be thus tabulated : — the size of a finger or thumb
4 : of a pie 1 ; of one-fourth of an anna 1 ; of a two-anna bit 1 ; of one-
fourth of a rupee 1 ; of half a rupee 1 ; of one inch 3 ; of half an inch 6 ;
of one-fourth of an inch 8 ; of one-eighth of an inch 8 ; of one-tenth of
an inch 1; of one-sixteenth of an inch 1; of the size of a grain of
dholl, gram, a pepper corn or tamarind seed, 11 ; such as would
ensnare an ant 1. In most of the portions of the Madras Presidency
I have visited, the meshes of the nets used for capturing fry during-
the monsoons would be almost or quite sufficiently minute to be
employed as mosquito curtains. The cruives or traps may be defined as
sufficient to only permit water being strained through. Weirs have but
little wider interstices between the substances of which they are con-
structed. Simply the prohibition of poisoniug the rivers in South Canara
for two years and forbidding the employment therein of cruives the
interstices of which would not permit a finger (f ths of an inch) to pass,
resulted in a vast extension of the fish and fisheries (see para. 169).
135. Trapping breeding fishes and young ones appears to be the

rule ; fishing weirs exist in many places,

Weirs, fixed engines, damming especially across those streams which are in
and lading out pieces or water, , ■. x • • •, ? i -ii i

and the use of poison. the vicinity of or upoD hills, because many

species of fish resort there to deposit their eggs

lxvi

and return again to the larger rivers of the plains before the advent of the
dry season would impede their descent. Damming and lading out pieces
of water for capturing fish occurs in several parts. Whilst poisoning is
reported as existing in the Collectorates of Nellur, Tricbinopoly,
Kurnal, Chiugleput, Salem, Tinnevelli, Coinibatore, South Canara
and Malabar.

13G. The following reports will, I conceive, render it conclusive,

that (1) the great proportion of the inhabit-

Conclusions based upon the t f u Madras presidency are fish-eaters,

following reports. .. . . . * . '

generally preferring it fresh ; (ii) that the

markets, as a rule, are insufficiently supplied ; (3) that the amount of
fish in the fresh waters has generally decreased ; (4) that the fisheries
are Government property ; (5) that the fishermen, as a rule, do not
follow this occupation as a sole means of support, but rather in addition
to their regular occupations ; (6) that breeding fish are trapped and
otherwise netted (as at irrigation weirs) when migrating for breeding
purposes ; (7) that the fry are wastefully destroyed whenever and
wherever they can be obtained ; (8) that nets with the most minute
meshes are employed; (9) that fixed engines, as cruives and weirs,
are unfairly and largely made use of; (10) that damming up and
lading out waters, is in existence, in order to procure fish; (11) that
poisoning is also resorted to for this purpose.

137. And now the consideration arises, as to what measures of

amelioration have been proposed on these

Measures of amelioration oiutg by the various officials of the Madras

winch have been proposed in V» • -i a ™ j m. ±* a i tvt in

Madras. .Presidency. All admit that whenever JNos. 1U

and 11 exist they should be prohibited,

leaving only for enquiry how the unfair destruction of breeding fish

should be lessened, the general massacre of young fry diminished, as well

as the best method of treating the question of nets and fixed implements.

At the onset, it may be observed that the Revenue Board would leave

matters as they are, as they " cannot but view with reluctance the

necessity of State interference, with what are at present free industries."

138. I proposed (December 1st, 1868) , after having examined many

of the fisheries, that 'free fishing/ if I may so
1868rSODal propositions in describe it, should be abolished on economic

grounds, my reasons being that the effect of
giving up the fisheries to the public free of cost had resulted in their
being almost destroyed ; that letting them out would cause the lessee to
look after them ; that no lessee could oppress the fishermen, for if they
refused to work, he would be powerless to obtain the fish. I suggested
yearly auctions (which, however, have been objected to by various offi-
cials), which would, after five years or so, show the value of the fisheries,
and subsequently they might be leased out for five years at a time. (I
never contemplated yearly auctions to be continued, as appears to be
supposed) ; that the minimum size of the meshes of nets should be four
inches in circumference ; of course, this would include the interstices
between the substances employed in cruives, weirs, and all fixed imple-
ments ; the destruction of vermin, as crocodiles and otters ; the slaughter
of snakes at irrigation weirs, and the construction of fish passes at these
places.

Ixvii

139. The Madras Government (30th April 1 869) directed that all

pieces of inland waters should be leased out

n, , e , , ,, , n iu order to «ive a distinct interest to some

Orders of the Madras Govern- ; & . . ,. . . n , .

meut aud of the Revenue Board, person in preventing indiscriminate nshmg,

that provision should be made in the con-
tracts, for the protection of fish in regard to the size of the mesh used,
viz., four inches in circumference, the periods and localities for fishing, the
draining off water in tanks and the poisoning of rivers ; that fish passes
should be constructed at anicuts, and rewards given for the destruction
of vermin that destroy fish, and the prohibition of fishing during certain
months, October to February inclusive, in the irrigation channels through
which the young fish pass down to the sea ; and that such should come
in force on July 1st, 1869. These orders also included the prohibition
of the use of nets within 100 yards of anicuts and such like masonry works
extending across streams. The lievenue Board (May 28th, 1SG9)
considered that headmen of villages should hold the fisheries at a
small royalty, or that protective rules should be embodied in a brief
Fishery Act. They neither approved of an inch between the meshes of
nets, nor prohibiting the taking of breeding fish detained near irrigation
weirs. The Madras Government (June 25th, 1869) saw no reason why pro-
tective measures should be deferred, but would not object to the details
being modified as regards letting the fisheries, and the minimum size of
the mesh of the nets. The Board of Revenue (August 27th, 1869) again
objected, stating that 13 Collectors agreed in reporting that no wanton
destruction of fish takes place, and that no protective measures are needed.
The Madras Government decided "no orders are necessary on these
papers." The instructions to district officers were called for. The
Board of Revenue (October 23rd, 1869) stated that no detailed orders on
the subject were issued. The Madras Government (November 19th, 1869)
observe, " that they saw no reason why the protective measures suggest-
ed should be deferred, but permitted some of the details to be partially
modified as proposed by the Board. On the receipt of this last com-
munication, it was clearly the duty of the Board to have immediately
issued the necessary orders to Collectors, but this it appears has not been
done. The Board will, accordingly, now be instructed to give effect to
the orders which should have been brought into operation on the 1st of
July last." On December 18th, the Board issued their instructions
(para. 148), modifying the minimum size of the mesh of nets to three
inches (instead of four) all round, and offering certain rewards for vermin
killed within one mile of irrigation weirs. Fish were to be passed over
weirs (see para. 152), whilst the subsidiary orders partially nullify the
original propositions. The Acting Secretary to the Madras Government
(October 5th, 1869) reported to the Secretary to the Government of
Iudia that "the Government have already decided on adopting the
protective measures advocated by Dr. Day for fresh- water fisheries."
Finally (July 12th, 1872), on being asked for "information showing the
results from letting the fresh-water fisheries from July last year" (1871),
the Acting Sub-Secretary to the Board replied, "the Board are not aware that
any special measures have been adopted in the matter of leasing fisheries
during the past revenue year;" from which it would almost appear
doubtful if the foregoing instructions have yet been brought into oper-

lxviii

ation. The Secretary of Stale for India (June 17th, L869) observed, " that
the conservancy and control of the fisheries, and the measures suggested
for the improvement of pisciculture throughout India, constitute subjects
which certainly deserve attention from your Government, (that of India)
and I fully approve of the arrangements that have been made. * * In
carrying out your views, much will depend on the interest that is taken
by local officers."

140. I may here mention that prior to the commencement of this

enquiry, I observed in the c Madras Medical
Fresh-water fisheries in Ma- journap — « Amongst the animal productions

dras, prior to the commencement „T ,. „ , .,, ,, i , , i ,

of this investigation. of India> fish meet Wlth the. least sympathy,

and the greatest persecution, especially as
regards the fresh-water tribes, which have to struggle for bare existence
in rivers that periodically diminish to little streams, and often dry up
during the hot months ; or in tanks from which the water totally dis-
appears. Besides these and many other disadvantages, they have their
natural enemies in the ova state, in youth, and maturity ; but amongst
these foes mankind is perhaps the greatest. A fish diet is much esteem-
ed and procurable at a comparatively cheap rate, because these unfor-
tunate creatures are captured by every one who gets the chance :
the larger species are killed irrespective of time and season ; the young
are destroyed for curries ; water-courses are poisoned for. the purpose of
obtaining them in large quantities for salting and transmission to distant
markets ; whilst they meet with no protection even from inferior foes.
Now that every article of consumption is increasing in value, the propa-
gation of fish must become a subject worthy of great consideration,
especially as they live in places which are otherwise unserviceable to man
in the production of food, excepting in a secondary manner ; whilst no
grain is required for their support, but little trouble for their protection,
and they thrive in places which but for them would be deserted wastes.
Were it not for the vast number of eggs which fish deposit, the probabi-
lities are that, long ere this, they must have been exterminated in India,
excepting in thinly populated or uninhabited districts, for man allows
them no law, and were they noxious reptiles, could not more anxiously
compass their destruction * *. But now the piscine tribes seem to have
fallen on evil days, being only protected in or near Hindu temples, for in
fact elsewhere they appear to exist solely because man has been unable
to destroy them."

141. Since the foregoing was written, I have visited several of the

districts of the Madras Presidency to investi-
JSTmIS1""0"5 " "- gate the present state and future prospects of

its fresh- water fisheries, and extract the fol-
lowing from my reports. Across the Kistna river is the Bezwada irri-
gation weir, which on its first construction by preventing the ascent of
breeding fish, caused them to be detained below it, where they were netted
in numbers. Since these first two years there has been a gradual dimi-
nution of the shad, as well as of all other kinds of fish, whether strictly
fresh-water or partially marine ; whilst the fishermen complain that they
cannot now (1868) supply half the local demand. Abusing the anient as
the cause of this, they will not perceive that they are doing quite as much
mischief by destroying the fry of the fresh-water species. 1 saw little

lxix

boys sent out to fish whose duty it was to bring home a daily supply for
their families, the size being- no object, and a sufficient amount the only
criterion. Hundreds of small fry are thus daily destroyed by the nets of
these little urchins, whilst the adult fishermen also assist in this work of des-
truction. At Rajahmundry, above the weir, the price offish in the bazar was
reputed to have risen 100 per cent, in seven years, and a great decrease of fish.
Here the fry and immature fish were being captured in myriads. At Comba-
conum I sent out some fishermen for two days to see what specimens they
could collect for me, and during that time they brought me upwards of
5,000 young fish, these being, as they stated, the quality they were cap-
turing in and near the station. That the destruction of fry is carried on to
an excessive extent must be patent to the most casual observer who travels
during the monsoon months. It appeared to me that the principal reason
for the decrease of fish, was that the fry were captured in excessive numbers
owing to the minuteness of the size of the meshes in nets; that irriga-
tion weirs and falls in canals arrested the ascent of breeding fish, which
were also trapped in irrigated fields and water-courses ; and lastly, that
indiscriminate fishing was disastrous.

142. One official (para. 158) having remarked upon my proposi-
„, ,. . . tions. — "I believe any law regulating the

vJ user vnt ion on nn oi") in ion •

that prohibiting the destruction size of the mesh would be inoperative in this

of fry by regulating the mini- country ; it would be cruel to the poor people

mum size of the meshes of nets w]10 for tJie most part live on smaU f jsh »

would be cruel to the poor. T ,, . ,/ ,, • ,, ,•

r I am unable to see the cruelty in attempting

to augment the food supply of the poorer classes. I have examined mag-
nificent pieces of fresh-water in the Madras Presidency not containing
sufficient fish for the few inhabitants along their banks. In large dis-
tricts any one may fish in whatever way best suits his individual views,
and ignorant natives, who never look beyond to-day's wants, take what
they are able irrespective of size, and fish where they please no matter
how. As the large fish are cleared off, smaller meshed nets are employed,
until at last the fry, as a rule, become the sized fish which are taken.
A staff of water bailiffs would be expensive, but if fisheries are let, the
lessee becomes their keeper : his people the watchers. Self-interest would
never allow his permitting every little boy to have and use a net where-
with he is destroying the fry. It is sometimes asserted that it would
be hard on the poorer classes not to permit them to capture these little
wee fish : it seems to be thought that fish come of themselves, are not worth
protecting when young, but should at all times be game in every manner
to the whole of the population. But how have these pseudo-philan-
thropic views answered in practice? By decreasing the fish and con-
sequently diminishing the supply of food in whole districts. Thus, when
famine years come round the waters will be found depopulated, the
little fish have been eaten by the poorer classes, and consequently
larger ones will be sought for in vain. I deny the philanthropy of such
proceedings, but on the contrary hold that practically, although unintention-
ally, when carried out, they will be found amongst the most cruel in their
effects of any that could be devised. At first permitting any one andevery one
to fish as they please, temporarily increases the quantity captured, but at
a permanent injury to the fishery, by decreasing future years' supply, and,
if continued, almost annihilating them. Water should be as valuable as

Ixx

land for producing" food, and indiscriminate farming is not permitted :

forests have been ruined in this country by the same ' free forestry' having

been allowed as is now destroying the fresh-water fisheries, and much the

same objections were raised against preventing the poor people cutting

fuel when, where, and how they pleased ; the result is too well known to

comment upon.

143. Lastly, my propositions, in addition to those in paragraph

_ ., , 138, are to interfere as little as possible with

lurcher personal propositions. ,, ,• ,• . . <? •

r the natives, excepting- to prevent untair

fishing*. Whether the fisheries are let for this purpose or a net tax is
instituted, does not appear so material, as that a certain minimum distance
be declared shall always exist between each knot of the meshes of nets,
or in the interstices of substances forming" weirs, traps or cruives,
or in any fixed trap or traps used in the capture of fish. This distance, I
would suggest, should be one inch, but this is a detail that might be modified
to suit different districts. No fixed fishing* weirs should be permitted to
exist entirely barring a stream; a free passage should be imperative.
Cruives or wicker traps, or those formed of wire or any other substances
used as fixed traps, should only be permitted on a written authority, and
the month in which they are permitted to be employed should be stated.
In Great Britain they are absolutely prohibited in fresh waters. Either
immature fish should be prevented from entering irrigated fields, or a
free passage permitted as proposed by the Collector of South Canara.
Fence-months in hilly regions I consider highly desirable, during such
periods as large fish are ascending to breed or returning to the rivers in
the plains. This might be fixed at a period, not exceeding two months,
to be selected by the local authorities.

141. The Madras Revenue Board suggest the appointment of two
Proposal of Revenue Board to Inspectors of Fisheries with establishments,
appoint two Inspectors of but prior to this being carried out, it would
Fisheries. appear desirable to decide, whether any mea-

sures are going to be taken to preserve the fresh-water fisheries of that
Presidency, and, secondly, what are those measures to be, if any are
adopted ?

145. In the Proceedings of the Board of Revenue of Madras (May

28th. 1869), with reference to fisheries in

Proceedings of the Board of waters above fc^al reach, it is observed that

Revenue: their draft rules lor ,, . , ', ■,

fresh-water fisheries. there is scarcely anywhere a numerous ana

distinct class dependant on this pursuit for
subsistence, though the Godaveri river may furnish an exception. As
regards prohibiting the use of nets below a certain size, it appears to the
Board impossible to forbid the use of a mesh of less than four inches in
circumference (or one inch between each knot of the meshes), for they
believe that whiting [Sillago sihama, a marine fish at Madras, is so termed,
and here is an objection made which is capable of being proved or disproved.
This fish is as wide as high, and its height is one-sixth of its length ;
now it is well known no whiting under 10 or 12 inches is fit for the
table ; such would only just escape a net with 2 incites between each knot of
the meshes] of the average size, and all the smaller mullet [also a sea-
fish] could pass through meshes of that size, to say nothing of prawns, im-
mense numbers of which arc consumed in Madras and elsewhere, and which

Ixxi

are taken in fine-meshed casting* nets. The total prohibition of fishing near
the anicuts (weirs) does not appear necessary to the Board, although it
might be well that a sufficient time should be allowed to enable the fish
to ascend the ladders (where such are provided) unmolested, after which
the fishing- could be um*estricted. It is very desirable that unfair and
wholesale destruction of breeding* fish at the anicuts and elsewhere should
be prevented, and that a stop should be put to the poisoning of water
and drainage of tanks for the purpose of catching fish. In a further
report of proceedings (dated December 18th, 1S69), " the Board cannot
admit the correctness of Dr. Day's assertion, £ My assertion was based
on an extensive enquiry amongst the fresh-water fishermen ; also the
Collectors of the Goclaveri District and of Coimbatore say six months : the
Collector of the Kistna and the Head Assistant Collector of Kurnal
observe one year's notice will be sufficient : the Collectors of Nellur, of
South Arcot and Madura likewise sugg-estone year's notice : the Collector
of Bellavy that no notice is absolutely necessary, but merely a stipulation
in the contract : and these include the whole of the answers to the
question, " How long notice do you consider it would be necessary to give,
provided it were deemed advisable to prohibit fishing* with very small-
meshed nets in waters which are let ?" and it is to be presumed, that
before replying*, an enquiry was made, — how long* do nets last '?] in para.
40 that fishing* nets only last a year. At least the Board would
recommend the proposal be so far modified as to substitute three inches
for four as the limit for the size of the net's mesh, and to exempt castiug
nets and prawn nets altogether from the restriction. The Board enter-
tain some doubts whether the sanction of a legal enactment may not be
necessary to empower the Government to issue orders which greatly
interfere with the exercise of practices which long custom may have
converted into communal rights, (see para. 130) maintainable by a
civil action. The Board would also draw the attention of the Govern-
ment to the letter from the Collector of Malabar £This appears to be a
mistake; it was the Officiating Collector who raised these objections,
November 5th, 1859, being unable to see the injuries going on in the
fisheries which had been adverted to by the Acting Collector, February
12th of the same year, preferring the opinion of a Sub-Collector whose
acquaintance with fish and fisheries does uot appear to be very extensive,
judging from his letters], who deprecates the introduction of orders into
his district as unnecessary and likely to be highly unpopular, and would
beg to suggest that the application of these rules either to Malabar (see
para. 167) or South Canara (see para. 1GS) should be suspended.
In further proceedings (dated July 13th, 1871) the Board observe
upon Mr. Thomas' report, on the result of one year's experimental trial of
protecting fish in South Canara, my reports on the Madras fresh- water
fisheries, their own former proceedings, and the orders of the Madras
Government, and continue, " the Board cannot but view with re-
luctance the necessity for State interference with what are at present
free industries, and deprecate the conversion of measures attended alike
in the interests of the people and the Government, for the conservancy
of an important article of food, into a means of raising revenues for the
general purposes of the State." £The Government of India observed,
October 2nd, 1871, " The real point for consideration is this : — Fishes, if

lxxii

properly preserved, are susceptible of becoming- an important, because
abundant, cheap, and wholesome article of food. Is the present plan of
non-interference likely to ensure to future generations the fullest possible
supply of this food staple ? Is it even such as to ensure their inheriting*
a supply equal to that which now exists ? The Governor General in
Council apprehends that both these questions must be answered in the
negative: and that not only is there no prospect, as matters now stand, of
an increased supply hereafter, but that, owing to the absence of precau-
tionary measures and reasonable restrictions, the existing supply is dimi-
nishing. His Excellency in Council believes, on the other hand, that it
would be possible, by the adoption of such measures and restrictions, to
increase the supply very largely in a few years. If this be so, it would
clearly be the duty of the State to take the necessary measures."]

146. The Revenue Board continue — " they think that they cannot

now but recommend Government to prepare a
Proposal for draft fishery Act. draft Act, drawn in accordance with the spirit

and provision of the Land Acquisition Act,
X of 1870, to enable them to undertake the conservancy of all waters
to which its provisions may be extended, with due provision for inviting
and deciding counter-claims and rights by the Collector or Courts, and
for compensating the owners of such rights or easements where such
rights are interfered with or resumed./'' The Board proposed the Act
should contain provision that tanks and streams not perennial be free T a
provision strongly to be deprecated, as most of the Madras rivers are
so, more especially as the Board suggest only prohibiting traps in rivers
declared to be taken under Government conservancy, but permitting
every species of poaching (except damming and poisoning) in fields,
minor channels, and ponds.] That in rivers and tidal estuaries it shall be
declared lawful for Government to levy a tax on fisheries in such waters,
either in the form of rent, or of fees on implements of fishery; the col-
lection of such fees to be kept directly under the management of Gov-
ernment or farmed out. That poisoning of waters for the purpose of
catching fish, and the pollution of waters by the refuse of coffee-pulpers
and other deleterious works be interdicted under heavy penalties. That
the minimum size of the mesh of nets be defined by law at two inches in
circumference in fresh waters, and that immature fish, the description and
size of which are to be determined and notified by Government, captured are
to be returned to the water under penalty. That the interruption by dams
and traps of the entire waterway of public rivers, and the use of cruives
and the like devices be prohibited in rivers declared to be taken under
Government conservancy. That no interference is intended or to be
permitted with the existing rights of the people to catching and retain-
ing fish in their own fields, minor channels, and ponds, but that it shall
be lawful for the officers entrusted by law with the conservancy of fish-
cries, to insert gratings in the head of any channels leading to such fields.
That rod and line-angling be untaxed. That a separate fishery depart-
ment be constituted under the Board, who suggest that all rents derived
from fisheries should for the present constitute a fund for the protection
and improvement of this industry. These now amount, on the average of
five years, to lis. 80,000, with a steady upward tendency. It must be
borne in mind that, practically, nothing is credited under this head in the

1 • • •

JXX111

statements for the districts of Vizagapatam, Godaveri, Nellur, Cud-
dapab, Karnal, Canara, and Malabar, and in several districts the
whole subject is inadequately attended to. The Board think, that with
care, a large prospective income may be relied on from this source, while
the taxes and licenses may be kept so low as to be anything but
oppressive.

147. With regard to the districts from which no fishery rents are

«• i n t c t, received, it will be necessary to refer, as a

Circular Orders of Revenue / .. rt. 7 „ , J „ ., ' , „

Board in 1848, as to what reason, to the Circular Uraers oj the Board of

fisheries were to be let, and what Revenue. On November 27th, 1848, Collect-
free* ors were requested " to take measures 1o

introduce, in future, the system of disposing of village, tank, and channel
fisheries on rent, should such a course not have been hitherto adopted/'
But to the ' Collector of North Arcot, on receiving his letters of Decem-
ber 8th and January 29th, 18-19, the Board observed, they "will not
press the extension of the renting system in respect to the tank fisheries
of North Arcot, but will leave it to the discretion of the Acting Collector
to continue the management of that branch of revenue in the manner
which appears to him best suited to the circumstances of his district."
In reply to a letter from the Collector of Guntur, dated January 29th,
1849, the Board did " not consider it advisable to revise the practice of
renting the tank and channel fisheries in Guntur." The Agent in
Kurnal was directed " not to take any measures for renting the fisheries
of his district," whilst the Collector of Bellary was " not to make any
demand on this head upon fisheries that have not heretofore been subject
to tax." Again, in 1862, the following was circulated to all Collectors : —
" The Board are decidedly opposed to any extension of the fishery rents,
and more especially so where involving in any form the re-imposition of
the burden from which the abolition of the moturpha tax relieved the
poorer classes." fThe Collector of Madras, June 14th, 1869, observed,
" it appears that some years ago it was ruled by the Secretary of State,
that the right of fishing was not to be rented out, except where the
practice had been previously in vogue. I have not the Secretary of
State's despatch to refer to, but I suspect that it was really intended to
apply only to inland fisheries, such as village tanks, jungle streams, and
channels, and was done probably in recognition of the prescriptive rights
of the inhabitants to enjoy the fish within their limits without any tax."]

148. As already observed, the Board objected to a 4-inch mesh

being introduced ; so they were allowed
Instructions from Revenue to moaify the order, and they considered a

Jioam to Collectors respecting o • i i i n> • ji n • •

the fresh-water fisheries. o-inched mesh suthciently small as a mini-

mum, and on December 18th the following
instructions were issued to Collectors with reference to fresh-water
fisheries : — "Notice should be given that, from the 1st July 1870, the
right of fishing in all Government tanks, rivers, and streams having a
perennial supply of water will be let by public auction for a period of
three years. Renters will be called to enter into agreements to abide by
the general rules for the regulation of fisheries that may be passed by
the Board, and to any orders issued by Collectors in reference to special
localities. The use of all nets bavins- meshes less than three inches in
circumference (casting nets and prawn nets excepted) should be prohi-

lxxiv

bited ; this prohibition to take effect from the 1st July 1871, and to be in
force in all waters, both salt and fresh, classed as Government fisheries.
The draining of all tanks, the property of Government, for the purpose
of catching- fish, and the poisoning of water for the purpose of catching
fish in all tanks, rivers, and streams, should be strictly prohibited. Notices
should be issued that persons detected in the last-named practice will be
proceeded against criminally. All fishing with nets or loaded-hooks
within 200 yards of any anicut or other masonry work extending across
a Government stream should be prohibited. All fishing in irrigation
channels, the property of Government, which communicate with the sea,
from October to February, both inclusive, should be prohibited. The
following scale of rewards for the destruction of vermin should be offered
if killed within one mile of an anicut or masonry dam : — each alligator
[crocodile was the animal for whose destruction I suggested rewards should
be offered, and the Madras Government agreed to. I hardly think it
would be of use giving them for alligators, as those reptiles are peculiar
to the American continent] 6 feet long and upwards, Rs. 5 ; from
2 to 6 feet, Rs. 2 ; under 2 feet, Re. 1 ; every egg, 2 annas ; each
otter, Re. 1. Collectors should submit a list of the localities in
their respective districts where they would recommend that rewards
should be given. Collectors of Godaveri, Kistna, and Tanjur will take
measures for passing a certain number of fish over the anicuts by netting
them in the manner proposed by Lieutenant Vibart, R. e. Collectors will
understand that these orders apply only to tidal estuaries of considerable
extent, and to inland tanks and streams which, as a rule, retain water
throughout the year in sufficient quantity to keep up a constant supply
of fish, and are the property of Government. A list of all such estuaries
and fresh-water reservoirs and streams as Collectors consider should be
classed as Government fisheries, should be submitted without delay. It
is not intended to interfere with the usual practice of catching fish in
small tanks which do not retain water throughout the year, nor with any
rivers but those possessing a perennial supply of water. Channels,
however, such as those under the Godaveri and Kistna anicuts, which,
although dry for certain seasons, communicate with rivers and back-
waters having a perpetual supply of water, may be included.

149. The Acting Collector of Ganjam (June 14th, 1870) observed

that no protective measure in respect to fish-
Gan--lm°U °f ^ Collector °f eries appear to be necessary in his district,
anj as the rivers have little or no water in them

save when the freshes come down ; most of the tanks are also in the same
condition for some months in the year. The water is never poisoned or
drained for the purpose of catching the fish. The practice of renting
out the right to fish in rivers, tanks, ' tamparas' (large lakes), back-
waters, &c , for a term of years already obtains in the district.

150. The Collector of Vizagapatam (July 17th, 1869) remarked, that

the fresh-water fisheries of the district are
Opinion of the Collector of utterly insignificant; the rivers are mere hill

streams, dry tor the greater part ot the year,
and there are few tanks of a sufficient size to make fishing in them of
any consequence. Until the abolition of the moturpha, a tax was levied
upon fishermen which might perhaps be called a rent for the right of

Ixxv

fishing, but which was in fact a capitation tax on the castes that exercised
the fisherman's calling1. At the permanent settlement, the amouut o£ this
tax was set clown at Rs. 3,4G3-;J-9, but this sum included the tax on
sea fishermen, from whom by far the greater portion of it was collected,
as appears from the incidence of the tax falling almost entirely on the
estates on the coast. " With reference to Dr. Day's proposition to pro-
hibit the use of nets with meshes under four inches in circumference, I
believe the result of such an attempt would be to put a stop to fresh-
water fishing altogether. The fish that form the favorite food of the
fish-eating community are small, and not larger than white bait. I do
not profess any knowledge on this subject, but have heard it stated that
the above delicacy are the fry of large fish ; and yet I have never heard of
any proposition to prevent their capture in order to increase the general
fish-snpply. Such an attempt could not create greater consternation at
Blackwall, than Dr. Day's measures for preventing the capture of small
fish would throughout the Presidency." £ These conclusions appear to be
based on the proposition, that preventing the massacre of the fry of
fish will not augment the fish-supply; as regards Blackwall, it is difficult
to understand how views entertained at any locality in Europe within tidal
influence can have any bearing upon what measures would be most
efficacious in India to prevent the extermination of fishes in fresh-
waters above the influence of the tides.] "The practice of poisoning
water to obtain the fish is not employed in these parts ; but that and
draining tanks for the purpose of securing all the fish in them might be
properly prohibited."

151. The Collector of the Goclaveri District (October 28th, 1869)

observed, that the fisheries in his Collectorate
thfcrifl'lSc" °f formerly realised from 3 to 10,000 rupees

yearly, but for the last few years rents have
not been taken. To re-open the renting system would oppress the fisher
class, i. e., those who live by fishing alone. If the returns proved good,
the leases would be taken by outsiders, and sub-let by them at a higher
rate to the fishermen ; and if small, a class who make but at most a
sufficient livelihood now, would be heavily taxed. The introduction of a
Fishery Act would certainly entail the necessity of an establishment to see
its provisions carried out, for the closest supervision would be needed.
Draining or poisoning tanks for fishing purposes is not practised in the
district. Renting out the fisheries " will certainly result in the re-
imposition on the fishing class of the abolished moturpha, though in
another shape, and be in my opinion a backward step in our legislation."
£ If renting waters for fishing is a backward step, it is difficult to see how
the renting of land can be justified, or charging for the use of water for
the purpose of irrigation, thus, as remarked by the ' Chief Commissioner
of British Burma' in 1853, "they who gain their livelihood from
working the waters, may with equal justice pay tax, as those who obtain
it from the lands, and fishing may be looked on as the most profitable
employment of the two." If the money raised by these rents is to be
used for the purpose of improving the fisheries, as is that received from
taxes on fishing nets and angling in Great Britain, and so to largely
augment the food of the public and consequently lower its price, the
objection to collecting the Government rents appears to vanish, excepting

lxxvi

that at the first the price of fish will be raised to pay the rent, but as
fish augment, it must fall.] The Collector also reported that there are a
few zemindary estates over which Government do not possess the right
of fishing. There would be an objection to leasing out fisheries in tanks
and channels employed for irrigation and drinking purposes, as they
would be spoilt by using nets in them, as it would continually stir up
the mud and foul the water. If fisheries are let, they should be for at
least three years at a time. There is one irrigation weir at Dowlaishweram
across the Godaveri river. At first after its construction the take of fish
below it was enormously increased, and diminished above; this effect
continues to the almost total destruction of the fisheries above the weir ;
below it the large takes continue as the ascent of fish is arrested.
[There is apparently some error in this answer, as the same official observed
on September 11th, 1867. — " The fishermen say that they do not catch
the sable in such abundance now as they used to do, immediately after the
anicut was built/J and the result of personal investigations was the same.
The Herd. Dr. Murphy wrote, in 1808, that the fish had decidedly
decreased since 1861, and one of the causes was, " the universal and un-
restricted capture of the fry in the rivers and irrigation channels."
That young fish are largely destroyed, the size of the mesh of the nets
being very small ; but there would be considerable difficulty in regulating
its minimum size in fisheries which are rented out, but were such done,
fishermen should have six months' notice. There is no reason against
prohibiting all fishing, except with hooks and lines, within 100 yards
of all anicuts, weirs, dams, locks, or masonry works extending across
streams or canals of fresh water.

152. The Acting Head Assistant Collector of the Kistna District

observed (October 21st, 1867) that fish ascend
Opinion of the Collector of tlie Kistna river, after the freshes are over,
the Kistna District. , . n , . t>t -,

as clear water Hows, or about .November.

Prior to the construction of the Bezwada weir which spans it, they
ascended in large number to 50 miles higher up where they spawned ;
now the shoals are arrested. The local fishermen employ small nets,
but those from Dowlaishweram bring some 3 or 400 yards long, and
12 to 14 feet deep, and the largest quantities are taken in the deep
pools below the weir, the net being first fastened or fixed at one end,
then taken round a wide sweep, and gradually drawn in. The sable
is locally termed 'yekkudi chakka' from its perseverance in attempting
to surmount the weir and ascend the river, from the Tclugu word
f yekku ' to climb. Unable to pass, the whole shoal is taken at the weir,
either by nets or hanging baskets near the edge of the water, so that
those which jump fall into them. The fishermen unanimously assert
that these fish do not spawn between the weir and the sea. " I do not
think it would be possible to contrive any means to enable the fish to
ascend, without interfering with the damming up of the river water, which
in November and December is necessary to ensure the rice crop." The
Executive Engineer (November 5th, 1867) observed, "the shoals of Palasa
come up from October to April, while the river is low. * * * The fish
could easily pass through the under-sluices, [this is a mistake; they are
unable to pass through, even if they were open J, but when the river is
low, it is of importance that these should be kept closed during the

lxxvii

irrigation season. Doubtless, temporary ladders might be formed to
allow the fish to pass over the anient ; but during the months of Novem-
ber, December, and January a stone bund is placed across the anient, and
water, as far as possible, prevented from flowing- over the anicut. It has
been suggested to me that Government should institute an establishment
to catch the fish below the anicut aud place them in the river above."
The Acting Collector (November 12th, 1867) continues, "should Govern-
ment approve of the proposals for conservancy of Messrs. Stuart and
Vibart, I have the honor to request that sanction for a sum of not more
than Ks. 200 may be given for the purpose." The 3Iadras Revenue
Board (January 28th, 1868) observe, " the Board are inclined, however,
rather to favor the plan proposed by Mr. Stuart * * namely, the enter-
tainment of an establishment of fishermen, for catching the fish below
the anicut and putting them in again above." The Collector of the
Godaveri District (February 7th, 1868) continues, " I do not think the
idea of employing fishermen to catch spawning fish below the anicut and
put them into the river above it a good one. I think that the fish
will very probably be injured in so doing." The Madras Government
(May 27th, 1868) observe, "the proposal to employ an establishment of
fishermen to transfer fish from below to above the anient does not com-
mend itself to the judgment of Government." I reported (December 1st,
] 868) on those herrings, which die almost as soon as they are removed
from the water : " at the Kistna is no bridge across the anicut, and
fishing must be carried on for at least 250 yards below that structure;
therefore, the fish would have to be captured, landed, and carried up above
the anicut. Doubtless, some would survive the process if a sufficient
number were taken, but the ova would be injured, and probably almost
irretrievably so. For anything to succeed it must be a natural pass."
The Revenue Board (December 18th, 1869) direct that "Collectors of
Godaveri, Kistna, and Tanjur will take measures for passing a certain
number of fish over the anicut s by netting them in the manner proposed
by Lieutenant Vibart." The Officiating Collector of the Kistna District
(November 10th, 1868) observes, that the introduction of the system
of renting out the fisheries should be gradual, so as to avoid causing
hardship to those who have hitherto enjoyed the rights of fishing
without restriction. The meshes of the nets in use are from one to two
inches in circumference, and the fishermen assert that larger meshes will
not take most of the fresh-water fish. [This is an error, as the great
majority of the fish in the Kistna river attain to a large size,
although seeing those as now captured, one would be led to
suppose tliey could never grow large. There are not above two sorts
of all the siluroids or scaleless fish, which at six or eight months
of a°:e would so throusdi a mesh of four inches in circumference,
and some of those whose fry I witnessed being taken in the Kistna attain
several feet in length. The same remark applies to most of the carps.
A. list of 38 species which I collected in that district exists in Proceed-
ings, Madras Government, February 4th, 1869. The Head Assistant in
June 1869 reported, " no doubt here, as in other districts, there is
much destruction of young fish by the use of nets with small meshes."<
He continues that in the district all channels and tanks dry up in the
hot weather; consequently even those larger kinds of fish can only

lxxviii

grow for a short time, and if they arc not caught before the water is
exhausted they must perish, unless they bury themselves. It is conse-
quently proposed that two inches should be the minimum size of the
mesh of the nets. The village officers should be made responsible for
carrying this rule into force, under the general supervision of the Police
and Talooka officials, and punishment in cases of breach of the rule
brought to notice would ensure its being generally observed in a short
time. Fishing in tanks of drinking-water should be forbidden. The
destruction of small fish and fry is more likely to be carried on if the
fisheries are let by the year, than if they were for a longer term : in the
latter case they will not be destroyed every year, as the contractor
knows that the benefits to be reaped from preserving them would be his ;
but in the former case he would never feel sure of getting the fishery
next year, and would therefore do his best to get all the fish he could,
whilst he had the opportunity. Besides, contractors prefer renting for
more than one year, as it is more difficult to settle with sub-renters
or fishermen every year in good time. The Bezwada weir on the Kistna
has proved itself to be a great bar to the sea-fish going up the river
for breeding, and those above this construction have decreased. Besides
small-meshed nets, baskets are used which have the smallest interstices.
Fish, when very young, are undoubtedly destroyed to a great extent.
There would be no difficulty in regulating the minimum size of the mesh
of nets in all fisheries that are rented out, but it should be done gradual-
ly, and one year's notice will be sufficient ; two inches in circumference is
proposed ; no objection exists to prohibiting netting within 100 yards of
weirs. On April 20th, 1871, a list of the fisheries which it was proposed
to let out was sent to the Revenue Board, who direct " that special pro-
vision may be made for ensuring that villagers shall, as far as possible, be
allowed to retain the fishery rights of all waters within the limits of
their villages."

153. The Acting Collector of Nettur (October 26th, 1869) reported

that the right of Government to let the

Opinions of European officials fisheries in this district has not been fully

in the Nellur Collectorate. . . , . . J

exercised as yet, and has not been called in

question in the few cases in which it has ; some fishermen will consider
having to pay rents a grievance, while the revenue would be insignificant,
and press hardly on an already impoverished class. There is an irriga-
tion weir on the Pennair in Nellur, and it is supposed that fish have
decreased in consequence ; they have also diminished above the anicut,
and their ascent is arrested by it. No particular care is taken not to
destroy the fry. There would be great difficulty in regulating the size
of the mesh of nets ; a year's notice should be given. Major Clay, Assist-
ant Engineer (October 17th, 1867) mentions a case in which " a small
gunta was poisoned by some Mussulmen with a view of taking the fish.
No fish have been seen in the pool since, and the effect of the poison on
the water seems, in the opinion of the natives, to be such, as still to pre-
vent them using the water •" and this was two years subsequently.

154. The Collector of Bellary (July 17th, 1869) states, he is

not of opinion that the introduction of any

Opinions of Europenn officials meagnreB8ndlM those proposed, is cither
in the Bellary Lolleetorate. ' i / . .

necessary or advisable. Ihe only localities

lxxix

in which fish are obtainable in numbers are the river Toongbhudra,
which bounds the district on the west and north, and some eight or ten
of the large tanks scattered through the collectorate. The single tank for
fishing is at Darogee, situated within 19 miles of Bellaiy. The only
mode resorted to for catching fish, is that of placing a net across the
mouth of the sluice, and thus capturing all those that are forced
through by the pressure of the water. The size of the mesh of the
net thus used is of no consequence, as all fish escaping this net must
of necessity die within a short time afterwards by the drying up of the
channels. In the river the want of large markets along its banks will
probably prevent fishing in it from being a profitable speculation for
some time to come. The fishery here may be regarded as practically
inexhaustible, and it does not appear necessary to place any restrictions
on it. It would rather seem to need encouragement. It is not consi-
dered that the right of Government to let any fisheries in the district
would be disputed. No rule exists why they should not be let, except
that it is not probable that any persons would be found to bid for them ;
letting by a term of years is preferable to annual auctions, so that the
contractor has an opportunity for recovering in a good year what he
may have lost in a bad. Fish, when very young, are not destroyed to
any great extent. The nets used in fishing are usually of a small mesh,
but they are, as a rule, cast nets, and merely catch those small fish that
lie in shallow water £this is exactly the place where the fry are to be
found.] The nets used in the Toongbhudra are generally of a large
mesh. If it were deemed advisable to prohibit the use of small-meshed
nets, it would merely be required to insert it as a stipulation in the con-
tract ; no notice is absolutely necessary. The Acting Collector (June
4th, 1870) propose to let out the fishing of seven tanks, but he considered
it impossible to give out that of the river on lease, and reported that
no protective measures were necessary.

155. The Collector of Tanjur (November 15th, 18G7) observes

that previous to the construction of the
°P»iMI of the CoUector of lower Coleroon auicut in 1836, the sable fish,
,IUJ ' Clujoea palasah, was caught in the neighbour-

hood of Trichinopoly, but since that year it has, according to general
report, disappeared. It comes up stream from June to the middle of
August. On July 26th, 1870, the same official reported, that the right
to the fishery of all tanks as well as village channels in this district
belongs to the Merassidars, having been conceded to them in the orders
of Government of June 11th, 1857, No. 576, paragraph 29 ; and if, there-
fore, it is intended to prohibit the draining of the tanks for catching fish,
lie thinks it must be done by legislative enactment. In a previous letter
dated August 17th, 1869, the Collector observed that all rivers in his
disti'ict are let by auction, and that this does not appear to entail any
hardship on the fishermen classes ; it is only small tanks that are annually
drained, for the purpose of being filled with fresh-wTater from river channels,
at which period advantage is taken to capture the fish in them. Waters
are not poisoned in Tanjur. Fishing near anicuts is forbidden on engineer-
ina- considerations: a close month in irrigation canals from October to
February is approved of, because it is after October, when the floods have
subsided, that the bulk of the fish are caught on their return to the sea.

lxxx

156. The Collector of Trie /duopoly (October 12th, 1869) observed
rt . . , _, „ . , that in Trichinopoly the supply of fish is al-

in the Trichinopoly Collectorate. together unequal to the demand ; " thus I re-
member last year catching with a live bait a
Killatay, Macrones aor, of about four pounds, and a Deloyet at once
exclaimed ' that would fetch a high price in the fort ;' in fact any
amount of good fish could be sold in the town, or indeed elsewhere, at
remunerative rates. In order to have a firm hold on the fishermen
and their actions, we should certainly rent out fisheries under prescribed
conditions, and it might even be necessary to have a legal enactment.
No doubt the size of the mesh should be regulated ; five inches in
circumference would be a proper minimum. Ono only difficulty arises;
there are daily brought to market basketsful of exceedingly tasteless,
small fishes called 'Vellichay/ Chela clupeoides, and they never grow
bigger than three or four inches, and are largely purchased by the
poorer classes to eat with their rice. By limiting the size of the mesh,
we virtually prohibit the capture of these little creatures, and thus cut
off an article of food. But then arises the natural question, is it worth
while losing the salmon for sake of the gudgeons ? Poisoning should
certainly be prevented ; it is a barbarous kind of usage. Tanks are
not often drained for mere fish ; the water is too valuable :" would allow
fishing in the pools near irrigation weirs only to a limited extent, as
when all of them are connected by a good stream ; because at certain
seasons, especially when the waters are very low, fish are congregated in
them, and can all be captured with the greatest ease. The Acting Col-
lector of Trichinopoly (July 30th, 1870) reported, that with the exception
of the Cauvery, its branch the Coleroon, and the Vellyaur, which form
the northern boundary of the district, there are no running streams of
such permanence as would come under the category of rivers ; the
Iyaur and others being mere jungle water-courses which are filled only
after local rains, and subside as rapidly as they fill. The supply of fish
within the limits of the district, as an article of local consumption, is
therefore very limited ; and, such being the case, he does not consider that
any very extensive measures for the conservancy thereof are either neces-
sary or called for. [That the supply of fish in the Coleroon and Cauvery
is insignificant, is the very reason why some remedial measures
appear to be called for. About 10 miles from Trichinopoly, where the
Cauvery divides, it is 1,466 yards broad, and becomes separated by the
island of Serungum into two parts, the most southern or smaller being
G6G yards wide, retaining the name of the Cauvery; the largest is 800
yards wide, and is termed the Coleroon. As a weir exists here 750 yards
broad, divided by a small island 216 yards wide into two portions, bund-
ing up the river to from five to seven feet in height, it can hardly be conceded
that such a stream should be almost destitute of fish, especially as much
of the district is freely irrigated.] "According to Dr. Day's proposi-
tion, fishing should not be allowed during the time the rivers are in com-
munication with the sea, and this time he fixes between October and
February ; here, however, this could not apply, and I have, therefore,
fixed the season during which fish are not to be taken, between the 15th
June and the 15th September, [it is evident my views have been mis-
understood in this report, my wish being to allow the young and spent

lxxxi

breeding fish to escape to the sea, as so fully understood by the Collector
of Tanjur in the last para. Stopping- fishing- during- the periods specified
would appear to show most conclusively that the sable fish now no longer
conies into this Collectorate during the freshes, as it did prior to the con-
struction of the lower Coleroon weir.] The Acting Collector continues,
" I agree with the Board in thinking, at present, no restrictions as to the
size of the meshes are necessary or desirable." [As the supply of fish
in this, for the south of India, well-watered district, is said to be " very
limited," whereas it was formerly abundant, it is to be regretted that the
period at which restrictions are proposed to be commenced has not been
recorded.]

157. The Collector of CiuUajmli (July 24th, 1869) reported that

as the average rainfall of the district is only
Opinion of the Collector of 17 [nc\ieS} an(j the rivers and tanks annually

ap ' dry up, there are next to no fish. Consequent-

ly it does not appear necessary to record any other reply to Dr. Day's string
of questions. No revenue has ever been attempted to be raised here from,
fish, nor is Cuddapah once mentioned in his reports. [The question is
not one of revenue, but of food supply. The reason the district is not
mentioned by me, is due to not having as yet had the opportunity of per-
sonally examining it ; but it is to be regretted the Collector has not given
his personal experience by replying to the questions on its fish and fish-
eries.] On November 1st, 1869, the same officer observed that there are
no fisheries to speak of in the district ; so he has taken no measures on
the Government orders respecting letting them; and on March 7th, 1872,
that there are no perennial streams in his collectorate, and with but few ex-
ceptions no water in any tank all the year round ; consequently there are
few fish and no means of improving the breed. Legislation is uncalled for ;
and therefore he had considered it unnecessary to collect the information
which has been called for.

158. The Collector of Kumal (February 25th, 1869) reported that

the chief rivers in his district are a part of
. ^mions of European officials th Kistna a part 0f the Toongbhudra, the
in the Kurnal Collectorate. > -i . . » .

Hmdry, and five others which, with the excep-
tion of the two first, dry up more or less during the hot season. There is
a long extent of the Kistna which has no villages on its banks, and which
is never fished in. This reach may be looked on as a large breeding
place, which is seldom approached by man, and where the fish are undis-
turbed. " I would deprecate in the strongest terms any measures being
taken by Government to interfere with the fish-supply of the inha-
bitants of this district. The only way in which Government could inter-
fere, would be by means of an establishment of subordinates who would
avail themselves of their authority to practise extortion and oppress the
poor, who are generally the only people who fish, and never really repress
the destruction of fish. If anything could repress their destruction to
any extent, it would be the forbidding to catch fish with roe. But this
would be tantamount to depriving the people of a wholesome and pleasant
diet, and interfere with the great traffic in fish roes which now takes
place. Some fish, too, are only good for eating when heavy with roe, such
as the sable, caught extensively by means of baskets hung over the water as
it falls over the Toongbhudra weir. I would strongly recommend leaving

/

lxxxii

the natives alone regarding the fish and its means of capture, and I think
I may safely say that, considering the extraordinary re-productive-
ness of fish and the line reaches of the Kistna, let man use any
appliances he can think of for taking fish, he will never be able to
affect the supply in any appreciable way as regards this district. {"The
Tehsildar of Ramalkota (see para. 180) observes on the decrease, and that
it is "asserted by all the fishermen of whom I have enquired, that the
river stock has considerably decreased of late years/'' and that this is
due to the weir across the Kistna.] The same officer (November 6th,
1869) observed that no fisheries are let in his district. The rivers Kistna
and Toongbhudra divide it from the Nizam's territories ; consequently,
it may be doubtful in such localities as to the proportion of the
fishery which belongs to the British : in all other waters they belong
exclusively to Government. " If fisheries are let, there would be a
greater inducement to destroy fish, than allowing things to be as they
are. The renters would naturally use their utmost endeavours to catch
as many fish as possible to make their rents profitable. They would
in a few years do more damage than the present occasional fishermen
do in a century. I do not advocate their being let at all. The effect
of the anicut is not appreciable fsee Tehsildar's answer, para. ] 80.1 Fewer
men are said to fish than formerly, but the rise of wages has more to
do with it than the falling off of fish/' £The Collector here appears
to chiefly examine this question respecting whether renting out fisheries,
hitherto unlet, will exercise a good or prejudicial influence on the fish.
I would point out that it is the preservation of the fry and stoppage of
the use of very minute meshed nets that is one of the chief alterations
that appears desirable, and letting out fisheries would give the lessee an
interest in protecting such immature fish. When I was stationed at
Kurnal a few years since, I had two large mahaseer brought to me one
day ; the first weighed 381bs, the second 14<tbs. On the same evening I
saw the fry of these fish being caug'ht in a minute meshed net, whilst
the adult was stated to attain 50 to 6 Olbs weight; and at this period
a great scarcity of fish was being complained of, whilst they were said
to be diminishing. I suspect this was so ; for, as wages have risen in
the district, the price of fish would have increased also ; as more people
could afford to purchase it.] Is unable to say if fish have decreased
above the weir, but they are stopped by it. Men are seen catching them
in a sort of landing net as they try to leap over the anicut, which is
impossible, because the weir at Sunkesula (a few miles above Kurnal)
is vertical and has no curtain ; many fish are caught below the weir.
Young fish are destroyed to a great extent, but more perish from the
drying up of rivers and tanks than from any other means. Nets are
employed whose meshes do not exceed the size of open mosquito cur-
tain material. There would, however, be no difficulty in regulating the
minimum size to be employed, except that carrying out such a regulation
"would require a water police establishment, the cost of which would
probably exceed the rents. The Assistant Collector (July 26th, 1869)
reports that very young fish are destroyed to a very great extent with
nets, the meshes of which are not larger than those of mosquito curtains.
" I believe any law regulating the size of the mesh would be inopera-
tive in this country ; it would be cruel to the poor people, who, for the

lxxxiii

most part, live on small fish. I do not believe any Magistrate would
convict except under peculiar circumstances. This is the case at home."
£ The enquiry appears to he misunderstood. Here is a district in which
the fry of fish are caught to a great extent, and how preventing such
destruction and so increasing food would he ' cruel,' it is difficult to see.
As to Magistrates refusing, except under peculiar circumstances, to ad-
minister the law if one existed, is a question I need not enter upon :
but Mr. Turner is mistaken as regards fishery districts at home, as may
be perceived by turning over the files of any newspapers devoted to
practical natural history, sport, and law.] The Acting Head Assistant
Collector (March 16th, 1869) reported, " the rivers within my division are
inconsiderable in size ; but from what I can learn, I believe that both
in them and also in tanks when the water is low, the people catch, by
means of nets and buskets, fishes of various sizes indiscriminately: the
mischief of this practice being, that fish are caught whilst still very
young and before they have attained their full growth." He continued
that he had frequently seen taken "just whatever they could get, some
of the fish caught being only an inch or two, and some a foot and up-
wards in length." That the fish were poisoned, and " it seems very ad-
visable that some measures should be taken for the protection of the fish
against such destruction." He subsequently (September 1st, 1869) ob-
served that it seems highly desirable that the measures proposed for the
prevention of unfair and wanton destruction of fish should be adopted.
" The letting to certain individuals the exclusive right of fishing in all
large pieces of water and rivers not navigated by sea-going vessels, seems
to be the most effectual means of preventing the wanton destruction
of fish. It might be as well not to limit in all cases the period of renting
to one Fusly ( year) , but the fisheries might sometimes be let for lengthen-
ed periods, such as for two or three or even for five years at a time, though
at first, I suppose, it would be advisable to let them for more limited
periods. I do not think the headmen of villages ought to have any
priority of right above others. I do not think the letting by auction would
have the effect of giving the fisheries into the hands of outsiders, as I
believe the competition would generally be limited to the inhabitants of
the villages where the fisheries are situated, or of adjacent villages. It is
doubtful whether the profits would be sufficiently large to attract persons
from any distance." Four inches as the minimum size of the mesh of
nets is considered too large. Irrigation weirs must have decreased the fish
above them, as no ladders exist ; fish descending over them are now
unable to re-ascend. Fry are destroyed to a great extent by poisoning
the waters generally by a substance called ' mallum/ the bark of
the f Billu' tree, and also by small-meshed nets. There would be
some difficulty at first in regulating the minimum size of the meshes,
but it would cease after some time ; a notice of six months, or a year
at most, would be sufficient. The Acting Head Assistant observed
(January 15th, 1872) that breeding fish and very young ones are
not killed to any great extent, but that in the hot season fish
of all sorts are destroyed. A very small mesh is used, and it would
be impracticable to regulate it. The fry of fish are not sold, but
only captured for individual consumption. The Deputy Collector of
Peapally remarks that the fish in tanks are indiscriminately destroyed,

lxxxiv

whether they are breeding or young ones. The smallest-sized mesh of the
nets is one-fourth of an inch. As the fish are small, regulating the mini-
mum size would prove a failure to the pursuits of the fishermen, but half
an inch between the knots of the meshes is considered an advisable restric-
tion, and as it is desirable to prevent the destruction of very small fish, the
sale of the fry in the bazars may be prohibited. The Deputy Collector
of Kunial reports (April 16th, 1872) that breeding fish and very young
ones are destroyed to a great extent, principally between April aud June,
as the water in the larger tanks fails. Nets of various sizes and traps of
wicker work are used during December and January ; weirs are set up
across the streams and the fish captured. Sometimes earthen dams are
raised across streams, and the water baled out to catch fish. The
smallest sized mesh employed is three-eighths of an inch between each
knot : of the ' Oodulu' or traps of wicker work, the interstices are of
infinitely smaller dimensions ; five-eighths of an inch between the knot
of each mesh is proposed as a fair size ; as the fishes from the hilly dis-
tricts are mostly small, it is suggested that prohibiting the sale of fry
might cause the poorer classes to suffer.

159. The Acting Collector of Madras (June 23rd, 1870) observes

that the fresh-water rivers in his district are
Madras!011 °f ^ CoUector of dry, except during seasons of inundation.

The fisheries in the smaller tanks are enjoyed
by the village communities, subject to the payment of a nominal rent;
whilst those in the larger tanks, or tanks irrigating several villages, are
put up to public auction, whenever the right of fishing in them is
considered worth being let. The smallest meshes employed are three-
fourths of an inch in circumference or even less ; there is no objection
prescribing in each lease the size to be employed, of which one year's
notice would be sufficient, and two inches in circumference as a minimum
size would be a good limit.

160. The Acting Collector of Chinglejiut (April 18th, 1872) reports

that all tanks and rivers in the district are
Cb?uglcput.°f thQ Collectorof usually dry in the hot weather, with the

exception of the larger tanks, and these occa-
sionally dry up. Fishes of all sizes and in every state, if good for food,
are caught whenever possible. In the hot months, as the water becomes
low, all the fish are caught, the district being dependant yearly on those
brought down in the annual floods or on ova or other vitality remaining
dormant in the mud of tanks. No restriction as to size of mesh of nets
is necessary. Fence months in hilly districts would be advisable where
useful fish exist.

161. The Collector of Salem (November 5th, 1869) considers

leasing fisheries for five years and upwards, as
Opinion of the Collector preferable to ammal auctioiis, and would let as
oi fealem. in ^

such all tanks that have an ayacut of not less

than 25 acres. "I agree with the suggestion of my Sub-Collector that

in such tanks as yield the chief supply of water for drinking purposes

to large towns or villages, the fishing should be prohibited, as tending to

preserve the purity of the water.'" Objects to a 4-inched mesh being

the minimum size, as too large.

lxxxv

162. The Collector of North Arcot (October 26th, 1869) observes

that there are no perennial rivers in his district,
of SSh Arcot11' Collectors and the tanks, even the largest, are either dry or

so low at intervals of two and three years that
every fish in them, great and small, is caught. He continues, " I
have collected materials with a view of submitting my views on
the whole subject at an early date" [not forwarded.] The Acting
Collector (June 6th, 1872) reports, "that there are no perennial
rivers in this district, and that the tanks are either dry or so low at
intervals that nearly every fish in them, great and small, is caught.
It has, however, been ascertained that there is no wanton destruction of
fish in this district."

>

163. The Collector of South Arcot (January 6th, 1870) replies

that as the streams for the greater part
Southl^ot?^116 Collectorsof of the year are almost entirely dry, he does

not see any actual need for establishing fishing
monopolies. In this district tanks are leased permanently at a fixed
annual rent, and the villages, where such leases exist, enjoy a common
fishery putt ah in recognition of this right. There are seven irrigation
weirs in the district, but is not aware whether, as a rule, fish have or
have not decreased above them. Fish are caught and disposed of
indiscriminately, and those of small size are never let go. Doubtless,
the proportion of small fish caught to large ones is great by comparison.
The average size of the meshes of nets employed is about one inch square,
and it would be practicable to make the size of the mesh of the net a
condition in all leased fisheries; one year's clear notice should be given.
There would be no difficulty in prohibiting fishing within 100 yards of
all weirs, and no doubt it would prevent the wholesale destruction of
fish where such now takes place periodically. The Sub-Collector
(November 16th, 1867) observes that the only sea-fish which ascend the
Colei'oon in any numbers are the shad and the mullet, termed madavai,
the former arriving from May until August, and, being arrested by the
lower weir, are captured there ; the madavai (mullets) spawn from
October to December, and ascend the Coleroon from September to
April.

16k The Acting Collector of Thinevelli (February 22nd, 1870)
_ . . „ ^ „ . , replied that, as far as protection of fish in

Opinion or European official ji j , • • i 1

in the Tinnevelli Collectorate. tauks> .nvers> aud estuaries is required, he

would institute a close season, to vary in
different districts, of two months in each year, during which all fishing
should be prohibited ; and in his Collectorate June and July are proposed
for rivers and back- waters, and from the 15th of October to the 15th of
December for tanks. The indiscriminate and unfair way of taking
fish at the various irrigation weirs when the water becomes low, it is
proposed, should be entirely prohibited, and no net fishing be permitted
within 200 yards of them, whilst fish ladders should be constructed.
The meshes of the nets employed varies from two to four inches in circum-
ference. If close months were adopted, regulating the minimum size
of the mesh of the casting nets, it is considered, would be unnecessary.
" What I would put down entirely is the use of baskets and traps, whereby
large numbers of fish are taken in a most unfair and destructive

lxxxvi

manner." Considers that the shad do not get up the river as they used
to do before the irrigation weirs spanned them, since which period fish
have decreased in the rivers above these constructions. When fish
can neither ascend on account of the weirs, or return to the sea on
account of the shallowness of the river, they are generally caught in
the pools. It is all fish that comes to the fisherman's net. He would
consider it a most unwise proceeding to return the small fry on which
he makes a good and immediate profit. The size of the mesh employed
is very small, but regulating it would cause great dissatisfaction. The
Collector (March 27th, 1872) reported, " small fish are caught in baskets
and screens at the rapids below waste weirs and sluices, and larger
fish are caught with the hook. In the small rivers, channels, and
tanks, the water left in the pools in the dry season is baled out and
the fish caught."

165. The Collector of Madura (dated December 18th, 1869)

observes that the tanks and rivers are dry for
MaSTceUftf18 * ** the greater part of the year. Fish are taken

without regard to age ; nets with meshes of
all sizes are used. Were the minimum size regulated, one year's notice
would be necessary. The Acting Collector (May 17th, 1872) reports
that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to a great extent ;
all are caught that can be caught, in nets with meshes of all sizes and
by placing baskets in streams. No regard is had to season or age.
The ordinary mesh is rarely below half an inch in circumference, but baskets
and other arrangements for capturing the smallest fry are freely
employed. In fisheries rented out, the size of mesh of the nets might
be fixed ; in other places legislation would be necessary, but in tanks and
channels that are dry during the greater part of the year the destruc-
tion of the fish could not be prevented. Proposes the size of the mesh
to be one inch between knot and knot. Mr. Nelson observes " that the
repair of tanks, or, at all events, the more important ones, seem to have
been executed by Government, and to have been paid for out of the
proceeds of the fishery of the tanks when drying up. A letter dated
1713 states that the fishing of a single tank produced occasionally 2,000
crowns, and that sums so realised were invariably applied to the execution
of repairs."

166. The Acting Collector of Coimbatore (May 7th, 1869) stated

a considerable destruction of small fry, chiefly

h £cS££3£££!a °f the G™dai> *?*». tafe; p,ace •• p°is?r g

the water is carried on ; try are caught m
wicker-work traps, and by the erection of dams across shallow waters.
Owing to the constant netting, fish are driven from their natural feeding
grounds to seek shelter in deep holes to obtain protection from the
ravages of the net. " The erection of dams and poisoning of the
streams should be peremptorily forbidden, the size of the meshes should
be regulated, and an annual close time allowed." Subsequently, the Acting
Collector (December 20th, 1870) reported that the fish have increased
since the construction of irrigation weirs across the rivers, which are
believed by the fishermen to have multiplied the fish fthis is evidently
a misapprehension ; doubtless the fish are checked in ascending and
descending, so that at such places, owing to the existence of an obstruc.

lxxxvii

tion, more are congregated than was formerly the case], which, when
young, are destroyed to a great extent, the smallest mesh used being one-
fourth of an inch in circumference. There would be a difficulty in regulat-
ing the size of the meshes of nets to be used, as a preventive service
would be necessary; but were they regulated, a six months' notice
should be given. One inch in diameter is quite large enough, 6"
circumfereuce=l*91 £one inch in diameter or between knot and knot
multiplied by the four sides=4 inches in circumference.] Considers it
would be a great hardship to prohibit fishing near irrigation weirs, &c.
Ou February 4th, 1871, he observed, " that the Collectors, out of con-
sideration for the poorer classes, have refrained from renting out tanks and
streams, except in such places where the right of fishing has always
been leased out. * * I would add that I do not thiuk Dr. Day has suc-
ceeded in showing that there has been any sensible diminution of the fish-
supply in fresh waters." £See para. 128, ante'.] The Collector (July 9th,
1872) replied, fish of all sizes of and ages are caught and eaten when and
wherever they can be ; the smallest mesh used is one-eighth of an inch.
Mr. Grant, a former Collector, about 1861, intimated to the Government
the necessity of protecting the fish in the waters of this Collectorate
from the indiscriminate destruction to which he considered they were
subjected. The Collector (May 7th, 1869), observed, " the means of
destruction consist of nets, casting and seine, and poisoning. Small fry
are caught in wicker-work baskets, very much like an eel trap cut in two ;
and are also destroyed by the erection of dams across shallow water/'

167. The Acting Collector of Malabar (February 12th, 1869)
„ stated, " many of the nets used are so small

in Malabar. °fEUr°PeaU in the mesh as to sl?are none; however small.

Baskets are placed in small streams in such a

way as to secure every fish in them. In these ways, no doubt, myriads
of fish are uselessly destroyed, that is, destroyed in the form of ova, and
before they have attained to anything like maturity." The rivers are
occasionally poisoned, and on these occasions, no doubt, large numbers of
fish and possibly vast quantities of ova are destroyed. " I conclude the
poisoning of rivers may be dealt with under the Penal Code, but I do
not see how we can interfere with baskets and small meshes without
special legislation." The Officiating Collector (November 5th, 1869),
observed, "before it is decided to lease the fisheries, the expediency of the
step must be shown. In districts where the practice has obtained from
time immemorial, there can be no possible objection to its continuance.
In this district the right has never been exercised since our acquisition of
the country, we have derived no revenue from fisheries, and I have not
been able to find from the records any precedent for the introduction of
the system. A moturpha tax was formerly levied from fishermen, both
by our Government and by that of the native rulers of the country, but
this tax is far different in its nature to the measure now proposed" of
renting the fisheries. £'f Renting them (fisheries) out will certainly
result in the re-imposition on the fishing classes of the abolished motur-
pha, though in another shape." Collector of the Godaveri Districts, para.
151. — " Fisheries have always formed one of the items of moturpha reve-
nue." Deputy Collector of Nundial.~\ Under a moturpha, every fisher-

lxxxviii

man paid a tax on his profession, and could exercise it without hin-
drance." " As regards the necessity for the measure, the opinion of the
District Officers does not coincide with that of Dr. Day," and this Sub-
Collector (for only one opinion is forwarded) is averse to the fisheries
being- let. No further legislation is necessary respecting poisoning
waters. He doubts if leasing fisheries would tend to their conservation,
and, if carried out, will be most unpopular and give rise to great dis-
content.

168. The Acting Collector of South Canara (March 5th, 1869),

observed, " every contrivance that the inge-

SoutPhtnaf thG C0UeCt°r °f *»% of ma* can suggest is so actively

employed against the fishes of the district,
that one is driven to the unavoidable conclusion that the poorer classes
are eagerly aiming, with one accord, to accomplish at an early date the
extermination of the species. * ■ * * The large still pools in
the rivers are annually poisoned with a mash made of croton oil seeds,
soap nut, cocculus Indicus, chillies, fowl's dung, and other deleterious
substances, which destroy not only the larger fish preserved for food, but
also a multitude of small fry, only killed to be thrown away. * *
The pools in which, when the rivers are at their lowest, the fish are
chiefly congregated, are thus thoroughly depopulated, and the stream is
tainted for some wTay down, and thus rendered unwholesome, not only to
fishes and insects, but also to men, beasts, and birds that unwarily drink
of it. A regular time is fixed, and the villagers unite to dam the stream,
collect poisons, and gather the fish. Then there are wall-nets, and cast-
nets, and stake-nets, and Chinese-nets, and purse-nets, and trawl-nets,
and drum-nets, and shrimp-nets, nets with large meshes, and nets with
very small meshes. There are bamboo labyrinth weirs to entrap fishes
going up stream, and bamboo labyrinth weirs to entrap them going down
stream, and these are set in every tempting run, all other ways being
stopped. Their name is legion. Smooth paths are made for little fish
to glide into pleasant places, which end in a purse-net, or are dammed
up and baled out. The myriads of small fry that are thus destroyed is
beyond all computation. I saw one day some thousands as fine as a
straw, within the compass of one earthen-pot ; they were to form one
meal for a labouring man, whereas they might have sufficed to stock a
lake and feed a town. I have also seen basket-loads of fish about the
size of a man's thumb, — fish of a sort which I know grow to the size of
a man's thigh. Small fry of many sorts is sold by the seer. *

Even the crocodile, with its cruel eye, is wiser, less suicidal, and less
wantonly destructive than man ; it is not so short-sighted as to commit
wholesale massacre of the small fry. * * * I cannot but think
that the time has arrived when intelligence should interfere between
ignorance and waste. It is so obvious that the beneficent arrangements
of Nature have been ordered, with the express view of the intelligent
interference of the Lords of Creation, that it really seems nothing but
indolence of thought, or indolence of action, that prevents us from reap-
ing the intended advantage, more especially as the almost incredible
reproductive powers of fish place it in our power to redeem in the course
of four or five years the folly of a century."

lxxxix

169. On November 28th, 1868, the Madras Government sanc-
tioned Rs. 3,000 (2,000 was only expended)

c^r™ £L0.' pisci" trft caiTyi^g out 5 ye-ar>s "ssrsr^

trial oi pisciculture in the rivers ot south Ca-
nara, concerning which the Collector (August 7th, 1870) reported in full.
Many of the rivers descend from the Ghats of Mysore and Coorg, and
their origins and portions of their course are in foreign territory. The
poisoning of fish is popular, and has been lessened with great difficulty,
more especially as it is freely resorted to in Mysore and Coorg, and thus,
irrespective of the immediate injury they cause, the rivers become tainted
for miles below. During the season of the coffee crops the pulpers are
always at work, and their refuse runs into the head of the Puiswani
river, defiling it for miles and apparently killing the fish, which is said
not to be a necessity. It may be doubted whether poisoning rivers or
the wholesale destruction of fry is most injurious to fisheries ; and
although it was found impossible to obtain exactly accurate information
upon the number of small-meshed cruives employed in the districts, suffi-
cient data existed for concluding that there were at least 1,050 on the
Netravaty river and its affluents, and calculating that every one of the
cruives captures on an average 3,000 fish in a day, then there are as
many as 94,500,000 tiny fry destroyed for no adecmate purpose, in a
single month, in one river alone. These closely-woven bamboo cruives
were forbidden and vigorously hunted out of the rivers, and the result
of these two steps alone, of prohibiting poisoning and the use of these
small cruives in the rivers, " has been, that the most ignorant, and there-
fore, the most obstinate opponents have been convinced by the testimony
of their own senses, and have exclaimed, to use their own words, " truly
the river is everywhere bubbling with fry," and what is still more to the
point, their practice has not belied their words, for they have taken to
fishing on grounds that were before considered profitless. * * *
Two years' discouragement of poisoning, and one year's discouragement
of fine cruives, has worked such a change, that it has been demonstrated
beyond the cavil even of the ignorant and of the interestedly opposing,
that marked advantages can be reaped from the adoption of these two
simple measures alone. * While the south-west monsoon

prevails, the ample rainfall on this coast supplies abundant water for irri-
gation purposes, and the rivers are the while too turbulent to be diverted.
But as the dry season commences, and water is wanted for the irrigation
of the second crop of rice, the rivers have settled down to more manageable
proportions, and near their sources, it becomes an easy matter for the
farmers to collect the boulders in the stream, lay them in a line across
it, and after filling in the interstices with shingle from the bed, to stop
the whole with clay and bushes from the banks. A temporary and in-
expensive, yet effective dam^is thus run up annually by every farmer
that has ground conveniently situated for irrigation, though it is com-
pletely swept away by the first flood of the next south-west monsoon,
it lasts throughout the hot weather, throughout the life-time of the fry,
and the river or rivulet being thus completely cut off, is diverted entirely
into an irrigation channel.'-' The fry gliding down the stream pass
with the water into the irrigation channel and so into the rice " fields
that have been carefully levelled by man, and partitioned with narrow and

xc

shallow embankments, so as to economise the water and spread it over
the largest possible area. From a piscicultural point of view, the whole
stretch of rice-fields has the appearance of a vast and admirably constructed
nursery. A whole river or rivulet has been turned on, a river, too, that
has been stocked with ova, the water has been economised to the utmost,
the depth regulated to exactly suit the fry, large predatory fish thorough-
ly excluded, the whole manured, ploughed, and planted so as to provide
the maximum of insect life, with the desired modicum of varying shade
under the growing rice, and the area of the nurseiy is measured, not by
the inch and foot, but by the acre or square mile. In this extensive
nursery therefore, which costs the pisciculturist nothing, the fry thrive
admirably, and still following their instinct, go feeding, dawdling down-
wards with the stream. This takes them leisurely from rice-field to rice-field,
and in the direction of the waste water, which of itself not unfrequently runs
into the river again, or might almost always be contrived so to run. But
at each drop from rice-field to rice-field, the cultivator places a basket,
made of finely split bamboos, having a wide mouth, a narrow neck, and
a wide bottom. It lets the water pass, but stops every single fry,
and what was an admirable nursery, becomes one vast trap for destroy-
ing the majority of the fry in the river. So highly are these juicy morsels
appreciated, that no peasant fails to place a basket at every outlet/'' ("The
Madras Revenue Board consider that a fishery Act should contain, amongst
other things, provisions to the following effect: — "(6). That no inter-
ference is intended, or is to be permitted, with the existing rights of the
people in regard to catching and retaining fish in their own fields, minor
channels and ponds, but that it shall be lawful for the officers entrusted by
law with the conservancy of fisheries to insert gratings in the head of
any channels leading to such fields." Thus the vast traps now existing
for fry, and so ably described by Mr. Thomas, should continue unchanged.
The Burmese were wiser than this, taxing highly the use of bamboo
traps and such like contrivances for capturing fish.] The Collector con-
tinues, " This is not unavoidable or accidental destruction, but is wilful,
reckless, and preventible. Some of these fry, it will be remembered, are
capable of becoming fish of 10 or 20 pounds in weight/' [if this destruc-
tion is forbidden, the Ilevenue Board appear to consider that such would
be a grievance to the proprietors of fields, and would allow such to con-
tinue as vested rig/its : but would not that ignore the great loss to the
public at large in the fearful waste of animal food.] But " it would
seem that they have very little, if any more right to complain than has
the English miller. They are like each other in diverting the rivers for
their own benefit, and of each of them the request made of them would
be the same, namely, that they should do it without injury to the fish-
eries. The Indian farmer may, like the English miller, claim that he
has a prescriptive right to the water, and that it is no part of his
business to protect the fry. It has, nevertheless, been decided against the
English millers equally with the companies or persons in charge of artifi-
cial channels for navigation, or for supplying towns with water, and that
they shall put gratings so as to prevent the passage of salmon fry to
their destruction, and that failing to do so, " they shall incur a penalty
not exceeding five pounds for every day" of delay, and " a penalty not
exceeding one pound for every day" during which they may fail to main-

XC1

tarn them when erected. If, as already described, the Indian farmer diverts
the whole stream in places, " the option might be given him, ' either
you must leave a fair passage in the river for the fry, and put a grating
before your own artificial channel, or if you must needs have every drop
of water in the river run through your own fields, then you must leave
that passage unobstructed to the fry/ so that eventually, if possible,
they may rejoin the river by means of the waste water/'' Some fish spawn
below these dams, other young fish remain in the pools above, conse-
quently all are not destroyed, and stock pools, it is proposed, should be
conserved in ail these rivers. The fixed engines, in use in South Canara,
are closely- woven cruives termed ' Kuri/ which is a basket made on the
same principle as the mouse-trap, with narrowing entrances, and springy
bamboo spikes projecting inwards, preventing any exit, and from one to
twelve feet in length ; the smaller ones are placed in irrigated fields, the
larger ones in main runs. The ' Voddu' or c Woddu/ or fishing weir, is
like a large hurdle the full breadth of the river, a line of stakes being
driven in across a liver, split bamboos are interlaced, and the whole faced
with bushes, so that the stream passes, although all fish are stopped. Gaps
exist, and here cruives or ' kuris' of 10 or 12 feet in length are fixed. The
Coorgs annually place these Woddus at the heads of the Canara rivers to
intercept all the fish returning from spawning. The ' Kaudarf' is just
like a large kuri with the addition of an upper lip extended forwards
and upwards at an angle of 45 degrees. It is placed in a natural
run in the river, between boulders of rock, filling up the whole
passage, minor ways having been blocked up. The long protruding
lip ascends above, and prevents fish passing over the trap ; thus every
descending fish is captured, and twice daily it is examined. Where
there are no convenient rapids, they are artificially constructed in the
shallows, by placing long lines of stones in a V shape across the river,
the apex being fitted with a ' kandari.' The ' yepu' and ' baikuri'
are on the same principle, but better adapted to falls. The first is a
platform made of bamboo, somewhat bellied so as to hold the stream,
and propped up so as to lead ladder-wise from the top to the bottom
of the waterfall at an angle of 45°. The fall is thus broken, and con-
ducted with a rush into the baikuri, or wide-mouthed kuri, the con-
struction of the baikuri being very similar to that of an ordinary kuri,
and the rush and concentration of the water being heavy, fish once
down cannot re-ascend, but are quickly beaten to the bottom and
smothered by other fish. The yepu is a less elaborate adaptation of
this last contrivance to smaller falls. The ' kunjoF also is a rude sort
of kuri. If a few stock pools are reserved, and poisoning and the use
of fixed engines prohibited, a close time may be dispensed with. The size
of the mesh employed is from three-fourths of an inch in circumference
and upwards. Prohibiting the use of nets with meshes of less than four
inches in circumference is deprecated, on the ground that the smaller fish
having immunity from netting must disproportionately increase on the
larger netted sorts. [To show that this is not the case, I would refer to the
Sind fisheries, para. 47 ; and to those of the sparsely populated dis-
tricts in British Burma. The Thames fisheries are not analogous to those
of India, as in this last country the majority of the finny tribes, even the
most of the carps, are greedily carnivorous, but this is not the case in the

i

XC11

Thames.] A minimum of two inches is proposed, and that all of the
following fish, when less than nine inches in length, should be returned to
the water : — Labeo calbasu, l karta' [which attains 3 feet in length] ; Labeo
nigrescens, which is said to attain 18 inches in length; Barbus pulc7iellus,
katladi/ attains upwards of 17 inches; Barbus Carnations, 'Te-min/
growing in Canara to 18 inches; Barbus Mysorensis, ( Purli/ taken to
18 inches; B. mosal and B. tor, c meruval/ both said to grow to 36 inches
in Canara. [They attain to even above 901bs. in weight where they are
allowed to grow, and are the famous mahaseer]; Op/iiocep/ialus striatus,
1 viral/ growing to 24 inches [it may be taken in places to three feet or
even more] ; Ophiocephalus diplogramme, 'kuch-chi,' attaining 20 inches;
Opkiocep/ialus marulius, ' biral/ growing to 24 inches, and the spined
and common eels. Otters and both the crocodiles and their eggs, it is
proposed, should be destroyed. " Men search in the rivers for hillocks
wherein spawn has been left, gather the ova, and make it into cakes,
which are considered a delicacy. The eggs of the ' kari,' Labeo calbasu,
and ' kalmuri,' Biscognathus lamta, are highly prized." Fixed engines
should be prohibited, and certain river pools protected from netting ; these
should be selected, not only with a view to their being convenient to the
fish and fry, but also with some reference to their being easy to
protect ; consequently those in the neighbourhood of the land or house
of the head of the village would be preferable. He also observes, with
reference to the construction of reservoirs, that instead of making them,
as at present, to drain out the very last drop of water, it might be
wiser in all fresh constructions, and when possible in repairs, to follow
the example of Hyder, who so placed the sluice that after all the water
available for irrigation purposes had been drawn off, there was still left
in the reservoir some six or ten feet of water at the embankment, and
this water served in the dry season, and more especially in times of
drought, the purposes of feeding wells, and thus supplying drinking
water to men and cattle, as well as keeping alive a nucleus of fish where-
with to re-stock it on the return of the rains. [This, it has been proposed,
should be done in the Bombay Presidency from fishery rents (see para.
107) ; of course no fishing should be permitted so soon as the level of the
upper edge of the reservoir were attained.]

170. The reports of the Native and subordinate officials of the

Madras Presidency are nearly all compiled

Reports of Native officials in from tlie answers which were circulated in

the Madras 1 residency. ^^ ^.^ ^ ^ ^ obgervedj are not com.

plete, as from some districts no answers have been forwarded.

171. In the G an jam Collectorate, the Telisildar of Chicacole re-

ports that some of the fishermen have culti-
Opinions of Native officials in yation flg we]i and others work for daily hire
the Ganiam Collectorate. , , mi t\t i t> n it l, „ „ ,1 „~

J as labourers. The Meela, Pully, Khandra,

Jalary, and Neyala castes fish in the fresh and back-waters. There is
generally, but not always, a sufficient supply in the local markets : the fresh
(not salted) are most approved of; 250,000 persons consume it; the
amount in the waters appears to be stationary. The Telisildar of Gum-
s?ir states that persons of the Nolia, Tiyaro, and Kevuti castes fish in
the fresh waters. The local market is insufficiently supplied ; about
130,000 persons in this talooka, of all castes except Telugu Brahmins

XC111

and Gavara Comoties or Banians, eat fish, either fresh or salted. The
amount in the waters remains stationary. The usual size of the mesh of
nets will allow the little finger to be introduced. The Tehsildar of Ber-
hampore observes that some of the fishermen are engaged in cultivation ;
some work at ferries, others are also labourers. The castes that fish in the
fresh waters are the Tero, Kevuti, Kandra, and Mila. The local markets
are fully supplied, but more are not captured than could be sold. About
200,000 persons of all castes, except Telugu Brahmins and Comoties, a
few of the Oriya Brahmins and Ranguni and Pattusali (a set among
weavers) eat fish, but they prefer it fresh. The usual size of the mesh of
the nets is as large as a two, four, or eight-anna piece.

Vizagapatam Collectorate, no I?2- In the Vizagapatam Collectorate no

answers. returns irom subordinate Native officials.

173. In the Godaveri Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Ramachendra-

pur reports that fishermen are likewise em-

thfSveriSStor^1818 ^ Ployed as boatmen, servants, and coolies. The

Pallevallu and Bestavallu fish in back and
fresh waters. The local markets are insufficiently supplied. The num-
ber of the fish-eating population cannot be correctly ascei'tained, but
all castes do so, except Brahmins, Banians, and some of the gold-
smiths ; both salt and fresh are equally appreciated. The supply in
the waters has not increased of late years. The Tehsildar of Amalapiiram
states that the fishermen employ most of their time at fishing, while
a few are engaged in cutting firewood, making and selling nets, or as
boatmen. Fish are only sold at the weekly fairs. About 1-11,927
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, Goldsmiths, and a few
others, eat fish, preferring it fresh. The amount in the waters has
decreased of late years. The size of the mesh of the nets is from half
a rupee to one rupee in circumference. Basket traps are used for fishing.
The Tehsildar of Narsapuram reports that the fishermen known as
Pallevallu and Bestavallu, also the Vaddi caste in certain villages, fish
in rivers and back-waters, but besides fishing they employ themselves as
boatmen for hire. The fish-eating population is 53,816. The markets
appear to be well supplied ; fresh and salt are indiscriminately eaten.
The supply of fish in the waters has decreased of late years. The usual
size of the mesh of the nets varies from one-fourth of an inch to 12 inches
in circumference. The Tehsildar of Rajahmundry observes that the fisher-
men do not otherwise employ themselves. All except Brahmins,
Banians, and some of the goldsmiths, eat fish, about 70,000 in number;
the local markets are insufficiently supplied except at certain seasons
fwhen the shad ascend the Godaveri and are stopped at the Dowlaish-
weram weir.] Fish have decreased of late years. The size of the mesh
of the nets is from one-fourth to three inches in circumference. The Tehsil-
dar of Bhimavaram states that the fishermen are also employed as cultiva-
tors. About 70,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, and
a few goldsmiths, eat fish, preferring it fresh. It cannot be ascertained
if the fish have increased or decreased, " as every one is allowed to fish
as he likes since the abolition of the renting system." The size of the
mesh of the nets varies from one-fourth of a rupee to a rupee. Basket
and other snares are used in fishing. The Tehsildar of Tanuhu replies

XC1V

that the Vaddi are the fisherman caste, but Sudras catch fish for
their own eating1. The fishermen are also cultivators. About 120,000
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, goldsmiths, and oilmen,
eat fish, preferring it salted ; the local markets are insufficiently supplied,
and the amount in the waters has decreased. The usual size of the
mesh of the nets varies from half to two inches in circumference. Basket
snares are used for fishing. The Tehsildar of Peddapuram answers that
the fishermen are also boatmen and coolies. Seven-eighths of the people
eat fish, preferring it fresh ; the markets are insufficiently supplied, and
the amount in the waters has decreased. The minimum size of the
mesh of nets employed " will be the size of a red gram" seed. Baskets
and snares are used for fishing. The Tehsildar of Elliir observes that the
fishermen are also palanquin-bearers. About 89,029 persons of all
castes, except Brahmins, Banians, oilmen, goldsmiths, and a few Bindilos
or Rajputs, eat fish ; the markets are not well supplied ; salt-fish is pre-
ferred to fresh, and of late years the amount of fish in the waters has
largely decreased. The size of the mesh of the net is about that of a
grain of Bengal or cow gram. Baskets and basket snares are employed
in taking fish ; some are caught in irrigated fields. The Tehsildar of
Coconada states the fishermen also act as boatmen. About 50,000 per-
sons eat fish, preferring it fresh ; for half the year the markets are well
supplied, not so in the other half; the amount in the waters has
decreased during the last four years ; the circumference of the mesh of
the nets equals one-fourth of an anna. Basket or wicker-work snares are
employed for fishing. The Tehsildar of Tuni replies that the fishermen
are also employed as coolies. The local markets are supplied ; 39,370
persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Banians, some of the goldsmiths,
and the Jungum sect, eat fish, whether fresh or salted. The size of the
mesh of the nets equals a pie. The Tehsildar of Pittapur answers that
the fishermen are also coolies; 69,000 persons eat fish, the Sudras pre-
ferring it fresh, whilst the Pariahs, &c, like it salted. The amount in the
waters has decreased of late years. Baskets are used for fishing. The
Tehsildar of Yernagudem observes that the fishermen are also agriculturists
and collect lotus leaves (? seeds) from tanks and sell them. About
90,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins and Banians, eat fish, pre-
ferring the salted article. The weekly markets are supplied ; the amount
in the waters appear to " have increased in former years." The meshes of
the nets are half an inch in circumference. Netting, baskets and basket
snares are employed. The Tehsildar of Coringa states that some of
the fishermen have also other trades. About 18,000 persons of all
castes, except Brahmins, Banians, and goldsmiths, eat fish, generally
preferring it fresh ; the local markets are fully supplied, and the amount
in the waters has increased of late years. Of the mesh of the nets, the
smallest in use would ensnare an ant. Baskets are used in fishing.

174. In the Kislna Collectorate, the Tehsildar of Narsarowpeta
. . . „ — ,. „, . , replies that fishermen are also agriculturists ;

Opinions or Native officials in c i ±. c 1 ii.ii

the Kistna Collectorate. veiT few people eat fish, and they do not care

whether it is fresh or salt; the local market is
not supplied ; the amount in the waters decreased until this year when,
owing to large falls of rain, they are again abundant. The Tehsildar of
Bapatla answers vaguely to the first few questions, continuing that

xcv

fish have decreased of late years. Nets used for tank-fishing " have meshes
of one inch or half inch." Fish baskets, fish snares, and fishing stakes
are employed in taking fish. The Tehsildar of Bunder observes that
the fishermen are also agriculturists and coolies. About 2,000 persons eat
fish ; the markets are not sufficiently supplied, but generally are so when
there is a fair. The amount in the waters are not increasing. The mini-
mum size of the mesh of the nets is one-fourth of an inch. The Tehsildar
of Repalli replies that the Palla, Mutrachulu, and Besta are fishermen;
they also engage in other work. About 600 people eat fish; in fact all
castes, except Brahmins, Vysyas, goldsmiths, and carpenters, preferring
it, however, fresh. The local markets are never supplied ; 10 or 12 baskets
of small fish are brought for sale once a week. The minimum size of
the mesh of nets is that of the ring finger. The Tehsildar of Gudewada
observes that fishing baskets, fishing stakes, and snares are employed;
water also is dammed up and baled out. The Tehsildar of Satieuapalhj
answers that the fishermen only are engaged in this work for a portion of
the year; during the remainder they employ themseves in other trades.
About 20,000 persons of all castes, except Brahmins, Komaties, and
Kamsalies or goldsmiths, eat fish, preferring the salted article. Fish are
only brought to market to a small extent ; the amount in the waters has
decreased of late years ; the smallest sized mesh employed is one-tenth of
an inch, the largest one inch. A basket snave termed ' Ota/ and a snare
called 'Mavu/ are used for fishing. The Tehsildar of Palnad observes
that the fishermen are likewise agriculturists and coolies; none earn
their living by fishing. All castes eat fish, except Brahmins, Komaties,
goldsmiths, and Linga Balijalu. The local markets are not sufficiently
supplied ; the amount in the waters has continued stationary; the usual
size of the mesh of the nets is from one pie to a 4-anua piece. Fishing bas-
kets and other wicker snares are employed. The Tehsildar of Bezivada
replies that the Waddies and Jalars catch fish in the rivers. Persons of
all castes, excepting Brahmins, Komaties, Linga Balijis and Kamsalies,
eat fish, with which the markets are insufficiently supplied ; the fresh is
preferred to the salted. The amount in the waters has decreased. The
minimum size of the mesh of the nets will admit one finger. fThis
is incorrect ; I have seen nets used there which would not permit a fly
to go through.] Basket and wicker-work snares are employed. The
Tehsildar of Gwitur answers that the fishermen are also agriculturists ;
all castes, with the exceptions previously noted, eat fish, preferring it
salted. The markets are very insufficiently supplied, and the amount
in the waters has decreased. The smallest mesh of the nets employed
is one-fourth of an inch. Baskets are used in fishing. The Tehsildar
of Vinuhonda observes that there are no regular fishing castes, but that
agriculturists and others capture fish. About 200 persons of all castes,
with the exceptions previously noted, eat fish, preferring it fresh ; the
markets are not sufficiently supplied ; the amount in the waters continues
to be stationary. Fishing baskets are employed in this talooka.

175. In the Nellur Colleclorate, nine Tehsildars report that the

fishing population employ their time at this
thSr^SStf CU°S ta occupation when fish are to be had, and

at other times act as agriculturists, labourers,
palanquin-bearers, coolies, &c, and only a very few live exclusively by

XCV1

fishing. The chief lime for catching1 fish is when the water in the tanks
is very low, and the labourers have been allowed to capture them in com-
pensation for their performing- kudimaramut ; whiLt by fishing-, the water
in the tanks becomes filthy and unfit for use. With the exception of
Brahmins and Komaties all castes are said to eat fish. In the talookas of
Nellur, Ongole, Kandukur, Atmakur, Udayagiri, and Gudur, fresh fish
is preferred to the salted ; both are indiscriminately used in Kanigiri
RapurUj and Kavali. In all the inland markets the bazars are insuffi-
ciently supplied, the amount of which in the fresh waters is said to have
considerably decreased. The minimum size of the mesh of nets given
is one-fourth of an inch. Fish are generally captured by means of nets,
fish-hooks, wire or baskets called ' Kodama/ fishing baskets termed
' Uta/ and sometimes by breaking a fruit called 'Mangakaya', which
thrown into the water poisons them. Spearing- is also resorted to. In
three talookas tanks are reported to be sometimes emptied to obtain the
fish.

176. In the Bellary Collectorale, the tehsildars reply, generally

that the Boya are the fishing caste, but they

Opinions of Native (officials in have also other trades. The great majority,

the Bellary Collectorate. _ . . . » . J J>

of the people, with the exception ol the

Brahmins and Komaties, eat fish, the demand for which in the markets
is always greater than the supply. Traps are reported as used.

177. From the Tanjur Collectorate no
Tunjur Collectorate no answers, answers to the questions for Tehsildars have

been forwarded.
178. In the Trichinopoly Collectorate five Tehsildars answer, the

Mavilliars, Valayers, Abulkars, and Lubbays,
Opinions of Native officials in besides being fishermen, more especially when
the Trichinopoly Collectorate. . • ,i • i J ,

the water m the reservoirs are low, are also

employed as agriculturists and palanquin-bearers. The Sembaders,
about 30 in number, in one talookas are stated to be exclusively fishermen.
All the people, except Brahmins and the followers of Siva, eat fish ; the
number in four talookas who do so is estimated at 557,682, and the fifth,
15-l(iths of the population. In two, fish is indiscriminately eaten, whether
fresh or salted ; in two, the fresh is preferred; in the remaining one the
salted article. In three the markets are stated to be insufficiently sup-
plied. The amount in the fresh waters has decreased in four districts,
and increased in one. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets em-
ployed is given as a grain of dholl in one, half an inch in another talooka.
Basket traps are used for taking fish, also baited pots. Poisoning the
water by means of the milk hedge is reported as obtaining in three of
the talookas, but is not resorted to in the other two.

179. From the Caddapah Collectorate no
Caddapah Collectorate, no angwers to the questions for Tehsildars have
answers. , 0 -, -, x

been forwarded.
180. In the Kumal Collectorate seven Tehsildars report that Bestas,

Boyas, Telugus, most of the low caste
Opinions of Native officials in Hindus and Mussulmen fish, but they also
the Kurnal Collectorate. , .. . -1,111

have other occupations, as agricultural labour-
ers, palanquin -bearers, &c. All the people, except Brahmins, Visyas,
Komaties, Linga Balijas, blacksmiths, carpenters, and a few others, are

XCV11

said to eat fish, the number of whom in six talookas is estimated at
390,389 persons; in six fresh fish are preferred, in cne the salted article.
The local markets, except that of the town of Kurnal, are said, by those
who have answered this question, to be insufficiently supplied, whilst the
amount in the waters is reported as stationaiy by three, and decreased by
four. The Tehsilclar of Bamalkota observes that " after the construction
of the anicut (weir) at Sunkesula, and the opening1 of the irrigation
canal, wages have so greatly risen at and near Kurnal, and the fishes in
the river have so perceptibly diminished, that fishing has become, more or
less, a secondary occupation. Bearing palanquins and working on the
irrigation canal for hire form their chief occupation. The fish have
undoubtedly decreased since the construction of the anicut in 1861.
Their ascent during the spawning season is barred by the anicut, and
they are captured in roe, just below it, at Kontalapad and the villages of
the Nizam situated on the opposite bank. It is therefore asserted by all
the fishermen of whom I have enquired that the river stock has consi-
derably decreased of late years, except, of course, at Kontalapad, where
the fishes are now caught in comparatively greater numbers than before,
in the Madugus (deep holes) in the river to which they return after
repeated attempts to get over the anicut, and also at the sluices. The
Curnum of Kontalapad assures me that in the best fishing season there
are not more than eight or ten men who go out fishing." The usual size
of the mesh of the nets is variously given from that of a grain of dholl,
or Bengal gram, or tamarind seed, or pepper corn, or one-eighth of an
inch to the size of the thumb or larger. Fishing baskets and wicker
traps are stated to be employed. He subsequently suggested that nets
and traps ought to have holes large enough for a 2-anna piece to go
through (six-tenths of an inch in diameter) . The Tehsildar of Markapur
observes that small fish are caught during the rainy season, in the
supply channels, and in the calingulahs when the water runs a span deep,
a conical shaped net, ' Kodirnay/ is kept against the current, constructed
with small split bamboos, having holes large enough for a big black ant
to pass through. Its mouth is covered in a similar manner with fine
split bamboos inwardly woven, leaving a space to allow the fish enter ;
once in, they cannot return. It becomes filled with small fish if kept for
about three hours in the water. The size of the smallest mesh of nets
is equal to that of a grain of Bengal gram. The ' Udu' or conical
basket is employed for capturing breeding fish as they are seen ascending
into irrigated fields.

181. In the Chingleput Collectorate six Tehsildars report that in
. . some places the fishermen do not follow anv

Opinions of Native officials in ti ±.- i j_ i j.i i

theChiugleput Collectorate. other occupation, but, as a rule, they are also

agriculturists, palanquin-bearers, boatmen,
coolies, and petty traders and artizans. All the people, excepting Brah-
mins, Komaties, Jains, Sivites, and a few others, eat fish, the numbers
being computed at 694,147 persons ; salt or fresh are indiscriminately
taken in three, but fresh are preferred in two. The markets in the vici-
nity of the sea are stated to be well supplied, whilst the amount in the
fresh-waters is asserted to have decreased in all the talookas. £Since
this was written, the Acting Collector (April 18th, 1872) has reported that
the Native officials assert that the supply of fish remains stationary, but

0

xcvm

•(bat it should be noted that all tanks and rivers are dry during the hot
season.] The minimum size of the mesh of the nets employed is given
by one Tehsildar as equal to a grain of gram, another as one-sixteenth
of an inch, and by two at one-eighth of an inch. Baskets or basket
traps are spoken of as existing in four talookas, poisoning of the waters
to obtain fish in three, and doubtful in a fourth.

182. In the Salem Gollectorate the three Sub-Magistrates or Teh-
sildars observe that all persons who engage
Opinions of Native officials in in fishjn~ have other occupations as well,
the saleni Collectorate. . ,. ., ° , ,. t» 1 • tt- ^

All the people, excepting Brahmins, Komaties,

and a few others, eat fish, the numbers in two talookas being estimated
at 250,000, and in the third at four-fifths of the population. The fresh
is preferred to the salted. The markets are sufficiently supplied in one,
small quantities are sold in another, whilst in the remaining talooka suffi-
cient is not obtainable. The amount in the waters is stationary in one
district, whilst it has decreased in the other two. The minimum size
of the meshes employed are from one-fourth to half an inch. Baskets
are reported as employed for taking fish, and poisoning of the waters for
this purpose as resorted too at Oossoor.

183. From the North Arcot Collectorate
North Arcot Collectorate, no nQ answers to the questions for Tehsildars
answers. , , P -,-,•'•

have been forwarded.
181. In the South Arcot Collectorate the replies appear to be from

one Tehsildar, who has also answered the

tive°offida£r°fc °piUi0nS °f Na' queries Put t0 Collectors. He observes that

there is a tax annually which includes
fish, grass, and the other productions of tanks which is charged to the
village in a lump sum, and paid by the village community in certain
specified shares. Fish are caught as soon as bred, and not allowed to
remain for any length of time ; large and small are indiscriminately
taken ; the mesh of the nets being as small as one-eighth of an inch in
diameter. How much soever fresh fish is brought to the markets meets
a ready sale, but it does not keep long in this country, but putrefies
within a few hours of its capture, more especially the smaller kinds. The
fishermen are Pullies, who are known as Shemdavars ; they are agricul-
turists, and fishing is a subsidiary occupation. About 90 per cent, of the
people eat fish, the Brahmins, Sivites, and Jains excepted ; the fresh is
most esteemed ; the supply is quite inadequate to the demand ; the
amount in the waters has decreased.

185. In the Tinnevelli Collectorate eight Tehsildars report as fol-
lows : — The chief castes that fish in the fresh
rt°riZm?oitl°rSal8in waters are Savalakarars, Paravars, and Lub-

the Tinnevelli Collectorate. , „ , ' , ,.

bays, but they all have other occupations, as
agriculturists, coolies, arrack-distillers, musicians, &c. The majority of the
people, excepting Brahmins and high-caste Sudras, eat fish, the amount
being computed in seven talookas at 800,085 persons, and in the remain-
ing talookas at three-fourths of the population. Fish is preferred to
fresh ; in six talookas the markets are insufficiently supplied ; in two suffici-
ently ; a decrease of the amount in the waters is reported in four talookas,
an increase in three ; no distinct answer in the remaining one. The
minimum size of the mesh of the nets varies from the size of a grain

XC1X

of dholl to one-eighth, one-fourth, half an inch up to one inch. Wicker-
work traps and bamboo labyrinth weirs appear to be generally employed,
and the poisoning of water by tobacco and other substances for the pur-
pose of obtaining fish is reported by two Tehsildars.

186. In the Madura Collector ate the answers from the Tehsildars

are given as follows (May ]7th, 1872).

•."fifcoJESSS?* ThT ■». TCT few P^onrf fishermen

in the district, except in the town or
Madura, but all have other occupations. The local markets in large
towns are not fully supplied with fish, and at certain seasons they are
very scarce. During the season the supply in many villages is suffi-
cient, but more could always be sold in the larger towns; 80 per
cent, of the people eat fish. The amount in the waters has continued sta-
tionary of late years. Very small ones are caught in considerable quanti-
ties, chiefly in baskets. The minimum size of the meshes of nets is
about half an inch in circumference. Fish are not generally trapped in
irrigated fields during the rains. They are caught in baskets of two
kinds. In shallow water, when tanks are drying, they are baled out in
various ways.

187. In the Coimbatore Collectorate, the replies from ten Tehsildars

are as follows : — The fishermen, as a rule,

tte°SSaSSe.in vve otlr .ruPatirs^he -"it***}**

that 40 families in the Dharapuram talooka,
100 in the Perindoray talooka, only employ themselves in fishing, whilst
in Coimbatore 156 fishermen also act as palanquin-bearers. The majority
of the people, excepting Brahmins, Komaties, Sivachars, and high-caste
Sudras, eat fish, the amount being estimated at 11,37,924 persons; it is
preferred fresh in seven talookas, it is immaterial in two ; whilst in one it
is stated the Hindus prefer it fresh, the Makomedans salted. [The dot-
ing Collector (February 4th, 1871) observed, " another point which I
think has been lost sight of, is, that the consumption of fresh fish by
the people of the country, as compared with that of salt-fish, is exceed-
ingly small/'' But that such is a fact does not appear to be coincided
with by the native officials. That it is more largely consumed may be
at times due to the absence of fresh-water fishes owing to the waste-
ful destruction which now appears to be existing, apparently due to an
absence of proper precautionary measures.] In one talooka the local
market is stated to be sufficiently supplied, in the remaining nine that
they are not so, or else that more could be disposed of if brought. The
amount of fish in the waters is said to have decreased in six talookas,
remained stationary in two, increased in one, and no definite answer is
given from the remaining Tehsildar. The meshes of the nets employed
appear to vary from one-eighth of an inch upwards ; basket traps are re-
ported as in use for fishing, and poisoning of the water in order to obtain
the fish as noted by seven out of the ten Tehsildars. In Suttimungalum
it is observed of the Bhowany river that the fish die when the water is
mixed with the mud to a laro-e extent as durino- the monsoons, and due
to this cause large fish are scarce. This was also reported upon by Mr.
P. Grant, a former Collector ; it also occurs in Malabar, and the mixing
of mud with water is stated to be employed in order to facilitate the
capture of fish.

188. In the Malabar Colleclorate the reply of a Sub-Collector,

apparently who has not seen the questions

Mafa™^ * Sub"C°lleCt0I'in circulated, has been received. He observes,

" so far am I from thinking" that any steps
should be taken to prevent the destruction of fish in these rivers, that
I am of opinion it would greatly benefit the country if Government
took steps to procure superior engines for their capture, and instruct
the people in the use of them. " £ From personal observations I can endorse
the former Acting Collector's views that the most minute fry are destroyed
by every poaching practice in Malabar. Perhaps it is intended to mean
that the supply is very deficient, the markets being insufficiently supplied,
surely such would be a reason for some remedial measures being employ-
ed.! Poisoning of the waters occurs in Malabar.

189. From the South Canara Colleclorate no answers from the

0 ,, „ Native officials have been received, but Mr.

South Canara, no answers. _. , „ „ '. ,

1 nomas reports are so lull as to leave but
little to be desired on that head.

CI

MYSORE AND COORG.

190. In the elevated table-laud of Mysore and the hilly district

of Coorg exist some fairly-sized rivers, and

Fresh-water fisheries in Mysore many more which in comparison may be

and Coorg. termed streams. Besides these in Mysore

there are a considerable number of lakes
and large tanks that rarely dry up, and many of a smaller size, estimat-
ed at 20,000, which, either during1 the hot months or on the occasion
of any considerable drought, become entirely or nearly dry.

191. Respecting the numbers of the population tvho eat fish ? they

are reported to be as follows : — In the Nundi-

At least half the people of drug division two- thirds, Astragam half; in

KT a'ld C°°rg are Hassam district 95 per cent., Chituldrug 55,

Shimoga 65, Kadoor 50; whilst in Coorg they
are computed at three-fourths of the population. In short, it may be fairly
assumed that at least half the people of Mysore and Coorg are fish-eaters,
Avhen they are able to secure this species of food.

192. As to whether the markets are sufficiently or insufficiently

supplied toith fish ? the following are the
Markets generally are in- reports in the Nundidnig division : local
sufficiently supplied with nsn. r . . .w , . -

markets near large reservoirs are 1 airly sup-
plied so long as the water lasts. In the Astragam division six
markets are stated to be insufficiently supplied, and four others to
be well supplied. In Hassam the markets in six of the talookas are
insufficiently supplied, and in one only is it sufficient. There is an
insufficient supply of fresh fish in all the markets in the Nagar and
Coorg districts, but in the latter salt-fish are imported from the coast.
In short, a generally insufficient supply of fresh fish obtains in the
markets of Mysore and Coorg.

193. Respecting whether the amount offish in the rivers and tanks

have increased, decreased, or remained station-
Fish are decreasing. ary ? In two of the Mysore divisions they are

reported by all the amildars to have decreased
of late years owing to the drought, whilst in the third division the
majority of the native officials give a similar report, and the remainder
assert that they have remained stationary. This question appears to
have been overlooked in Coorg. It appears, however, that in all but a
few talookas, wherein the supply is stationary, the amount of fish in the
rivers and tanks is reported to have decreased.

194. The fishermen who only pursue that trade seem to be few,

but those who fish in addition to other avo-

Fishermen also follow other cations appear to be very numerous. In

occupations. Nundidrug these are computed at two-thirds

of the population, nearly every ryot keep-
ing a net to be employed as occasion or opportunitv arises. In the
Astragam division, Hassam, and Nagar they are given at 171,359, but

Cll

they also engage in other occupations ; whilst in Coorg all the ryots
are said to fish more or less, but none are strictly fishermen.

195. Respecting whether mature breeding fish or immature fry are

destroyed to any great extent ? If one looks

tensivelyncfestroVed! * ^ **' at the reports of the whole of the officials,

one cannot help observing that fish are taken
in every possible mode without regard to breeding season or the size of
the immature fish, even down to the fry when they are just moving
about. Nets with very small meshes appear to be universally employed.
In the Nundidrug and Astragam divisions the size between knot and
knot of the meshes is given at one-sixteenth of an inch ; in Nagar that its
minimum size will not permit the smallest fish to escape ; in Coorg that
the meshes are so small as to allow only the water to pass through ;
whilst weirs, spanning streams and rivers, as well as poisoning waters, is
freely resorted to. (See Report of Collector of South Canara, para. 169.)

196. The modes of fishing employed may be summed up as

reported by the amildars of the Nagar divi-

ingEpursuPed!Cl,ing m°de ^ ^ si°D> hY nets' traPs> ll0°ks> cl°tllS' and ^ hand '

by baskets of different shapes, by dam-
ming and draining off the water, by shooting, by striking with clubs,
with swords or with choppers, by weirs and fixed engines ; in short, by
poaching practices of every kind, as well as by fishing with rods and
lines, and by poisoining the pools of water.

197. Considering that at least half the population of this district

„ , . r ,, eat fish when they can obtain it, that the

Conclusions from the reports. , . . Jrf, . . , , . ' , , , ,

markets are insufficiently supplied, and the

fish are decreasing ; taking also into consideration that the fishermen
only pursue this avocation, as a rule, in addition to their ordinary occupa-
tions, that in Coorg the whole of the ryots are said to be fishermen, and
in Nundidrug that nearly every ryot keeps a net to be used as occasion
or opportunity arises, whilst breeding fish and fry are indiscriminately
slaughtered by nets or traps with the smallest meshes or interstices, the
next consideration is whether it is worth while to do anything.

198. There appear to be two classes of localities where fishing is

carried on : firstly, those tanks which dry up

enrried^on08 Wher° ^^ ** at certa[n seasons of the year, and in which

the fish would only die if not captured;
secondly, rivers, running streams, and such of the large tanks as retain
a supply of water throughout the year.

199. Firstly, tanks that dry up. It seems to be assumed that, under

the above circumstances, no regulations should

Fisheries which have no peren- b applicable to the smaH tanks that yearly dry

mal supply of water. rf . J J J

up, as the fish in them must die, or be eaten

by lower animals, if not captured by man. A little difficulty appears

to have escaped notice, that if nets, with the most minute meshes,

are permitted in these places, the excuse for their possession would always

be that they were only kept for tank-fishing; in fact, such could

hardly be interdicted. So long also as these tanks possess water

communications with rivers, streams, or large tanks, the small fish can

obtain an exit to where they could grow. Practically speaking, it is of

course but little use prohibiting fishing in any way people choose in tanks

cm

tli at yearly dry up, and after all water communications let ween them and the
second class of loaters (now to be referred to) has naturally ceased, pro-
vided such would uot create a difficulty as regards regulating the size of
the mesh of nets throughout the country (by allowing' the existence of
those of minute size,) supposing- it is considered advisable to do so.

200. Secondly, with respect to regulating the modes employed in
_,. . . fishing in rivers, running streams, and such

maUupply oTwlerexite*™' of the larSe tauks as retain a ^PP1? of Water

throughout the year. The Chief Commis-
sioner observes that the right of fishing" in a few of the large tanks has
been already brought under regulation with satisfactory results. As
regards this second description of pieces of water, no objections are raised by
any one against regulating the size of the meshes of nets, etc., and the prohi-
bition against standing weirs and poisoning the water. Likewise of
the five who answer the question as to whether any objections exist
against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar, they appear
to seeno difficulty in it. Respecting fence-months during the com-
mencement of the monsoon in the hilly districts in order to prevent the
destruction of breeding fish, this also appears to be called for, especially
in Coorg and the hill ranges.

201. The " Officiating Secretary" to the Chief Commissioner of

Mysore and Coorg observes that the Chief

sionePr1rM0poreChiefCOmmiS' Commissioner is disposed to think that the

suggestion made to revive the practice of
farming out the right of fishing is not undeserving of consideration, as
regards rivers and running streams, and such of the large tanks as
retain a supply of water throughout the year, and that the erection or
use of barriers to prevent fish passing up and down the running streams
should be altogether interdicted. But with regard to the larger number
of tanks in Mysore that dry up at certain seasons of the year, estimated
at upwards of 20,000, Colonel Mead is of opinion that the case is
different, and does not require consideration in connection with the
question at issue, and that these tanks might be left without any rules
being framed for the regulation of their fisheries. It may be added that
the right of fishing in a few of the larger tanks has been already brought
under regulation with satisfactory results.

202. The Superintendent of the Nundidrug Division observes that,

as tanks and channels become dry, small fish

ofSSXg.theSUpenntendenfc iu lar£e quantities are taken in baskets and

nets, the smallest mesh of which is one-
twelfth of an inch ; that as only a few tanks retain water during the dry
weather, it is of no use regulating the size of the meshes to be employed.
There would be no difficulty in prohibiting the sale of fry in bazars if
such a measure is thought proper.

203 The Deputy Superintendent of the Bangalur District considers

that very small fish and breeding ones are

Opinion of the Deputy Super- t destroyed to any ]arge extent, but that,

mteudeut of Bangalur. J J f . ' . '

when tanks discharge during tlie rains,

young fish are caught by means of baskets and closely-meshed nets.
They are also taken during the irrigation season in the channels for
water. The mesh of the nets is stated to be about the size of coarse

CIV

mosquito curtains; there would be uo difficulty in regulating it; but he

considers it would not be of much use, as the little fish would get into

the fields and die, or be eaten by birds, but the smallest size he proposes

for tank-fishing is half an inch. If selling the fry of fish is prohibited,

it is surmised the catchers would eat them themselves, to the loss of the

fish-eating community of towns, whilst accustomed means of livelihood

and food-supply should not be lightly interfered with.

20-1. Colonel P%ic~kle, in a report to the Chief Commissioner (July

r. . . en, ,„ ,, 17th, 1869), observed, respecting; the fish

Opinion of Colonel Puckle. , ' , , J.' , ,, , , 1 .& . „ ,

market at riangalur, that large-sized fish are

often bought by the European community at a dearer rate per pound than

butcher's meat, and that the natives buy large numbers of small carps

for the merest trifle, amongst which are always a considerable quantity

of the immature fish of a large kind. That netting goes on all the year

round. Drag, wall, cast, and purse-nets of every size of mesh are used,

and in some of them it is so small as to resemble a coarse mosquito

curtain; whilst, owing to their indiscriminate use and other poaching

practices, the food-supply is out of all proportion to the natural fecundity

of the fish.

205. In the Nagar Division, the Deputy Superintendent of the Shimoga

_ . . „ _ „ . District reports that breeding fish and very

Opinions of European officials _„..,,,-. ^„„ l i i i < ±.

in the Nagar Division. 70nnS <>nes are. not destroyed to any great

extent. The minimum size of the mesh of
nets is so small that even spawn of fish is taken. There are no objections
against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars. The
Deputy Superintendent of the Chituldrug District observes that there are
not many tanks or reservoirs wherein large numbers of fish are to be
found, but of the few that are to be found, the fishermen as well as
other classes catch indiscriminately fish of all sizes, both for home con-
sumption and for sale. Most fish are taken during the hot season, when
the tanks and pools are becoming dry : damming and draining off the
water is employed for this purpose. The smallest size of the mesh of the
nets employed is one-eighth of an inch in diameter. No difficulties exist
in regulating the minimum legal size of the meshes to be employed, but
does not anticipate any benefit following such a course; neither are
there any objections against prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the
bazars. The Deputy Superintendent of the Kadoor District considers
that breeding fish and very young ones are destroyed to a great extent.
Dams are constructed across rivers and channels where the water collects,
and also in natural pools in the rivers. Fishing is carried on at all times
during the hot weather ; also in irrigated fields fine wicker baskets are
placed at the outlets, so as to take the smallest fish. The nets generally
employed have a mesh of half an inch. There appears to be no diffi-
culty in regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be employ-
ed in future, and one inch between the knots is proposed for this purpose.
No objection seems to exist against prohibiting the sale of the fry of
fishes in the bazars, or forbidding the destruction of breeding fishes
during the first two months of the monsoon in the hilly ranges.

20G. The Deputy Superintendent of the Tumlcur District says, a

great number of fish are destroyed, but the
Opinion of the Deputy Super- quantity of breeding fish and young ones
lutendent ot lumkur. * J . *=> . • j tuti

anion u'tst these cannot be ascertained. When

cv

the tanks are low, fishermen employ a particular kind of basket, as well
as nets, the smallest size of the mesh of which is one-eighth of an inch
square. There would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh,
and he proposes one-eighth of an inch for small fish, one inch for the
second kind, and from an inch and a half to two inches for the largest
size. As regards prohibiting' the sale of the fry of fish scarcely any
objections exist, but some of the poorer classes will suffer by being pro-
hibited from selling it.

207. The Deputy Superintendent of the Kolar District observes
. that breeding and young fish are des-

iuteMeuTof Kolar! UPCr' tro>'ed to a 8veat extent, except in private

wells, where they are taken care of by the
owners. The principal times when young fish become destroyed are
when tanks overflow in the rains or dry up during the hot months. The
smallest size of the mesh of nets used is about one-twelfth of an inch.
As the tanks are shallow and periodically dry up, regulating the size of
the mesh of the nets is considered to be unnecessary. As regards pro-
hibiting for the first two months of the monsoon the capture of breed-
ing fish in the hilly regions, he sees no objection to it " if arrange-
ments can be made to provide means of livelihood to those living
upon fishing solely ."

208. In the Nundidrug Division the reports of the Amildars are

condensed. About two-thirds of the popula-
*2SSSS£$8S2Z* «°n are stated to flsh occasionally in audi-

tion to their other occupations. Nearly every
ryot keeps a net to be used as occasion or opportunity arises. The pro-
fessional fishermen are few in number, and all pursue other occupations,
except near Bangalur, where their time is well occupied in supplying
the large local demand. The Besturs, Palligars, Voklagars, and Tighurs
are the regular fishing castes. The local markets in proximity to large
reservoirs are fairly supplied, but the supply fails as reservoirs dry up ;
and except for large towns like Bangalur, or where there are the head-
quarters of a district, the people principally fish for their own consump-
tion. Nearly all classes eat fish when they can procure it, or when it
happens to be cheap. The amount of fish depends upon the quantity
of water, as when the latter is plentiful, the fish multiply extremely
rapidly. The smallest size of the mesh of the nets is given at one-
sixteenth of an inch. During the rains the practice of trapping fish is
almost universal. Every form of net, snare, and basket are used, but
poisoning the water is never resorted to.

209. In the Astragam Division the Amildars report that the
_ . . „ amount of fishermen in the various talookas

Opinions of Native officials in • no a a o \. i. £ i.* • ± i.\ l

the Astragam Division. 1S 36,4-18, but fishing is not the only occupa-

tion of the number of people above enumerat-
ed, as they also engage in agriculture, commerce, etc. The fishermen
castes consist of Besturs, Thorayer and Oopaligur, as well as Mussulmen.
The markets of the talookas of Mysore, Chamrajnugger, Astragam,
Pariapatna, Heggadadevenkote, and Nanjengode are not fully supplied,
whilst those of Mallavelly, Gundlupete, Yedatori, and Muddur are
well supplied. The proportion of the fish-eating population is given at
above half (111,011 out of 756,011). In some places the fish have

CV1

decreased owing to the droughts, whilst in others they have remained
stationary. AIL the Amildars report that a great quantity of small iish
are caught during the rainy season by means of different kinds of nets,
rods and lines, and baskets prepared for this purpose which are made
with the fronds of the cocoanut palm ; these have large open mouths,
whilst their floor is covered by means of a lattice work of strings ;
they are placed against a current of water which, rushing in, passes
through the interstices, leaving the fish deposited in the basket. They
all likewise give the smallest mesh of the nets at one-sixteenth of an
inch. The different modes of fishing are rods and lines and baskets.
The following are the native names of every form of net in use : Beesoo-
balay, Yelabalay, Thadalabalay, Seegadibalay, Bidubalay, Thadubalay,
Gooroobalay, Urjoonabalay, Hayabalay, Kybalay, Elappanabalay.

210. In the Hassan District the Amildars report that the fisher-

men are generally known as Bestharoo ; they

Opinions of Native officials in t d and cultivate besides, whilst their num-

the Hassan District. -,n-?nnn. • c

bers are recorded as 12S,2o9, exclusive 01
Manjarabad, where it could not be ascertained. The names of the fisher-
man castes given are Bestharoo, Byadarn, Vakaligaru, Wooparroo,
Koramaru, Telugaru, Agasaru (Dhoby), Mussulmen, Myadam, Madigaru,
Holiaru, Koorabara, Waddaru, Voolitigalaru, Edigara, Dasrees, Lumba-
nee, Swalparu, Jabataru, Jengalarm, Landroo, Ganigaru (Oilmongers),
Karachooneha, Koombarroo, Kalikarroo, Goller Bylakisalaru, Native
Christians, Teliga Hajamer (Barbers), Jettiroo, Devarroo Tigalaru, and
Koracharu — Devangadavaru Gijjegaru, Jelagaroo. The Amildars of Havu-
kalli, Magamangala, Maharajendurga, Narsipura, Bailuru, and Arha-
lagudu, state the bazars are insufficiently supplied with fish, but in Hassan
only is the supply sufficient. Salt-fish is also imported from Mangalore,
but not in large enough cpiantities for the demand. The population
of fish-eaters is given at about 95 per cent. (401,807 out of
422,539). The Amildars universally say fish are decreasing owing
to drought. Breeding fish are trapped in the irrigation channels during
the rains, and also in some localities in the paddy-fields as well. They
are likewise poisoned by earagooli, date-thorn, eachel moolloo, aud gorway.
They are also taken by the Sigadi net (for small fish), Harajana net,
Becsa net, Aga net, Balla net, Bida net, Gorkooli, Barjakooli, Grankooli,
Sumrakooli gana, Kolu Kolli, Karay Kayee, Balu Goomkay leaves,
cooked leaves of Sawe, Kodamay net, Gana dadee net, Kadala net, small
Kooli, Baju bees net, Katoo net, Serpent net, Golaga net, and hooks.

211. The Amildars in the Nagar District report that the num-

bers of fishermen aggregate 6,672, but they

i„?£t;SlfD!SS',COfflCi,'1S ™*J °» «*« ««*■ ™ manufacturers of

chunam, whilst there are also boatmen and
bearers amongst them. The fishermen castes are ' Bestur,' and likewise
others are termed Gungemakalso, Koboligaroo, Haloy Bhoees, and
Kabbaru. The markets are insufficiently supplied with fish, partly due
to a want of rain and partly to a want of rest for the fisheries. The
proportion of the fish-eating population is about 55 per cent, in the
Chituldrug District, 65 per cent, in Shimoga, and 50 per cent, in Kadoor.
Fish are decreasing owing to the absence of rain, and are captured by
means of hooks, different forms of traps, and by placing funnel-shaped

cvu

bamboo baskets iu streams and waste weirs of tanks ; small purse-shaped
nets are also employed. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets used
will not permit the smallest ones to escape. Fish are trapped in the irri-
gated fields during- the rains. The modes of fishing" are as follows ; by-
nets, traps, hooks, cloths, and by hand ; by baskets of different shapes ;
by damming and draining off the water ; by shooting, striking with clubs,
with swords or choppers ; in short, by poaching practices of eveiy kind,
as well as by fishing with rods and lines, and by poisoning the pools
until the fish float to the surface of the water.

212. The Amildars of Coorg report that nearly all the ryots fish more

^ . .or less, uone are strictly fishermen, but

Opinions of the Native officials n „ i„„j. i x> t>

in Coorg • these last are known as Boyees or Besturs

(bearers). The bazars are insufficiently sup-
plied with fresh fish, but fully with dried ones from the coast. The price
of a seer (weighing 27^ rupees) of large fish is two annas, of small ones
half an anna, of a seer of first sort of mutton (weighing 80 rupees)
6 annas, for second sort 5 annas. Three-fourths of the people eat fish.
During September, October, and November, large quantities of small
fish are captured, whilst the meshes of some of the nets are so small
as to allow only the water to pass through. During the rains breed-
ing fish are trapped in the irrigated fields. One mode of fishing pur-
sued is by throwing a jungle fruit about the size and shape of a
green walnut into the rivers and streams. The effect of this is to
stupefy the fish, and they come up to the surface and turn on their
backs, when they are easily caught. This practice has been strictly
prohibited, and is not now openly carried on. The nets are called
Cunneebale, Beesoobale, Jadibale, and Goribale, whilst the traps are
termed " Coolies" and "Podas."

cviii

HAIDAEABAD.

213. In the Assigned Districts the rivers are not of any large size,

whilst the constant droughts of the last few
Fisheries in the Haidarabad years are considered to have done much to
Assigned Districts. impoverish such fisheries as exist in these

smaller rivers and tanks.

214. The proportion of people who eat fish if they can obtain it is thus

given by the various Tehsildars : — in Bui-
Fish est eemed by a large pro- d nine.teilths, in Bassim two-thirds, in
portion of the population. . > >

Akola one-third, in Amraote and Mortizapur
one-quarter, and in Woon at seven per cent ; these figures clearly show-
ing that fish as food is esteemed by a very large proportion of the resi-
dents.

215. As to how the markets are supplied with fish J Seven native

officials assert that they are insufficiently so ;
^Markets insufficiently sup- ^ Qnly ^ Tehgildar of Basgim that the

" weekly markets^ are well supplied, but that
probably more could be sold, conclusively demonstrating that the market
supplies do not equal the demands.

216. Whether the fish have increased, decreased, or remained station-

Amount in the water decreas- cmJ ? There is ouly one Opinion, which is that
ing. they have decreased.

217. As regards whose these fisheries are? In West Berar, it is

stated that fishing rights do not exist, for
Fisheries Government pro- -, , • ° , Pi , -m a i

rfc r under a ryotwan settlement all nsneries are

common property, indeed belong to Govern-
ment, and there do not appear to be any village tanks where the right of
reserved fishing could be claimed.

218. 2 he fishermen, or the class who mostly indulge in it, are the

_. , , Bhoees and sub-divisions of that caste, num-

Fishermen have, as a rule, i • • ,i • u m , •, i i • o oun

other occupations. bermg in the eight lehsildarships b,289 per-

sons, most of whom, however, pursue other
occupations.

219. Respecting whether breeding fish and fry are destroyed but one

_ ,. . , , . opinion appears to prevail, namely, that they

Breeding fish and fry de- l 1X mi1 ii.ii-

stroyedtoagreat extent. are> }n eveiT possible way, although in some

districts trajiping is reported not to exist,
and fry only to be taken in small quantities ; but as from the same dis-
tricts it is stated that stopping the sale of fry would be a little unpo-
pular amongst fishermen and fish-eaters, it seems very evident that the
amount captured cannot be very small.

220. If we examine the various minimum sizes of the meshes of the

Smallest meshes of nets used. nets .employed, we find the six Deputy Com-

missioners report as follows : — In two they are
too small to be measured, in one one-eleventh of an inch, in one three -eighths,
in one one-eighth, in one one-third of an inch between knot and knot of
the meshes.

C1X

221. Trapping fish is reported by two Tehsildars ; one observes

that this does not take place in his district,

Trapping and snaring, dam- but on this point the others are silent. Snares

mingup and lading out waters, appear, however, to be universally in use.

reported."3 poisomilg them' 1S Damming and lading out, or poisoning pieces

of water in order to obtain the contained fish, is
almost universal.

222. As regards prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars, the

Deputy Commissioner of Akola considers it

But little difficulty would ex- WOuld be difficult to discriminate which were
ist in prohibiting the sale or fry .
in the bazars. the try ; on that head alone he would rather

regulate the mesh of the nets. In Buldana
it is considered that at first it would be unpopular, but the advantages of
this restriction would soon make themselves apparent to all ; in the other
districts that no difficulties exist, except that it would temporarily de-
crease the gains of persons who make a livelihood by catchiug fry during
the rains.

220. The following opinions have been advanced respecting

whether there is or is not a necessity for a
Opinion as to whether protec- measure of protection to be afforded to the
tive measures are required. i . .

hsh. the Officiating Commissioner, \Vest

Berar, considers there is nothing to prevent the imposition of rules for

the preservation of the immature and breeding fish, and that some of

a general kind are called for. In Akola it is doubted whether it would

be worth while to legislate on these points, as fish are so scarce ; but there

would be no difficulty in regulating the size of the meshes of the nets.

The other five Deputy Commissioners observe that there would be no

difficulty in such regulations.

221. As rules of a general kind appear to be desired, the next

question is, how would such affect the fishermen

fisSrda°sses. rUl6S ^^ tbG classes ? The Commissioner of West Berar

observes, " whatever restrictions may be im-
posed, no class of people will be so affected as to interfere with their
means of livelihood, nor does any portion of the community depend on fish
as an article of food ; therefore remedial measures found necessary will not
even be hard or distressing to any class of people." This opinion, how-
ever, varies from some of the Deputy Commissioners who consider that if
fence-months were introduced, some of the fishermen would be put to great
hardships.

225. As regards the minimum size of the mesh of the nets that

should in future be permitted, four of the

Proposals regarding the mini- officia)s consider that it should not be less

mum size of meshes of nets that ,. . , ,, . . " .

should be allowed. than one inch between the knot and knot of

the meshes, and one that the minimum size
should be 1| inches.

226. These reports appear to show, (1) that a considerable propor-

n , . c „ „ „ tion of the people would eat fish could they

Conclusions from the follow- i , • ,~\ A , ,i , ■ m

ing reports. obtain it ; (s) that the markets are insuffi-

ciently supplied ; (3) that the amount of fish
in the rivers and tanks is decreasing ; (4) that the fisheries are Govern-
ment property ; (5) that the fishermen, as a class, have other avocations as

ex

well ; (6) that mature breeding fish and the immature ones are destined
at all seasons of the year and in every possible way ; (7) that nets with
very minute meshes are employed ; (8) that fish are trapped in some
districts and snared in all ; (9) that waters are dammed, laded out, and
even poisoned in order to take the fish; (10) that there would be no
difficulty in prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars ; (11)
that some protection to the fish is called for ; (12) that such would not
affect the fishermen to any appreciable extent unless fence-months were
instituted; (13) but that these appear to be necessary in the hilly districts
during the first two months of the monsoon ; (14) that the minimum
size of the meshes of the nets should be one inch between knot and knot ;
(15) that the poisoning of waters to obtain fish should be prohibited.

227. The necessity of fence-months in the rivers of the hilly dis-
_, ,, tricts during the commencement of the

x OOCG-IllOllt llS

monsoons when laro'e fish ascend for breedinjr

purposes appears to be apparent. " This is/ one Deputy Commissioner

observes, " the best fishing season/' the breeding fish in fact at this period

easily falling victims to the most clumsy contrivances.

_ . . , .228. Poisoning waters to obtain the

Jfoisomno: waters condemned. n i • • i-i i -,

° fish is universally condemned.

229. The Second Assistant Resident, Haidarabad, remarks that

_, . „ , the class chiefly devoted to fishing in this

Opinion of the Second Assist- , o t t at t>i it j_

ant Resident. Part °* -*-nclia are the Bhoees, who do not,

however, confine themselves to this occupation
only, but seek their living also as domestic servants, and monopolize what
remains in this part of India of the work of palkee-bearing. Through-
out the Assigned Districts fishing is pursued free from any restrictions, and
all sorts of fish are indiscriminately captured in all possible ways.

230. The Officiating Commissioner, West Berar, reports that as

„ , ~„ . .■ r, fishing is quite unrestricted, eveiw sort of fish

Opinion of the Officiating Coin- • a j ■ -i i i

missioner, West Berar. * captured in every possible manner, and

those too small for use are thrown away. The
class chiefly concerned in fishing are the Bhoees, but the trade is incon-
siderable, and they pursue other occupations. Moreover, other classes
also engage in it when the fish are sufficiently plentiful to attract them.
It follows, that whatever restrictions may be imposed, no class of people
will be so affected as to interfere with their means of livelihood, nor does
any portion of the community depend on fish as an article of food, there-
fore any remedial measures found necessary will not even be hard or dis-
tressing to any class of people. Further, fishing rights do not exist, for
under a ryotwari settlement all fisheries are common property, indeed
belong properly to Government, and there does not appear to be any village
tanks where the right of reserved fishing could be claimed. Hence there
is nothing to prevent the imposition of rules for the preservation of the
immature or breeding fish, and some of a general kind are called for
under the state of things exhibited in these reports. The rules proposed
are, (1) the prohibition of fishing during July and August, and if need
be also September ; (2) the interdiction of the use of nets with the knots
of the meshes nearer together than one inch ; (3) declaring it illegal to
poison the water with the object of killing the fish.

CXI

231. The Deputy Commissioner of the Ahola District observes, the evils

alluded to by Dr. Day exist in this district
Opinion of the Deputy Com- U with other parts of India> There

missioner or Akola. * . i 1 1 i • ±1

being, however, no large lakes or rivers, the

amount of harm done is proportionately less. Breeding fish and very
young ones are destroyed so far as it can be made to repay the trouble
expended, but not being plentiful, what is not worth catching elsewhere
is worth something here; thus being a luxury, and Dot a staple article of
food, it fetches a high price. They are destroyed in every way, at all
places and in all seasons, and considering the great drought of the last and
those of preceding years, which must have had a direct effect in diminish-
ing the quantity of fish in these rivers and streams, and the numbers
yearly caught by snares, nets, poisoning, &c, the only wonder is how any
fish have survived. There are no orders respecting the size of the mesh
of nets, and they are used as small as one-eleventh of an inch, but there
could be no difficulty in regulating their size. As it would be difficult to
discriminate fry of fish, he would rather its sale were not prohibited,
but that the size of the mesh of nets were regulated. Poisoning fish he
proposes should be unlawful, and fishing should be stopped in certain
months. " To carry out these two methods no establishment would be
necessary, but it remains an open question whether it is worth the trouble
to introduce legislation on these points in a country like Berar where
fish is so scarce." As regards the question whether there are any objec-
tions against prohibiting the capture of fish in the hilly districts for the
first two months of the monsoon season when they are breeding, he
replies, " Not that I know of, except that this is the best fishing season
in this district."

232. The Deputy Commissioner of the Buldana District reports that

breeding and young fish are not destroyed to

mL2fone°rnoffBuld^aPUty '^ an7 S^ extent. The smallest size of the

mesh of the nets employed is one-third ot an
inch ; there are no difficulties against regulating it authoritatively, and
there ought to be 1^ inches between knot and knot. As regards prohibit-
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, he continues that such might be
a little unpopular amongst fishermen and fish-eaters, but the advantages
of this restriction would soon make themselves apparent to all. Also as
to taking breeding fish in hilly districts during the first two months of
the monsoon, he remarks it would cause the temporary loss of employ-
ment to those who fish at this season, but they would soon learn to regard
the restriction as a wise one and become reconciled to it.

233. The Assistant Commissioner in charge of the Bassim District
n . . . . observes that owino; to the great want of rain,

Opinion of the Assistant n ji ± 1 c l\ v a ■ j. i i ■ i

Commissioner, Bassim. a11 the tanks of the district have dried up ;

many of them were full of large fish, all of
which have been entirely destroyed. Such a drought has not been
known in the memory of man. Cart-loads of fish have been carried
away, and it will take years to re-stock the tanks. These remarks also
apply more or less to the rivers. Most of the tanks are but small, but
there are the remains of very large ones in the district which might be
repaired and restored at a small expense, affording irrigation to a consider-
bale quantity of laud, and consequently would be very remunerative if

CX 11

Government would sanction the repairs. They might easily be stocked
with fish. Both breeding fish and small fry are caught without any
regard to size and in great numbers at all seasons, and until some laws
are passed nothing will prevent it. Hooks are used, also netting, poison-
ing, and damming of streams and small pools where the water is sluggish
or stagnant. The nets vary in size; casting ones are generally used, and
sometimes several are joined together to stop up a stream, whilst other
casting nets are employed above the obstacle. The meshes may be said
to be as small as can possibly be produced; no objections exist to regulat-
ing the size of these meshes, which is most desirable. One inch from
knot to knot would not be too small. Objections do not exist to prohibit-
ing the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, laws for which must be framed
and breaches of them punished.

234. The Deputy Commissioner of Amraotee District remarks that

_ . . . ,. _ „ breeding fish and young ones are destroyed

Opinion of the Deputy Com- , -j i 1 a j_ h ,11 n L •

missioner, Amraotee. *° a considerable extent; that the smallest size

of the mesh of the nets is from one-eighth
to half an inch ; that no difficulties exist against regulating it, except
that he believes people who gain a precarious livelihood thereby will par-
tially starve ; that meshes of nets should not be below an inch ; that
no objections exist to prohibiting the salt of the fry of fish in bazars,
but if the fishermen might not bring the fry of fish for sale, they would
retain them for home consumption, and it would be very difficult to en-
force any prohibitory order.

235. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner, Ellichpoor District, says

_ .. „„ _, _ that it is believed breeding fish and very

Opinion or th e Deputy Com- -, , ^, , •,

missioner, Ellichpoor. yonuS ones are destroyed to a great extent

by means of fine nets, poisoning the waters,
and by basket weirs used at all seasons except the height of the monsoon.
The great majority of the smallest sized nets are one-third of an inch in
mesh, but there are even smaller, whilst there are no difficulties against
regulating the size, and the only objection against prohibiting the sale
of the fry of fish in the bazars would be lessening the livelihood of the
fishermen.

236. The Deputy Commissioner of the Woon District reports that

_ . . „ ,. _ _ breeding fish and very young ones are not

Opinion of the Deputy Com- 3 j j . 1 • i ,1

missouer Woou. destroyed to any great extent, because there

is not much fishing carried on, but nets with
small meshes are used in rivers and tanks during the monsoon. The small-
est size of the mesh used is three-eighths of an inch, and there would be
no difficulty in issuing orders regulating it, except in seeing them obeyed.
The meshes should have one inch between knot and knot. As regards
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish, orders should be issued, and
precautions taken against catching them ; therefore the prohibition of
sale would as a matter of course result.

237. The Tehsildar of A kola places the number of fishermen

_ . . . „ .. „ . , within his range at 1,480; they belong to the
Opinion 01 Native official at x>i i 1 v • • c ^.i j. ± mi

Akola Jtshoee and sub-divisions of that caste. Ihe

local markets are not fully supplied with fish ;
it is a luxury, and a large amount could be sold. Its cost is very uncer-
tain owing to the limited supply. It is difficult to say what is the

CX111

proportion of people who eat fish, but probably one-third if they could
get it. The supply has decreased owing* to their having" been more
sought after and the late droughts. Large quantities of very small fish
are taken in nets during the rains, the smallest size of the meshes being
one-eleventh of an inch. Breeding fish are not trapped in the fields
during the rains. The various sorts of fishing carried on are netting,
trapping, snaring, and poisoning. The nets are common to those em-
ployed elsewhere in India; their local names are as follows : — Pelue,
Suwale bhuwar, Pagajall, Furukjall, Mahajall, Mullputty, Helku, Khu-
wara, Nahootree.

238. The Tehslldar of Buldana states that there are about 3,000

_ . . „ T . fishermen in the district, amongst whom a

Opinion of Native official at n ■> . • , ,1 ■, .

Buldana very small number restrict themselves to

fishing : their castes are Mulharkollee, Bebe-
kollee, Bhoee, Bharotee. The local markets are not fully supplied with
fish ; there is a demand for more. The cost of fish is for large sorts four,
and for small eight seers for a rupee ; for mutton first sort four, second sort
six seers a rupee. Nine-tenths of the population are fish-eaters. The
supply has decreased of late years owing to the droughts. Very minute
ones are taken in small quantities during the rains by means of nets and
cloths. The minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is one-third of
an inch. Fish are not trapped during the rains. The various sorts of
fishing are as follows : first by means of nets termed "jalla;" secondly
by hooks called " gull ;" thirdly by traps, "Essara," which is done by erect-
ing rough stone piles on both sides of a stream, then spreading a mat of the
" Nurgood" plant over the piles ; the stream is then diverted, so as to pour
over the mat, on which as the stream falls the fish are taken. This
mode is resorted to when the water is as deep as the knee. Fish are
also taken by means of " Goomlas/' which somewhat resemble the straw
envelopes for bottles ; they are made of reeds of the " Nurgood" plant ;
these traps are placed in shallow streams in the rainy season into which
the fish enter, but it prevents their return. Another plan is to make a
pit in the bed of a river, then to cut a channel into it from the stream ; as
the water goes in the fish enter with it. Disturbing the water of a stream
so as to cause it to become muddy is said sometimes to cause the fish to die.

239. The Tehslldar of Bassim states there are 500 fishermen
_ „ , __ . known as Bhoees in the district, but they all

Opinion or the Native official i , i £ 1 • 1 •

of Bassim have other occupations ; fishing, however, is

not restricted to a particular class, for ex-
cluding the Brahmins, men of all other castes at times join in it. The
weekly markets are well supplied with fish, but probably more could
be sold, two-thirds of the people being fish-eaters. Fish are indis-
criminately caught in all seasons without regard to size. The smallest
size of the mesh of the nets may be described as so very minute as not
to admit the escape of any but the very smallest fry. Fish are taken
by hook, "gull;" nets, "jhalur •" damming streams, and by means of
poison, "jher," but no other traps or snares are in general use.

240. The Tehslldar of Amraotee gives 80 fishermen, " Bhoees," all

^ . . ■ , ,. „, . , „ of whom follow other occupations. The mar-

Opimon of Native official of i , • .m • <i !• i mi r

Amraotee. kets are lnsurhciently supplied. The cost ot

fish is, for large, 8 annas, and for small, 4>

P

CX1V

annas a seer : of mutton first sort 4 annas, second sort 3 annas a seer.
One-fourth of the population eat fish, the supply of which has decreased.
Very small fish are captured by nets in large quantities during the rains,

241. The Tehsildar of Morfizapur gives 175 fishermen, " Bhoees"

and Mahomedans. The markets are insuffi-

Mo°tiza°Sr°f ^^ °ffidal °f ciently supplied; large fish obtains 6 annas,

and small 3 annas a seer; first sort mutton
4 annas, second sort 3 annas a seer. One-fourth of the population eat
fish ; the supply has decreased ; very small ones are taken during the rains
in large quantities.

242. The Tehsildar of Chandore gives 546 fishermen, consisting of

Bhoees, in his district. The markets are in-

Chandol? °f NatiVe °ffiCial °f sufficiently supplied with fish ; the cost of

which is, for large sorts 6 annas, small sorts
3 annas a seer ; whilst first sort mutton realises 4 annas, and second sort
3 annas a seer.

243. The Tehsildar of Morsee gives 648 Bhoees and Mahomedan

fishermen in his district. The markets are

Mot??011 °f NatWe °ffiCial °f n0t fully suPPlied with fish ' the larSer sorts

cost 4 annas, and the smaller 3 annas a seer ;

whilst the first sort of mutton also obtains 4 annas, and the second sort

3 annas a seer.

244. The Native official of the Woon District observes that there

are 1,560 fishermen of the Bhoee and Deemur
^O pinion of Native official of cagtes iu the district, but they also pursue

other avocations. The local markets are in-
sufficiently supplied with fish, the larger sorts selling at 5, and the smaller
at 6 seers the rupee : whilst the first sort of mutton costs 4 seers, and the
second 5 seers the Rupee ; but this latter article of diet is but little con-
sumed in the district. About 15 per cent, of the people are said to
occasionally eat fish, but these creatures have decreased of late years.
Small ones are taken during the rains, but not in large quantities, the
minimum mesh of the nets being about three-eighths of an inch. Fish
to a small extent are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields.
The names of the nets, &c, used are Bhowt jail, Julee, Burdee, Maah
Jail, Thickuttake, Maleuse thagnee, and Murwuth.

cxv

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

245. It appears from the following- reports, that in the 19 tehsils
The majority of the people in from which answers have been received, in

the Central Provinces may eat four 50 per cent, of the people eat fish, in
• eight from 50 to 75 per cent., in three from

80 to 90 per cent., and in four upwards of 90 per cent.

246. Whether the markets are sufficiently supplied? is thus answered
,, , . , ,. , by 20 tehsildars, as sufficiently so in 8, in-

Markets how supplied. m ■ n • m

rr sufficiently in 12.

217. Respecting whether the amotcnt of fish in the waters has in-
creased, decreased, or remained stationary ?
.*r"t:reintase?„rd°ecre»h,! »™n consider it to be stationary, in two
ed. it appears doubtful, whilst nine report a

decrease.

248. Respecting the number of fishermen? they are given at 80,928,

but the women and children belonging to
Fishermen, as a rule, have ,r • t 'v „ * i j j r, ' n ,,

other occupations. their families are included by some of the

tehsildars ; one evidently adds in those who

used to be fishermen, as he remarks that " many have ceased to

follow their original occupation, owing to the demand for well-paid labor

developed by the railway." Out of these persons, all are said to follow

other occupations, with the exception of 200 persons in the Upper Godave-

ri district.

249. The opinion appears to be unanimous, that breeding fish are

„ „ „ , , , , destroyed to a large extent by fixed nets, by

Breeding fish how destroyed. • • i i • ,• . A

J weirs spanning whole rivers, arresting them

whilst they are ascending to breed, especially at a little prior to the

commencement of the monsoon, and likewise stopping their downward

progress as they return to the larger rivers ; by traps in irrigated fields,

capturing them as they try to reach good spawning grounds; by netting

in every possible way the pools in the rivers in the dry season, and by

poisoning the waters. Various forms of traps, nets, &c, are also employed.

250. Fry appear to be destroyed to a great extent when just

_ , , , , moving about, and in every possible way.

Fry destroyed wholesale. r\ l i •■ l ± j.i j j.- •

J J One tehsildar computes the destruction in

his district alone at 25,000 maunds (2 millions of pounds), and the

tehsildar of Nursingpur says, that " it is to this wholesale destruction

of the small fish that the fish have decreased." Traps of fine split

bamboos appear to be placed at every outlet in irrigated fields, and

netting is carried on universally, as well as the use of dams, weirs, and

poison.

CXV1

The smallest
mesh of nets.

size of the

251. The smallest size of the mesh of the
nets emptloyed is thus recorded by the Euro-
pean and Native officials : —

OF AN

INCH IN DIAMETER

Size of coarse muslin, a grain

Repobtebs.

l
2

1
4

3

\

1

8

i

ID

of wheat or bailey, a large
needle or very small.

13 Europeans ...
18 Natives

1

3
6

1

1
1

5
5

1

1

3
3

When the above are not considered sufficiently minute, a cloth is employed.

252. The other modes of taking fish are adverted in the reports

r... , „ c , . of the various Native officials. Weirs exist

Other modes of fishing. . . „ . . . , , , , ,

permitting nothing but water to go through,

detaining all the fish ; fixed traps are placed in every run where young or
old are likely to pass, even at each opening through which the waste
water in the rice fields flows from a higher to a lower level ; streams are
dammed and laded ; poisoning is freely resorted to. Every form of net
appears to be employed, from large-meshed to small-meshed ones, fixed or
moveable, whilst rivers are swept by a number of cast-nets being con-
nected together and dragged their whole width; night lines and day
lines ; baits fixed to bamboos inserted into the beds of rivers ; torch-light
netting and spearing; in short, every mode of poaching is said to be
freely employed.

253. As to remedial measures which have been proposed, the Chief

„ , Commissioner suggests that poisoning waters

Eemedial measures proposed. , , , , , ., P°, j A , •..•

should be prohibited, and no great opposition

would be encountered in attempting a close season, but deprecates any
action as to regulating the minimum size of the mesh of the nets to
be employed ; still if Government legislates, he urges a very wide dis-
cretion be given to local Governments in the framing of the rules. Per-
sonally I would also wish to see the local Administrations deal with the
evils which exist, and provided they will do so, that regulations res-
pecting the minimum size of the mesh of nets be left to their decision,
only recommending that it never be permitted to be less than half an inch
between each knot of the meshes. In fact this would be in the spirit
of the British law, considering each local Administration in the place
of a ' District Fishery Board' at home, and only subject to certain regula-
tions, which I have already proposed. Forbidding any fixed engines as
weirs or cruives, at least during breeding months, and the poisoning of
waters, and the protection during the dry season of a few pools, would,
I am convinced, at once show how easily remedial measures improve
the condition of fisheries and augment the food-supply of the people.

254. Respecting regulating the smallest size of the mesh which may

be employed, one European official suggests
Respecting regulating the mi- that it would not be easy to do s0 in
mmnm size ot the mesh or nets, . , , . ,. , " ^•cc_ ■>

and what such ought to be. tanks and ponds, but that he sees no uimcul-

ty in rivers and nallas ; four others consider

CXV11

it inexpedient, mostly because a large preventive establishment would be
required, one " that another class of poor people would be pestered with
orders and regulations, which they and their neighbours would not
understand," and ten do not see any objections. The following are the
minimum sizes proposed ; £th of an inch between the knots of the meshes
by 2 ; ^ an inch by 3 ; f ths of an inch by 2 ; 1 inch by 5, If inches by
1 ; 1| inches in rivers and nallas by 1.

255. Should the sale of the fry offish be prohibited? is answered

by ten ; seven are in favor of it, three see

Ought the sale of the fry of 0bjectious. They consider such might lead
fish to he prohibited i J . •> , ., „ . . . p

to oppression, and small fish, which are not

fry, might be considered as such. This rule might be modified thus,

that no small fish are to be sold during the breeding months, to be

decided in each district ; if the young are thus destroyed, the supply

during the rest of the year can hardly be expected to materially increase.

256. Respecting fence seasons in the hilly districts during two

_, ,, months of the monsoon, when fish are as-

Fence-inonths. ... i1 , . ' . . .. 0

cending to breed or returning to the rivers ot

the plains, they appear to be generally approved of where they can be

carried out. All weirs and fixed engines of every description should be

prohibited at these periods if any are now permitted.

257. The Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner, Central

Provinces (August 22nd, 1S72) observes of
Opinion of the Chief Com- the lieg recejve(i from his districts to the
missioner or the Central Fro- , . x , . , . ■, . ■• ,, m, « ,

vi,lces# questions which were circulated : — " Ihe fol-

lowing facts are very clearly brought into
view : — (1) that in these Provinces there are more than 80,000 persons
who gain a livelihood, either in whole or in part, from fishing; (2) that
from 60 to 75 per cent, of the population consume fish as an article
of diet ; (3) that no restrictions whatever exist, either as to the time
or mode of fishing, or to the size or age of the fish caught, and that
much indiscriminate and wanton destruction of fish takes place, not
only by netting and trapping, but also by the very reprehensible prac-
tice of drugging and poisoning pools ; (4) that notwithstanding all
this, the markets are generally not fully supplied ; (5) that every
where the price of fish per seer is very much below the price of second
class bazar mutton. In some districts it is alleged that there has been
a decrease in the number of fish, but of this there is no very satis-
factory proof. In the districts of Jabalpur and Seoni it is said fish
decreased very perceptibly owing to the drought of 1868-69, but that
they are now again on the increase. The facts elicited by the present
enquiries, seem to the Chief Commissioner to indicate very clearly the
necessity for some regulation of the fisheries in these provinces, and
I am now to confine myself to an expression of the Chief Commissioner's
opinion as to the restrictions which should be imposed. The practice
of poisoning and drugging pools should certainly be put a stop to,
and it is probable that no very great opposition would be encountered
in attempting to appoint a " close season " during which the fish might
breed in security. The object of a restriction of this nature would be
obvious to all, and such a restriction could also be enforced with com-
paratively small difficulty. Theoretically, a regulation of the size of

CX V 111

meshes of nets is desirable, bat any introduction of such a regulation
would be so fraught with annoyance and vexation to the fishing classes,
that Mr. Morris would deprecate any action in the matter. Like all
measures necessitating minute interference, it would be made an engine
of petty oppression and annoyance, independently of the direct injury
to the trade. Close and constant inspection would be requisite to keep
the nets up to the standard, and the uses to which the opportunities
thus given to petty officials would be put can easily be imagined.
Moreover, it does not appear that, as yet, there is any decrease in the
number of fish, and it may be that a very considerable number of the
small fish caught are not young fry, but full-grown fish of small
species evidently possessing a remarkable power of reproduction. In
case, then, the Government of India deems that legislation in the
matter of fisheries is called for, the Chief Commissioner would most
strongly urge that very wide discretion be given to local Governments
in framing of rules. No attempt, he thinks, should be made to embody
such rules in the Act. The amount of hardship attendant on such
restrictive measures is only known when the measures come into force,
and if local Administrations are left unfettered, the rules can be adapted
to the case of each district or river. In some portions of these provinces
the land-owners claim the right to fishing in the rivers and streams
running through their estates, and receive fees from fishermen resorting
to them. No enquiry has been made as to the nature of such rights,
or to the period since which they have been exercised. It may be
necessary to do so if the Government should determine on legislative
regulation of the fisheries.

258. The Collector of Nagpur believes that breeding fish and very

young ones are destroyed to a great extent, es-
Opinion of the Collector of pecially during the rains or immediately after.
the Nagpur Division. * , J ■%■%,• i i • • i .

The smallest-sized meshes in use is about one-
fourth of an inch in circumference, he considers that there would be little,
if any difficulty in regulating the minimum size that might be employed,
and would recommend that it should not be less than three-fourths of an
inch between knot and knot, but it would be more advisable to take one
inch as the fixed standard. " The Tehsildars are all unanimous in reporting
that the sale of the fry of fish in bazars might be prohibited without caus-
ing any injury, and the prohibition would have the effect of causing larger
fish to be brought to the market. In this I concur." The Collector of
Bhandara observes, that breeding and very young fish are destroyed to a
great extent in tanks, nallas, and rivers, especially in large numbers during
the months of April and May, and for the first six weeks of the monsoon.
The smallest mesh employed is one-sixth of an inch. There would be diffi-
culty in regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be employed
in tank fishing, but not so much in rivers and nallas ; that to be used in the
latter places might be laid down at 1J inches. There would be no
objection to prohibiting the capture of fish in rivers and nallas during
the first two months of the monsoon, at which period alone is fry brought
to the markets for sale. The Collector of Chancla replies, that breeding
and very young fish are destroyed to a great extent in all the larger
and smaller streams, in the tanks, jhils, and temporary pools made by
damming up rice-fields and nallas in the rainy season. Small fish are

CX1X

caught in the rains chiefly by nets, hooks, jhinkars, and bamboo derias.
The nets which have meshes of a very small size are dragged across
the water. Dhimars do not usually use hooks, but in the larger rivers
during the monsoons they not unfrequently place a rope across the
stream, the rope having hooks with different kinds of baits at a distance
of about a cubit apart attached to it, and resting upon pumpkins, they
examine it every few hours. Weirs are stretched across water-courses.
The Goonds are reputed to poison fish ; in fact they are destroyed indis-
criminately at all times of the year, including the breeding season.
The smallest sized mesh in use takes five meshes within one inch, but there
would be considerable difficulty in regulating it, unless the police force were
augmented : however, were it regulated, would propose three-fourths of an
inch between each knot. No valid objections exist against prohibiting the
sale of fry in the bazars, the supply being above the demand. The Collector
of Wardha answers, that breeding fish and young ones are destroyed to the
same extent as in the rest of India, being captured most readily during
the breeding season. The breeding fish often linger in the pools before
the rains commence, and there fall easy victims to all sorts of people. The
smallest size of the mesh used is between one-fourth and one-tenthof an inch
square, but even cloths are extensively employed ; the only difficulty in re-
gulating the minimum size in future is " that another class of poor people
would be pestered with orders and regulations, which they and their neigh-
bours would not understand." " If any regulation is considered necessary,
it should be a simple prohibition to use cloths or nets of a smaller mesh
than three-fourths or one inch square for the capture of fish." Prohibiting
the sale of fry would be useless ; " if the mesh of nets is regulated, and the
rules really enforced, there would be no necessity for it ; if nets are not in-
terfered with, the fry will be caught and disposed of privately, as the greater
portion is now." The Collector of Balaghat replies, that breeding fish and
young ones are destroyed to a great extent, mostly in the rains, by means of
nets with very small meshes, in the rivers, smaller streams, rice-fields, and
tanks. Fine bamboo-matting is also used, as well as sticks and cloths.
The smallest meshes of nets are less than one-fourth of an inch ; regulating
their size would be useless, no orders could be carried out, and would not
recommend prohibiting the sale of the fry in the bazars.

259. The Deputy Commissioners' answers of the Jabalpur Division

are amalgamated. In Jubalpiir fish are said to

Opiuions of the Deputy Com- |je taken all the year round regardless of season.

missionera of the Jubalpiir Breeding and immature ones are destroyed to a

.Division. ~ w v

great extent in Mandla and Seoni, but not so in
the Sagar District. In Damoh it is considered that breeding fish are not des-
troyed wholesale during the hot season. Spawning fish appear to be g*ener-
ally taken whilst migrating up stream in June or July for breeding pur-
poses, and the fry in September or October whilst attempting to pass from
the shallows where they are bred to the deeper water. The modes are
thus described in the Seoni District. " Every little streamlet is dammed
up, and the fish are baled out in thousands, by people standing in the
water. Those escaping this attack are caught in the woven bamboo
weirs of the dam. In some of the wilder parts of the district, the
poisoning of stagnant pools, and of temporarily dammed water, is
resorted to in the hot weather. Not only are all the fish in the pool

cxx

killed, but when there is an overflow, the stream below is often infected
for some distance, and many of the fish killed. Cattle coming to drink,
and human beings also, are liable to suffer. The fish thus killed are
said to be unpleasant to the palate and unwholesome." In Damoh, after
the monsoon is over, nets of all sorts, with meshes to one-fourth of an inch
or less in width, are employed ; drag-nets are used, and split bamboo
weirs are constructed across favourite runs. As the streams begin
to dry, the pools are drugged with a fruit called ' Aka' pounded and
mixed with flour. Ilivers and tanks abound with turtles, tortoises, and
crocodiles, which destroy large quantities of fish. The smallest size mesh
of nets is given at one-eighth of an inch in Mandla and Seoni, one-fourth
in Jabalpur and Damoh, aud so small that no fish can pass in Sagar. All
the Deputy Commissioners consider there would be but little difficulty
in regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets, but the
one of Damoh considers discontent would be caused, not only amongst
the fishermen, but the consumers, as little fish are in great demand,
and meet with a ready sale. The Deputy Commissioners would adopt
the following as the minimum size : Seoni and Damoh half an inch
between the knots, Mandla one inch at the base, and two inches or more
higher up, Sagar one-fourth of an inch in diameter for general fishing fa
pencil would almost be arrested in such a mesh], Jabalpur one inch. The
general impression is, that the only valid objection to prohibiting the sale of
fry in the bazar, is the loss of income to the fishermen, and irritation amongst
native fish-eaters, who ordinarily belong to the lowest and least intelligent
class of the population. As regards fence-months, the Deputy Commissioner
of Seoni would have them from July to September inclusive, in the districts
of the Satpura Range, as then the greatest destruction takes place. The
Deputy Commissioners of Sagar and Jabalpur would condemn the
capture of fish during the two first months of the monsoon. The Depu y
Commissioners of Damoh and Mandla give no definite opinions, owing
to not having had any experience of the kind in hilly districts, to which,
the question solely referred.

260. In the Narbada Division, the Collector of Betul observes, that

there is no check to the destruction of breed-

of ^eSecS;iSi°n- °PiUi0US diuS Ash and fry, which, it is said, are des-

troyed in large numbers by nets, baskets,
and poisoning the water. The smallest size mesh of nets employed is
about one-eighth of an inch square ; does not apprehend any difficulty in
regulating the minimum size or prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars.
The Collector of Chhindwara answers, that what fish are caught are captured
irrespective of whether breeding ones or fry ; the smallest mesh in
use is about one-fourth of an inch ; there would be no difficulty in regulating
the minimum size provided there were a law, which he would propose at
one inch ; there would be no objection to prohibiting the sale of fry. The
Collector of Iloshavgabad reports, that breeding and very young fish are
destroyed to a great extent by means of nets, funnel-shaped baskets,
and poisoning pools. Fry are caught in small streams and in the shallows
of large rivers, especially during June aud July, by narrow-meshed nets and
baskets, and in stagnant water by poisoning the whole pool. The smallest
meshes of nets are one-eighth of an inch in diameter; there would be no
difficulty in regulating them except in the distant wild parts of the district,

CXX1

and one inch in diameter would be advisable. There is no objection to
prohibiting- the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars, or fixing- a close
time in the hilly districts. The Collector of Narsinghpur observes, that
breeding and young fish are destroyed in considerable numbers. The
breeding fish are taken by weirs thrown across the large rivers, and in
the narrows of them, before the monsoons, nothing can pass, whilst
traps are also set up in shallow places. Waters are poisoned in the
smaller streams during the two first months of the monsoon, whilst the
fish are spawning. Not only are the fry taken in every conceivable
way for food, but they are also wantonly and uselessly destroyed by
village children. These causes have impoverished the fisheries, and de-
creased the supply. The smallest mesh of nets in use is one-eighth of an
inch ; there would be but little difficulty in regulating the minimum size,
which it is suggested should be 1^ inches between each kuot. Close
months in hilly districts, it is suggested, could not be enforced, instead
" regulating the size of the mesh of nets to protect the fry, and pro-
hibiting the snaring of fish altogether in the breeding- season, or the
prohibition of weirs and traps on any river or stream during the breed-
ing season, unless sufficient openings were given to enable a proportion
of the breeding fish to reach suitable places to deposit their eggs, would
be sufficient to improve the fisheries, rendering them more valuable to
the fishermen, and more productive of food ;" would prohibit the sale
of fry in the bazars as " beneficial to all districts ; fish eaten at such
seasons are the reputed originators of disease, with what truth I am
unable to say." The Collector of Nimar replies, no distinction is ever
made as to whether the fish is breeding or young ; they are destroyed in
pools, tanks, streams, and rivers ; in fact in every place where they can be
got and in all seasons, except during very heavy rains, when fishing is
unprofitable; the smallest mesh employed is one-eighth of an inch. No
difficulties exist in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, except that
such might reduce the supply, whilst the only objection against prohibiting
the sale of fry is, that such would reduce the sales one-half. A fence
season of two months in hilly districts could be easily carried out, whilst
the people would understand the reason.

261. Chhattisgarh Division. — The Collector of Raipur reports, that

breeding* and young fish are indiscriminately

Chhattisgarh Division. Opi- fek ^ ktter ^ greater exteut than the
mons of Collectors. . ° , . .

lormer. The capture takes place a month

or two previous, also during the rains, in nallas, tanks, and small pools,
by nets, traps, cross-bow bolts, fouling the water of pools, and angling.
The smallest-sized mesh of the nets employed is one-fourth of an inch ;
the difficulty in regulating the minimum size would be in its evasion, as
the majority of the people would sympathise with the fishermen, render-
ing a large protective establishment necessary : but the minimum size
should not be less than one inch. Prohibiting the sale of the fry would
il deprive the poorer classes of the enjoyment of this kind of animal food,
which has hitherto been procurable with ease by fishermen, and is
cheaply placed within the reach of the buyer's means : but the case would
be different when the large fish alone are to be caught/' The Collector of
Sambaljmr considers that breeding fish and very young ones are not
destroyed to any great extent, as during the rains the rivers cannot be

CXX11

netted, whilst the country contiguous to them is covered with dense
jungle, and but sparsely populated. Numbers of small fish are captured
during the monsoon months in the rice-fields, and sometimes in
creeks filled by the back-waters of the rivers in flood • in the rice-fields
wicker baskets are placed at the drainage openings of the fields, and those
in the creeks and estuaries are taken by a net which is lowered into the
water and raised after an interval of a few seconds by means of a long
bamboo pole. The smallest-sized mesh of the nets is one-eighth of an
inch • regulating* it would require "an immense and expensive establish-
ment, which would probably prove a greater evil than that which it is in-
tended to provide against.''' If a minimum were fixed, it should be one
inch between knot and knot. It would be impossible to prevent the sale
of fry, as " they are chiefly hawked about by the boatmen from house to
house, or purchased by the people at the river side, as the boats pass up."
No objections exist to a fence season in hilly regions during the first two
months of the monsoon, provided such could be enforced, which appears
to be impossible. The Collector of Bilaspur states, that breeding aud
young fish are wantonly and indiscriminately destroyed, in all rivers, pools,
streams, and tanks, throughout the district, also in rice-fields; in the latter,
they are caught at the outlets when the water is no long-er required in
the fields. Wholesale destruction takes place at the close of the rains
when the waters are subsiding. In shallow streams, traps of various
devices — baskets, bamboo weirs, and funnel-shaped nets whose meshes are
as close as those of coarse muslin — are used. It is impossible for the
smallest fish to get out of some of the traps. Waters are also poisoned.
The smallest-meshed nets in use would just admit of a fly crawling
through. No difficulties exist in regulating the minimum size of the
mesh of nets, which he would place at one-fourth of an inch. Objections
might arise in prohibiting the sale of fry, as advantage could be taken of
such an order for the purpose of oppression.

262. In the Nagjmr Division, the five Tehsildars report 35,377

fishermen, but in two tehsils the families
Nagpur Division. Opinion of are iwclticled; all of them likewise carry

Native othcials. ., .. n,, n . . «

on other occupations, ihe fishermen castes
are Palwar, Kahar if Pardasis, Bendura, Bhanara, Mashide, Telang,
Kevat, Dhimar or Bhogis, Binjawars. Respecting the supply of fish in
the markets, the Tehsildar of Nagpiir reports that it is sufficient in
two markets, and insufficient in two others. In Bhandara, Chanda, and
Balaghat, that it is sufficient • and in Wardha, that it is not so during
the hot season. The comparative cost of mutton and fish cannot be
ascertained from the replies received. As to the proportion of the
population who eat fish, it is given in Nagpiir and Chanda at 75 per
cent., in Bhandara at 92 per cent., in Wardha at 86 per cent., and in
Balaghat at 80 per cent. The amount of fish in the waters is said to
have remained stationary in two tehsils, and to have decreased in three.
Large quantities of fish are said not to be taken in one tehsil during
the rains, but to be so in the remaining four. The smallest-meshed
nets are given by three at one-fourth of an inch, by one at one-fifth, aud
the remainder at one-sixth. In four tehsils fish are said to be trapped
during the rains, in the fifth not to be so. The following are stated to be
the modes of fishing employed : nets termed f Jale' or f Bhoi Jale/

CXX111

small fish hooks, f gal;' by ' tatti' or 'pinjra/ which is generally placed
against a running stream of a nalla, the water passes through, but
the fish that are carried away by the current of the water are
driven into the crevices of the tatti, and are thus entrapped ; by
' phauta/ when a screen is placed against the current in a shallow river
or a nalla, on one side it has a sheet of cloth attached to it, whilst on
the other a net is spread, as the current is arrested by the screen, the
fish, in attempting to pass, leap over it, and fall into the nets spread on
the other side ; ( Pailni' is a triangular-shaped net (lave-net) on a pole
used for catching fish in shallow water ; ' Bhovasent/ a circular net
about 18 feet in diameter; ' Tagoi/ a net from 90 to 175 feet in
length ; the ' Jhorti' is very similar, but with a larger mesh ; the
1 Topari' is another species of net ; ' Bhewar jaF or cast-net ; the
' Kothla' is a bag-shaped bamboo trap, and is generally used in irrigated
fields ; snares termed ' Phas ;' poisoning water by ' milk bush/ •' hin-
ganbet' or ' meni/ In Balaghat the following plans are likewise
reported : — ' Dupka/ a conical bamboo coop ; ' Lamdora/ a night line baited
with a frog ; ' Kunkur/ a spear ; ' Dawan/ night-lines with several hooks
on one string; ' Tepon/ another form used during the day-time ; ' Surki/
fine bamboo chicks, as are also ' Chunga' and ' Maindhar/ 'Dhaer/ or
a piece of large hollow bamboo three or four feet in length, open at both
ends, is left in running water : its weight sinks it : it is suddenly lifted,
the two ends being closed by the two hands. ' Chapa/ by lights at
night, when the fish jump on to a piece of bamboo matting. ' Ooran/
a large net, which is stretched across a stream in a moon-light night,
and the water is beaten towards it by men in canoes.

263. In the Jabaljmr Division, Jive Tehsildars reply, that there

are 10,923 fishermen, who almost invariably
Jabalpur Division Answers ue other oceupatioils . the nameg of

of the JNative oflicials. f. t\\ • i t-i 1 mi

the castes are Dhimars and Khevats. The

local markets are fully supplied in three tehsils, but not so in

two. Respecting the amount of the population who eat fish, it

is given as follows : — Seoni three-fourths, Mandla all but Brahmins and

Banias, Sagar and Jabalpiir half; Damoh two-thirds. As regards the

amount of fish in the waters, in Seoni and Jabalpur it is stated that

they were abundant previous to the drought of 1S68-69 when numbers

died, now again they are increasing ; in Damoh they are stationary : in

Mandla and Sagar they have decreased. In Sagar small fish are

not taken in any quantity during the rains, but they are in the four

other districts, at the end of the rains, by damming and lading, by

taking those left by receding waters in hollows and rice- fields, and by fine

nets ; in fact, at Mandla about half of the young fry may be said to

be so caught. The smallest-sized meshes are thus given in four

districts ; one at half an inch, two at quarter of an inch [in one it

is subsequently observed of the Pilna net, that it has "fine meshes

through which a needle for sewing gunny can with difficulty be passed],

and one at the size of a grain of wheat. Young and old fish are

taken during seasons of irrigation, in the fields, by means of traps

set at the outlet of every enclosure in three of the districts, but

in the remaining two no fields are irrigated at this period, but

wherever there is any overflow, the people destroy the fry how they can.

CXX1V

The following are the modes of fishing- recorded : — ' Pilni/ or smallest net
of all, chiefly employed for taking prawns ; it is a hand (lave) net fast-
ened to a triangular bamboo frame. ' Pandi/ the smallest casting net,
this is ordinarily about 15 feet long, weighted with iron ; when it is
desired to net a considerable breadth of stream, several of these nets are
used, fastened together, making one very long net, in this almost every
kind of fish is caught; the substance of which it is composed is three or
four threads of cotton which forms a very fine cord ; it is a heavy net, re-
quiring three or four men to drag it. The ' Mahajal/ or great fishing net,
is resorted to in large streams, &c, generally used out of boats : two are
taken from different directions towards one central point, the fish being
driven by beating the water and noises of all sorts, to the point where they
are caught, between the two Mahajals. The ' Kamni ' or ' Kawria' is a net
fixed opposite the opening in a bund or dam, into which all the fish are
swept by the stream : in some localities the dam is of stone, and a net stops
the openings ; in other places the dam is a bamboo screen, and the orifices
are lined with tatties, leading the fish into a bamboo-grating enclosure
(cruive) which allows the water to pass, but retains the fish. In the
' Kurar ' fishing, a funnel or cone-shaped bamboo net is put down,
extinguisher fashion, from a boat passiug over a shoal of fish. ' Ulechna'
means ' to bale out/ in this mode of fishing a channel of the river is
dammed up with stones, which permits the water to flow through, but
detains the fish ; as the water gets low, the fish are baled out in flat
bamboo baskets. ' Pahao ' is a trap made of wood and bamboo cuttings,
it is placed in narrow and shallow streams, the water flows through
it, but the egress of the smallest fish is prevented. f Dauni ' is a baited
night or day line. ' Kankur ' is fish spearing. Most of the other plans
have been already referred to in the last paragraph.

264. In the Nerbada Division, the five Tehsildars reply as follows :

there are 5,659 fishermen, all of whom have
of Neativeaoffickli°n' °piai°ns other occupations ; in one tehsil it is remarked

that " many have ceased to follow their ori-
ginal occupation, owing to the demand for well-paid labor developed by
the railway/'' They are mostly Dhimars, a term applicable to boatmen
and sellers of parched gram ; Kahar, Bhoee, applicable to palki-bearers,
Singhrora or sellers of the Singhara nuts, and Mussulmen. The local
markets are stated to be sufficiently supplied in one district, but insuffi-
ciently so in the remaining four. In two districts about 50 per cent, of
the people eat fish, in one from 50 to 75 per cent., in one 75 per cent., and
in the remainder upwards of 85 per cent. In two districts, the amount
of fish in the waters has continued to be stationary of late years,
whilst it has decreased in the remaining three. In all the tehsils, a great
destruction of fry is recorded as occurring during the rains. The Teh-
sildar of Narsingpur observes, " it is to this wholesale destruction of the
small fish, that the fish have decreased." The minimum mesh of the nets
in use is given in all five districts at one-eighth of an inch ; in four of the
districts fish, large and small, are trapped in the irrigated fields. The modes
of fishing are similar to those described in the two last paragraphs, in addi-
tion to which the poisoning of the water is reported in Chhindwara,
Hoshangabad, and Minar : also a lighted torch is taken in a canoe
over deep water ; the fish collect near the light and are netted.

cxxv

265. In the Chhattisgarh Division, three Tehsildars report as

follows : — that there are 24,728 fishermen, all
t Chhattisgarh Division. Opi- f h haye otlier occupations, they are of the
nions ot Native officials. . ,, r . , ' . /. ,

same castes as in the other divisions ; the

markets in all of the three districts are insufficiently supplied, except during
the rainy season, when a considerable amount of fry is taken and disposed of.
In two tehsils 75 per cent., and in one 95 per cent., are said to be fish-
eaters ; the amount in the waters is stated to be stationary in two districts ;
no answer from the third. Large quantities of fry are reported to be cap-
tured during the rains, computed in one tehsil at nearly 25,000 maunds
(2,000,000tbs, reckoning the maund at 80 lbs.] In two tehsils the smallest
mesh of the nets employed is given at quarter of an inch ; in the remain-
ing one at the size of a grain of barley. Fish are extensively trapped in
the rice-fields in all the three districts. The modes already alluded to
in the other divisions are in existence in this, and poisoning of the water
is stated to occur in two of the tehsils.

266. In the Upper Godaveri District, the Tehsildar of Siro?ic/ia

reports 4,241 fishermen, but few indeed of
Upper Godaveri District. thig number perhaps 200, are solely depend-
Opinion of the Tehsiklar. , ,, , \ ■ n n J t> ,• ,., n

ant on the taking or fish tor a livelihood ;

their castes are Dhimar, Gollawal, Orawal, Bestwal, and Benarwal. Fish
are only bartered ; 97 per cent, of the people would eat it could they
procure it. A decrease in the number of the tank-produced fish is be-
lieved to have occurred since the district has formed a portion of the
British territory. Previously, the people were prevented from killing
fish in tanks, unless they paid some fees or share of fish to the
local Talukdar. The quantity in the rivers is not known to have
decreased, but if the nallas are completely swept of them, it is most
certain that the amount in the rivers will likewise fall off, and therefore
it is thought that there must be a decrease. Large, quantities of fry are
destroyed in the rains ; the meshes of the nets are about a quarter of an
inch in width. There are no irrigated fields, except from wells, in this
district, but fish are trapped.

CXXV1

EAJPUTANA.

267. The Secretary to the Governor General's Agent in Majputana

forwarded two letters, with enclosures, from the
Rajpntana. Opinion of the Commissioner of Ajmir, who observes that there

Commissioner ot Ajmir. • i , • i • t , • , i , „

are no perennial streams in his district, but four
perennial tanks or lakes, viz., Anasagur Lake, in which the supply of fish
is most inadequate, and some of the better descriptions, as the Rohoo,
Cirrhinarohita, are not found; the Pushkar, a holy lake, where neither
the lives of fish or crocodiles can be taken, though probably there would
be no objection to the eggs of the latter being destroyed ; the Ramsur,
where the fish supply is good, provided water exists, but this was so
deficient last year that it only contained a cupful] ; lastly, the Nearan,
which, when full, has a fair amount of fish ; however, it was quite dry
in 1871. Sometimes there is a fifth at Bhir. The rivers Bunas and
Khari are perennial streams, which, whilst passing through the British
territory, contain no fish.

268. The Deputy Commissioner of Ajmir reports that water only

exists in the streams in his district for a

sione^ofVmi?^^ C°mmiS" feW ^ du™S the. rain-7 SeaSOn> and thafc

they do not contain edible fish. " The

Khari Nuddi, and Bunas on our borders, are the only streams in which
fish could be bred and preserved, but the localities are not in our district,
but in (I believe) the Jaipur State." The fishing in the Ramsur and
Nearan tanks are generally leased out, as water is usually present all the
year round, and a fair supply of fish is afforded to the cantonment of
Nusirabad. " This year the lease has been taken up by a banker of
Ajmir wTith the avowed purpose of preventing the catching of fish."
This preservative process, it is suggested, will bring up the supply again
after the loss sustained by the late drought, whereby the Nearan tank
became quite dry, and that at Ramsur had only about a cup full of
water left in it. He observes that " were we to be provided with reservoirs
holding water all the year round, it would be a great boon to have them
stocked with good edible fish, and they could be readily preserved. Till
such time as we have reservoirs of this kind, it will be useless to attempt
to preserve fish in the district." Crocodiles are only found in the Ana-
sagur tank (except the sacred Pushkur one), and their destruction he
considers perfectly feasible at a small expense ; if sanctioned, they could
be killed by Shikaris, and rewards offered for their eggs.

CXXV11

OUDH,

269. In Oudh the Officiating- Chief Commissioner gives his

opinion, that fish have neither increased nor
Opinions of Officiating Chief decrease(i m the province ; that legislative

Commissioner. . . L -\ ■ r

interference is unnecessary, and in tact can
only be justifiable when it is demonstrated that, unless the Legisla-
ture steps in, the existence of that important article of diet will cease
altogether, — an entirely contrary opinion to that of the Chief Commis-
sioner in 1868. But it is likewise observed that there would be no diffi-
culties in regulating the size of the meshes of the fishing nets, if desirable,
or prohibiting the sale of little fish in the bazar, but the last, it is
stated, would be obnoxious to both buyers and sellers, besides being1
uncalled for.

270. Amongst the replies forwarded from this province are those

of 25 Tehsildars and Native officials, &c. ; all
Large proportion of people but the one at sitapur answering the ques-
tion as to " what proportion of the people
eat fish ?" Whilst the numbers at Unas and Suffipur are computed at
85,000 in either place, the amount of the general population is not
recorded. At Kantha, Bangermore, Putti, and Pratabgarh, the fish-eaters
are given as half the people ; at Purwah, Mohan, Faizabad, Baraich,
Gondah, Hurdui, and Rai Bareiliat two-thirds; at Sundeela and Sultan-
pur at three-fourths ; at Bilgram, Shahabad, and Behar at from 80 to
97 i per cent., and at Lucknow all; whilst at Nawabgunge, Fathipur,
Sanalughat, and Hyderghur, it is asserted a large proportion of the
people eat fish, and more would do so could they obtain them. The
foregoing shows that a fish-diet is most important to, and is in fact not a
luxury, but a necessity, amongst, the people of Oudh, and that more
would be fish-eaters were the supply equal to the demand.

271. The next consideration is, whether the supply is really unequal

to the demand? "Whether the fish inhabit-
dem"ndy "* markets unequal to ing the waters have increased, decreased, or

remained stationary, appears to be a disputed
point, but it ought to be easily demonstrable whether the supplies in the
bazars are equal to the demands of purchasers. Rather contradictory
accounts are given from four. In one the bazar is said to be fairly
supplied ; in one well supplied, but only during the rains ; in two to be
fully supplied, and in eighteen to be insufficiently so. Thus, three-
fourths of the markets are stated to have a larger demand than supply,
apparently demonstrating that, were the quantity of fish brought to
market more considerable, it would be to the advantage of the people
at large.

272. As the fish-eating population is very considerable, and the

bazars are not fully supplied, we arrive at the
Fry killed largely during the questjon as to whether very small fishes are

taken in any quantities during the rains ? In
twenty localities it is asserted that very small fish are so captured in large

cxxvm

quantities, and in two it is stated that this does not occur. It, of course,
is difficult to prove without a personal visit, whether the small fish sold
in the bazar are the fry of larger sorts, but as all fish breed in the
rainy months, when little fish appear to be most largely sold in
the bazars or used as manure in the fields, it must be conceded
that a strong presumption is raised, that immature fishes are very
largely destroyed in Oudh. In Baraich alone 8,000 maunds ; in
Unas 10,000 maunds; in Suffipur 300 maunds; in Purwah some
hundreds of maunds ; in Putti 40,000 maunds, are reported as
being killed during the rains, and only in the Tehsil of Fathipur
and Sanalughat are they stated not to be so captured. Thus nearly
75 millions of ounces weight of small fish are stated in 4 Tehsils alone
to be taken during the rains, and it is very evident that the destruction of
small fish, when the fry are about, is the rule, not the exception.

273. What is the smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed? is

a very important question, because it can
The smallest size mesh in fa dJ be asserted to be judicious to massacre
use, and that proposed. J . ->

the young ot any species or fish, much less or

those of the largest sorts. We have two classes of reporters ; first those

who assert that the size of the smallest mesh employed is from a

quarter of an inch to an inch square. In these localities but very little

interference could be asserted to be occasioned by prohibiting the minimum

size being less than one inch between knot and knot. At Hurdui and

Shahbad, however, it is observed that a grain of gram will be stopped ;

at Sultanpur that hardly anything will pass ; and at Putti that a grain

of mothi cannot go through. If all the immature fish are to be destroyed

in this manner, it seems impossible that the markets could be fully

supplied. As regards regulating the size of the mesh of the nets for

the future, an objection is raised that it will be unpopular, because

of the natural dislike and prejudice of the rustic population

against any innovation whatever in the implements, for carrying on

their craft. But no innovation is proposed, only prohibiting the use of

very minute meshes in their implements ; and the general opinion of the

Oudh officials is, that one inch between knot and knot should be the

smallest legal size.

274. Are fish trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains? is

another very necessary enquiry, for it is

whFeifhreXg.iUhTigatCdfieldS at these Periods that many breeding ones

ascend to deposit their eggs. Some of the

native officials say they are not destroyed, but 20 assert that they are ;

and if young ones are so ruthlessly massacred as in Oudh, it does not

appeal very probable that the adult would meet with mercy. Besides

this, what do the officials report ? At Faizabad, that all breeding fish

are indiscriminately netted ; at Hurdui that breeding and young fish are

destroyed without discrimination and to a great extent. That, as at

Dcogaon, waters are poisoned, and the large fish, when intoxicated, are

beaten on the head with sticks and thus destroyed, whilst they are not

considered good to eat. That in Sitapur, waters are dammed to obtain

the fish ; at Hurdui, that traps are used to collect fish of the smallest size.

At Rai Bareli the destruction of all sorts of fish is considerable : and at

Sultanpur and Pratabgarh breeding fish and young ones are destroyed,

CXX1X

Further extracts are not required to demonstrate how breeding1 fish and
their fry are ruthlessly destroyed in Oudh ; and it may be questionable,
whether wantonly poisoning fish, and destroying them in a manner that
renders them uneatable, or else dangerous to health if employed as food,
or whether indiscriminate destruction, as damming waters in order to
kill all the fish in them, are not proceedings that should be prohibited,
when it is shown that the fish supply is not sufficient for the wants of
the people. The same also applies to weirs and trapping breeding fish
in irrigated fields.

275. In answer to the enquiry about prohibiting the sale of the fry

of fish in the bazar, the objections are that
Should the s^ie of the fry of ^ police would interfere, and make such a

tish be prohibited r „ . . ,, ., ,,

means or extortion, especially as they could
not discriminate between mature small fish, and the immature of the
larger sorts. This may be obviated by prohibiting the sale of fish that
will not easily pass through the meshes of the net of a regulated size,
leaving it to 'local committees to pass bye-laws for the preservation of
the more valuable kinds.

276. The Commissioner and Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad

consider that any interference should be con-
Faiz.bad Division. Opinions fined t th controi 0f perennial lakes and

of the Luropean officials. , . , \

second class rivers and streams, as it would
not be of any use to legislate for jhils and pools which dry up, or such
large rivers as the Ganges and Ghogra, as they may take care of
themselves.

277. The Officiating Secretary to the " Officiating Chief Commis-

sioner" in Oudh (May 14th, 1872") observes,
Opinions of the Officiating „the ~enerai tendency of the answers, how-

Clucr Commissioner ana iinan- ° , , ., J, .« ., „ , . ., .

cial Commissioner, &c ever> S° to sll0W that it the fish ill this

province have not increased, neither have
they decreased ; and as far, therefore, as Oudh is concerned, the Officiating
Chief Commissioner would deprecate any legislative interference with
the capture and sale of fish. Such interference, it seems to Sir C. Cowper,
can only be justifiable when it can be demonstrated that, unless the
the Legislature step in, the existence of that important article of diet
will cease altogether." As regards whether objections exist to prohibiting
the sale of immature and small fish in the bazars? it is observed
"that such a measure would be obnoxious to sellers and consumers, and
at present seems quite uncalled for." " There are no difficulties to the
introduction of the measure" of regulating the size of the mesh of nets
" if it be thought desirable." " Nothing can be more easy than to
increase the size of the meshes, and to prohibit the sale of fish below a
certain specific size in the bazar, though it would not be so easy to
distinguish between full-grown little fish and the fry of larger fish.-"
The Financial Commissioner (September 18th, 1868), in answer
to the enquiry whether any wanton destruction of fish takes
place in Oudh, and if any protective measures are necessary ? replied by
giving the opinions of several of the civil officers that such does take
place, and concludes thus : — " my own opinion is, that such measures,
though not positively necessary, are at least very desirable." The
Secretary to the Chief Commissioner (September 22ud, 1868) was directed

cxxx

to state " that the Chief Commissioner concurs in the opinion expressed
by the Commissioner of Sitapur that there is great destruction
from ignorance, not from wantonness, and that the measures of
protection required are, the publication of the breeding- seasons for the
various kinds of river and tank fish, the institution of close seasons, and
the prohibition of fishing during those seasons. "

278. The Commissioner of the Faizabad Division, in forwarding the

replies from the Deputy Commissioners of
Faizabad Division. Answers of Faizabad Baraich, and Gondah in letter

European officials. tana c a -i i o™ -i i.i

No. 1202 of April 1872, considers there is
no reason to anticipate a rapid increase either in the number of fishermen
or of the fish-consuming population, that the fishermen carry on their
occupations as they have done from time immemorial, and that
their operations have not led to a sensible decrease in the supply ; con-
sequently no special legislation appears to be called for at present, and
that such would be unpopular ; but he thinks " that the question is a very
important one, and that it should not be lost sight of, but that periodical
enquiries should be made, with the view of ascertaining beyond a doubt
whether the fish supply is increasing, decreasing, or stationary/' He
observes that " if we are to have legislative interference, I concur in the
opinion of the Deputy Commissioner of Faizabad, that it should be
confined to the control of perennial lakes and second class rivers and
streams, as it is not worth while to legislate for jhils and pools which
dry up, and in such rivers as the Ganges and the Ghogra the capture of
fish cannot perceptibly affect the supply/' The remedies he points out
as " likely to be most efficacious and feasible in this province are the
regulation of the size of the mesh of nets for use in minor streams and
perennial lakes, and the prohibition of capture of fish during the breeding
months and of the sale of fry in the bazars/'

279. Colonel Reid, the Commissioner of Faizabad, also observes

that the replies of the Collectors are of a

n.£S2f- ffS °f Com" general nature. All breeding fish or fry are
nnssioners and Collectors. P ... - ., °. v ,.

indiscriminately netted; there is no restriction

in the size of the mesh employed, which is about one-third of an inch.

It is considered difficulties would arise in regulating the mesh of nets owing

to difference in the size of the various mature fish inhabiting the same

localities ; that it would not answer to prescribe different sizes of meshes

for netting small, middle-sized, and large fish, but at the same time the

present minimum is smaller than is required to catch the most minute

fish, and that it might be increased to half or three-fourths of an inch at least.

It is observed that prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars might

occasion loss to the owners of waters which would reduce the fishermen's

gains, and prevent the present purchasers of fry obtaining their accustomed

food, as full-grown fish are considerably dearer. On the other hand, it is

observed these objections might be only temporary, and an augmentation

of food and decrease of price be the result after two or three years.

" Very small fishes are caught during the rains, principally by nets; in

Gondah it is estimated that the weight of small fishes so caught

annually is about 8,000 maunds, of which 500 maunds are dried and

sold to the Nepalese after the rains." " Fish are trapped in the

fields when streams and tanks overflow, and the water from them

CXXX1

pours into the fields, but not ( I believe) in merely irrigated fields."
" The smallest size of the mesh of the nets employed is about one-
third of an inch between knot and knot.-" " Fishing1 is carried on in
rivers from boats by casting and dragging nets, spears, lines, rods, and
hooks ; in village ponds and j Mis, in the months of Jeth and Baisakh, by
hands, the water being first mudded by gangs of from 50 to 60 men.
Large fish are sometimes killed by lathis. The Talukdar of Deogam
states that drains full of water are sometimes enclosed on both sides, and
powders obtained from a poisonous wild fruit named " Bistend or
Kuhar" thrown in. A channel is then cut to receive fresh-water in the
enclosed drain, sc as to save the fish from wholesale destruction. The
large fish get disturbed (intoxicated or poisoned) and float, when people
beat them on the head with lathis or catch them with their hands/' But,
he adds, the fish taken in this manner are not good to eat. The principal
implements of fishing are detailed as follows : 1, Khancha (a sort of
basket net); 2, Tap; 3, Mahi; 4, Pukhai (for small fish) ; 5, Chatbri ;
6, Chilwar; 7, Laga; 8, Tappura; 9, Dudhi ; 10, Kurail ; 11,
Chutur; 12, Ganj ; 13, Bhukha; 11, Palni ; 15, Chitta (for large
fish); 16, Unghi; 17, Jhagri ; 18, Lukia.

280. The Collector of Lucknow reports, " the tanks and rivers

are netted without restriction throughout

Collector™' 0phli°n °f thC the yeai^.and necessarily fish, breeding or

not breeding, big or small, are taken as
they come to the net. The greatest destruction takes place just
before the end of the cold season when the tanks are drying up.
There is no restriction as to the size of the mesh of the nets; the
smallest size employed is about a quarter of an inch, but regulating
it in any locality would be objectionable until there existed a well
ascertained want for the passing of such, a measure, as all unnecessary
interference with the people is to be deprecated/'' Still, he continues,
one-inch regulation between knot and knot of the meshes of the
nets seems to be really necessary. The objections advanced against
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazar are ignorance
of the ordinary Policemen, who, being allowed to interfere with the
fish-hawkers, would find in such a law a means of extortion, besides being-
unable to discriminate between fry and adult fish.

281. The Collector of Unas reports, very small fishes are destined

during the rains, and cultivators use them
JJnas. Opinion of the Collec- ag manure. The smallegt size of the

mesh of nets is one-sixth of an inch ; no
difficulty existing regulating such, and one inch between knot and
knot he considers advisable. If the sale of the fry of fish in the
bazar is prohibited, both owners and fishermen, it is considered, will
suffer.

282. The Collector of Bara Banhi considers that breedino- and

~ . . „ „ „ e n young" fish are not killed to any great extent ;

Opinion of Collector of Bara i • i i i , ■

Banki. any which are destroyed are those got in

tanks. Three-quarters of an inch is the

smallest mesh of nets employed ; no difficulty exists in regulating such,

and he proposes three-quarters of an inch as the legal size. No fish

are brought for sale in the bazars.

CXXX11

283. The Collector of Sitapar says, young fish are caught, but not

to any great extent : they are taken by dara-
Opimon of the Collector of • n • 4.1 11 2. i ■ A a

git. ' U1. ming in the smaller streams during the dry

"weather, and in irrigated fields during the
rainy season. The minimum size of the mesh of nets employed is about
a quarter of an inch ; no difficulty exists in regulating its size, which
might be fixed at one inch. He opposes altogether prohibiting the sale
of the fry of fishes, observing — " no real harm is done by catching
young fish in tanks, jhils, or irrigated fields, for these fish, if left alone,
would never find their way back to the river/'' Captain Thompson, in
186*, reported from this place — " fishing goes on at all seasons of the year,
and there can be no doubt that in the small rivers and tanks the supply
would be materially increased by a short c close time/ Still I hardly
think that the protection is necessary in the large rivers. But the narrow
and shallow streams of this district can be well nigh cleared of fish with
the net, and the supply is scanty in consequence. In such rivers the pro-
tection of the spawning fish would, no doubt, have a very good effect.-"
28-k The Collector of Hardui reports, breeding and very young fish

„ . . „ . . „ „ ., are destroyed without discrimination and to

Hardui. Opinion of Collector. J , . m, ...

a great extent. They are caught in nets

and baskets in jhils, tanks, and rivers at all seasons, but in greater

quantity during the rainy season, and especially at its close. The

smallest size of the mesh of nets employed is one-sixth of an inch.

Traps are also used to collect fish of the smallest size, and are made of

reeds. Were it politic, there would be no difficulty in regulating the

size of the mesh of nets, but as he does not consider such a time has

arrived, he refrains from suggesting what size of meshes he should

consider advisable in his district. When fish are scarce in " hilly

districts, and as well elsewhere, there appears to be no objection against

prohibiting their capture for a limited period when they are breeding."

The Settlement Officer of Hardui in 1868 complained that there " is no

close season for fish here ; they are caught every day of the year.

Further, the meshes of the nets are made of any size, and occasionally

fish are intoxicated or half-poisoned by a jungle fruit termed mainpkid,

but this can only be done in still water, ponds, and the like. Some

land-owners preserve fish and guard them, but the bulk of the proprietary

bodies certainly do destroy fish wantonly. They take every fish they

can catch at all seasons, whether the females are breeding or not, and

whether the males are what is called 'spent fish'' or are in full condition."

285. The Collector of Rai Bareli considers the destruction of all

_ . . . sorts of fish as considerable, the principal

Opinion of Collector of Rai r n t • i • li. t. j. ii

Bareii. season for fishing being m the hot weather

and during the rains. In the former the
big fish are mostly trapped ; during the latter the smaller fish are more
extensively caught than at other seasons of the year. The smallest size
of the mesh of nets employed is from a quarter to one-third of an inch.
The difficulties in regulating the size of the mesh of the nets consists in the
natural dislike and prejudice of the rustic population against any innova-
tion whatever in the implements for carrying on their craft, so he deprecates
such, and gives no opinion as to what size he considers advisable.
The fry of fish, he observes, are not sold separately from the fish in

exxxiii

this district, and therefore the prohibition of the sale of the fry would
be superfluous.

286. The Collector of Sidtanpur observes that breeding- fish and

young- ones are destroyed, but not to any
Sultanpur. Opinion of the great extent. Those taken are from tanks

and marshes fed by the rain, or filled by the
overflow, of rivers such as the Goomti. The meshes of the nets are
small enough when so required to catch fish about the size of a gudgeon.
Interference is not considered desirable, because there would be a difficulty
at first in the novelty of making regulations laying down the size of
the mesh of nets, and he refrains from answering what size he considers
advisable. As a rule, the fry of fish are reported not to be sold in
the bazar, and he would avoid all novel regulations suitable for European
countries, interfering with property and old customs. He considers no
objection exists to a close season for breeding fish in hilly districts.

287. The Collector of Pratabgarh reports that breeding fish and very

Opinion of the
Pratabgarh.

Collector of

young ones are destroyed indiscriminately,
and to a very great extent, from April to the
end of June and from September to October,
wherever they can be captured in rivers, jhils, tanks, and nallas, by means
of nets, traps, or by hand. The minimum size of the mesh of nets will
admit of a corn of barley passing through it, and nothing larger. There
is no difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh of nets except the un-
willingness of the people to let even the smallest fish escape them, and he
proposes at first, as an experiment, to double the size now in use. There
can be no objection to prohibitingthe sale of the fry of fish in the bazars,
or any other reasonable measures being adopted to arrest the senseless des-
truction of breeding fish and of the very young ones now going on. Some
restriction also should be put on the capturing of fish in the breeding season.
288. The Tehslldar of Faizabad reports through the Commissioner

that there are about 700 fishermen, 42 of
whom only have no other occupation ; whilst
1,500 are given as at Baraich and 2,830 at
Gondah, all of whom follow other occupations; in the last locality the
boatmen and palkee-bearers are included, which augments the total.
In the periodical fishings of village tanks, many persons not included as
fishermen join in. The names of the fishermen castes are given as follows :
Gooriyas, Mullahs Chakees, Khowicks, Kuhars, Coniyas, Gharooks,
Jhabjhaliyas, &c. Fish are said to be only sold in the large bazars ; some of
the Faizabad markets are fully supplied, others are not, as in Baraich, where
the supply is not equal to the demand, whilst in Gondah contradictory
accounts are given. The relative prices of fish and mutton are as follows : —

Faizabad reports from Native
officials.

Faizabad.

Baraich.

Gondah.

Rs.

A. P.

Rs.

A.

P.

Rs.

A.

P.

Fish, large, per seer

0

1 0

0

1

3

0

1

3

„ small „ „

0

0 9

0

0

9

0

0

9

Mutton, 1st class

0

2 0

0

1

G

0

2

0

2nd „

0

1 9

0

1

6

0

1

9

CXXX1V

The price of fish is not regulated by the price of mutton, which is
mostly consumed by Europeans ; some kinds of the former are said to obtain
considerably higher prices than the above. Generally about two-thirds
of the population are fish-eaters, but occasionally the proportion is lower.
As regards the increase or decrease in the numbers of fish, reports differ
materially. In Faizabad, a slight increase is given as compared with
the preceding year. In Baraich and Gondah generally they are said
to have doubled. In some places the increase is reported to be confined
to the small fish, the number of large fish remaining stationary. In
one Tehsil in Baraich, a decrease is reported ; in another an increase ;
both said to be due to heavy rains. One Teshildar in Gondah givet
an increase owing to floods during the rains, whilst two Tehsildars repors
that from the same cause many fish have been carried off to the larger
rivers.

289. The Tehsildar of Luck-now can give no approximate number

of the fishermen, for this occupation is not
J)piuion of Tehsildar of Luck- purgued hy many ag theif ^ busiliesSj but

principally by boatmen, Passis, Mussulmen,
labourers out of employ, and Kahars in their spare time. The fisher-
men castes are Kahars, Mullahs, Koris, Kaujars, Jhabihalias, and Pathans.
The supply of fish equals the demand ; large ones realize two annas
a seer, and small fish one anna; bazar mutton two annas a seer.
The small fish are eaten by all classes, the supply of which by all accounts,
has remained stationary. Large numbers of very small fish are taken by
children in shallow pools and lesser streams. The smallest nets have
about a half-inch mesh. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated fields
during the rains. Fishing is carried on by rod and line, casting-nets,
drag and hand-nets. The local names are Sukhani, Pailni chinta, Pandi,
Khara, Jhunsti, and Halka, the various names referring to the same
nets only differing in size one from another.

290. The Tehsildar of Unas considers the fishiug population at

_ . . „m , ., , „„ about 1,000, but they also follow other occu-

Oninion of lehsndar or Imas. ,. mi .J . .. Tr ■ T n

r pations. lhey consist or Kahars, Lodhas,

and Passis. The market is fully supplied with fish, the cost of the larger

sorts being from one anna to one and a half annas a seer ; of the smaller,

from 9 pie to one anna and a half. The first sort of mutton is two

annas a seer, the second one and a half annas. About 85,000

people in this Tehsil are reported fish-eaters. The fish are stated

to have increased. About 10,000 maunds of very small ones are said to

be taken during the rains. The smallest size of mesh of nets used is

given at half an inch, and fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during

the rains. The native names of the traps and nets used are Pandi,

Chhata, Lokari, Chowruhi, Bisari or Ulgi, Kanta (hook), and Tapa made

of reeds and rushes, Kurwar and Halka.

291. The Tehsildar of Sitffeepur calculates the fishermen at about

„ . „„,,.,„ r n * 300, but they alse pursue other occupations.

Opinion of lehsndar or Suf- mi rr i t ii xm i t>

fee ' They are Kahars, Lodhas, Dhanhus, Passis,

Chamars, Kurhers. The markets are not fully
supplied. The price of large fish is from one-half anna to one anna a
seer; of small fish, from one pie and a half to three pie; whilst the first
sort of mutton is two annas, and the second one anna and a half per seer.

cxxxv

The number of the fish-eating population is set down as the same (85,000)
as in the Unas Tehsil. The fish are also reported to have increased, and
about 300 rnaunds of very small ones are stated to be caught (luring the
rains. The smallest mesh is given at half an inch, and fish are said
to be trapped during the rains, but not to any great extent. The imple-
ments enumerated as used in fishing are the same as in Unas, to which
has to be added a small net termed Dhebeea.

292. The Tehsildar of Pur 10 ah considers that about 2,000 fishermen

_, , _ . . „_,.,, reside in his Tehsil, but they follow other
1 unvah. Opinion or Tehsildar. . • n -, ■ #» n

1 occupations as well, and are of all castes.

The local markets are not fully supplied. The price of large fish is

from one-half to one anna a seer ; of small ones, from three to nine

pies. Two-thirds of the population are considered to be consumers of

fish. The supply has increased during the last year. Some hundreds of

maunds of small fish are taken during the rains. The minimum size of

the mesh of nets used is given at three-quarters of an inch, and fish are

said to be trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The descriptions

of nets given are Pandi, Pailni, Khadar, Chhata, Halka, Kurwar, Tap,

Tapa, Dugun, and Shist.

293. The Tehsildar of Mohan reports about 300 fishermen in his

,, , rr v -i , , • • Tehsil, all of whom likewise follow other

Mohan. Tehsildar s opinion. ' . T .

occupations ; they are Kahars, rassis, Koris,
Lodhas, &c. The bazars are not fully supplied. The cost of large fish
is six pie, and small ones three pie a seer. About half the population
eat fish, whilst the supply has remained stationary. Some hundreds of
maunds of small fish are taken during the rains, whilst the mesh of the
nets is stated to be one inch. Fish are trapped in irrigated fields during
the rains. The nets employed are Dokari, Chhinmari, Pandi, Bilni,
Kurwar, Shist, Tapa, and Halka.

294*. Ritngit Singh, Talukdar of Kantha, observes that cultivators
~ ,, miii, • • and others catch fish, but are generally

Kantha. Talukdar s opinion. , „ ., „ „ . ' ^r . ° .J

people or the following castes, Kahars, Passis,

Koris, Lodhas, &c. The market is not fully supplied. The price of large

fish is half an anna, and of small ones a quarter of an anna a seer.

About half the population are fish-consumers. The supply has remained

stationary. Small fish are taken, but not to any great extent. The mesh

of the smallest nets employed is half an inch. Fish are trapped in the

irrigated fields during the rains. The following are the nets and traps

used : — Haluka, Kumar, Tap, Kuttra, Jal, Koena, Khowra, Phutka or

Supa, Garie ulurna, Kagurna, Lokarel, Sahjurya, Ghughuroah.

295. Ganga Sahib, the Manager of the Mara Wan Estate, reports

_ _ __ 199 persons as fishermen, but they also follow

Mara Wan Estate. Opinion a •• mi, rr i i

of the Manager. other occupations. They are Kahars and

Passis. The bazar is not fully supplied with

fish ; the cost of the large ones is from one to one and a half annas, and

of small ones, from a quarter to half an anna a seer : 11 out of 15 of the

population eat it. The supply has remained stationary. About 150

maunds of very small fish are taken yearly, whilst fish are trapped during

the rains in the inundated fields. The traps and nets employed are

Haluka, Bansi, Khuroar, Jal, Tapsa, Phutka, Jhutjhal, Juduria, Kuruar,

Kutia.

CXXXV1

296. Chow dry GopalSingh, Talukdar of Bangermoro, gives about

the same proportion of fishermen as the fore-

Tafukd?rrm0r0" °p5ni0n °f thG SoinS 5 the7 are Kahars, Kadhairs. The

bazar is not fully supplied. Large fish sell
at from six to nine pies, and small ones at two and three pies a seer. The
supply has remained stationary ; very small fish are taken in quantities
during the rains. The minimum mesh of the nets is given at three-quar-
ters of an inch. Fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields during
the rains. The following are the nets and traps used Jal, Pindi, Pansa,
Bissiari, Lokuri, Khuwur, Kanta.

297. Barabanki, Tehsildar of Naioabgunj, reports there being 200

. or 300 persons who fish, but all pursue

TehsildargUDJ" pmion ° e other occupations. The fishermen castes are

Gurias and Kahars. Very few fish, and only

in the cold season, are sold in the weekly markets, the larger sorts at one

anna, and the smaller at a quarter of an anna a seer ; whilst first class

mutton fetches three annas, and second class two annas a seer. A

larger proportion of the population, it is observed, would eat

fish if they could obtain them. The supply has not increased. The

smallest mesh of nets is given at half an inch square. Fish are trapped

during the rains in the irrigated fields. Nets and implements for taking

fish are Katia, Balbi, Shist, and Tappa.

298. The Tehsildar of Futtehjpur states that no persons give them-

_ , , _ .. selves up to fishing as a sole pursuit, but

Futtehpur. Opinion of the m , ,, , £ i r* j ir i

Tehsildar. ^ne castes that nsh are Guryas and Kahars.

The weekly market is stated to be sufficiently

well supplied, the cost of large fish being one anna, and small fish half

an anna a seer. A larger proportion of the people, it is asserted, would

be consumers of fish could they obtain it. The supply has not increased,

and the size of the smallest mesh of the nets is given at one inch or

thereabouts. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains.

The implements used in fishing are Jal, Tappa, Halka, Paihra, Daggan-

shist, Barbat, Choundhi, Chan, Dor pauri, Khowri.

299. In the Tehsil of Samahi ghat, it is stated that there are about

a ... _ . . 200 Gurvas and Kahars who catch fish, but

bamaln ghat. Opinion of the ,, , ,-, " i , i

Tehsildar. *'iat they also pursue other occupations ;

that a sufficient amount is brought to the

bazars " to give the vendors means of subsistence." Rohoos obtain

two annas a seer, other large fish one anna, and small sorts three pie. A

larger proportion of the people would eat fish if they could get it. The

supply has not increased. Young fish are said not to be captured at all, nor

fish trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The size of the smallest

mesh of the nets is given at about three-quarters of an inch square.

The nets and implements employed are Pakla, Chunda, Barour, Paudi,

Chilband, Nadhni, Kuttya shist.

300. In the Tehsil of Ilydergurh there are about 200 Kahars who

„ . , „ . . . „, , fish as well as pursue other occupations : the
Hydergurh. Opinion of Teh- ■, , r , r -, , 11, .,, n i

sildar. markets are scarcely supplied at all with hsh ;

more could be sold. The small ones realize

nine pies a seer. A larger portion of the population would eat it could

they obtain it. Very small fishes are taken with nets, the mesh of which

cxxxvu

is three-quarters of an inch. Fish are also trapped in the irrigated fields
during- the rains.

301. At Sitajmr the Native official observes that the Kahars and

Guryas take fish at certain times, but their

offiSci!?lPUr' °piniCm °f NatiVC re&"lar occupation is agriculture. The local

markets are not fully supplied. Large fish
obtain two annas, small ones one anna a seer ; mutton two annas a seer.
He is unable to give the proportion of fish-eaters. The general opinion is
that fish have increased, due to several consecutive years of floods. The
smallest size of the mesh of nets is given at a quarter of an inch. Fish
are trapped during the rains in the irrigated fields. The native names
of the nets and traps in use are Pundi, Jal, Locari Jal, Maha Jal,
Kharia Jal, Patia Jal, Pailna Jal, Tapa Jal.

302. The Teksildar of Hardin gives the fishermen at 2,000, all of

„,.„.. „n, , ... whom are said to also follow other occupations,
Hurdui. Opinion of lehsildar. ... „ . i ■*% -• •

their castes are Kahars and Bourias, especi-
ally the latter. The local markets are insufficiently supplied with fish ;
more, it is observed, could be sold. The large sorts realize from one to
one and a half annas a seer, the small from six to nine pies a seer, and
mutton two annas for the same quantity. Two-thirds of the population
are stated to be fish-consumers. The supply is asserted to have in-
creased ; very small ones are taken in large numbers in nets and baskets
of various sorts, whilst the minimum size of the mesh of the nets will
not allow a grain of gram to pass. Fish are also trapped in inundated
fields during the rains. The nets employed are Tapa, Dhundhi, Katia,
and Khanchas.

303. The Teksildar of Shakbad computes the Kahar fishermen at

„ , , , /4 . . -m-..,, 2,126, all following other occupations. The

Shabbad. Opinion of Tehsudar. i ^ • ,, T -i i m i

r markets are insufficiently supplied, whilst

about 90 per cent, of the population eat fish. The supply in the waters

has remained stationary. Very small fish are taken in large numbers,

whilst a grain of gram will not pass through some of the nets. Fish are

also trapped in inundated fields during the rains.

304. The Teksildar of Sundeela gives the fishermen at 250, consisting

of Kahars, Passis, and Arakhs. The market
TehsUdaf" °PiUi°n °f tbC is inefficiently supplied. Large fish obtain

from six to eight pies a seer, and small ones
from three to six. Three-fourths of the population are reputed to be fish-
eaters. The supply in the waters has remained stationary. Large
numbers of very small fish are captured, whilst the mesh of the nets
will arrest a grain of gram. Fish are also trapped during the rains in
inundated fields.

305. The Teksildar of Bihjram states there are 200 Kahars,

_ . . „ , Araths, and Bouriah fishermen. The markets

Bilgram. Opinion of the Teh- „„ • «• • ,i r j -,, n •> ,,

Biiaar7 are insufficiently supplied with fish, the

larger ones of which obtain nine pie, and

the smaller six pie a seer ; 80 per cent, of the population eat fish. The

supply has decreased. " More fish are caught in this Tehsil than in any

other. They are exceedingly plentiful in Sandi, where small fish are

often used as manure, and fry are sold in quantities for little or nothing;

the smallest mesh of the nets will not pass a grain of barley/' Fish

CXXXT111

are rarely trapped during the rains. The nets employed are, besides those
enumerated, Pandi Kahar, Ghunghia, Kaut, Bahana, Chaunghi, Phatka.

306. The Tehsildar of Rai Bareli says there are about 1,825 fisher-

men, but who also have other occupations;

Te£iickrareli" °P'mi0U °f tLe the^ are Kahars> Passis' Lodhas, Mullahs,

Kunjrahs, Khatiks. The markets are generally

well supplied, but more could be disposed of during" such seasons as grain

is scarce. Large fish realize from three-quarters to one anna, and small

ones from a quarter to half an anna a seer ; first sort of mutton two annas,

and second sort an anna and a half a seer. About two-thirds of the

population eat fish. Many very little ones are yearly netted, the smallest

mesh of the nets being from one-sixth to one-fourth of an inch, but very

few fish are trapped in inundated fields during the rains. The nets and

traps are Surkuta, Tapka, Supa (for small fish), Chutta, Chowndhi, Phik-

wa or Chappa, Pailni, Lowkari or Murhar.

307. At Sullanpur, the Native official estimates the fishermen

at from 900 to 1,000, all of whom have also

ofifckianpUr' °Pini°n °f NatiVG other occuPations > they are Mullahs, Kahars,

Kewats, and Guryas. The markets are said
to be fairly supplied with fish, the larger sorts obtaining from an anna and
a quarter to two annas a seer, and the smaller from three-quarters to one
anna and a quarter a seer ; whilst the bazar mutton obtains from one
and a quarter to two annas a seer. Three-fourths of the population are
said to eat fish. The amount in the Goomti are said to have decreased of
late years. Very small ones are netted and taken by a trap called
1 Puhra.J The mesh of the nets " is so small, hardly anything can
pass/'' Fish, but not to any great extent, are trapped in the inundated
fields during the rains. Streams are dammed and fish thus taken;
various sorts of nets, traps, and hooks are also employed.

308. In the Putti Tehsil it is observed fishing is not confined

to one class, but Kahars, Lunias, Kewats,

t^fficS11811" °Pini°n °f ^ Passis' Kurmis> and Kori' a11 follow {t> as wel1

as other occupations. The markets are not

fully supplied with fish ; the larger sorts obtain two annas, the smaller
one anna and a half a seer, and mutton two annas ; about half the popula-
tion are stated to be fish-eaters. The amount in the waters is said to have
increased this year. About 40,000 maunds of very small fish are annually
netted, the mesh of some of the nets being " so small that a grain of mothi
cannot pass through it" Boys generally trap fish in fields during the
rains. " Fish are destroyed by Akhsah ; the names of nets and traps are
Jal, Kuryar, Halka, Chahtur, Khore, Choundhi, Pahrah, Tap, Harya,
Punchkhi, Pailni, Bissari, Gunj, Tameri, Kantiya."

309. The Tehsildar of Pratabgarlh observes that fishermen are

generally Kahars, but some are Lunias.
^ Pratabgarth. Opinion of Teh- The martets are uot furjy supplied with fish ;

the price of the larger sorts is seven pie,
smaller sorts four pie, and mutton two annas a seer. About half the po-
pulation are stated to cat fish. The supply in the waters this year has
increased. Very small ones are taken by means of nets. " Fish are shot
with guns, and caught by means of Tap, Tengali, and Pahra, and by hand
when the water dries up in the month of Jeth."

CXXX1X

310. The Tehsildar of BeJiar observes, Kahars and others follow

the occupation of fishing in addition to their
Behar. Opinion of Tehsildar. ^^ wQrk . ^^ ^^ ^ ^ Kewatgj

Kunjrahs, and Passis. The bazars are not sufficiently supplied with fish ; the
larger sort fetch one anna, the smaller three-quarters of an anna a seer ;
whilst the first sort of mutton realises two annas, and the second one anna
and a half a seer. Upwards of 97 per cent. (97-78) of the population, it is
asserted, are consumers of fish, the supply of which has increased this year.
Very small ones are taken in large quantities by means of nets with very
minute meshes, the size of which is equal to a grain of barley. Fish are
not trapped during the rains in the inundated fields. The fallowing are
the nets used : Patli, Pahrah, Packkhi, Tilheri Jal.

cxl

NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES.

311. The North-West Provinces, according1 to the census and

statistical account taken in 1865, contains
Area aud Population of the c cf o->k ociiy l p i • i

North- West Provinces. an area ot 2o,3/ 5,327 acres, out of which

22,293,819 are cultivated, and 3,081,508 are
unassessed. Some changes in the province have occurred of late years, as
in 1858 a greater portion of the Delhi district, including 2,195,180 persons,
was transferred to the Panjab, the Pergunnah of Lonee, on the left hank
of the Jumna, alone being retained, and it was merged into Meerut. In
Mr. Probyn's report, it was observed that the North-West Provinces
have an area of 216,152 square kilometres, with an average population
of 139*30 to the kilometre, the density being thus amongst the highest
on record. Of the 30,110,615 persons who were present in 1865, the
agricultural class numbered 21,342,403, or two-thirds of the whole
amount. " The extremes of density (1865) in the sub-divisions, into
which the districts of the North-West are divided, vary from 6,773 to
the square mile in Dehat Amanut of Benares (which contains the city
of that name), to 37 to the square mile in Agoree, Robertsgunge, in the
Mirzapur district. * * The Agra division is the most thickly popu-
lated, containing 474 to the square mile; next in order is Gouchpur,
with 465 to the square mile. Benares stands next with 447 to the square
mile; then Rohilcund with 440; last in order are Meerut 415, Jansie
198, Ajmere 160, and Kumaon 58 to the mile." Nearly 26 millions
are Hindus, and 4 \ millions Mahomedans, the latter being most nu-
merous in Meerut and Rohilcund, where they comprise one-fifth of the
population, whilst more than half of these reside in the northern dis-
tricts. There are 560 castes or sub-castes of Hindus, irrespective of
Christians, Mahomedans, Parsees, Bengalees, Madrassees, Thibetans,
and Chinese, raising the number to 574. The Brahmins number 3,541,692,
and have 70 sub-divisions ; the Kshatryas 2,827,768 with 175; the
Vaisyas 1,091,250 with 65; the Sudras 18,304,309 with 230; those
unnoticed 12,336; Sikhs 1,425; Jains 49,983; other sects 195,977 ;
Christians 37; Mahomedans unclassed 2,207,576; Sheiks 1,140,108;
Pathans 515,526; Syuds 170,248; Moguls 41,748; Parsees 76; Bengalees
1,148; Madrassees 26; Thibetans 67, and Chinese 37.

312. The most important rivers in the British territory are the

Ganges and Jumna, which, arising in the

Rivers and Canals in the Himalayas, pass down through the Sub-Hima-

n.intallWeSt Provinces : als° fche layan Sewaliks, and joining at Allahabad are

continued into the Lower Provinces. These
rivers, near their sources and first parts of their course, receive numerous
hill affluents, many of which are not snow-fed, and these warm streams
are the natural breeding-grounds of most of the important species of fish,
especially the mahaseer ; irrespective of this, however, very many of the
sorts which, though despised by Europeans, are consumed by natives, find
here the natural locality in which to deposit their spawn. All, or nearly

cxli

all, the affluents, coming- from the east to the Ganges, likewise take
their origin in the Himalayas, and they are equally the breeding-
places of fish. The Ganges and Jumna do not appear to normally
extend, duriug the monsoon time, in a lateral direction, over the
contiguous country, to the same wide extent as do rivers in some
portions of India, as the Indus in Sind ; the low lands or " khadirs"
being generally bounded by higher ground, termed " bangur/' beyond
which floods rarely pass, Both the Ganges and Jumna rivers, near
the places where they emerge from the Sewaliks, have irrigation weirs
across them, diverting water into the Ganges canal at Hurdwar, and the
Eastern and Western Jumna canals near Karrah; lower down below
Delhi exists the Okla weir across the Jumna, diverting water into the
Agra canal. The rainfall in five years ending 1869-70 is stated to
have averaged 33*4 inches.

313. The Ganges and Jumna rivers are replenished from two

prominent causes, exclusive of springs ; during

GlcuSliednd JUmUariVeiSb0W the hot raontbs the suPP]y is derived from
rep ems le . ^e .ce ^^ snow at their sources which, having

accumulated during the winter, now becomes melted by the action of the
sun; and in the Ganges at Hurdwar, a daily rise of about 1| inch
and a corresponding fall are distinctly apparent. During the monsoon
season, the supply comes directly from the rains, flooding all the
small affluents, or indirectly due to their action on the snows ; the
rivers consecpiently at these periods are filled in rather a spasmodic
manner. During the cold months, unreplenished by rains or melting
snows, and much of their water being required for irrigation canals, the
volume flowing down them is in places very small.

314. The fishes of the North-West Provinces are divisible into

. ., xt ., ttt those of the hills and those of the plains, some

Fishes of the North- West c i *• i • i l • ■% m ,

Provinces. ot each ot wmcn classes are migratory, whilst

others are not so. Upon the non-migratory
hill -fishes no remarks are here needed. Amongst the fishes of the
■plains calling for observation are the migratory ones, especially such carps,
as the mahaseer, which reside in the low country rivers during the
cold months when the hill-streams are too small and too cold to afford
them sustenance; but when the rains re-commence, they migrate
to the hills, and ascending some distance up the cold waters of the
larger rivers, turn aside for breeding purposes into their warm side-
streams. Thus, these side-streams, unreplenished by snow water, are
the natural breeding-places of most of the more valuable fish of the
carp family residing near such places, and anything preventing their
access to these spots, or destructive of the fry raised there, must neces-
sarily injure the fisheries. A. large majority of the young remain in
the hill-streams until the next year's rains (see para. 16S). There are
likewise migratory marine fishes, as the hilsa, ascending for breeding
purposes, and barriers across rivers must impede their progress; but in
this province these fish, in an economic point of view, are of much less
consequence than the mahaseer. The local non-migratory fishes pass
up small water-courses and channels, depositing their eggs in irrigated
fields, flooded plains, temporary formed tanks,, or the grassy sides of
rivers or lakes.

cxlii

315. Having* thus briefly enumerated the rivers and waters used

as breeding-places, and the fishes inhabit-
Impediments to fish breeding • , i ,1 • -, •• • -,

in the North- West Provinces. ing" them> the consideration arises—do any

causes exist which impede their carrying- out
in a satisfactory manner these natural instincts ? First, we have irri-
gation weirs across the two large rivers, which, unfurnished with fish
passes, entirely preclude the re-ascent of fish having1 once passed over
them, or happening to be below them. This must arrest every marine
migratory fish ascending to breed, so they are rendered practically use-
less for increasing their species. Next, all the migratory carps that have
passed over them during the cold months in their pursuit of food cannot
re-ascend — they also become hors de combat. And, lastly, of the irrigation
works, there are the canals which act in precisely the same way. Perhaps
it will be well to give facts as witnessed by others. The Collector
of Muttra (para. 334) observes, — " I have watched the first rush of
water let in, and have been astonished at the shoals of fish brought
down by it. * * In the Meerut district I saw hundreds of
mahaseer come down ; they were all carried over the fall as they had
been over a dozen higher up between that point and Hurdwar, not one
of which could by any possibility have got back again up the canal.'"
(See para. 1 2 on irrigation weirs and their effects.) These canals thus
form traps on a large scale wherein fish are destroyed wholesale
whenever the water is cut off, and that this is not seldom, I adduce
the following figures to prove. In the Eastern Jumna canal the number
of times and days it has been without a supply of water are as
follows : —

4 years ending December 31st, 1810. No. of times closed, 58 No. of days closed, 203

5 „ „ „ 1845. ,, „ 53 ,, „ 356

5 „ „ „ 1850. „ ., 48 „ „ 194

47 „ „ 265

>>

1845.

JJ

1850.

>>

1855.

>)

1860.

5)

1865.

>5

1870.

5 „ „ „ I860. „ „ 36 „ „ 267

5 „ ,. „ 1865. „ „ 31 „ „ 240

5 „ „ „ 1870. „ „ 14 „ „ 216

If we now examine as to the comparative number of days on
which the canals have been closed, we find the longest period from 29th
October 1845 to December 15th, 1845, or 47 days, and the shortest a
single day, thus —

During the first 4 years closures averaged o£ days each.
„ next 5 „ „ 65

,, 5! u >; » »

), J) O 'J !•> «J 5>

,, >• " )) )» ' 2 »

,, J) ° )• >> " >>

5J !> 0 ,< ,, 10 ,,

The frequent closure of canals must be destructive to fish, unless they
are able to retire into deep holes or contiguous tanks, where they may
remain quiet until the canal is refilled ; but of course should the canal
be left dry for very long periods, as over eight or ten days, the probabilities
are that the water will have become so foul that the fish will die. Out
of 287 times this canal was closed between January 1837 and December

No. of times closed, 3.

Days 27

10

„ 156

7

55 55 '

„ 160

cxliii

1870, we find as follows regarding the times closures occurred, with
reference to the number of days —

From 0 to 10 days, 238 times.

10 to 20 „ 31 „

„ 20 to 30 „ 12 „

„ 30 to 40 „ 3 „

„ 40 to 50 „ 3 „

In the Ganges canal slaughtering all the fish, whenever it was
closed, was carried on when I was there, the numbers of times and the
days such has occurred during the last 15 years being as follows : —

5 years ending December 31st, 1860.
5 „ ,, 1865

5 „ „ 1870

Thus, in round numbers, this canal during the last five years has
had six times more days without water than in the first five years under
review ; whilst the period of time it has been kept dry have risen as
follows : —

1st 5 years — No. of days dry at each closure, 9
2nd 5 „ „ „ „ 15

3rd o ,, „ „ ,. 23

316. We now come to the fixed engines permitted to exist in

these provinces, as shown by the local civil
Fixed engines for capturing officerg> First nshing-weirs spanning hill-
or destroying fish, as well as i • i -i jj ,-

damming streams, &c. streams, up which large carps are attempting

to ascend to breed. In those of Kumaon
(see para. 330) "practically it requires a very clever fish to go up for
breeding purposes, and return to the point started from uninjured ! for
it has to cross and re-cross several of these weirs, both on its journey up
and down streams/'' Again in Gurwal, " the rivers are so dammed up
bv weirs made on purpose to catch fish, that they cannot always ascend
to their spawning grounds, and fall an easy prey to the people who are
on the watch for them.''' " Weirs me erected as soon as the monsoon
begins to cease, and they remain in existence till carried away in the
first flood in the rains. They are placed usually at the tail of each
pool, and there is almost always one at the junction of two rivers, thus
entirely preventing fish running up till the weir is carried away by a flood. "
Then in the plains, as the yearly floods begin to subside, when the fish
which have bred, and the young which have been raised, try to obtain an
exit to the rivers with 'the falling waters — what is it that is done?
Weirs are constructed across the little streams which are the natural drains
into the rivers down which they are striving to go ; thus, it is stated at
Bustee (para. 331) that "fish are killed more or less throughout the
year, but the largest numbers are taken towards the end of the rainy
season. As the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are
formed on the low lands by the rivers. Those wdiich were during the
floods mere extensions of the stream, now become lakes with one narrow
exit to the river. Across this, nets are stretched or a weir of grass
constructed, and every fish that has wandered up becomes a certain prey,
being either caught at the weir, or left exposed as the waters fall. The
same process takes places on a smaller scale in every field that is under

cxliv

water ; the exit is closed, and countless small fishes are taken/' In fact,

fixed engines are everywhere employed, even across some of the rivers as

in Goruckpur and Bustee, capturing" everything. But this is not all :

some fish are taken, as at Bustee, only to be wasted ; and likewise the

following is reported in the Koana river — "there is a trap under every

bridge that spans it, where fish are caught and slaughtered in numbers •/'

the water having become poisoned from some natural cause, "the fish

sickened and died in thousands ; on the up-stream face of each of these

bridges and traps, you would see millions of fish eager to get down past

the obstruction, and escape from the poisoned water. In a hundred yards

or so the river was a mass of living heads. The fish sickened and died in

a day or two, and birds of prey came from all parts to devour them. I

saw this myself, and heard that it was not of infrequent occurrence, and

that the dead fish were so numerous on these occasions that they were

carted off as manure/'' Then another amusement of the hill-people, or of

fishermen who resort there to ply their poaching trade, is thus detailed : —

"The poachers choose a spot where the stream and an old bed are in

close proximity ; both have good pools in them ; they fix nets right

across the stream about a mile or more below this spot. First, nets

with large meshes, and then nets with smaller meshes, and these nets

are kept down to the bottom with heavy stones. When the nets are

all ready, they dam up the stream and open a water-way into the old

bed ; the force of the water soon cuts a deep way for itself, and then the

late bed of the stream is left dry, except in the deep holes; all fish that

try to escape down -stream are stopped by the nets. The poachers then

take away all the fish they want, and leave the rest to perish gradually as

the pools dry up. I have sometimes seen the small fry lying dead, six and

eight inches deep, in these holes. The poachers in a day or two do the

same thing somewhere else lower down, and after a month or so, when the

fish have become accustomed to the new bed, they commence at the top

again, and return the sti*eam into its late bed," &c. These extracts will

suffice to show the causes of the asserted decrease of fine fish in this part

of India ; of course, with such wholesale poaching not only connived at but

approved of by some of the senior local authorities, other modes, as small

meshed nets, snatching, fixing ropes covered with hooks across streams,

&c, find few legal opponents. Thus the Commissioner of Kumaon

observes on prohibiting breeding-fish being unfairly captured during the

spawning season by the institution of close-months in the hills — " I do

not perceive how the hill-people would be benefited by allowing them

to go, as they would only come up to the hills during the close season ;"

and as all are eaten, he considers no waste occurs, whilst the rights and

amusements of these tribes should not be interfered with.

317. What is the proportion of the general population who would

„ „ , . eat fsh could they obtain it ? Owing to only

Mniority of Population may c o l\ l xi w „ *. j.

eat fish a tew of the answers to the questions sent to

the Tehsildars having been received, the

figures are not so complete as they might have been. In the Meerut

division, the Tehsildars of Bulundshuhur compute them at 60 per cent. ;

of Allyghur at 50 per cent.; in Bijnour 50 to 60 per cent. ; in Bareilly

and Kohilcund 75 per cent. ; and all but high caste Hindus in Shah-

jehanpur; in Kumaon apparently all the hill-people, and in the Turai

cxlv

most of the inhabitants. In the Benares division, the Tehsildars of Mir-
zapur compute the numbers at 60 per cent. ; those of Goruckpur and
Benares at 75 per cent.; of Bustee at from 75 to 90 per cent.; of
Azimg-urh at 80 per cent. ; whilst those of Ghazeepur give them as
follows : — one at 50 per cent., four at 75 per cent., and one at 80 per cent.
In the Jhansi division, there are no replies from the native officials to this
question, but the Europeans state it is not a staple article of food with
the people at large. In the Allahabad division, the Tehsildars of Banda
give them at 50 per cent. ; of Futtehpur at 60 per cent. ; of Hurripur
at all but Brahmins, Banias, and some Thakoors. In the Agra division,
the Tehsildars of Etawah compute them at 75 per cent., whilst in Mut-
tra the greater proportion of people are forbidden to do so by their reli-
gion. If we consider districts in which all the Tehsildars' replies are
given in a single figure as 1, we arrive at the following results : —

In 3 Tehsildarsbips 50 per cent, of the people.

1

»»

50 to 60

»j

>» »»

3

>)

GO

>»

?» •>

8

>»

75

»>

»» 9i

1

l»

75 to 90

»>

ft »»

2

»»

80

»»

?» J)

2

1)

all but hi

arh caste Hindus

Thus, out of 20 returns, 17 give more than half the people of the North-
West Provinces as not forbidden by their religion to eat fish.

._..-, ,. 318. How are the local markets sup-

Markets insufficient! v suppli- 7-7 • n j; i o t^i t i i A

ed with fish. " plied with fish f — Is thus replied to by the

native officials —

Sufficiently

in 13

Insufficiently

„ 23

Occasionally

„ 2

Doubtful

„ 2

Whilst in the Doon, it is observed that the markets are fairly supplied,
but the size of the fish brought is yearly decreasing. Those districts
where fish are not to be obtained have been omitted. Amongst the
European officials, in the Nynee Tal and Almorah markets a decrease, as
compared with former years, is said to be very noticeable.

319. Have the Jish in the waters increased, decreased, or remained
Fish in waters decreasing. stationary? Out of 17 answers, 6 report a

stationary state, and 10 a decrease, but some
of these latter consider that, owing to late heavy rains, the fisheries are
recovering themselves. I should mention that heavy rains wash away
fixed engines, which is the cause why fisheries in the years succeeding
floods are always found better than in previous seasons. Three Tehsil-
dars give, as a reason for a diminished amount, that it is " owing to the
indiscriminate destruction of young fry.-" In the Etawah Collectorate,
the fish in the Jumna are said to be decreasing, due to the irrigation
weir near Delhi. In the hilly districts, a very general decrease is reported
by the local European officials.

320. The fishermen of this province appear but rarely to follow

, , this occupation as a sole means of subsist-

i'lshermen, as a rule, also pur- .. i ±. i i -v i ,i

sue other occupations. ence> but meYe]Y as subsidiary to other

occupations.

k

cxlvi

321. Are breeding -fish and fry de-
Bree.ling-fish and fry <le- stroyed ?— They are evidently, and in every

stroyed. i • • • . i • ^ ., .J

division, taken in any way they can be
procured.

322. The modes of fishing are very diversified ; at para. 315, I have
,t .... , . enumerated some of those which are pursu-

Modes of fishing employed. , . ... l

ed ; — weirs across streams which are, or ought
to be, the highways for breeding-fish and their fry, both in the hills and
in the plains ; screens, fixed nets, and traps capturing breeding-fish and
their fry attempting to find an exit to rivers as the yearly floods subside ;
the damming of whole rivers in the hills diverting their courses, and
taking out the large fish, leaving the fry to perish. The placing of
strings armed with hooks across the usual run of fish so as to capture
some, but injure many ; the use of lines thus armed for the purpose
of snagging breeding-fish by which some are taken, but far more, barba-
rously wounded, wander away to die ; by knocking breeding-fish on the
head with sticks, or capturing them by any poaching practice as they go
up small streams in order to deposit their eggs. In short, by the taking
of fish from breeding to the most minute in every possible way, — a plan
which is said not to be waste, because they are eaten.

323. The foregoing appear to show— (1) that more than half the
c . people of the North-West Provinces might

eat fish could they obtain it ; (2) that the
markets are not sufficiently supplied; (3) that the fish in the waters,
especially of the hills and in the Jumna, are decreasing j (4) that there
are no restrictions against the most destructive and barbarous modes of
poaching ; (5) that breeding-fish are trapped everywhere ; (6) that fry
are killed, often wantonly, wherever obtainable; (7) that fixed and
unfixed nets with most minute meshes are used to destroy immature
fish; (8) that weirs and wicker traps with very fine interstices are
employed wherever they can be fixed, without any close time; (9)
that waters are dammed to obtain the fish, and (10) that they are
sometimes poisoned.

324. We now arrive at the reasons that have been advanced

for permitting matters to continue as they
Reasons for masterly inacti- i i • i u i i i i

vitv ave> a which would probably come under

one of the following heads : — (1) that fish
are not employed to any extent as food, consequently are not worth
legislative interference. This proposition is disposed of in paragraph
317, which would show that above half the population, which in 1865
comprised nearly 28 millions of people, might eat fish could they obtain
it. (2) That no wasteful destruction of fish occurs, so remedial measures
are uncalled for. This likewise cannot be maintained, as even were the
destruction of fry not waste, they are shown to be killed, but left to rot in
places, as in damming streams in hills, in weirs as in Goruckpur, and by
keeping up standing weirs, as in the Koana River, preventing the fish es-
caping from poisoned waters, and which, when so captured, could only be
used as manure. However, some officials admit waste, but (3) consider such
as a prescriptive right attained by long usage. To this, omitting the legal
question which comes under the next head, I will only answer by quoting
the opinion of one of the local officers : — "Prescriptive right to do wrong

cxlvii

things, or injudiciously exterminate a natural source of food-supply, has
only existed, because, until now, there has not been a Government strong
or civilized enough to control it. Thus ' suttee/ ' thuggee/ 'human
sacrifices' were all ' prescriptive rights' in their way, and had, moreover, a
certain amount of legal sanction, and yet, because they involved loss of
human life, they were very rightly swept away, and so can this right of
wanton destruction of human food be." (4) It is assumed that the
proved wasteful destruction of fish is a legal right obtained by license.
If the British law holds good, license gives no title, but is revocable at will
(see paragraph I 2) . (5) That anyhow, it had better be left alone for political
reasons. If such reasons do not exist in the Panjab, it is remarkable that
they should in the North- West Provinces, more especially as the Superin-
tendent of the Doon reports that the native land-owners are carrying out
restrictive measures with great success. (6) That the remedies are
impracticable. This being a matter of opinion, I do not propose advanc-
ing my own in opposition to some of those which have been adduced.
(7) That the police are such high-caste people, and the subordinate
natives, who would have to be employed, are so untrustworthy, they
would exercise unlimited extortion. This, being a matter of fact, must
likewise be left to the local officers, who have the supervision and control
over them.

325. I will now enter upon what measures would doubtless prove

most effectual, and I would suggest might be
eps. carried out in the North-West Provinces.

Fixed weirs, traps, or nets should be prohibited : in fishing-nets the
mesh should never be less than 1 inch between each knot; damming
waters for fishing purposes, whether hill -streams or flooded fields,
should not be allowed; fish passes to be placed in all irrigation weirs,
and the destruction of fish in all canals prevented whilst the water is
not flowing; snagging or poisoning of waters be likewise interdicted,
and some pools in all hill and minor rivers to be kept solely for
anglers; no netting allowed within 200 yards of all weirs across
rivers ; vermin to be destroyed. As regards close months, if they are
instituted in the plains, the first two or three months of the monsoon
are considered the most appropriate, but, with the abolition of fixed
engines, &c, they might be dispensed with, at least for the present. In
the hills it is different, and from July 1st to October 1st are considered
the most appropriate months.

326. As some officials oppose these steps, I would suggest, as an

intermediate plan for the present, what
Propositions for temporary mi^lt modify the evils which exist, No weirs

or fixed engines of any description to be used in
the waters from June 1st to November 1st inclusive, but when permitted to
be so, such must be in writing as a license, and that they never have
less than 1 inch between the knots of the meshes of nets, or the interstices
of the substances of which they are composed : irrigation works, as in the
last paragraph; damming, lading, diverting streams, or poisoning waters
for fishing purposes, to be prohibited : close months from net fishing' to be
instituted in hilly districts for three consecutive months of which one
must be July to be selected by the local civil authorities; snagging to
be abolished.

cxlviii

327. The Secretary to the Government of the North-West Provin-

ces* observed : — " The wanton destruction of

NOwnprov?LesG0Vernment ^ fish d°eS n° d°Ubt GXist t0 S0m6 extent> but> m

the Lieutenant-Governor's opinion, it would be

quite impossible to check it without introducing much greater evils, such

as, the opportunities of extortion, and their interference with the habits

of the people ; and the irritation that would be the result of any attempt

to do so would be serious. At the same time the annual recurrence of the

rainy season forms a sort of close season for the protection of the fish :

the supply of fish is not proved to be decreasing to auy material extent,

and altog'ether His Honor considers that there is no sufficient ground

for any special action on the part of the legislature/''

328. The Commissioner of the Meernt Division remarked: — "I think

it may safely be concluded that the propor-
• Opinions of European Officials tion of the population, who live by fishing as

a trade, is not large ; the proportion of per-
sons who have no other occupation than fishing as a means of livelihood
is small, but it is increased by others who resort to fishing at odd times,
probably in times when they have nothing better to do ; so far then as
the fishermen class is concerned, I do not think there is much to fear of
their efforts making any appreciable impression on the fish-supply. But
there is a fear that, unless the reckless system of wholesale destruction is
stopped, the fish-supply may become scant. There seem to be two main
causes which lend to this wanton destruction of fish ; the first is by reason
of the facilities afforded for doing so in the canals and rajbahars (irriga-
tion works), and the second is the absence of any check in respect of
rivers." He continues that nets or gratings at the head of canals will be
liable to be carried away in heavy floods, so proposes fish-ladders at each
fall. "The main points for consideration would be (1) to prevent dam-
ming streams for the purpose of catching fish ; (2) a limit to the size of
the mesh in nets ; (3) a close season, say * * from 1st July to 1st October,
seems to be essentially necessary, and catching fish within these dates should
be prohibited. The close season need not apply to every kind of fish, but
to those more generally used for food ; * * the limit to the size of
the mesh of nets would only stop the fry being caught, but the prohibi-
tion to damming or diverting streams would also prevent the wholesale
destruction which now takes place. " The Commissioner of Meerut
reported (October 29th, 1868) that there is no doubt that the most
wanton destruction of fish does take place, and that fish are disappearing
from the sub-streams of the Ganges and Jumna. Where 20 or 30 years
ago fish of 10 or 15 lbs could be caught, none are now to be seen except
fry, and such fry the native fishermen net and snare in every way at all
seasons. The Superintendent of Dehra Boon stated (January 29th,
1872) that "breeding-fish are destroyed in great numbers, and small fry
were, until lately, also largely captured. The breeding-fish are destroyed
in the commencement of the rains in every conceivable manner ; they
at that time run up small streams, and are there killed with sticks,
caught in nets, in baskets, in temporary cruives, by hooks fastened in
great numbers on to lines, and many other ways. Small fry are taken at

These reports were received October 10th, 1872.

cxlix

the end of the rains in baskets placed in fields at the outlets for irriga-
tion water; in the cold weather small fry are caught in nets of all kinds
having very small meshes. Streams are turned, the large fish taken out,
and the small fry left to perish. Waters are poisoned by which fish of all
sizes and kinds are destroyed. Formerly nets with every size of mesh
were used, but now, with consent of the laud-owners, it has been limited
to one and-a-half inches between each knot. I have found no difficulty
in regulating1 the size of the mesh. In all streams or lakes, where there
are large sorts of fish, no net with a mesh, less than that given above,
should be allowed. In places where there are only small kinds, smaller
meshes may be permitted, but very guardedly. No objection exists
to prohibiting the sale of small fry in the bazars ; it is quite easily
carried out; neither are there objections to preventing the catching of fish
in the hills for the first two months of the monsoon. This, however,
would be difficult in the Himalaj^as as the streams are all in Native
States. The Chiefs would, however, readily co-operate." The same officer
reported (December 11th, 1871) that "wasteful destruction of fish is
carried on to a fearful extent ; the following are the chief modes : — from
March to the beginning of the rains, streams are dammed and turned.
In this district the mountain torrents, when they burst from the hills,
have three or four different beds, all of which are full during the rains, but
afterwards only one ; one year the stream is in one of these beds,
another year another, and so on. The poachers choose a spot where the
stream and an old bed are in close proximity ; both have good pools
in them ; they fix nets right across the stream about a mile, or more,
below this spot. First, nets with large meshes, and then nets with
smaller meshes. These nets are kept down to the bottom with heavy
stones. When the nets are all ready they dam up the stream, and open
a water-way into the old bed ; the force of the water soon cuts a deep
way for itself, and then the late bed of the stream is left dry, except
in the deep holes ; all fish that try to escape down are stopped by the
nets. The poachers then take away all the fish they want, and leave
the rest to perish gradually as the pools dry up. I have sometimes seen
small fry lying dead, six and eight inches deep, in these holes. The
poachers, in a day or two, do the same thing somewhere else lower down,
and after a month or so, when the fish have become accustomed to the
new bed, they commence at the top again, and return the stream into
its late bed, catching all the fish in the new bed, &c. This used to be
one of the most deadly modes of poaching; besides this, during- the
above period, they were in the habit of using nets of very small meshes,
with which they caught the young fry of the big kinds of fish. In
conjunction with the zemindars, I have put a stop to these two ways
of poaching, and hence the number of small fry seen by Dr. Day ; if
he had seen the Song in 1SG8, he would not have seen the quantities of
small fry he alludes to, and if, when he did see them, he had had the
river netted, he would have found a total absence of fish four or five
years old." fMy report was in 1871, and as follows : — " The Song River,
one of the tributaries of the Ganges (uot replenished from melted snow, or
ice water), joins the main river a few miles above Hurdwar, and when
examined (February) contained but little water, except every here and
there, where deep pools existed. Owing to the clearness of the stream,

cl

I was enabled to distinctly distinguish its fish, and I may safely assert
that / never saw so many yearlings in the plains of India in such a small
volume of running toater. In one pool I counted upwards of 20 mahaseer
(last season's) about 6 or 8 inches iu length, and these were irrespective
of numerous other species of the genera Lubeo, Barbus, Rasbora,
JBarilius, and Belone. This was not merely in one spot, but all along the
course of the stream, which I followed for upwards of 2§ hours.'" The
foregoing enquiry and report were written by myself in entire ignorance
of Mr. Ross's most interesting endeavours to stop poaching on that stream ;
the papers furnished me at Allahabad clearly deemed poaching fish one of
the vested rights of the people which ought not to be interfered with,
and, whilst at the Song River, I expressed my surprise at its being so well
stocked, and the reason given me there was, " that the fish were rarely
molested, owing to the neighbouring rural population not eating them,
and the small sale there was for fish in the sacred town of Hurdwar."
It is now clear that the reason is not due to the abstinence of the
fishermen, but the rules of Mr. Ross and the zemindars.] This most
interesting and instructive report continues: — "The mahaseers com-
mence to run up about the end of March or beginning of April.
Like salmon and some other kinds of fish, they push their way up as
hi gh as they can get; the consequence is, that in June and July, you
will see ten and fifteen pound fish in little streams not more than a yard
wide ; these are all heavy with spawn, and fall easy victims to poachers.
In the hills in places where the streams ruu between narrow rocks, the
natives fasten a series of strings with sharp strong barbed hooks every
three inches ; a vast number of fish are destroyed in this way. The
hill-men also frequently poison the rivers. In the plains, at the com-
mencement of the rains, fish run up little streams and are easily
caught. "When the fish have run up and spawned, the young fry
are caught in myriads at the outlet for irrigation water in rice-
fields and elsewhere. All the above kinds of poaching can easily be
checked ; only four orders are necessary : (1) damming, turning, or
poisoning streams never to be allowed; (2) weirs and fixed engines
to be prohibited ; (3) no fish to be caught between 1st July and
1st October; (4) no nets to be used with a mesh less than 1^
inches from knot to knot. To these might be added (5) no fry of
fish to be sold, and no mahaseer under 31b in weight. These rules are
quite sufficient to prevent the destruction of fish by men, and can
be easily enforced; in fact, all the land-holders, through whose
estates the streams run, would combine with Government in enforcing
these rules. The penal clause need not, at any rate for the present, be
heavy. Rs. 50 or one week's imprisonment might be fixed as the
maximum punishment. I do not suppose it is within my province to
animadvert on the wholesale destruction of fish caused by canals, and
Dr. Day has pointed that out quite clearly." The Collector of
Sehanif/pore " has no remarks to offer on the subject." The Collector of
Meerut (February 22nd, 1872) observed that "there is no question
that considerable damage is done to the young fish, by the indiscrimi-
nate use of nets with extremely small meshes without any regard to the
spawning season, and in the smaller streams by the practice, freely
resorted to by the fishermen and others, of bunding up the streams, drying

cli

off the portion below, and then taking- out the larger fish, while the smaller
are left to perish. I do not think the establishment of a close season would
meet with any opposition. At the spawning- season fish are considered
impure and scarcely fit for food, and it is only the very poorest part of the
population that makes use of fish at that season. There would be little
difficulty in the introduction of a fixed close season, and this would greatly
protect the fishing interests.* * I think a close season from 15th June to
1st November would give a fair time for spawning, and the growth of the
young fry. The mesh I would recommend should be one inch and a half
from knot to knot, or perhaps even two inches. * * Small rewards for
crocodiles' eggs would aid in the extermination of those reptiles, and this
could be easily arranged for." The Assistant Collector of Meerut reported
that " as little fishing is carried on in the rains, the destruction of breed-
ing-fish and fry is not very great. No doubt, there is considerable destruc-
tion, for all fish, breeding or not, are, when caught, killed without distinc-
tion/' Difficulties would exist in regulating the minimum size of the mesh
of nets, and is "opposed to Government doing anything-, especially as regards
fry, because the suboi'dinate native officers and the police being- high-caste
men amongst the Hindu population, it would rest with persons, quite
unacquainted with distinctions in classes of fish, to decide as to what is
fry and what was not, while we may be sure that considerable oppression
would be exercised." The Collector of Idozuffumuggur (March 29th,
1872) reported — (1) that there is no limit to the size of mesh emploj^ed, but
that nets having very small meshes are used mainly for fishing jhils and
ponds, and nets with larger meshes for river- fishing; (2) that nature practi-
cally provides a close season for fish during the monsoon ; (3) that the con-
sumption of fish in the district is not excessive, and consequently, the
destruction of small fry does not appear to take place systematically.
" Except occasionally, when fields are flooded in the rains, there does not
seem anywhere, or at any time, to be any wholesale destruction of small
fry;" sees no practical difficulty in regulating the minimum size of the
meshes of nets, or prescribing a close season, but does not consider such
necessary in his district.

329. The Officiating Commissioner of Rohilcund observes, — " I

regret it is a subject to which I have never

in Rohikrd.Em'°PeaU °ffiCialS fcurned my attention, and that my own views

would be worth perhaps but little, but I
must state that whatever small degree of evil there may be existing-
from the present mode of catching fish, it is infinitesimal as compared
with the greater evil of instituting at present any remedial measures.
Any legal enactments prohibiting fishing at certain seasons, or the use
of nets with meshes under a certain size, and the measures and means by
which the law would have to be enforced, would be most annoying,
irritating, and dangerous. The size and areas of water in the main
streams of India are so great, that the amount offish taken out is
nothing- as compared with the stock remaining, and they need no protec-
tion. The inland streams and nallas, drainage lines, and tanks are
generally liable to be dried up in the hot season ; and unless we believe
in the popular idea, that during such seasons the fish hide themselves
deep in the mud, the catching and eating of the small fish, or ' fry, '
as it is called, is only bringing to use an article of food otherwise to be

clii

lost. As stated before, for political reasons, I think the time has not
arrived for interference, nor do I think any decrease of food-supply
has been proved, which should call for repressive measures." The
Collector of Bxulaon (February 23rd, 1872) reported, — " There is no doubt
that fish of every age, and in any condition, are captured in this district
in every season. I am not aware that there is any season especially
selected for this purpose. They are taken with drag-nets and casting-
nets, in baskets, and by damming' up the shallow beds of rivers, leaving
a passage through which the fish must pass, when they are without
difficulty caught. I have seen nets with meshes of3-i0thso£ an inch
between the knots, and I have no doubt smaller ones are used. I have
seen baskets where the interval between the straws is not more than the
thickness of cardboard. * * Very small fish are taken in the rains, and
also at other seasons. V\ henever water drains off the land or out of
streams, the water-holes are emptied of all the fish they contain. Nets
with meshes 3-10ths of an inch and baskets are used for fishing, and
very small fishes are thus captured. " " The classes who fish for profit
are chiefly Kahars and Bhatiaras." The markets are stated to be fairly
supplied with fish, which is eaten by all except the higher castes of
Hindus. The supply in the waters " is said to have decreased within
the last few years " " It appears to me that although complete protec-
tion to fish could not be afforded in the breeding season, yet that sufficient
protection might be afforded to ensure a future supply/'' A close season
is considered possible in the larger rivers, as fish ascend to deposit their
spawn, and" the size of the mesh might be restricted to 6-10ths or 8-10fhs
of an inch." But these measures, it is considered, would necessitate
the keeping up of an establishment for the purpose. The Officiating
Collector of Shahjekanpur (February 2-lth, 1872) observed, — " I have
seen very small fry caught during- and after the rains, by placing
strips of sirkee or other similar matting across water-courses, and at out-
lets of jbils. All fish of whatever size caught in the nets are used for
food. The supply is less in the winter than other months. " " If May,
June, and July were made close months, the supply of fish would be
likely to increase. Zemindars could usually put a stop to fishing in
their villages, if they exerted themselves, but it would require a special
law to enforce their duties/' The Collector, in 1S68, stated "he is of
opinion that an imposition of duty on fish would be the best course
to protect them, and prevent any wanton destruction." ["Levying a
duty or license on nets has apparently commenced to have this effect
in the Pan jab.] The Collector of Bijuonr (i860) reported that a wanton
destruction of fish is carried on to a certain extent in the Rivers Ram-
gunga and Khoh, by means of stake-nets, stretching from bank to bank.
He recommended licensing nets, and regulating the minimum mesh at
\\ inches between each knot. The Collector, in answer to the questions
circulated (March 2nd, 1872), answered, as to whether breeding-fish and
very young ones are destroyed to any great extent, — " I cannot speak from
my own experience, but from the reports furnished by the Tehsildars in an-
swer to the questions put to them, I think there can be no doubt that fishing
is carried on all the year round, and that all fish that are caught are used ;
neither breeding-fish nor any young ones can escape." The mesh of nets is
so small no fish can pass ; does " not see how it would be possible to regulate

c

1 " • "

llll

the size of the meshes, unless fishing without a license were forbidden ; in
that case nets might he examiued and stamped before the license was
granted." Considers Government employes and the natives of India so
ignorant as to the difference between fry and adult small fish, that the prohi-
bition against selling fry in the bazars could not be enforced. The Collector
of Moradabacl (February 29th, 1872) reported, — fish of every sort are caught
indiscriminately, especially in the rainy season. The smallest mesh, of
nets used is one quarter of an inch. " If meshes of less than one inch from
knot to knot are prohibited, other means will be sure to be adopted for cap-
turing the very small sorts of fish." One inch from knot to knot might
be adopted as the smallest measure experimentally ; but it is anticipated
such would give great dissatisfaction, and not remedy the real evil much.
Respecting what objections exist against prohibiting the sale of fry in
the bazar, — " Practically impossible, except with a large establishment,
to pick out the 'fry' of the better sorts of fish, and when caught, the fry
may just as well be eaten as be thrown away/'' The former Collector
(1868) observed that wanton destruction of fish takes place in this dis-
trict when fishermen go up in gangs to the rivers where they come out
of the hills. And that damming a river, and diverting it from its bed, with
a view of catching all the fish at one time for several hundred yards of
the stream, should, without express permission, be forbidden. The Offi-
ciating Collector of Bareilly (March 2nd, 1872) stated that breeding-fish,
and also fry, are largely destroyed on the waters subsiding after the rains,
in streams, small rivers and water-courses by nets and traps, the meshes
"not being large enough to admit a grain of mucca to pass through." He
continues, " I do not believe any restriction is necessary. I do not believe
in the alleged destruction of fish to an extent which requires interference.'"
" As far as my experience goes, and I have fished a good deal in the
Himalayas, the hill-streams are too powerful to admit of the capture of
fish in the two first months of the monsoon. Fish are slaughtered
wholesale in the dry months.'"

330. The Commissioner of Kumaon (I860) replied that in the

smaller rivers all the fish that can be caught
Opinions of European Offi- , meang &re j^^ . fche vilWrs du_

Cials in Kumaon. J J .... ,, •> . ° m,

rins: the cold weather and summer. Ihe
Commissioner (February 27th, 1872) observed that " the Tharoos who
live in the Turai spend much of their time in the rains in catching small
fish, and would be very discontented if their fishing were interfered with.
I consider that it would be unwise and unnecessary to stop the inhabitants
of the Turai fishing in any way."" He continues — large rivers are too ex-
tensive to suffer from any system of fishing. That up the small streams,
spawning-fish ascend and are killed by the villagers, all of whom try
to get what fish they can. That fish can only ascend during the rains,
and that for the last thirty years, he has seen that any fish, large or small,
that could be caught, has been caught, and that as the rains return, more
fish ascend from the plains. " If the fish that come up to the hills
are allowed to go down again, as 1 understand from Dr. Day's report, they
would do, I do not perceive how the hill people would be benefitted by
allowing them to go, as they would only cume up to the hills during the
close season. I feel certain that every fish, large or small, however
caught, is eaten — not one is wasted. And the villagers having from time

cliv

immemorial supplied themselves with fish in any way they could, I
would not recommend that this right £is it a right or a license, see para-
graph 129; and is it abused or not so ?] and amusement be interfered
with/'' To carry out any rules, lie considers that he should require a
large police establishment, the subordinates of which would be beyond
all control and of no use whatever. But that poisoning streams which
is only done in very little ones should be prohibited, and could be easily
carried out. The Officiating Senior Assistant, Commissioner of Kumaon,
Major Fisher, remarked (January 29th, 1872), that "both breeding-fish and
very young ones are destroyed in this district to a very great extent, so
much so that the absence of them as an article of diet in the Almorah
and Nynee Tal markets, as compared with former years, is very notice-
able, and it is a comparatively rare thing now to see good fish for break-
fast, even at a European table. The destiuction of fish and their absence
now from some of our large rivers, such as the Surjoo in the Eastern,
and the Ramgunga in Western Kumaon, is equally noticeable. In parts
of these rivers, where a good angler could take his six or eight fish of a day,
averaging from 6 to 12 lbs. each, the same man would not now take 2,
although the angler of to-day has many devices in the way of artificial
baits, which the sportsman of former days had not/' There are three
or four ways of destroying young and large fish : (1) by a heavily leaded
cast-net, the fisherman wading waist-deep into the stream to employ it.
(2) " By the use of a stout cord, thrown right across a stream ; to one
end is attached a short stick for a man to hold, whilst the other
end of the cord is held slackly by a man on the opposite bank. Then
two men generally stand on commanding rocks, overlooking some deep
pool where the current is not rapid. The cord itself is armed with large
iron hooks at intervals of two or three feet, being each of them about the
size of one Used in a patent weighing machine. The cord, thus armed,
is kept about 18 inches or two feet, sometimes deeper, below the sur-
face of the stream. Some men now go down below the pool, and with
bamboos or poles stir up the fish from below, whilst, at the same time,
the water from this process becomes muddy. The half-blinded and
frightened fish make for the deep water of the pool above, and as they
pass over the cord, the man holding the stick, jerks the cord with great
skill and strength, and many a fine fish is hooked by the gills, or the
tail, or through the lower portion of the stomach : as to the Kumaon
it is immaterial how, so long as the fish is landed. This process not only
destroys large numbers of fish, but wounds and injures very many
others which go away only to die. (3) By placing at intervals from three
to four feet, on a weir used for irrigation purposes, conical-shaped baskets,
the point of the cone being below, and the open mouth of the cone on
a level with the weir. This device is chiefly successful at night.
The baskets are generally placed in portions of the weir where the stream
is strongest, and an unwary fish coming too close to the weir finds
himself hurled into a basket from which it is quite impossible to
escape. It is needless to point out how injurious this process
of destruction is to the ascent of fish before the breeding season,
and their descent when breeding is over; practically, it requires a very
clever fish to go up for breeding purposes, and return to the point start-
ed from uninjured, for it has to cross and re-cross several of these

civ

weirs both on its journey up and down stream. (4) A way of destroying
fry , chiefly resorted to by boys, of damming up small streams, but not
worth any detailed notice/'' Otters, and a large siluroid fish, are also men-
tioned as doing some little injury. " The seasons in which most fish are
destroyed are during summer when the water is very clear and the
river low, and again in the winter, after the monsoon has subsided, and
the rivers are reduced to their ordinary level. The smallest-sized mesh
of the nets employed in Kumaon are from half to three-fourths of an inch
between knot and knot. They are chiefly used to catch the small fry which
swarm on both banks of a river during the hot months, and also to take fry
which have been left in ravines running down to a river, or in stagnant
pools when the river has subsided to its natural bed after the monsoon/'
No difficulties are anticipated in prohibiting- the sale of " fry in the
bazars of Kumaon, because I do not believe there is any class of the
community iu towns, dependent solely on this description of food, and,
if I remember rightly, the practice is already prohibited in some muni-
cipalities without causing public inconvenience. The advantage is
that sales of fry being prohibited, the supply, and with it the destruc-
tion of fry, will at once cease in all streams within marketable distance
of bazars." Fence months, it is suggested, should extend from 1st
April to 1st July. The question of jwescriptive rights is thus alluded to :
" the prescriptive rights of the people will possibly require legislative
action, but it is quite time the ' common-sense principle" was declared
once for all, that no people in the world, other than savages who do
whatever pleases them, have a prescriptive right to do anything which
destroys or diminishes a spontaneous source of food. The same prin-
ciple lias been applied in the use of water and timber : why should it
not be applied to so important an article as human food ? If compen-
sation must be given, then let it be; it only shows what the State is
obliged to be responsible for, b}r too strict a respect for these so-called
1 prescriptive rights/ the people themselves will be the eventual gainers,
and on these grounds alone the legislature should take the matter in
hand at once. Prescriptive right to do wrong things, or injudiciously
exterminate a natural source of food-supply, has only existed, because,
until now, there has not heen a Government strong or civilized enough
to control it. Thus ' suttee/ ' thuggee/ ' human sacrifices' were all
prescriptive rights in their way, and had, moreoveiv, a certain amouut
of legal sanction, and yet, because they involved loss of human life,
they were very rightly swept away, and so can this right of wanton
destruction of human food he." He proposes (1) a close season from
1st April to 31st July, in each year, for all fishing other than rods; (2)
the minimum size of the mesh of nets to be ] j inches between knot
and knot, and the prohibition of the sale of fry in the bazars; (3) that
the forest patrols or special police enforce a close season ; (1) that fixed
traps at weirs, and cords with hooks attached, as above described, be
prohibited ; (5) that a system of licenses be established to pay for a
conservancy establishment. The Officiating Senior Assistant Commis-
sioner, Gurhwal (December 23rd, 1871), reported that almost all classes
use fish as food when procurable. " The wholesale destruction of fish
and their fry commences in these hills. The rivers and streams here
are the breeding -grounds of the mahaseer, kalonce or kala-banj, and

clvi

other fish which ascend them in the rains to spawn. Not only are
large fish destroyed on their upward and downward route, but the fry
are caught wherever they are to be seen. Moreover, the rivers are so
dammed up by weirs made on purpose to catch fish, that they cannot
always ascend to their spawning-grounds, and fall an easy prey to the
people, who are on the watch for them. There are several modes of
catching fish ; the principal are netting ; by weirs with one exit, at which
a wicker basket or trawl is fixed ; and. by snagging, or as it is called the
'raksba/ fishing with rod and line is rarely practised. Netting is
carried on at all times of the year, but chiefly during floods, when the
water is dirty, and the fish come to the edge to feed, or when the water
is very low indeed. Weirs are erected as soon as the monsoon begins to
cease, and they remain in existence till carried away by the first floods
in the rains. They are placed usually at the tail of each pool, and there
is almost always one at the junction of two rivers, thus entirely pre-
venting fish running up till the weir is carried away by a flood.
Snagging is, in my opinion, by far the most uselessly destructive method.
It is carried on as follows : — Two men, one on either bank of the
stream, hold a long and strong line between them. To this are attached
several large hooks, between each of which are fastened flat pieces of
stick, so placed as to keep the hooks with the point upwards. The hooks
are allowed to sink to the bottom, and when a fish, working his way up
stream, comes over the hooks, the man on the higher bank jerks the
line, and very frequently transfixes the fish. Of course, many fish must
get away maimed ; but 1 have seen numbers, amongst them mahaseer of
15 to 20 lbs. weight, caught in one pool in this manner. All villagers
living along the larger rivers pursue this method during the cold
season when the water is clear, and very few large fish can escape them.
Were it not for the damage done by maiming fish, it would not be so ob-
jectionable, as what are caught are eaten ; but as it is, I think it a perni-
cious plan, and one which almost completely clears the fish out of the
deep pools where they rest during the cold season/' Some villages have
purchased the right to catch fish thus, but they must be few. Large
quantities of fry and small fish are said to be destroyed in the numerous
small streams, and interference might create dissatisfaction. " That the
number of fish is decreasing is well known and acknowledged, so
much so, that the people living high up one of our rivers, an affluent
of the Aleknunda, complained to me that owing to the number of
wreirs, they found that very few fish can find their way up as far
as their villages. Being a fisherman myself, I too can testify that
in some rivers where there used to be first-rate rod-fishing, it has
greatly deteriorated in the last few years, while the size of the
iish lias also decreased." The following are Captain Garstin's
propositions: " (1) that no weirs be allowed at the junctions of
rivers; (2) that every weir should have in the deep stream an
escape, which should never be blocked up by nets or wicker baskets ;
(:S) that no weirs should be allowed where the people have not a distinct
recorded right permitting them to erect one; (-1) that there shall be a
close season from netting, during the months of July, August and
September ; (5) that snagging be prevented wherever the people have
no recorded right allowing of it ; (6) that a certain number of pools

clvii

in every river shall be held public property, in which no means of
catching' fish, save by rod and line, should be practised. It may be
urged that the first three points infringe on the rights of the people ;
but, on the other hand, such rights must militate against the welfare of
the majority, and not only prevent the proper increase of fish, but also
damage the rights of others living aloug the same stream, but higher
up, by preventing fish reaching them. £" But a fishery is, in its nature,
enjoyable wherever the fish have a free passage. The right of a ri-
parian owner may be injured by the acts of other riparian owners, both
above and below him, but more frequently by those beneath him, seeing-
that fish are in some way connected with, and come from the sea." In
India, the large rivers to which mahaseer resort during the dry season
would stand in the place of the sea in England, and their migrating
up those hill-streams to breed is necessary to their due propagation.
" If, therefore, one riparian owner fix a net or erect a weir which en-
tirely obstructs the fish, he necessarily deprives the upper riparian
owners from deriving from the water one of the uses to which they
are entitled. Though one riparian owner may by fishing- by net
or rod at all hours, and, by means of servants and assistants, almost
use up the fish as effectually as by keeping fixed nets, this kind
of user could not properly be a cause of action, just as one owner,
who has a large number of cattle, would not be liable to an action
at the suit of another who has no cattle, and so takes no use of
the water. But it is otherwise where a total obstruction occurs. Hence,
even independently of any statute, any fixed apparatus in a river or
stream, which prevents the fish going- up to the other riparian owners,
is a good cause of action at common law, as it deprives him of one of the
natural riparian rights." Paterson, Fishery Laws of the United Kingdom,
p. 43 ; also Lord Ellenborough gave the following judgment : — " Though
twenty years' acquiescence may bind parties whose private rights only
are affected, yet the public have an interest in the suppression of public
nuisances though of longer standing ;" and such he ruled weirs to be.
Likewise, although the public have indulged in license from time im-
memorial, it gives no right in fishing. " A license of fishing is distinct
from the right of fishery, and is at most only a justification for what
would otherwise be a trespass. A license is revocable at will, and in
order to be binding, even for an hour, must be granted by deed," Pater-
son 1. c. p. 57.] The right of erecting weirs was not, I believe, carried
on to the same extent in former days as now. They were not then so re-
gularly or so generally made, and were not of the same impassable na-
ture as those now erected. For I have seen some which none of the
fish inhabiting these rivers could possibly pass. Besides, where a mat-
ter becomes one of public importance, as the preservation of fish is,
surely the rights of private parties, especially when in the minority,
ought to give way. In the hills, too, a fishing right does not bring
in much pecuniary advantage, as fish are not sold to any great extent ;
and by somewhat curtailing it, the only hardship inflicted would be,
that the possessors would not be able to destroy fish to the extent they
now do, and yet would always be able to get sufficient for their wants,
while an equal supply would be available through the whole course of the
several rivers." Considers it would be very difficult to regulate the size

clviii

of the mesh of nets, so would prohibit netting from July to September
inclusive. Respecting- the 6th proposition, " it is one that might be
easily carried out, as there are numbers of pools on all rivers which be-
long to no one, but which are netted and weired. Any such might be
declared public property, and all fishing, except by rod and line, prohi-
bited. " Levying licenses, it is considered, would not answer, as such
would require a large establishment to see it carried out. Otters do not
destroy fish in the proportion man does, and offering sufficient rewards
would be very expensive. "If rules for the preservation offish are
introduced, there must be punitive measures also, as without these no
amount of rules will have any effect on the natives. The punishments,
to be of any avail, should be heavy, as the difficulty in bringing home
offences is so great that light punishments would have no effect."
" The rivers in which rules are to be enforced should be publicly proclaimed,
as some, such as the Aleknunda, Pindur, and other snow rivers, are of
such a nature that fish cannot easily be destroyed. It is the warmer and
shallow streams which are the spawning-beds, and where the greatest
mischief is done. A small establishment might be necessary for patrol-
ling, but these could be paid out of the fines. Even if Government
had to pay them, considering the benefit that must eventually arise from
the preservation of fish, the money would be well spent. In conclusion,
I would add that I have not, owing to the nature of the district, been
able to give statistics in support of my argumeuts; but having taken a
considerable interest in the matter, and knowing the amount of unne-
cessary destruction that is caused to fish, I feel sure that unless some
measures are taken for their preservation in our hill-streams, the better
kinds, which have already decreased in quantity, must soon become very
scarce ; and my opinion is not only based on personal observation, but
on what I have been told by the people themselves." The Superintendent,
Tnrai BlsU'ict (January 20th, 1872), observed — that the pergunnahs
forming this district stretch along the foot of the Himalayas, having
nowhere a greater width than 14 miles. They are traversed by streams
which debouch from the hills; whilst, in the pei'gunnahs themselves, rise
numerous springs, which, increasing in volume, finally, as nallas, fall
(some in the Turai itself, and some in the country to the south) into
these hill-streams. The streams from the hills are dry during the hot
weather, and the discharge from the other rivulets is but small. The
greater number of these smaller streams are used for irrigatiou, and for
the cultivation of rice. This was formerly done by the erection of large
earthen dams, which, backing up the waters for some distance, formed
places favourable for fish. An escape permitting a free passage for fish
generally existed. On sanitary grounds these bunds have been re-
moved, and only dug-out channels are now permitted. The whole com-
munity, except a few prohibited by caste, are consumers of fish, which
are generally caught by the Deemur caste, but others, when at leisure,
also employ themselves in this pursuit. Amongst the Bhoksas and
Tharoors, the whole inhabitants of villages will go together at a time
hunting for fish. With the exception of the " roh," "sol," and "kerril "
the fish spawn in Asarh, but these do so in Chait. The mahaseer are
so few they are not worth taking into account. The three fish men-
tioned are the only ones fit to eat according to European taste. All

clix

these fish are said, during latter years, to have become scarce, but
it is attributed to the removal of the dams. [It is a very remark-
able circumstance that a reason is always found to account for a
decrease of fish, and that reason is rarely put down as man ; it is too
little or too much rain ; but fishing-weirs totally impeding- any passage
to spawning-grounds, capturing breeding-fish, or destroying the fry are
omitted from the category.] During the rains numerous small fish are
caught in the fields and gools. "I do not think it would be advisable
as regards the Tnrai to impose any restrictions, and for the following
reasons. The tract is excessively narrow (14 miles), and the fish found
in it of little value, the result of any conservancy would be trifling;
fif 14 miles length of rivers existing between the hill where fish ascend to
breed, and the plains to which they descend in the cold season, ought to be
permitted to be poached by fixed weirs, it is difficult to understand why
fish should be protected anywhere. Here is their road, — is such to be
open or closed ? — should all narrow highways be blocked ?] the waters are
insignificant; the removal of the earthen dams has, I believe, enabled the
fish to pass to and fro, and any fishing in the Tuiai rivulets can have
little effect on them." He continues that small fish are the chief object
of the fisherman's labour, and were catching them prohibited, perhaps the
agriculturists would migrate.

331. The Commissioner of Benares — Replied (in 1869) "that fish

are taken at all times of the year, irrespective
Opinions of European Officials ot- the spawnmg season, which must seriously

in the Benares Division. m ±t • » *r ,J

affect their increase. In answer to the
questions now circulated, the Commissioner (May 20th, 1872) reported
the supply of fish may be said to be unlimited throughout large portions
of- the district, owing to extensive jhils ; considers the rainy season as
practically a close one, whilst regulating the minimum size of the mesh
of the nets, to be effectually carried out, would lead to the obvious evils
of interference by untrustworthy subordinates, but the sale of the fry
of fish might be stopped by municipalities in the bazars. The
Magistrate of Goruckpur (February 28th) observed on the destruction
and waste of fish, — " It is sufficient to remark that the natives catch
fish all the year round, at all times, and in all places, without any
regard to the spawning season and the mixture of the fry, to show that
great destruction must be committed. Their greediness also in sparing
nothing, however small, which can contribute towards a meal, is an
equally strong evidence of waste. It is even said that the mallahs
and keioats dig the spawn of fish out of the banks of rivers (see
paragraph 166, p. xcii), and after preparing it in a certain manner, either
consume it themselves, or offer it for sale. Small auxiliary waters are
the chief scene of this destruction, and the chief agent is a dam, called
chilwan, which is stretched across a stream, and catches all the fish,
however small, which may descend, while at the same time it entirely
interrupts their ascent. 1 have inspected two of these dams constructed
in the Rohan Nuddi at Domingarh, and have carefully examined their
construction and operation. The dam chilwan- resembles a screen
made of common reed called surput ; the reeds are so close too-ether
that the smallest fry can hardly get through, and the dam is further
plastered at its foot with mud and strengthened with matting, chataie,

clx

so that no passage exists for anything-. Iu midstream the screen opens
into a long and narrow passage walled and floored with the same
materials; and this terminates in a basket, named Jcotera, which is a
hamper made of reeds, into which a small orifice in the side gives
admittance to fish beneath the surface of the water, whilst the lid remains
above the surface, and is opened from time to time for the removal of the
spoil. As the water hardly finds its way through the interstices of the
screen, it rushes in a strong current along the passage, carrying the fish
with it, and a fall from the passage into the basket precludes all chance
of escape. The months during which the greatest destruction of fry
and small fish takes place are Sawan, Bhadon and Kuuwar. A consider-
able quantity is taken all over the surface of the inundated country,
both by means of traps, and nets, called jheenguree, a casting-net, and
eenligdree, one which is spread over the irrigated fields, and dragged
along the ground. It is called eenliyaree because it has small pieces of
bone and brick attached to it, in order to attract the notice of the fish.
The small size of the ordinary mesh in nets is another important feature
in the progress of destruction. Being only a quarter of an inch or less
between the knots, it suffers very few fry to escape. The tehsildar of the
sudr tehsil remarks that there has been a continuous decrease in the
supply of fish in this district for the last twenty years/' It is proposed —
(1) to regulate the minimum size of the mesh of nets ; (2) that a close
season be instituted extending over the breeding period, and whilst young fry
are moving about ; (3) that the sale of fry be, as far as possible, prohibited ;
(4) that the construction of fishing dams be checked or regulated; if
permitted, they should not be used during the breeding season, and never
constructed of such close materials as at present ; (5) that nets and
dams be licensed; (0) that rewards be given to informers ; (7) that the
destruction of spawn should be penal ; (8) that a small force of peons be
entertained to see the regulations carried out. The Collectoi of Bustee
(January 13th, 1872) reported, — "I believe, no doubt, here as well as in
every other part of India, the fisheries are not used to the best advantage,
and that if well-considered restrictive measures were introduced, the supply
of fish might be immensely increased." " Fish are killed, more or less,
throughout the year, but the largest numbers are taken towards the end of
the rainy season. As the waters fall, countless lakes or pools of all sizes are
formed on the low land by the rivers. These, which were, during the
floods, mere extensions of the streams, now become lakes with one narrow
exit to the river. Across this nets are stretched, or a weir of grass
constructed, and every fish that has wandered up becomes a certain prey,
being either caught at the weir, or left exposed as the waters fall. The
same process takes place on a smaller scale in every field that is under
water. The exit is closed, and countless small fish are taken. The
smaller streams, too, are dammed up, through their length, for irrigation
purposes; and when no more water is required, a small opening is cut in
the dam : a basket, or most frequently a grass screen, is put in the opening,
which prevents the very smallest fish passing, and thus every one is
killed. But it is useless to detail what may be seen in almost every
district. During the rains it appears to be an instinct with every fish
to ascend the stream, even when there is barely sufficient water to cover
them, and having thus got into danger by resorting to the shallowest

clxi

waters, they are assailed in every possible way by nets of all kinds and
of the very smallest mesh, and by fixed engines of the most deadly
nature, which, when once set up, remain permanently, without even the
weekly open time so strongly insisted on in England, and with the water-
way often closed, not merely by a net, but by a screen of reeds placed
so closely together that none but the very smallest fish could get
through. In this district which is low, and very swampy, the numbers
can be renewed every rain from the rivers, but I have often wondered how
any fish of the smallest kind could remain in. j Mis such as I have seen
in Oudh. There are numbers there, often miles from a river, which
I have seen dragged with the smallest meshed nets, so as to take appa-
rently every fish two inches long ; then emptied of their water in Feb-
ruary for irrigation, and yet after the bed has lain dry from February
to June, there are again next year apparently as many fish as ever.
Poisoning of the water is said to be another means of destruction, but I
have never known it done intentionally. I remember hearing in the
Humeerpur District that it occurs naturally every year. The Bela Tal
at Jeitpur is formed by an embankment across a low valley, and
the course of a small hill-stream lies through it. During the hot
weather this stream becomes almost dry, only retaining water in holes
in the midst of the jungle. These holes become full of dead leaves,
and with the first burst of the rains, the putrid contents are swept
down into the lake. The consequence, I was told on the spot, is, that
numbers of fish are perfectly stupefied and float on the top of the
water, an easy prey to any one who will take them." [This is a very
interesting instance of destruction of fish which at these seasons may be
occasioned by one of the three following causes — (1) mud in waters, (2) the
action of infusions of dead leaves or fruit, due apparently either to simple
putrescence, (3) orjelse to the leaves or fruit having an inherent poisonous
character.] " There can be no doubt that the supply is said, in many
places, to be falling off, though this is not the case here as yet, and that
if a proper remedy can be found, it might be largely increased.'''' As to
close seasons they should vary in different localities ; it would do great
good, and during April and May fishing should be prohibited. There
would be great difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, or to
decide upon what are fry, were their sale prohibited. Mr. Hobart reported
of this district (see para. 334) — " In Bustee, and I believe in Goruckpur,
manorial rights exist in fisheries, in the innumerable tanks, jliils and rivers
there are very valuable, while cases of dispute about them are of daily
occurrence. There, there is undoubtedly a most wanton destruction of
fish. I remember the Koana used to overflow its banks yearly, and
millions of fish used to come into the quiet waters of the lagoons lying
near the stream. There was a system of staking the mouths of those
lagoons, when the water fell in the river at the end of the rains, as the
fish tried to get away. Except the very large fish, which leaped the
artificial barrier (and it was more than four feet above the water), the
rest of the fish were slaughtered in tens of thousands, and an incalcu-
lable waste occurred. Had the fish been gradually killed and sold, the
plan has its advantages ; as it is, it requires restriction very badly.
Again, in that same river, especially in the remote parts, there is a
trap under every bridge that spans it, where fish are caught and

I

clxii

slaughtered in numbers. I have never heard of poisoning berno1 used
as a means to capture fish there, but I remember seeing the stream
poisoned naturally. At the end of the cold season some rain had
fallen, and had washed the forest leaves into the water, which turned
from this, or other cause, to a dull red colour. The fish sickened
and died in thousauds. On the up-stream side of each of the
bridges and traps I have mentioned, you could see millions of fish
eager to get down past the obstruction, and escape from the poisoned
water. In a hundred yards or so, the river was a mass of living heads.
The fish sickened and died in a day or two, and birds of prey came from
all parts to devour them. I saw this myself and heard that it was not of
un frequent occurrence, and that the dead fish were so numerous on these
occasions that they were carted off as manure. This is certainly a
crying evil and demands a remedy. * * Legislation is called for in
Bustee." The Officiating Collector of Bustee (April 4th, 1872) remarked : —
" It is during and immediately after the rains that a very large number
of small fish are taken. The whole country becomes a swamp during
the rains, and when the waters subside, every field that has been flooded
becomes the scene of slaughter. Most of the fields here are surrounded
with a high bank, to keep up the water, if necessary, for the rice, and
the cut at the lower corner of this is obstructed by a basket or grass
screen ; this effectually prevents the escape of any fish, and as the water
runs off, they are left exposed." " There can be no doubt that the mesh
used is as small as can conveniently be made. There is hardly a method
of fishing which is not practised, except, indeed, fixed engines in river-
beds. These could not be permanently employed to any great extent,
for the yearly floods would sweep them away." Nets of all sizes and
shapes are used in the rivers, but the greater part of the fishing is carried
on in the lakes and shallows formed by the overflow of the rivers.
Where the waters are shallow and drying up, bunds are erected and fixed
traps placed, as in the outlets to rice-fields ; nets and all kinds of devices
are employed, and finally the remains of the water are baled out ; thus
nothing escapes. In smaller pools water is baled out into a channel ;
a screen is placed there ; the most minute fish are unable to get away.
Should lakes communicate with large rivers, the channels are embanked,
and as the water subsides every fish is taken. " The only method, not
practised to any extent, is poisoning the water, and this indeed could
hardly be carried out effectively here, for it requires a running stream
to spread the poison through the pools, and shallows below, where the
fish may be picked up. Considers too great difficulties exist to regu-
late the size of the mesh of nets, and would give rise to extortion ; the
same difficulty would be in the way of prohibiting the sale of the fry
of fish in bazars. The Collector of Mirzapnr (February 12th, 1872)
observed : — " My own opinion is, that if the Government resolve on
interfering with the present practice of fishing, that interference should
be very limited in its extent, and confined to such large rivers as the
Ganges, Jumna, &c, which pass through civilised and rich countries,
the inhabitants of which will be better able to appreciate the motives
of Government. It will be unfortunate if any further measures of an
unpopular character are introduced this year on the top of the income
and acreage taxes, the commutation of jaghirs, and the census, and I am

dm ft •
Xlll

quite sure that however limited the restriction on fishing- may be, it will
be looked on with disfavour and dissatisfaction, and the machinery which
will have to be used to restrain fishermen will not be the least burden-
some feature of the measure. Supervisors and a host of chuprassies will
have to be let loose about the country, who by their rapacity and
oppressiveness will cause a measure of usefulness and ultimate profit
to be hateful to the fishermen, and indirectly to the consumers of fish.
If it is objected that the measure can be carried out by the existing
Police force and Tehsil establishments, as probably it can be, then every
fisherman in the district will be under the eye and dependent on the
favour of the Police or Revenue establishments. And the result is plain
to see — not a fisherman would be in favour with these officials, unless
the tables of the latter were freely supplied with fish, &c. The fact is,
in this part of the country, there is enough fish for all who want it, and
to spare, and there is no need whatever for any change of practice, and
I strongly deprecate any interference whatever " [With such strong*
opinions of reprobating action in a question which he admits may
" cause a measure of usefulness and ultimate profit," it is to be regretted
more reasons are not adduced to show if any regulations are needed,
and if so, what such ought to be. The following notes, however, are
forwarded, which do not seem to prove that the fisheries are well cared
for in this district.] The Assistant Collector, whilst repeating- the above
objections, observes : — " In this district breeding-fish and very young
ones are undoubtedly destroyed indiscriminately to a very great extent.
In the Ganges and other rivers, in tanks, ponds, flooded lands, &c.,
principally during and after the rainy season, by nets of all sorts, by
rods, by traps, by draining off water, and so stranding them, or lading
them out, and in some places even by poison. The meshes of some of
the nets used are no larger than a small pea." If the minimum size
of the mesh of nets is regulated, such should only be in force for the two
or three months following the breeding season, but " the people concerned
will look upon legislation on this subject as a new interference with, and
an unfair restriction of, their rights/'' That no objections exist against
prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars, which would be easily put in
force, at least in the principal bazars. The Officiating Collector of Bena-
res (January 11th, 1872) observed: — "Although it is doubtless true that
both breeding-fish and very small fry are extensively caught, the result
of enquiries instituted by me does not prove that there has been any
observable diminution in the supply of fish in the city of Benares
during the last few years." Hindus, except Baishnus and Jains, use
fish as food, as do also the Mahomedans, with this reservation that the
Shias reject the scaleless forms. A belief appears to exist that during
the hot weather and rains fish are not so wholesome as during the cold
months. " Amongst the Brahmins, I am informed that about 25 per cent,
eat fish, while amongst the rest of the population, 75 per cent, may
safely be put down as fish-eating." The larger kinds of fish are sun-
dried and salted at certain seasons, and are almost wholly sold to
Bengalis. About 50 maunds of fish per diem are consumed in the
district, except in April and May, when the supply is largest. " (1)
Breeding-fish are extensively destroyed in this district, also very young
ones, but the latter only in the rivers and streams. (2) From the

clxiv

months of March to June, breeding-fish full of roe are extensively caught
by means of the nets in ordinary use. From July to September, young
fry are caught, but they are not specially fished for in this district; in-
deed, in talabs belonging to private parties, I am informed that special
care is taken not to destroy the fry at this season, but that frequently these
talabs are replenished with young fry caught in the rivers. (3) The
smallest size of mesh used is so small as to arrest the most diminutive fry."
If the minimum size of the mesh employed is fixed, complaints are
anticipated, but no objections are known against prohibiting the sale
of fry in the bazars. The Collector of Ghazeepur (February 9th, 1872),
being only new to the district, considered it better to forward a memo-
randum submitted by Mr. Joseph Smith, Deputy Collector, who reported
as regarding whether there is any great destruction of breeding-fish
and fry? " J believe this question must be answered in the affirmative.
I cannot say that the destruction is greater or less than in any other
district, but I have seen very young fish destroyed in very large num-
bers. I have seen baskets-full of fry carried past the Gara Bazar on
many occasions, containing very small fish, an inch or 1^ inches long,
and have little doubt a good proportion of these would be absolutely
wasted from the want of purchasers or consumers. What were left
would be thrown out as refuse ; it is stated that fish are recommended
as a manure for vines. As for breeding-fish, I do not think the slightest
attention is paid to the season in which they are caught. A native fisher-
man would not hesitate to catch fish in whatever condition it was,
provided he could sell it or eat it." They are taken " in every
manner, wherever possible, and at all times. I have seen hundreds
caught with a small hand-net on the banks of the Ganges in front of
my own house. Many basket-nets are used in irrigation channels and
the outlets of jhils, &c." Difficulties are considered to exist in regulat-
ing the minimum size of the mesh of nets, due to the " prying it would
entail into the houses of those who kept nets, and the untrustworthy
character of the subordinate native agency through which it would
have to be done. It would open another door to bribery, which it would
be impossible altogether to prevent, and hard to detect and check.
I would have no net less than 1^ inches between knot and knot. Pro-
hibiting the sale of fry in bazars would be an interference with trade,
as there must be a demand to cause a supply ; but this objection loses its
weight in this case, where a valuable source of good wholesome food
is being destroyed wantonly, or at least becoming scarce. Close seasons,
it is considered, could not be effectually carried out." " There is no
doubt crocodiles destroy large quantities of fish, and might themselves
be destroyed with very little trouble. A small reward would cause the
production of numbers of eggs, and a larger one would result in the
destruction of many of the mature reptiles." As regards who eat fish ?
" With two exceptions I can hear of no class or race of the inhabitants
of this district that does not use fish as food. Brahmins, Rajputs, and
all classes are allowed to eat it, that is, they may if they like, and
would not be turned out of caste for so doing. The two exceptions are
(1) Bhaguts, and similar persons who are under a vow ; and (2) Agur-
wala Baniahs. I was surprised to hear that these latter are prohibited
from eating fish, and must confess I never heard it before, and I cannot

clxv

discover any satisfactory reason for this prohibition ; the only one given
is, that it has been the custom from all time. I am assured, however,
that an Agurwala Baniah would be turned out of caste for eating fish,
while a Brahmin would not be. " The Collector of Azimgurh (May
13th, 1872) observed that at his " request Dr. Wood, Civil Surgeon of
Azimgurh, has drawn up a very full and interesting memo, on the
subject which I enclose." (I omit transcriptions from it, as it will
be referred to.) " Much of the water-supply is diverted for irrigation,
or otherwise dries up by evaporation, and it is then that the principal
destruction of fish and fry eusues. But it appears to me that
this destruction is unavoidable from the nature of the case, and that
unless we are prepared to prohibit irrigation from these streams and ponds
when the water is low, a proposition which could not be seriously enter-
tained ; " &c. f neither has it ever been proposed, that I am aware of, any
more than the existence of fixed engines for the destruction of the fry of
fish, at every outlet in flooded fields, has been advanced as necessary for
purposes of irrigation.] He considers it would neither be just nor
expedient for Government to interfere with present customs, whilst
rewards for crocodiles would only result in the expenditure of a con-
siderable sum of money. Is "totally averse from all interference in
other parts of the district." Any measure would necessitate establish-
ments which, "it is to be feared, would be mere engines of oppression and
extortion. Further, the adoption of protective or prohibitive measures
would everywhere give rise to general misconception and misapprehen-
sion of the views of Government, and foster those feelings of discontent
which the taxation of recent years has undoubtedly engendered." The
memo., drawn up at the request of the Collector by the Civil Surgeon of
Azimgurh, is very discursive, but the following are a synopsis of his
replies. As to whether breeding-fish or very young ones are destroyed
to any great extent ? Of " those fish spawned and matured in the
district, that is, those found in jhils and their offshoots, ** when the rains
cease, the temporary streams gradually lessen and dry, and then it is the
destruction of fry takes place. Then the fishermen most exert them-
selves, and by the employment of nets, and they often of a most minute
mesh, catch wholesale fairly grown fish and fry alike. There is no doubt
that by such practice much waste is caused." He goes on to define this
waste that if the fish were permitted to grow, more food would be avail-
able ; still he does not think this waste, because they are actually consumed.
" Damming is said to be the favourite method of fish, or rather perhaps
fry, killing. Very common and very fatal is the construction of small
dams and embankments into which the water is first led, and then
drained off, leaving the fish ; * * these are generally fry, high
and dry, an easy prey to the village children, in these cases very frequently
the depredators. These fish, however, are also used as food, and seen never
to glut the market." In large rivers during the rains, netting is stated
to be impracticable ; that subsequently the mesh is " 4 inches from knot
to knot." " When these rivers overflow their banks, and that is no
rare occurrence, then considerable loss of fry and fish life results, as the
water, retreating, leaves them stranded on the higher ground ; but even
these are not actually lost or wasted, as the lower caste people collect and
consume this, thus so easily obtainable, staple of food." " With respect

clxvi

to the fishing in the Gogra, special conservative customs prevail. From
May to September is regarded as a close season, and all fishing by nets
is abandoned, it may be because impracticable.'" [If this gentleman's
statements were thus tested, I fear that he would soon ascertain some
error must have occurred, viz., fishing in the Gogra to be prohibited from
May to September, and when such is permitted, all nets to have a mesh
of 4 inches between each knot. He holds, if fry are eaten, capturing
them is not waste, although " the fry and fish by any and every way
obtained are all consumed, and are not in excess of the need of the
people '" if so, it must be " waste" to destroy so much young life. What
would be considered of such an argument as this — "a nation of savages,
who possess large herds of cattle and live on animal food, find it
becoming scarce, yet they eat all their young lambs and infantile calves.'"
Would common sense not think such waste ? The only analogy I can see
to such arguments as are adduced, would be what an Andamanese might
bring forward, as they cut down trees to obtain the fruit, regardless of
next year's supply. Are we to take them as onr model ?]

332. The Commissioner of Jhansi (May 3rd, 1872) observed — that

the district of Jalom possesses no lakes,
iaT%Z£$SS?°°ida' and the only river is the Jumna. In the

Lullutpur district the only streams which
contain fish of any size are the Betwa, Sujad, Sujnam and Jumnee,
and their beds are, as a rule, too rocky to admit of the use of large
nets ; indeed, these rivers appear to be but little fished — the Dheemurs
and very lowest classes alone living on the produce. There is little,
if any, wasteful destruction ; the real enemies of the fish are the croco-
diles, otters, and fresh-water sharks which abound in the largest and
deepest pools. At present no rules for the preservation of fish are
necessary : the population is scanty and scattered. Great numbers of fish
are undoubtedly killed during the spawning season in the small streams
and feeders to the lakes when they should not be disturbed. It might
prove advantageous elsewhere to prohibit river-fishing from June to
October as suggested by Mr. Sturt, but it is not necessary in Bundlecuud
where fish cannot be said to form the staple food of any class of the
people, save the Dheemurs, and they are not a numerous body. The
Deputy Commissioner of Jalom (May 7th, 1872) reported: — "Breeding-
fish and very jroung ones are indiscriminately caught, and very young
ones destroyed to a great extent. This destruction goes on at all
seasons by netting, weirs, &c. Meshes of different sizes are used, but
the usual mesh is about a quarter of an inch." The difficulty in regula-
ting the minimum size is that such " would revolutionise all ideas of native
fishermen on the subject, and meet, therefore, with much opposition.'" The
Deputy Commissioner of Lullutpur (December 27th, 1871) remarked, —
" All the information I have been able to collect tends to show that
fish is not an article of diet sought for or used at all generally by
the inhabitants of the district ; that where it is so used, it is amongst
the lowest classes, such as Chumars, Dheemurs, &c" "The river
Betwa and its tributaries, viz., the Jumnee, Sujnam and Sujad are our
fish-containing rivers. In all but the last, there are large quantities of
mahaseer of all sizes, but these, I may say, are literally never caught,
unless it be a dozen or so yearly by European officers with rod and line,

clxvii

ami perhaps an equal number shot by the thakoors." In the dry season,
as the rivers become low, fish in the pools sustaiu injury from crocodiles,
otters, &c. The A ssistant Commissioner observed in a memorandum :
" The river-fish enjoy comparative safety from the Dheemurs (fishermen)
whilst they are in the deep pools of the big rivers, but are a prey to
crocodiles, otters, &c. During the rains they run up the tributaries to
spawn, and a great number meet with destruction on their return down
to their permanent haunts, not only by nets, but other contrivances
by which they are shut up in small pools of the tributaries, and
subsequently destroyed wholesale by the drying up of the pools,
netting, or even poisoning them. The lakes in this district have not
been allowed hitherto to run dry, and the only destruction committed
on fish is in the rainy season, when they run up the feeders of the
lakes, and go down the escape-weirs, when of course none of these
can escape destruction one way or the other. Tons of the smaller
description of fish are killed during the rains when they try to escape
out of the lake, but their preservation, I think, is not of much
consequence." For the river-fish, a close season, from June 15th to
October 1st, is proposed, when net-fishing should be prohibited ; also in
the rocky pools of the smaller rivers to which they resort for breeding
purposes. During the rest of the year, the minimum size of the mesh
of nets might be limited to lj inches between each knot. The following
is a list of the principal fish found in the rivers and lakes of Bundle-
cund : " Mahaseer" (Barbus tor), " Kursowur" (Labeo calbasu), "Bissar"
( Cirrhina mrigala), " Rahoo" (Cirrhina roliita), " Bawus" (Catla
Buchanani) , " Koorsa" or " Khoorsee" (Labeo curchius), " Sinia" or
" Phubs" (Surpoothee, Beng.) The above not living on their kind.
"Sour" or " Gujal" in Bengal, " Sourlee" (Ophiocephalus) , "Pareen"
(Wallago attu,) commonly known as the river shark, "Tengra" a siluroid
(probably (Macrones aor, but " Tengra" is a common term for a siluroid) ;
"Lambur" (Eita), " Galur" or " Golalee" (Barilius), "Papta"
( Callichrous) , "Butala" (a carp), "Buchooa" (Pseudeutropius.) The
foregoing are said to live on their kind.

333. The Officiating Commissioner of Allahabad (August 7th,
. . 1872) reported: — "All castes eat fish except

££Z22£lSS£? **»£S »*■* »? a few of the Tl.a-

koors. Shiahs reject scaleless nsh, as prohibited
in the Koran, but it is not a popular food, and appears to be sought for
chiefly by the poor, as it is cheaper than any other kind of animal
food. There are none who practice fishing exclusively as a calling." " The
supply is fairly equal to the demand." " There is no close time, and
no size or condition of fish is spared; the spawniug-fish and the
smallest fry are alike caught ; there are nets used with meshes small
enough to retain the smallest." " Every imaginable kind of net,
trap, and snare is used. Wagiug war against such fish-destroying animals
as crocodiles appears to me absurd. It would be equally, or more
advisable, to proscribe frogs and paddy-birds which eat the spawn and
young fry, and probably destroy far more fish than the crocodile ; and
further, I have no doubt at all but that a general destruction of
crocodiles would directly frustrate the end hoped for by their destruction.
Their very presence in numbers, it being given that they live on fish,

clxviii

shows that the supply of fish is abundant, which is all that any one
requires, and Nature in these matters, if left alone, keeps the balance
even, and resents interference. ([Are irrigation weirs and canals which
destroy fish wholesale, as at present constructed, to be deemed natural
causes ? If not, why is inactivity recommended ?] It is presumed the
crocodiles consume alike the rapacious kinds of fish, and those that are
not rapacious ; if, then, they are destroyed, the rapacious fish lose a great
enemy, and their increase being unchecked, they must prevail against
those kinds that are not rapacious, and this latter class happens to in-
clude mahaseer, ruhoo, mullet, and the choicest kinds of the river pro-
duce. The crocodiles had better be left alone." fThe remark that it appears
absurd to kill crocodiles requires attention. Some reporters are opposed
to it, because of their usefulness as river scavengers, or the cost which
would be entailed by offering rewards for their being killed, but
this is the first time that their destruction has been deprecated on the
ground that they assist in the conservation of fish, because they kill
the rapacious as well as the non-rapacious sorts, and that if they
did not do so, the former would rapidly preponderate. One little
fact is here overlooked, viz., that both classes of fish are equally
used as food, and no reason exists why man should not equally
capture either, and thus employ as food what now goes to nourish
crocodiles. Also, surely if it would be absurd to kill crocodiles that de-
stroy mature fish, it would be equally so to wage war with frogs and
paddy -birds, as it cannot be supposed that they discriminate the spawn,
whilst they are said to probably destroy far more fish than the croco-
diles— thus the absurdity would be increased. Really, here poor Nature
also is rather unfairly treated, if she resents interference in killing noxious
animals, why are not tigers left alone to keep the balance between man,
cattle, and the soil from which they derive their food ? Why do human
beings object to poisonous snakes assisting in such laudable undertak-
ings ? In fact, epidemic diseases are natural causes or effects, and as yet
it has not been generally ruled that they should be permitted to hold their
sway, to keep the balance even. Lastly, the assertion, that the mahaseer
is not a rapacious fish, does not coincide with the views of fishermen, as
live bait are generally most killing in the hands of the sportsman.]
Interference "is not required ; it would not be understood ; it would be
costly and meddlesome, do harm, and no good at all." " I think his
(the Collector of Allahabad) inference has escaped the observation
of those officials who have suggested inquiries into these subjects,
that if you enlarge the mesh of the nets, so as to allow small fry to
escape, the young of the rapacious kinds and their victims both escape
to live on each other, so they may as well be caught young." ([Really
to carry such an argument to extreme limits, it might equally be urged
to poison all the waters ; then all the rapacious fish will be destroyed ;
of course the destruction of the others would be overlooked by such
advisers.] " If any legislation is required anywhere, it can only be
near the sources of our rivers, where weirs are constructed, but even
there a weir can do but little harm, and in no river have we more than
one large weir, or are likely to have." £ First, the facts here stated are
erroneous ; secondly, the argument founded thereon do not appear more
correct than the facts. Weirs are of two kinds, irrigation and fishing ones ;

clxix

taking the Jumna as an instance, and I could adduce more, it possesses
the Okla one below Delhi, and the Karra one higher up for the Eastern
Jumna canal, and a third for the Western. If fishing ones are alluded to,
I would refer to the reports of officers in the hill ranges, and fishing-weirs
are more numerous in many rivers than here stated. That these weirs can
do but little harm, I also refer to the reports from local officers who have
watched their effects. My personal opinion is in accordance with that
of the British law, that fishing-weirs are a public nuisance.] The Col-
lector of Jompur (20th March 1872) observed : — "This district is traversed
by the Goomtee and Sair, and it is from these rivers chiefly that the
supply of fish is drawn." " The supply of fish rarely exceeds the demand,
and often, especially in the dry season, falls far short of it." " Fishermen
assert that of late years the supply of fish has decreased." "The cost of
fish has undoubtedly increased." The breeding season is that " when
most fish are taken ; both breeding and very young ones are captured
without limit or reserve in the streams, and during the rains in the
open fields." Tanks are stocked with fry obtained at this period. A
close season might be imposed, and the months of Jeth and Asarh
would be the most appropriate. The Officiating Collector of FiUtelqmr
(March 22nd, 1872) reported that breeding-fish and very small ones
are caught to a great extent, by nets and hooks, mjhils, tanks and
rivers during the rains ; the smallest size mesh of the nets being
almost £ of an inch; no regular fishing class exists. The Collector
of Allahabad (April 8th, 1872) remarked that " there is no doubt
that destruction of fish of all sizes and at all seasons of the year takes
place, especially in the Ganges and Jumna, not only by fishermen, but
any persons who can get hold of a hand-net. This is particularly prac-
tised after a flood, when it is by no means uncommon to see small fry
being captured by traps, hand-nets, &c, in the small rivulets from
which they are trying to escape into the river on abatement of the
floods." The smallest mesh employed is said to be \ of an inch, and
that there would be no difficulty in regulating it at 1 \ inches. The chief
destructors of small fry are crocodiles and fish of prey. [When I
was at this town at the commencement of February 1870, a deficiency
of fish was complained of, and as I went daily to the markets, I think
I may personally agree that the complaint was well founded. The fisher-
men asserted that the supply had decreased of late years and the de-
mand increased, whilst the same views seemed to be held by the vendors
in the market. At the height of the monsoon, or the end of July and
the commencement of August, I was likewise at the place, and found
a varjdng amount of fish being brought to market, spent fish were being
sold, also young fry as fine as a straw, of species which attain a hundred
or more pounds in weight. Thousands of young fish were being daily
captured, whilst the poverty of the river, as giving a sufficient supply,
was being complained of. The cause was obvious, and the remedy is
as clear.] The Officiating Collector of Ihmipur (February 6th, 1872)
replied that " breeding-fish and very young ones are not destroyed to any
great extent in this district. What fish are taken are caught in the
Jumna and Betwa Rivers, and in tanks. The smallest size of mesh em-
ployed is so small that a grain of gram cannot pass through it. There
would be little difficulty in regulating its minimum size, as there are

clxx

none who make a living solely by fishing, consequently there would
be little objection raised/'' "The destruction of crocodiles' ecjgs might
be secured by the offer of a suitable reward." " Whatever regulations
it may be found necessary to introduce in other districts could, of
course, be introduced here; but there is not in this district such a
wanton desecration ( ? destruction) of fish as to diminish the annual
supply, or endanger a natural source of cheap food for posterity.'"
The Collector of Banda (August 2nd, 1872) observed that " fish abound
iu the district : the fish market in the town of Banda itself is over-
stocked with fish of all kinds during the rains, but the supply is
deficient during the other seasons of the year ; * * the breeding-fish and
the young fish are destroyed in large quantities in the nallas, streams
and rivers ; the extent is variously estimated, and may be said to vary
from ^rd to \ in the rivers and perennial streams, and from ^ to frd in
the other streams and nallas." The smallest mesh used is jth of an inch
from knot to knot. Would not recommend any action in future, either
as regards the mesh of nets, the sale of fry in the bazars, or the de-
struction of fish during the breeding season. The Officiating Collector
of Cawwpore (April 25th, 1872) replied : " I have the honour to observe
that, as far as my knowledge goes, I am unable to corroborate the im-
pression that the fish of the rivers in the parts of India I am acquainted
with, are decreasing in quantity. The arguments for the probability of
such being the case, derived from the analogy of a decrease in certain
kinds of fish in English rivers, are not generally applicable to the con-
dition of things in India. In the ordinary consumption of fish as food,
only an inappreciable part of the myriads which come to maturity every
year is destroyed. * * The State has on its hands as much as it can well
undertake, in carrying through public measures which are not supported
by the public opinion of the country. I would suggest that any proceed-
ing so unpopular, as the prevention of fishing, might with advantage
be postponed, until the minds of the people are in a more settled con-
dition than is the case now."

331. The Commissioner of the Agra Division (in 18G9) says that

he attributes the opinions expressed by the
OffiSTn thf Agra UiST district officers rather to their imperfect know-
ledge of the subject than to any ascertained
data, and observes upon the great destruction of fry which takes place
in the vicinity of large towns. In answer to the questions circulated,
the Commissioner (February 23rd, 1872) replied that there is " no reason to
apprehend that any wholesale destruction of fish goes on in these parts.
A close time might no doubt be introduced by law for the protection of
fish during the breeding season, but it does not appear to me that it
would be easy to carry out such a measure, or that there is any compen-
sating object to be gained. * * For the rest, it is a useful maxim — de
minimis non curat lex — minute legislation is unbefitting our position iu this
country, and more likely to expose our Government to ridicule than to
lead to any results of important benefits to the people ; * * it is in the
highest degree undesirable that the public mind should be disturbed by
gratuitous interference on the part of an alien administration, enforced
by not very trustworthy agency." The Collector of Furruckabad reported
(February 13th, 1872) that "the principal season for catching fish is

clxxi

from the end of the rains to February or March. They are caught also in
the hot weather in favourable places, and in the rains when practicable,
but the water is mostly too heavy then for any serious damage to breed-
ing-fishes. Their fry are largely caught as the waters subside after the
rains. It is a common thing to see men and boys scooping- up the
muddy water from the drying pools in the hollows of their hands, and
letting it run through again, whilst the fry remain in their palms. The
fry and small fish are also caught with small meshed nets, and with
coop-shaped basket or khanchas." The supply is considered to remain
the same. Fish-ladders to irrigation weirs and tanks, into which they
could retire as the canals are dried, are considered the most necessary
measures proposed for preserving fish. "Any effective measures for re-
ducing the enormous numbers of crocodiles in our rivers would do much
more,"than any restriction on fishing, to increase the quantity of fish in
them. The destruction of crocodiles' eggs could no doubt be extensively
effected by the offer of an adequate reward. But any such scheme, to
be of use, would have to be carried out not only in these provinces, but
all down the lengths of the rivers which traverse them ; otherwise, so
fast as the crocodiles were destroyed here, others would travel up and take
their places from below.'" Close seasons and regulating the minimum
size of the mesh of nets are considered impracticable, as they could not
be effectually enforced. The Officiating Collector of Etawah (February
16th, 1872) observed, that " no doubt breeding-fish and very young ones
are destroyed to a large extent in all places where there is water and
they can be got at. Nets are largely employed, but they are also killed
with sticks in the shallow water, and even caught with the hand : some
kinds are shot. The smallest sized mesh of the nets used here is ^rd of
an inch square. Great difficulties, it is considered, would militate against
regulating the minimum size of the meshes of nets, or prohibiting the
sale of the fry of fish in the bazars." Were close seasons decided upon,
from June to August are suggested as the most appropriate. " The only
pi-eventive measure that could be enforced without much difficulty is,
I think, the prohibition of all weirs in the smaller rivers and streams."
" If Government will give a reward for crocodiles' eggs, there is no doubt
that plenty of eggs would be brought in : but otters are quite as formid-
able to fish as crocodiles, and there is also an animal called fsuV or 'sus-
mar' (porpoise) which preys on fish, and these seem to require as much
attention as crocodiles.-" The Collector of Agra (February 13th, 1872)
replied, that he had no personal knowledge on the subject, and therefore
expressed no opinion. Mr. Adams (in 1869) reported, respecting Agra,
that in his " opinion a wanton destruction of fish does take place. In
the cool of the early morning, when the fry swim about the banks of the
river, a class of boys are in the habit of dredging for prawns and
shrimps, and then great quantities of fry are thrown into baskets."
The Assistant Collector's memo, on the subject was enclosed. He observed
that the Agra market, he believes, is supplied with fish all the year
round. The Collector of Muttra (February 13th, 1872) reported : —
" I cannot but think that the destruction of fish, through cap-
ture of breeding-fish or fry, bears a very small proportion to the
injury caused in this part of India by canals. I have seen much
of the Ganges and Jumna canals that run through Meerut, and

clxxii

I know that in Loth, quantities of fish are annually destroyed when the
canals are allowed to run off. I have watched the first rush of water
let in, and have heen astonished at the shoals of fish brought down by
it. One instance I recollect. I was at the Mussoorie fall on the
Ganges canal in the Meerut district, when I saw hundreds of mahaseer
come down ; they were all carried over the fall, as they had been over a
dozen higher up between that point and Hurdwar, not one of which
could by any possibility have got back again up the canal. Such a
constantly recurring drain on the supply of fish in the head-waters has
naturally produced a great diminution in the numbers of the species
of fish, and as it is the one most generally taken by the Europeans, the
loss is more apparent. But I have little doubt that this injury to other
descriptions of fish is equally great. There are only two ways to
prevent this injury : the first and best would be by opposing some obstacle
at the head of the several canals to prevent the ingress of fish, or if
this is impossible, then to construct ladders at the different falls to
enable the fish to re-ascend the canals." £l would here point out that
this alone will not be sufficient. All destruction of fish should be totally
prohibited during the time the canals are closed, because fish only migrate
upwards at certain periods, and these may not coincide with the closure
of the canals; as the water becomes lower, the ladders will be useless
as no water will pass over them, and the fish be retained in the deep
holes, consequently they will need protection at that time. The fish-
ladders will be eminently useful to permit fish migrating for breeding
purposes, and so continue their species. Mr. Watson's most interesting
report distinctly shows how fish are now carried over impossible ascents ;
fixed engines in small water-courses act in the same way when breed-
ing-fishes are seeking shallow spots wherein to deposit their spawn, and
for this purpose push their way into irrigated fields, &c.J He continues —
" If either of these plans were adopted, I have no doubt that the fish-
supply, so far as it is injured by the canals, would soon regain its former
condition. I have never seen the system of poisoning waters carried
out, but there can be no doubt that it is a most pernicious one, and oug-ht
to be declared illegal." The destruction of crocodiles is not approved of,
first, because they are the scavengers of the rivers, ^crocodiles of the
genus Crocodilus, doubtless, are also scavengers besides destroying fish,
but the true fish-eating crocodile, Gavialis Gangeticus, and which is found
in the Indus and all its affluents, the Ganges and Jumna and their
feeders, also in the Brahmaputra and Mahanuddi, &c, entirely lives on fish,
and is never a scavenger ;] secondly, because of the difficulty. " In fine,
I would advocate fence months, a regulated size of mesh according
to license, with removal of all fixed engines, and prohibition of poison-
ing/' The Deputy Collector of Etah (February 6th, 1872) replied, that
there is little or no fishing carried on in this district, but he gives a very
interesting account of Bustee (see para. 331).

335. The answers from the Native Officials, as a rule, are vague,

incomplete, or not sent : most of those re-
Answer from Native Offacmls ceived have been collated, in doing which

not complete. . . , T . ' i , i *

more pains would have improved them. As

a sample, I give the following. In answer to the question — are the markets

fully supplied with fish, or could more be sold? — one Collector condenses

clxxiii

the replies of the Tehsildars into " yes." Thus, much will have to
be omitted.

336. In the Meerut Division, the answers of the Tehsildars in the

Doon are thus given : — There are no people
Replies of Native Officials in h bgist on fishi as a sole occupation,

the Meerut Division. ,lT^, in*- • • , i

but Kahars and Myras engage in it when not

otherwise employed. The markets are fairly supplied, but the size of
the fish brought is yearly decreasing. The average price of fish
is 1|, and of mutton 2i annas a seer. All classes eat fish occasionally,
but none depend upon it as food : a great decrease has occurred within
the last 6 or 8 years. Nets with minute meshes were used, but for the
last two years 1| inches between the knots has only been allowed. Fish
are trapped in irrigated rice-fields by cultivators for their own consump-
tion. The Deputy Collector of Dulundshulun condenses the native reports,
and adds the information he has personally collected. Breeding-fish
and their young are destroyed here as elsewhere, only inasmuch as
they are not discriminated from other fish. Waters are not poisoned,
neither is much fry destroyed, because the consumption of fish is but
limited, as few depend upon it as a principal source of food. " The
spontaneous fish which appears in the tanks and pools is caught and
eaten by the poorer classes, but apparently with no great eagerness.'"
The rainy season is the most prolific of fish in the pools, and the smallest
mesh of the nets used is \ of an inch between the knots. The natives
generally recommend that the minimum size of the mesh of nets should
be equal to a rupee. He gives the replies of Tehsildars as follows : — There
are not above 12 or 15 families who subsist on fishing, but about 2,000
Kahars, Mullahs, Aberias, who also pursue other avocations, likewise do so.
More than two-thirds of the population, or three lacs of persons, have no
religious scruples to eating fish, the supply of which in the waters has
remained stationary of late years. " The smallest size of the mesh of nets
is somewhat less than \\ inches from knot to knot." fJust previously,
from personal observation, he stated the size to be \ of an inch between
the knots.] The amount of fish consumed yearly in the district is
computed at more than 2,000 maunds. The Tehsildars of Allygurh
report that there are 39 Malhaia caste fishermen in the district who do
not follow other occupations, whilst there are many others who do. The
local markets are not fully supplied with fish, the price of the larger sorts
averaging 1^, and of small 1 anna the seer. First-sort mutton fetches 2,
and second sort 1-9 a seer. A little over half the population, or 488,000,
belong to castes who do not object to fish as diet, the supply of which
in the waters is considered to have remained stationary. Small ones are
not taken in any quantity ; the smallest size of the mesh of the nets being
^rd of an inch. Fish are not trapped during the rains in irrigated fields.
The Tehsildars of Meerut observe that in Baghput there are no exclusive
fishermen; in Haupur 20 ; in Meerut about 100, but 40 of these have
other occupations, and only fish during the cold season ; in Gazeeabad 20,
but some of these are not solely fishermen ; in Mowana none; in Sirdhana
about 50, who occasionally fish. Their castes are (1) Mussulmen,
particularly of the Belooch division ; (2) Kahars, who are constantly
dabbling with water in getting boriyas (matting materials), planting
singharas, &c; (3) Kolis ; (4) Kathicks. The supply of fish is equal to the

clxxiv

demand, large ones obtaining- 2 or 1£, and small ones 1 anna a seer.
Bazar mutton of the first sort fetches 2, and second sort 1^ or 1 anna a
seer. The proportion of fish-eaters is not clearly defined. The amount of
fish in the waters has continued stationary except in the Ganges, where a
slight decrease is reported, and considered due to the irrigation canal.
During the rains fish are usually considered unwholesome. The smallest
mesh of the nets is given at |th of an inch between the knots. Fish are
taken in irrigated fields during the rains. One mode of capturing fish
is erecting a bund or embankment across a stream or pond, leaving only
a single small opening where a net is placed. The fishermen with sticks
beat the water ; the frightened fish make for the opening, where they are
captured.

337. In the RoMlcund Division, from Budaon, no replies have been

received to the questions for the Tehsildars.
Answers of Native Officials j th Momdal)a(l Collectorate, 6 Tehsildars

have sent in replies which have been con-
densed. The number of persons who are strictly fishermen by trade are
about 5,000 ; these men also work as bearers, &c. Besides these, there are
hundreds of other men, women, and children, who in the rains either
employ or amuse themselves in catching fish. The fishermen are mostly
Hindus, but there are a few Mahomedans. The supply of fish in the
markets has fallen off since 1857, but during the last two years has
slightly risen a little, due to better rainy seasons. During the rains fish
costs about half that of the flesh of sheep and goats, whilst in the cold
and hot season the price of the two is much the same. It is estimated
that about f of the people eat fish, nearly all the Mahomedans, and all
the lower castes of Hindus. Amongst the Brahmins, Kunojias only eat
fish generally. Baniahs say they do not, but they do at times. The
amount of fish in the waters is said to be much less during the last
12 or 14 years than formerly ; very small ones are taken in quantities
during the rains. £ of an inch between the knots of the meshes is given
as the minimum size employed. Fish are not trapped in the irrigated
fields. The local fishermen do not ply their trade in the Ganges, but
drag the back streams and pools left by the rain floods. In the BareiUy
Collectorate, the Tehsildars compute the fishermen at about 12,109; they
have other occupations likewise ; they are Kahars, Buttiaras, Cheereemar,
Kulbooteea, Gooreea, and Pasee. About 48,050 maunds of fish are
believed to be consumed during the year. The amount in the waters is
stated to be stationary ; very small ones are captured during the rains
with cane-nets having minute meshes, and by other contrivances. The
meshes are not sufficiently large to permit a grain of mucca to pass
through. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains.
Fish in the villages are commonly bartered for grain in certain proportions.
In the Shahjehanpur Collectorate, the Tehsildars report that Kahars
amongst the Hindus, and Buttiaras amongst the Mahomedans, are the
fishing castes, and live a good deal on their fishing. All other classes except
Khutrces, Agurwala Banias, Brahmins with the exception of Kunojias,
habitually eat fish with other food, the annual consumption of which is
set down at between 30 and 40,000 maunds. The largest amount of
fish are taken from August to December, in less numbers during
April and May, and occasionally during the remainder of the

clxxv

year. The kinds of nets generally used are as follows : — ghoonowa,
a common cast-net, with a mesh one-third of an inch, made of cotton
thread; bhukkowa, a larger kind, with a mesh of one-half inch, and
constructed of hemp string ; pnndi, a drag-net for small fish, made of
cotton thread, with a mesh to one-third of an inch ; ghaseeta, a larger
sort, of hemp, and meshes of one inch ; juleea, a net, with meshes of
one-third of an inch, is stretched between two bamboos, and dragged
along by two men j julka, a large drag-net, with equally small meshes,
made partly of cotton, and partly of hemp ; kurhera, a still larger
one, with meshes of one inch ; binhore, used in nallas ; it is made of
cotton thread, and has meshes one-third of an inch and less ; tuppar,
is a net fixed at the bottom of a bamboo cane frame, which the fisher-
man uses in shallow water, its mesh is one-third of an inch ; hoorcha,
a conical basket open at both ends. In the Bijnour Collectorate, the
Tehsildars report that there are about 12 or 1,800 fishermen, all of whom
pursue other occupations as well. There are (1) Mussulman Kahars, also
(2) Hindu Kahars, (3) Buttiaras, (4) Joolahas, (5) Mullahs, (0) Sir-
khooles, a wandering gipsy tribe. The supply in the local markets is
insufficient, more fish could be sold : it is eaten from between 50 to 60
per cent, of the people, viz., all Mussulmen, and all Hindus except
Brahmins, Banias, Sonars, carpenters, black-smiths, Bishnoees, and
Gooj urs. About 2, 7 0 0 maunds of fish are computed to be yearly consumed ;
the amount in the waters has decreased of late years : small ones are
taken during the rains by nets, damming streams, and letting the water
carefully off so as not to permit the escape of any, or should an opening be
left for the passage of the water, a net is fixed across it ; lastly,
by digging holes close to the edge of a stream, and filling them with
rotton singharas, the smell of which attracts the fish, and they jump in.
The minimum-sized mesh employed equals that of the holes in an attah
(flour) sieve. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains.
338. In the Benares Division, the Tehsildars of GorncJcpur report

that three-fourths of the population eat fish,
m Answers of Native Officials d gome of th cagteg make {t the chief ^

in the Benares Division. _ , . _. . , . . .

ot their diet ; none avoid it entirely except

the Agurwallas and Khutrees, and the class of persons called Bhagats or
" abstainers," who entirely abstain from animal food. The sect <>f
Vaishnavars are all " abstainers," and so are several castes belonging to
the Shivas. The poorest classes eat small fish instead of meal or flour
of any kind. It is calculated that 118,096 maunds of fish are yearly
consumed in this district. Scarcely any class of people are solely fisher-
men, and even they are also boatmen or agriculturists, but a large num-
ber of castes employ themselves in it more or less. One Tehsildar reports
the supply in the markets as equalling the demand, but five others
state deficiency to exist. The Tehsildars of Bustee observe the fishermen
follow other occupations as well. Men in almost every village catch
fish, more or less, according to their opportunities. They also cultivate
land near the waters which become exposed as the floods subside, or else
take a lease of the water produce. Where, as at Bukhra, the lake is of
very large extent, some members of the family will be entirely occupied
in fishing, or in gathering the reeds, whilst others devote themselves to
the fields on the shore. In other cases, cultivation may be the primary,

clxxvi

and fishing* only the subsidiary, occupation. Two Tehsildars estimate
the fishermen at 4,500; the others give no answers. All the fish brought
to market are sold, so " it may fairly be presumed that more could be."
The percentage of fish-eaters is given at from 75 to 90 per cent, of the
population. The minimum size of the mesh is stated at " about the size
into which a finger could pass." One Tehsildar, however, limits this to
" the little finger of a child ten years old." Damming is extensively
employed (see para. 331), as is also the use of every form of fixed engine.
" Where the bottom is too weedy to be netted with effect, and there is
no clear spot where a net can be drawn, but the depth is not great, and
the water clear, ' spearing' is much practised. The weapon is an ordinary
bamboo lathie, split into fifteen or twenty pieces, each of which is tipped
with iron. These are bound together again, and the centre one being
thickened by string wound round it, the others stand out and form a
bundle of spears, having a radius of eight or ten inches or more. The
men are expert enough with these to be almost certain of hitting a
fair-sized fish at 12 or 15 feet off, and if hit, it can hardly escape, so that
numbers are killed by this means, the waters being regularly beaten by a
line of five or six canoes, each with one man paddling or poling,
and another standing in front with his spear." In tke Benares Col-
lectorate, the Tehsildars report about 450 fishermen, who live almost, if not
solely, on their earnings as such ; the number of Mullahs is about 8,000 ;
but the majority have other occupations. Mullahs and Kahars are the
fishing caste ; many Mahomedans and Rajputs, however, engage in fishing,
though seldom as the sole means of earning a living. " The supply in
the city of Benares is, and has been for some time back, quite equal to the
demand;" £when I was at Benares, the supply was unequal to the
demand, and very small fish were being exposed for sale] ; large fish
obtaining from two to four, and small from one to one-and-half annas a
seer; about 75 per cent, of the people are given as fish-eaters ; very small
fish are extensively caught during the rainy season in nets and traps,
the mesh being as small as that in a purse. They are also taken in the
paddy-fields during the rains by means of a grating made of thatching-
grass stalks, termed pahra; and also towards the close of the rains by
damming up the outlets for the water, they are caught with the hand by
the people wading in the fields. The bisari is a fine meshed lave-net. The
khawai is a long conical bag used in small streams at |the commence-
ment and end of the rains while there is still a current ; the mouth of
the net is kept open by stakes, and the space between the banks blocked
up with bamboo tatties ; the force of the current drives the fish into the
bag, and on account of its long nose and the pressure of the water they
cannot get back. The pasha is a grating made of the stalks of
thatching-grass, in the shape of a sloping plane. It is placed at an
opening in the side of a tank or in a dam, or thrown across a nalla ; all the
water is made to flow through this opening by stopping up every other
outlet. The fish coming down with the How of water are carried on to
the grating and left there dry, as the water passes through to underneath."
The chop is a conical basket open at both ends, and is much used by
fishermen in shallow jhils and tanks. In the Ghazeepur Collectorate the
six Tehsildars give the following replies. Four return about 19,660
fishermen, but they have other occupations as well ; the markets are well

clxxvii

supplied in four, insufficiently in one, whilst in the last it is said to be
sufficiently so in October and March until June, but in the other months
not so. In four tehsils 75 per cent, of the people eat fish, in one 50 per
cent., and in one 80 per cent. Three of the Tehsildars assert fish have
decreased "owing to the indiscriminate destruction of young- fish;"
one that they are stationary, and two that an increase is apparent
" owing- to the copious rains of last year :" all report very small fish to be
captured, and the minimum size of the mesh is given at ^ an inch.
Every Tehsildar states fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the
rains. In the Mirzapur Collectorate, the Tehsildars' replies have been
collated. There are said to be over 100 fishermen in the district, who
have no other occupation. Two Tehsildars consider the markets well
supplied with fish, one that the demand is much greater than the supply;
two-thirds of the people eat fish. All the Tehsildars consider the quantity
has been much below the average for the last few years, but that, owing
to the abundant rain-fall in 1871, it is recovering again. Very small
fish are trapped in quantities during the rains : they are also poisoned.
In the Azimgurh Collectorate, six Tehsildars report as follows : — there are
about 4,295 fishermen, all of whom appear to have other occupations also.
In four of the tehsils the supply of fish in the markets is said to be
sufficient, in the other two not to be so; 80 per cent, of the population
may eat fish, but only from five to ten per cent, do so. The amount in
the waters is given as stationary by three, and "increased last year" by
floods in three ; previous to which the Tehsildar of Nizamabad states
" the number had somewhat diminished." Very small fish are taken in
numbers during the rains, by weirs and other fixed engines ; nets with very
minute meshes are reported to be employed. Five who have answered
state that the fish are trapped in irrigated fields during the rains. The
same sorts of nets and traps are employed as adverted to in other districts,
the names, however, of some being different.

339. In the Jhansi Division, in the Jalom Collectorate, the replies

to the answers from Tehsildars are thus given :
Answers of Tehsildars in m. <• i n • c u „u „.. ~™„..„

J1]ansi The fishermen likewise follow other occupa-

tions; the Calpee market alone is sufficiently
supplied with fish, which is not in much demand, except amongst the
lower orders; "impossible to say if fish have increased, decreased, or
remained stationary of late years : there are no statistics on the subject."
Very small fish are taken during the rains in irrigated fields and
elsewhere.

340. In the Allahabad Division, and Ba nda Collectorate, "the

information gleaned from the Tehsildars and

theRSilrbadNDivSonffiCialS " others is as follows : there are about 2,000

fishermen in the district, but they, almost with-
out exception, pursue other occupations. The fishing castes are Kahars,
Kewuts, Passies and Ghags." Two bazars are plentifully supplied during
the rainy season ; more might be sold at other seasons if obtainable.
About 50 per cent, of the people of the district have no objection to
eating fish when they can procure it. Some report a decrease in the
amount in the waters — none an increase : large quantities of little ones
are taken during the rains ; the smallest mesh employed is £ th of an inch
between the knots, but even cloths are used. Weirs, and stake-nets

m

clxxviii

spanning streams exist; netting- and spearing* are also employed. In
the Falterpur Collectorate, the Tehsildars report that there are no regular
fishermen, but labourers, when at leisure, employ themselves at it ; the
markets are not fully supplied with fish : about two-thirds of the popula-
tion eat it. During the last two years, and due to heavy rains, the fish
have increased ; large quantities of small ones are taken in the monsoon
months, the minimum size of the mesh of nets being |rd of an inch. In the
Hurripur Collectorate, the Tehsildars reply that there are no persons who
make fishing their sole trade ; the local markets are seldom supplied with
fish ; more could undoubtedly be sold ; the proportion of people who eat it
•f is small on account of deficient supply, but with the exception of
Brahmins, Banias and some Thakoors, all others are not prohibited by
caste from eating fish." The amount in the waters has continued
stationary of late years ; small ones are taken in any quantity during the
rains, but are not trapped in irrigated fields.

341. In the Agra Division, and the Etawali Collectorate, the Tehsil-
dars report that there may be 10,000 persons

ftT3£ DiSle " who more or less regularly catch fish when

they have an opportunity : they are Mullahs,
Kahars and Lodhees. Sometimes the markets are well supplied with fish ; at
other times they are not so : three-fourths of the people eat it. A decrease
of fish is reported in the Jumna, due to the irrigation works near Delhi.
Very small ones are captured during the rains by hands, in cloths, with
sticks, and by nets; they are also taken in the fields during the rains. In
the Agra Collectorate, the Tehsildars observe that there is no class who
exclusively follow the ocupation of fishermen ; there is no market for
fish except in Agra city ; people eat what they capture. In the Muttra
Collectorate, the Tehsildars report that there are 141 fishermen in the
district, termed " Machooa" or " Mulliah :" the first restricting themselves
to this calling, the latter having other occupations as well. The supply
is deficient in the cold season, but equals the demand in the hot weather,
especially just after the rains. It is eaten by but few of the people " who,
in this district, are, as a general rule, bigotted Hindus; the greater portion
are either forbidden to eat fish, or, though permitted by their caste rules
to do so, refrain from such diet through regard to the prejudices of the
majority of their neighbours. In Brindabun, where veiy large numbers
of Bengalees congregate, who are notoriously fish-eaters, they to such
an extent give up the diet that, as far as I can discover, no fish is sold
there, openly at all events. Out of the whole population of the district,
perhaps one-fifth are permitted to eat fish; the rest are prohibited.'"
The supply in the waters is said to remain stationary. Small fish are
taken during the rains, the smallest mesh of the nets being given as
" about the length of a barleycorn."

clxxix

BENGAL.

342. The districts under this Government are of an exceedingly-

wide extent and diversified character; por-
Province of Bengal. tions being* densely, others sparsely, populated.

A large tract lies in the Delta of the Ganges ;
some others are hilly, with ranges of a more or less wild character.
Excepting Orissa and a few isolated portions, I have not as yet had an
opportunity of personally examining the fisheries, and this is the more
to be regretted, as the returns are amongst tlie most incomplete that
have been received.

343. The main rivers are the Brahmaputra to the east, taking its

course through Assam, receiving many af-
Main rivers of Bengal. fluents from the Himalayas, and finally fall-

ing into the Ganges, which last river, in its
numerous sub-divisions, descends through the centre of the province.
On the extreme west is Orissa, a district about 200 miles long, and
situated between the ghats and the sea; it is intersected by a large
number of streams crossing it on their passage from the hilly country to
the Bay of Bengal. These are generally large water-courses, torrents
during the rains, but nearly dry, sandy beds in the dry season. The most
westerly of the larger of the rivers is the Mahanuddi.

344. What proportion of the general population tvould eat fish could

they obtain it ? In Burdwan the amount is

prov'ince.1"^ y "*"* ™ set down at about 95 Per cent- in Hooghly

90 per cent., and these are all the answers

to this question circulated to the native officials of the extensive

province of Bengal. The Commissioner of Rajshahye, however, reports

that in his division fish are largely consumed by all classes of people. From

Assam and Orissa no replies at all have been received, but in the latter

province, from personal investigations made in 1869, I was given to

understand that, with the exception of religious mendicants, and those

who have taken a vow that neither themselves nor their descendants

shall eat fish, all classes join in its consumption. However, there may

be, and probably are, some other exceptions, still the average given in

the Hooghly and Burdwan of from 90 to 95 per cent, being permitted to

eat it, also probably obtains in Orissa. In Assam I see it is stated

that most of the people will eat it. Thus it may fairly be concluded

that at the very least three-fourths of the population may be set down as

not prohibited by religious scruples from consuming fish.

345. How are the local markets supplied ivith fish ? Again, there

T ...«.., is the same want of native returns, which

Local markets insufficiently i vi i v ,/ i

supplied. are much more likely to be correct than such

from Europeans, who rarely visit the native

bazars. In Burdwan Division, the native report is that the supply is not

equal to the demand, and if more were brought to the market, they would

find a ready sale. In Hooghly, the markets are stated " to be fairly

supplied ; the fishermen, however, try to keep up the market price by

elxxx

limiting the supply." This answer is composed of two distinct state-
ments : — (1) the latter part of which gives the supply as limited, and as a
cause, fishermen combining1 to do so to keep up the market price. Here
the fact of limited supply may be accepted but not " the cause/' for how
would it be possible in a single division, possessing 3,000 fishermen, for
all these people to combine together, doubtless the supply is unequal
to the demand, due to deficiency of fish ; \Z) that to the markets being
" fairly supplied" may be added " occasionally," Certainly throughout
Orissa, except at such seasons as sea-fish are obtainable, whether from
the coast or due to their migrating up rivers, the supply in localities I
visited was stated to be unequal to the demand. The only observation
from Assam (see para. 360) gives a scarcity of fish as existing. It
may be concluded that the fish-supply in the markets of Bengal, except
at certain seasons, is unequal to the demand, and when equal, is due to
the extensive capture of breeding and young fish.

346. Have fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary ? The

Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division
Fish Lave decreased. considers the amount has fallen off to what

it was 20 years ago. In Orissa, this was
the general complaint when I visited it. In the Burdwan Division, a
diversity of opinion exists amongst the native officials, some considering
it to be stationary, others that it has decreased ; it is also said to be
stationary in Hooghly. In Assam, a decrease appears to exist. The
returns are manifestly most imperfect, but no one speaks of an increase,
several of a decrease — a complaint which I have found universal in
localities I have visited ; consequently I believe that such is general.

347. The fishermen, or people who fish, consist of three classes ; —

(1) regular fishermen who are exclusively
The fishermen. employed as such ; (2) the wives of the men

of some castes who fish whilst their husbands
pursue other occupations ; (3) the general population. Thus in Burdwan,
out of 20,000 people computed as capturers offish, one-third are stated to be
pretty exclusively employed as such; in Hooghly, there are considered
to be 3,000 fishermen by trade.

348. Are breeding-fish destroyed? In Midnapur, they are to a

great extent; in Burdwan, they are largely
Breeding-fish destroyed. taken, but not wastefully destroyed, the

distinction drawn being because they are
eaten ; in Hooghly, to a considerable extent in paddy-fields, &c.
in Darjeeling, to a great extent : in Julpigoree, not to such an extent as
to endanger supply ; in Goalpara, that there is a wanton and ruthless
destruction of them, whilst certainly this occurs all through Orissa.
In short, every one who has answered this question agrees that breeding-
fish are destroyed to a greater or lesser extent.

349. Are the fry of fish destroyed? They are in Midnapur;

only taken in Burdwan ; captured to a con-
Fry wastefully destroyed. siderable extent in Hooghly ; the same at

Darjeeling, Goalpara, and through the Raj-
shahye Division ; not to such an amount as to endanger supply at Julpi-
goree, whilst in Orissa such is most ruthless. The native officials of
Burdwan state that during the rains small fish are taken by traps and

clxxxi

nets with minute meshes, and the same is also reported from Hooghly.
The observation of the Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division is doubt-
less applicable to the whole province, — "there can be no doubt that the
destruction of small fry must be enormous, not only in rivers, but in
every paddy-field of Bengal."

350. Fry are not wastefully destroyed, state two of the re-
porters,— (1) because they are eaten ; (2) be-
Stocking ponds with fry. cause they are only taken to stock ponds with,

and not as food. First, whether killing- fry
offish as an article of consumption is waste, or a beneficent arrangement
of nature to limit a superabundance of food in localities where the supply
does not equal the demand ? — is such a matter of opinion that arguments
seem uncalled for. Secondly, as regards young fish in the Burdwan District
not being captured for food, the modes employed contradict this, as well as
the numerous fishermen engaged in the trade, even did the native officials
not distinctly observe that a considerable amount of small fish are trapped
in the irrigated fields, * * and this species of fish is consumed. Next,
it is urged that only those which die in transit to ponds, whither they are
being taken, are sold or used as food, is so utterly opposed to the habits of
the natives that it cannot be seriously entertained. Lastly, as regards
stocking ponds with the fry of valuable sorts of fish during the monsoon
months. This is extensively practised in Orissa, Bengal, and the North-
western Provinces, and without detailing each local plan, I may as well
here give a brief summary of the modes employed. Tanks which are
yearly stocked with fish belong either to private parties who purchase
the young fish wherewith to stock them, or else to fishermen who rent
these pieces of water, and themselves stock them with fish. The species
taken for this purpose are the more valuable sorts of carps, as the Catla,
various Labeos and Cirrhinas, all of which are asserted not to breed there,
so it is simply done for a supply of food, and never for breeding pur-
poses. Some of these tanks are perennial, others yearly dry up, whilst
those which do not communicate with rivers are best suited for this
purpose. Sometimes heavy freshes or rains occur after ponds have been
stocked, and as the surplus water flows off, these young fish are carried
with it, and this may occasion the necessity of re-stocking two or three
times in one }rear. At Cuttack the fishermen having collected the fish,
sort out the desired species, and the rate at which they were disposed of
for stocking purposes was one rupee an earthen pot or handi-fadl, and
this was computed to hold from two to four hundred small fishes. At
Balasur some of the owners of private tanks permitted me to net them
in order to examine their contents, the fish being subsequently returned
to the water ; here the cost of the young fish was the same as at Cuttack,
but each handi was computed to hold only 200 fry, and less trouble was
taken in selecting the species. Near Allahabad the young fish I found
were sometimes kept a week or so before being sold ; thus those which
had been injured or were sickly died off. Small fry of some of the carps
judiciously placed in ponds about June attain about ten inches in
length by the succeeding January, and it is at this period that netting
the stock-ponds usually commences; some owners do it every two or three
months, others only once a year. In ponds that yearly dry up, as they
begin to get very shallow, they have a dam thrown across the middle,

clxxxii

and the water is laded out, so that all the contained fish are taken. The
amount of fry used as stock-fish for ponds is utterly insignificant to the
quantity taken ; because, if too many are placed in a tank, unable to obtain
sufficient nourishment, they become lean and useless as food. One would
naturally wish to agree with the Collector of Burdwan that " the fry of
large fish are not sold in the markets as an article of food ; self-interest
teaches the parties not to do so," but, unfortunately, facts are opposed to this
being correct as applied to the natives of India, except where some con-
tractor holds the fishing of a district, and prevents such destructive waste.

351 . The modes of fishing pursued are various, as netting, trapping,

,T , c „ , . ,T. . damming, poisoning, &c. First, as regards

Modes of fishing. Minimum o> r &? _ > &>

size of mesh of nets. Fixed nets> some are fixed, as m rivers ^or tanks ;
traps. Damming and poisoning others are not so, whilst every possible device
waters- is employed; therefore, it will be simply ne-

cessary to advert to the smallest size of the mesh of the nets which are
used. To this seven answers from Europeans are given — one says they

are minute ; one, 20tn °^ an mcn > one> &h OI> au mcn > one> 6^u > oue>
the size of a graiu of mustard seed ; one, as a grain of rice, and one, as
mosquito curtain net. Of the two native replies — one gives it as the
size of a grain of mustard seed, the other as a small pea. These meshes
alone entirely disprove the comfortable theory that the fry are only being
used to stock ponds with, for what would be the value of fish whose
bodies were the size of a mosquito curtain net or a grain of mustard
seed for this purpose ? Next, are nets made of split bamboo (see page
elxxxix) ; such are very destructive, having the interstices between each
piece of wcod of which it is formed J-th of an inch or less. Then there
are fixed engines, as weirs which cross small streams and hill-water-
eourses having a trap at the only opening and which takes every fish.
Also fixed traps are placed in every outlet of all irrigated fields
through which the water is strained, capturing breeding-fish and their
fry. Damming has been adverted to. Poisoning is likewise carried on
certainly through the Orissa hills, at Goalpara, and in Assam. Other
plans are recorded by the various reporting officers.

352. I think the following must be conceded : — (1) that the major-

_ , . ity of the people are not prohibited by reli-

Conclusions. r i «? .• "V» i /-»\ j.i j. ±x

gious scruples trom eating tish ; (2) that the

supply in the local markets is unequal to the demand; (3) that the
amount in the waters has decreased ; (4) that breeding-fish are univer-
sally captured; (5) and their fry destroyed wholesale; (6) that nets
with minute meshes are used ; (7) that weirs of a most destructive char-
acter are employed; (8) that trapping fish in irrigated fields is univer-
sal; and (9) poisoning waters locally carried on.

353. The consideration now arises — what are the remedies proposed ?

_, ,. , These may generally be summed up under

Remedies proposed. ,-, , r- i ; i • j-n n • i

the plan ot do-nothing till things become

worse, and leave to others to remedy to-morrow the want of forethought

which is permitting such waste to-day.

354. In the Burdwan Division, the Collector of Midnapur reports
_ , _. . . _ ,. that breeding-fish and very young ones are

Burdwan Division, heport or 3 , i j , , -ii i

European Officials. destroyed to a great extent, especially during

the rains, as every rill from paddy-fields is

clxxxiii

made to pass over or through fine reeds or strong- nets, the smallest
size of the latter which is used being- £th of an inch in diameter. No diffi-
culties exist in regulating the size of the mesh of nets, but there will be
in enforcing the regulation. No objections militate against prohibiting
the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars ; the local manager should be
made personally responsible. The Collector of Burdwan observes that
breeding-fish are largely captured for consumption, but do not seem to be
wastefully destroyed. " Very young ones of important sorts are taken
during the rainy season in the shoals of rivers, and are thrown into
tanks for preservation. They are seldom, if ever, used as an article of
food. This fishing gives ample occupation to a great number of fisher-
men in the River Bhagiruttee, the Damuda, Delkissar, and in the
internal rivers and channels within the district, and sometimes becomes
the subject of cross-rights and disputes. Breeding-fish are captured in
the months of April, May, and June, and the fry of important species,
such as ruhu (labeo), mirgah, catla, calbeinse, &c, are taken during the
rains with a view to their transfer to tanks, where they are reared. It
is generally believed that large fish cannot spawn in tanks.'" The
smallest size mesh of the nets would only permit a grain of mustard
seed to pass through, and that with difficulty, but attempting to regulate
such will create much discontent. " Admitting, however, they are
wastefully destroyed, it is obvious that these young fry are produced in
such multitudes as to outlive these perils in a sufficient number to arrive
at maturity, and by depositing their ova in time to prevent the species
from perishing. It is, therefore, clear that the continual waste is far less
than the continual re-production. [I question this, and hold a contrary
opinion, believing that the previous facts have not been proved, especially
as, were the observations here made literally correct, fish should increase,
whereas reports go to show that the reverse is occurring]. I would
allow the existing system to remain undisturbed. In the event, how-
ever, of the restriction to the sizes of the meshes of nets being determined
upon, I would fix the smallest size at ^rd of an inch. As a rule, the fry
of large fish are not sold in the markets as an article of food. Self-
interest teaches the parties not to do so, inasmuch as the fry sold for
rearing generally fetch 20 times as much value as when sold for food.
It is only when the young ones die, on being taken from one place to
another for transportation, that they are brought to market for sale as
food. The sale of fry as stock- fish cannot be well prohibited on any
account. £The Collector has apparently been imposed upon by some
interested individual in regard to the materials from which this report
has been drawn up. The following are his data; — (1) breeding-fish are
destroyed ; (2) fry are merely caught for stocking ponds, and (-'3) never
sold as food unless they die during transportation ; (4) whilst numerous
persons find occupation during the rains in capturing fry ; (1) must be
conceded, but that it is not wasteful may be questioned ; (2) is shown
not to be the case by the reply he forwards from his native subordinate,
who asserts that " during the rains a considerable amount of small fish
are trapped in the irrigated fields. * * This species of fish

is consumed by the middle and lower classes of people, and is sold much
cheaper than the large fish." Fish captured in traps are rarely adapted
for stocking ponds with ; for this purpose they are taken in nets as I

clxxxiv

have alluded to (para. 350). If numerous fishermen fiud employment
in capturing small fish, it stands to reason that it cannot be only for the
purpose of stocking- ponds with, but must be for sale as food, in fact, a
wasteful destruction of fry]. The Collector of FLooghly replies that
breeding- -fish and very young ones are destroyed in his district to a con-
siderable extent in paddy-fields and swamps in the rainy season by means
of glwonee or wicker traps, ara, one of a different shape, barr, a weir
for closing openings in the low tanks round paddy-fields, in front of
these traps are placed : koorn-jalee, a sort of small net, as well as by
ordinary nets and angling. They are also sometimes baled out of the
water in pots, caught in ordinary sheets — dhootees worn by the people —
in fact, anyhow ; the fry are very numerous, and the people very skilful ;
the smallest size mesh of nets employed is about ^th of an inch square,
but it would be impossible to regulate such, but if it were, would suggest
half an inch. " Fry are sold at the beginning of the rains for supplying
tanks. Many tanks quite or nearly dry up in February. The fish not
previously caught by ordinary casting-nets or the rod are taken by the
hand, 60 or 70 people going into the water together. In June fresh
fry is purchased and thrown in. It would be bad, therefore, to prohibit
the sale altogether. No organization can prevent the consumption of
fry in the rains when the whole country is covered with water, and
the water is swarming with fish."

355. The Officiating Commissioner of the Cooch Beliar Division

observes — " considering that the subject of

Cooch Benar Division. Opinion pisciculture is a new one on which ^forma-

of European Oibcials. l. . _ _ . ' „ , „ T

tion has tor the first time been called tor, 1

think the reports of district officers contain all the information that
could be reasonably expected to be obtained; if enquiries are prosecuted
and district officers' attention directed to the subject, more valuable
information may hereafter be gained from them.'''' The Dejiutj/ Commis-
sioner of Darjeeling reports that " breeding and very young fish are
destroyed to a great extent in this district. Fish with eggs in India
as in England is considered a delicacy. They are caught between
Choitro and Bhadro in the Terai, and from March to May in the hills,
by means of nets, bamboo cages, and by turning off water." The
smallest sized mesh used is not much larger than that of mosquito
eurtains ; in the Terai it is said to be the size of a grain of rice ; in the
hills it is larger; interference would occasion much dissatisfaction. "It
would entail a great deal of enquiry, with its attendant corruption and
extortion. Natives consulted deprecate any interference. What is required
is to conserve the fish in particular places, and to teach the people that
it is for their own interest to allow the young fish to escape." [How
would it be possible to adequately preserve fish in certain pools in rivers,
when standing weirs are permitted to exist above and below these spots ?
weirs also that have neither close times nor gaps, and in which the
intei'stices are so minute as even to prohibit the passage of fry. It
would end in failure, and the lesson to be taught to the native would be
the folly of permitting certain individuals to obstruct the rivers for their
own greed, and to the general decrease of the supply of food].
The same objection exists against prohibiting the sale of the fry of
fish in the bazars. The Deputy Commissioner of Julpigoree replies

clxxxv

that breeding-fish and very young ones are not destroyed to such an
extent as to endanger supply; the smallest sized mesh used "being
of the size of a minnow net, and interference would be as un-
popular as it is unnecessary.-" The sale of the fry of fish in the
bazar is but small, and he " does not advocate any prohibition which
would be unpopular with the people.-" £lf utility should be subservient
to popularity, then certainly measures of economic moment as regards
fish might probably have to give way to wasteful destruction, see
para. 349]. He likewise observes that, were "a glossary published,
giving the native, as well as the scientific, and, where there is any, the
common English name of the fish of India, it would greatly facilitate
enquiries which district officers may make/' The Deputy Commissioner
of Goalpara replies that " there is a wanton and ruthless destruction of
breeding-fish and young ones. They are not so much destroyed at the
weirs as in pools, streams, and in fields. The country being adjacent to
the hills, during the rains it is overflowed. At this time the non-migra-
tory fish resort to paddy-fields and small streams for breeding, and the
people use all sorts of contrivances for catching them and the fry. The
most common method is by nets, baskets, harpoons ; traps being also used ;
many weirs do not exist, but the nets are so skilfully made of small
meshes that few escape, and they never let any fish, however young,
loose again. Poison is sometimes used, which destroys fish in large num-
bers. Angling, sifting water through a cloth, and baling the water from
pools are also resorted to. The destruction commences in the rains, and
continues till the water dries up." The smallest size mesh of nets
employed is about |th of an inch ; if regulated, the trade of small fish will
be interfered with. Thinks " some penal provision should be made to
prevent the capture and sale of the fry of large fish." Does not anti-
cipate any objection will be raised in prohibiting the capture of fish in
the hilly part of his district during the early part of the monsoon. The
Deputy Commissioner of the Garo Hills states, — " I cannot, I am sorry to
say, give you much information regarding the fish in these rivers,
though in some of them fish of many kinds are abundant. I have
never made the fish a subject of my study, and I really do not know the
names of the various descriptions.-"

356. The Commissioner of the Rajshahye Division reports — u there

are no sea-fish, unless the Gangetic porpoise
Opinion of the Commissioner and njisa are considered to come under that

of Kajsuanye Division. . , r . .

head. LLhe hilsa certainly is a migratory
sea-fish, ascending the rivers to breed, but not so the porpoise, which
does not belong to the order of fishes, but is a mammal appertaining to the
whales. The sea-fish which ascend above tidal influence will be alluded
to amongst the list of fishes frequenting the fresh waters, and which is
appended]. " Fish is largely consumed by the inhabitants of this
division, both Hindu and Mahomedan, high and low, rich and poor; in
fact, with a large part of the population it is the principal animal food
consumed. Hindu widows of higher classes and Jains who have emi-
grated from the North-West, however, abstain from fish on account of
religious scruples, but the number of both of these is very small in
this division. Fish is hardly ever salted in this division for home con-
sumption, nor is it salted to any great extent for export, except in Pubna,

clxxxvi

where hilsa fish is said to he salted for export to Calcutta. The practice
of drying- or preserving fish is not resorted to, to any great extent, either
for home consumption or for trade, though some of the lower classes
dry it in the sun in small quantities for home consumption. Some salted
and dried fish is imported to the division, especially to Rungpur and
Dinagepur, from Dacca and Mymensing. Except in Pubna, where there
is a large trade in hilsa fish, there is no extensive fish trade to distant
places in any districts in the division, The fish caught is almost wholly
locally consumed, though it is not unfrequently the case that, in the
cold season, the fish is carried to distant hauts and markets for sale at
some distance from the rivers. The supply of fish has fallen off to what
it was some twenty years ago. This is attributed to the destruction of
the fry and the young- fish, and to the silting- up of small rivers and
bheels. The supply having fallen off, and the demand being- great,
owing to increase of population, its price has also, as a matter of course,
nearly doubled to what it was before. People possessing tanks are
generally in the habit of rearing up fish, but not for sale as a trade ; the
fish thus reared are either consumed, or given away to those who ask for
them. There can be no doubt that the destruction of small fry must
be enormous, not only in rivers, but in every paddy-field in Bengal ;
but I cannot say that I see any way to any feasible suggestions for the
prevention of fish-catching in the rainy season all over Bengal/'' It
is suggested, close seasons might be applied to rivers for certain species
of fish, and something might be done "in the way of prohibiting the
use of nets of less than a certain width of mesh in rivers ; but how the
bamboo contrivances for fish-catching, which are in use in every paddy-
field, are to be put a stop to, I do not see, nor do I think it would
be a wise measure to attempt to do so."

357. The Commissioner of Orissa (June 20th, 1872) replied, — "I

don't believe the weirs affect the fish; there
Orissa. Opinions of European. ^ nQ migratoiy figh to my knowledge,

except the hilsa, requiring to pass the weirs, and hilsa arrive after the
freshes, when there is plenty of water, and the weirs can be passed
without difficulty. Ordinary river-fish remain in the deep pools during
the dry season ; there is never sufficient water in the rivers to permit
fish to migrate, except during freshes, and then the weirs offer little or
no obstruction. Hilsa do not remain throughout the year in the rivers,
at any rate not in fresh water ; they arrive in July, or in end of June,
with the first flood, and come up from the sea. In the dry season
there are no hilsa in the river, and in the floods I have no doubt
they get over the weirs. I have seen hilsa caught nearly 100
miles above the weirs, and this proves that they can, and do, get
over.''' The above reply, it is observed, "made regarding the weirs
is considered by the Lieutenant-Governor to be satisfactory." It
was not accompanied by answers from any of the district officers ;
however, as they replied in 186S-1869, I fill up the gap from those
reports. The Officiating Collector enquired about the fisheries, "and the
fishermen neither knew nor cared anything about the habits of these
creatures, which afford food to so large a proportion of the population of
Orissa, and no satisfactory statement could be compiled from their
accounts." He came to tha conclusion that there was no immediate

clxxxvii

necessity for taking active steps ; at the same time be admitted injury
must eventually ensue. The Officiating Collector, Mr. Armstrong, how-
ever, continues, — " I venture, with much diffidence, to dissent from
Mr. McPherson's opinion, and would earnestly urge the necessity of
immediate action in this matter. I think that if effectual measures
of remedy be not now taken, every one interested in the prosperity
of this district will regret it afterwards. I am certain a wholesale
destruction of fine fish of full growth is day by day going on at the
Mahanuddi weirs, and what is worse than this, the young fry perish in
numbers beyond calculation." He also remarked upon the great de-
struction so easily carried on by the clumsiest contrivances below the
weirs. Mr. Levinge, the Chief Engineer of these irrigation works,
observing upon the obstruction caused by these same weirs, says, —
"the real injury to the fisheries is probably caused by the wholesale
slaughter of fish by the natives whilst thus temporarily stopped,
and I think it would be quite proper if an Act were passed, render-
ing it illegal to haul a net or otherwise destroy fish within a distance
of half a mile below a weir during the season at which fish migrate."
Mr. Four acres, in charge of the Naraje weir, observed, — " the fish are
certainly stopped for about eight months of the year." Mr. McMillan,
Executive Engineer in charge of the Jobra or great Mahanuddi weir,
reported, — "to a certain extent the weirs have enabled the fishermen to
catch more fish than they did before during the dry weather. * * Below
the weir the fish are taken, as it were, wholesale, and great destruction
takes place." I will here mention that the weirs on the Mahanuddi
and its branches are the following, proceeding down-stream from Na-
raje, which is 67i miles from the sea, where the river divides into two
portions : the one termed the Kajuri, passing Cuttack on one side, de-
scends to the sea; the other division, under the name of the Mahanuddi,
runs past the other side of the town en route to the ocean. It having
been found that too large an amount of water was running to waste
down the Kajuri, besides causing extensive injuries, due to the river
flooding the country, a bund or weir was thrown across it a little
below its head, so as to direct more water into the Mahanuddi branch
of the main stream : this of course decreased the supply in the Kajuri
to the same amount as it increased it in the Mahanuddi branch. A
mile below Cuttack another weir termed the Jobra, 60 miles from the
sea and 6,400 feet long and V2\ feet high, was constructed across the
Mahanuddi, thus deepening the river on that side of the town and for
some distance up-stream, whilst near this second weir the river gives
off a third or the Baropa branch, which also has a weir across its head.
From personal investigation I most unhesitatingly deny that breeding-
fish ever pass up the narrow under-sluices of these weirs, but those in
the centre of the Jobra and Midnapur weirs, from 45 to 50 feet wide
when open, can cause but little impediment to the ascent of fish ; it is a
wide open gap than which nothing can be better. But it is whilst the
fish are waiting for them to be opened, and at such times as they are
obstructed at these weirs, that their slaughter goes on ; likewise in the
dry months, when the spent ones and their fry are endeavouring to
return to the sea, and all the waterway is closed against them, that
injury is caused. The destruction of large fish when in season would

elxxxviii

of course be useful as food, but unfortunately everything- is taken from
fry £th of an iuch in length. Crocodiles congregate in large numbers
at this place, where abundance of food is obtainable without trouble.
Sharks, saw-fishes, begtis, tortoises, and turtles revel in these pools below
the weirs, and as soon as the water shallows sufficiently, nets and every
device that man can command are brought to bear on the finny
tribes. Whilst the Commissioner observed — " I don't believe the weirs
a feet the fish," — what say the fishermen ? They asserted, when I was
there, that fish of all sorts were decreasing, and that those detained in
the pool below the Jobra weir were being slaughtered in numbers. One
zemindar observed that he had two small pieces of water, the first in
the Kajuri river three miles below Cuttack, but owing to the irrigation
works having diminished the supply of water, his fishery has been
ruined. A fisherman of the Kajuri also complained of the decrease of
fish in that river, but observed as some compensation that their price
has largely increased. 1 examined the main stream of the Mahanuddi
river above the weirs and higher up than where it first divides, and the
following were some of the results arrived at. At Davacota, about one
mile above the sub-division of the river at Naraje, were seven fishermen ;
they complained that since the construction of the weirs the fish had
much decreased, large ones being then almost entirely absent from the
river. At Daspore, still higher up, in ten hauls of a large drag-net
nothing was obtained, and the fishermen stated their intention of leaving
this part of the country and migrating to below the weirs, where they
believed fish to be more abundant, At Kundapur, the fishermen com-
plained of a great decrease of fish ; at Ustia and Subunnapur were
the same reports, and it was observed that the diminution had com-
menced since the erection of the weirs. At Banki, the highest point
I examined, the Tehsildar remarked that it was very evident that since
the construction of the weirs, fish had become much scarcer ; in fact,
that a few years since two pice a seer was about the cost of what was
then charged six pice for, whilst the fishermen observed on the great
decrease of sea-fish which used to ascend thus far. But it is useless con-
tinuing extracts from my report of 1869 ; but I will now turn to another
great plan of destroying the fish in Orissa, and here again I shall
give independent testimony when available. Mr. Levinge observed, —
"the objectionable practice of the natives catching large basketsful
of the small fish or fry is doubtless more destructive than anything
else ; "* * fish when very young are destroyed in incalculable numbers,
not so much at the weirs as in all the small pools, streams, and paddy-
fields throughout the country : were it not for this wholesale destruction
of the young fry on their migration to the main rivers in October and
November, I believe the numbers of the fish in the rivers of this part
of India would be much greater. They are caught when the waters
are let out of tanks and jhils and paddy-fields in small baskets and in
nets of very small meshes." Mr. Fouracres also remarked, — " I think
that the fish are destroyed to a great extent when young, for the
reason that the nets employed are almost in eveiy case with very small
meshes." Without continuing extracts of opinions, which are nearly
all similar, I may mention that the most serious injury was, and no
doubt is still, being effected in this district by the use of fixed engines

clxxxix

for capturing breeding-fish and their fry. Drag-nets and cast-nets of
different sizes, also parse-nets and lave-nets, are employed, and nearly
all the other forms mentioned as existing in the former reports, con-
sequently they do not call for recapitulation here. Drag-nets for the rainy
season have a mesh of J-th of an inch and even less between the knots :
as the floods subside and the fishermen are able to wade up to their
waists, the force of the current now becoming less and the fry a little
larger, f\jths of an inch is the usual distance ; as the river begins to clear,
rW^bs of an inch is the average size ; and when the waters are clean, ly^th
inches between each knot comes into play. The reason of this is obvious :
the young fry move about with the first freshes, and then the minute
meshed nets can kill them ; but it is not until the cold season that the
water is clear, the fry have grown, and very fine meshes are generally
inapplicable. I say " generally inapplicable," for it is the rule that fish
breed during the rains, but some do so likewise at other periods of the
year. But these are not the finest nets used : a purse-net fixed to a
wooden hoop, having meshes | an inch in circumference or |th of an inch
between each knot, is employed to capture the fry up every little channel,
and a lave-net with as minute meshes is likewise used for the same
purpose. Even these, however, are not the most destructive practices in
vogue in Orissa ; rattan or basket-work is brought into play ; one form
is termed a salwua or putti; it consists of very fine split bamboos
bound together by means of grass; the interstices between each piece
being equal to jth of an inch or less. This putti is about five feet high,
and is in the shape of a regular wall-net. It is taken to a tank and
placed in the water in a V form, whilst fishermen on either side
extend themselves outwards, and, by beating the water, drive the fish
into the enclosure : the two ends are now brought together, and the
fish penned into a small space : the sides are advanced nearer and
nearer until they almost touch, and the fish are removed by a hand-net,
or the hand alone. Weirs are used in the larger streams, and traps in
every irrigated field ; one of these last is of a horn shape ; it is constructed
of basket-work, with the interstices, between the substances of which
it is made so fine that even the smallest fry are captured. This is
placed at most outlets or in small channels during the floods ; and, as
all the water must go through it, every fish is taken. When not of a
sufficient size to entirely fill a channel, it is supplemented by bamboo
walls, extended laterally on either side. Another is shaped like a shoe,
but the principle is identical. Damming is extensively practised; as the
rivers commence drying up, earthen bunds are raised along its bed,
parallel with the course of the stream, but narrowing towards its lower
end. Fish are driven in, the ends are stopped, and every one is taken.
In the same way, when tanks begin to dry up, one portion is bunded
off from the rest, the water laded out over the bund, and all contained
fish destroyed. Lieutenant Kittoe, in his account of a journey through
the forests of Orissa, describes the weirs employed in the hill-streams
there, and which resemble those described by H. S. Thomas, Esq., in
Canara. What are the effects of these " free industries ?" — and in giving
the results of what I saw, it should be mentioned that the following
refers not only to the Orissa, but part of the Midnapur District. Mr.
Topi bee at Bhudmk reported, — "all that come to the nets are destroyed,

cxc

whether young1 or old, great or small. The nets are made with the
express object of letting none escape." The Assistant Magistrate at
Balasur also remarked, — " all that come to the net are consumed." In
the Brahmini River no irrigation weir exists. I commenced my enquiries
on it twelve miles from Denkkenal, the Rajah of which place kindly giving
me assistance, as did also Mr. Faulkner of the Irrigation Department.
The paucity of fish was very apparent : this, I was informed, had been
going on for the last seven or ten years, and had occasioned a great
falling-off of the productiveness of the fisheries, whilst the size of the
mesh, of the nets had visibly decreased during this period. About 30
miles below this portion of the Brahmini I again examined the river.
1 obtained the assistance of 25 fishermen, who employed long nets ; the
flank one had a mesh of two inches in circumference ; the centre ones of
4 inches ; their depth was about six feet. In the first haul three siluroid
fishes (Rita) were captured, of an average weight of 1£ ounces; subse-
quently nothing could be taken. Asking the reason which had caused
this paucity of fish, the fishermen observed that there had been a
gradual decrease of true fresh-water fishes for some years, so much so
that for the last three seasons this portion of the river had not been
fished at all. This decrease was attributed to the destruction of the
fry of the fish in the rainy season, which they accused the Gokar caste
of effecting, they being Keots. I next turned my attention to the
Gokar fishermen, and obtained the services of eight. They brought a
puiti with them made of fine split bamboos as already described.
I saw 500 fish taken at the first haul at a tank, amongst them were
the young of the ruhu, barkur, mrigala, and other species, the largest
of which they considered about four months old. They replied that, by
means of fixed engines or nets, they captured large quantities of fish
during the rainy season. They also remarked that the quantity of fish
of all sizes have much decreased during the last ten years, but asserted
their present mode of capturing them had existed from time immemorial.
The Byturni River was low, and its fisheries were said to be but slightly
better than those of the Brahmini and its branches. In the Salundi the
amount of fish was but trifling, and were said to have much decreased
of late years. At Balasur, the Borabolung is tidal, and no decrease of
fish was reported; but there were not many tanks or j/tils in its vicinity;
consequently the destruction of small fish during the monsoon months
was not so great as on the edges of the Mahanuddi and Brahmini
Rivers. In taking a survey of the fisheries of the foregoing district,
I cannot help drawing attention to the great richness in the number
of species, as I collected 114 distinct sorts : notwithstanding this, there
was a general poverty of the rivers in furnishing food to the population
at large. Whether rivers, with or without weirs, were examined, a
general absence of large fisheries was very apparent, except during the
monsoon months, when fish ascend from the sea to deposit their eggs or
prey upon their neighbours. Doubtless weirs act deleteriously by imped-
ing the ascent of fish and so assisting in their destruction, as well as by
preventing the descent of the young to the sea ; but a yearly and general
slaughter, carried on by every conceivable means and throughout the
whole country during the rainy or breeding season, is probably the chief
cause of the injury.

CXC1

358. The replies of the native officials of Bengal have mostly

been omitted, whilst those sent are unfor-

Replies of Native Officials tunately more in the gross than in detail;

very bare. . •',.., ° . , '

however, 1 give them as received.

359. The Tehsildars of Burdwan reply that the number of fisher-

^ • • . Vi. ^^ • i men is about 20,000, one-third of whom are
Opinions of Native Officials. , . ' ' . , . .

pretty exclusively employed as such ; the

others follow different occupations as well. The fishermen castes are —
1, Koibarta, 2, Keot, 3, Malo, 4, Tiyur, 5, Jelia, 6, Bagdi, 7, Dulia,
and 8, Bauri. Nos. 1 to 5 live chiefly on fishing ; 6 to 8 ply the double
occupation of fishermen and palki-bearers, the males following the latter,
the females the former pursuit : most of them also till the laud. Some
men of superior caste angle as a means of recreation. The supply of fish
is not equal to the demand ; if more were brought to the market, they
would find a ready sale ; the quality is decidedly bad. The amount
from the Damuda and other rivers towards the centre of the district is
decidedly limited. The chief supply may be taken from tanks, the water
in which has of late years become bad and poisonous, so much so as
to kill the fish. The average price of large fish is 3 annas, of small fish
[chnna) from \\ to 2 annas per seer of 60 tolas. First class bazar mutton
realizes 5 annas, and second sort 3 annas, a seer of the same weight.
All classes of people, excepting widows of high-caste Brahmins, Boidus
and Kaits, join in the consumption of fish; probably 95 per cent, are fish-
eaters. As to whether the fish in the waters have increased, decreased,
or remained stationary of late years, a great diversity of opinion exists,
some alleging that the fresh-water fish have decreased, others that the
supply has remained stationary. During the rains small fish are taken
by means of ghoonee and by small nets of fine texture : communications
are now opened between the rivers and bheels (swamps), and the small
fish are introduced into the latter. At this season the fry of large fish
are also caught in large quantities, by nets called bisal and kkina,
in the shoals of the Damuda and the Bhagirutti, with a view to their
being transferred and reared in tanks. The smallest meshes employed
will not permit a mustard seed to pass. During the rains, a consider-
able amount of small fish, chuna, are trapped in the irrigated fields
by means of ghoonee, lark, ara, and hand-nets termed ckaukni.
This species of fish is consumed by the middle and lower classes of
people, and is sold much cheaper than the large fish. The forms
of fishing reported are, by nets both large and small ; lirties, a
trap made of split bamboos and placed against a current; palues,
made of split bamboos and resembling a conical shaped basket ; ang-
ling and harpooning ; hoary and shihii : the first is made of branches
of trees and thorns tied together and placed in the river where the
current is not strong, small fish take shelter therein, and are taken by
means of shikti or ckaukni nets. The names of the other nets, &c,
are — bar or maha-jal, a large drag-net. Binti-jal, a net fixed to posts
in the middle of a river where the water is deep; dara-jal resembles
bar, but is used only in tanks ; Map la, a cast-net. For taking small
fish there are the following: — Shinii-jal, resembling khapla, but with
smaller meshes ; ganii-jal, stretched across a tank, and the little fish
become entangled by their heads; feta-jal, a lave-net; chahii-jal, a

CXC11

purse-net attached to a circular frame ; chabi-jal, a net attached to a
pyramidal frame- work of two bamboos, which, crossing one another at the
summit at right angles, are bent down into a pyramidal form at the
base of which the net is affixed. The traps are as follows : — ghoonee,
very common ; ara, aishta, polu, aud barh are also bamboo traps.
In the Hooghly Collectorate, the Tehsildars report perhaps 3,000 fisher-
men by profession, but all classes catch small fish : the castes are Man-
nah, Patoo, Mullik, Bang, Koormee, Teor, Jellya, Mulla, Pode, Noda,
Barrik, Santra, Khora, Mai, &c, but the Jellya are the true fishing
caste. The markets are fairly supplied; the fishermen, however, try to
keep up the market price by limiting the supply. Nine-tenths of the
population eat fish, the amount of which in the waters is station-
ary. Very small fish are taken during the rains both for eating and
stocking ponds ; the smallest sized mesh of nets employed is such as peas
can go through. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains.
The following traps are used: — ghoonee, ara, and aishta; also eleven
forms of weirs.

360. From Assam no returns have been received ; the following

appeared in the columns of the Englishman of
Observations from Assam. July 5th, 1871j respecting this division : -

" There is a system of wholesale poisoning and trapping fish, which aims
at the destruction and extermination of the species." The writer goes
on to describe how some pools are poisoned, others dammed, and the fish
harpooned; how streams are embanked, and wicker traps employed, with
a scarcity as the^result.

ex cm

BRITISH BURMA.

361. The provinces of British Burma, which have been acquired

in the first and second Burmese campaigns,
The provinces of which Bri- first laced d Chief Commissioner

tish Burma is composed. . 10/>n^i i. if* i.1

in I80O-0I, by amalgamating Arracan to the
north, Pegu in the centre, and Tenasserim to the south, which territory
extends nearly a thousand miles along the eastern side of the Bay of
Bengal, and reaching to where, zoologically speaking, Wallace defines
the Malay Archipelago to commence, from its northern boundary the
Naf estuary at 20° 50' north latitude, to the Pakchan stream in the
south at about the 10° of north latitude. The whole aggregates about
90,070 square miles, with a population of about 26 to the square mile.

362. The fresh-water fisheries in British Burma are of consider-

able value, as will be seen by the revenue
The mode of disposing of returils as upwanjs 0f 510,000 rupees a year
fresh-water nshenes under na- '. , * _ ..' . r J

tive rule. are received from the licensing the use ot

nets and farming out the tank and smaller
river fisheries. Major Sladen having obtained for me from Mandalay
a statement of how the fisheries under the King of Burma are managed,
I insert it in this place. It has been the practice in Upper Burma to
annually collect revenue from the fisheries of lakes and ponds, the
amount in each case being assessed by the local officials; but should the
Revenue Minister mistrust the statement, he sends a Deputy to exa-
mine and decide. In villages where there are " amhoodans"' or hereditary
slaves of the Government, whose necks and hands are tattooed, they
and the headman of the village only, and to the exclusion of everybody
else, are entitled to become the lessee of any fisheries which may exist.
In the absence of " amhoodans/' the headman becomes the renter : should
there be both, they have the fisheries on alternate years. The sub-lessee
works from October to April, and fisheries are formally made over in the
presence of a witness, care being taken that the rent is duly paid.
Sub-lessees often allow other fishermen to net their waters, the original
owner receiving two-thirds of the captures. The former sovereigns
used to permit the queens, concubines, princes, princesses, ministers, and
members of the Royal Dancing Company to enjoy the revenue from the
fisheries, but the present king has appropriated them and pays the
foregoing persons monthly salaries instead. Some sub-lessees pay direct
to the Royal Collectors, others through the heads of villages and town-
ships. In case no lessee comes forward, the inhabitants round a lake
or tank have to provide the annual revenue, for which the headman is
responsible. If fishermen wish to carry on their employment in the
river, leave has to be obtained, and a defined traet is let out to each,
others being prohibited from interfering. Lately, at the instigation of
the Buddist priests or Poongees, an order has been issued, prohibiting,
under pain of imprisonment and other penalties, any one fishing within
the limits of the Royal City of Mandalay ; also in some lakes, ponds,
and even a portion of the Irrawaddi River, which are deemed to be

u

CXC1V

under holy keeping. In some districts, as Pegu, it was stated that some
of the fisheries prior to British rale were in the possession of certain
persons or hereditary Een Thoogyees, who paid a fixed annual rent, and
kept their overseers and employed coolies, hut no one could fish without
their permission, for which a small annual sum was charged. Irrespective
of the direct revenue, large indirect sums had to be given as gratuities.
It appears to me that the statements in Pegu are in reality good proof
that the plan which now exists in Upper Burma was also the rule
there prior to 1852, when the country was annexed. The Een Gay-
gyee Lake fishery appears to have possessed a far-famed celebrity for
a long period of time, traders coming from great distances in the month
of June to invest in fresh, salted, dried, or smoked fish for disposal in
distant markets. According to O'Riley, " owing to the profits realized
on this trade, the competition for the purchase of the fish at the lake
became so great, that it was not unusual to make advances several sea-
sons previous to the completion of the contract. So valuable a source
of revenue to the Burmese Government as this fishing appeared was
not allowed to escape easily; accordingly the sum of 60 viss of silver, or
about 6,000 ticals, each equal to Rs. 1-6, or Ks. 8,237-8 annually, was
exacted as a Royal tax from the hereditary Chief of the lake/''

363. There are two principal descriptions of fisheries, namely,

r,. , , , „ , . those in the rivers, aud those in tanks or

Rivers and tank fisheries. ■ ,, , . , ' . , , . ,

"eengs, which are due to the inundated state

of the country during the rains, either augmenting the size of those
existing, or turning large tracts of country into enormous expanses of
water. In Arraean the amount of fresh-water is insignificant in com-
parison with what exists in the other two Commissionerships, and which
call for a more detailed notice.

364. The principal rivers of British Burma are the Irrawaddi
Principal rivers in British an^ Salween, which have Alpine sources, and

Burma, some with Alpine the Pegu, an affluent of the first, which is
sources. destitute of such an origin, as it takes its

rise in the Pegu hills or " Yomas/'' as they are termed, and which divide
the Pegu District from the Tenasserim, wherein is the Sittoung or Poung-
loung River. The Irrawaddi has various affluents, and in its course
divides and sub-divides into many branches, becoming comparatively
shallow during the dry season of the year, but an impetuous torrent in
the rains, flooding the surrounding country, turning plains into lakes,
and uncultivated tracts into vast fishing districts. The most northern
portion of the Irrawaddi, where I commenced my investigations, was at
Mandalay, the present capital of Native or Upper Burma. In this
State the river, as a rule, did not appear to have any large amount of
contiguous tanks suitable for fish-breeding, which would be filled as the
river overflows; consequently most of it is carried on in the stream and
small creeks along its course. As the Irrawaddi commences to pass the
frontier, the natural tanks and sub-divisions of the river increase, and
the fisheries become augmented; in fact, below Prome the country of
Pegu may be looked upon as one large delta formed by this river, and
entirely distinct from the comparatively dry condition of Upper Burma,
which the south-west monsoon very slightly affects, and where the
river possesses high banks. In, or prior to, the June or south-west

cxcv

monsoon, this river commences to rise, owing to its Alpine origin, and
due to the melting- of the snow in the mountains, from which it takes its
source. Thus, although the yearly rain-fall in Rangoon is probably about
110 inches or more, the amount decreases as the north is approached — at
Meanoung being above 50, at Prome below 50, at Thyetmyo, our frontier
station, only 20, whilst at Pachan, in Upper Burma, I was informed
that it was only about 2 inches. Thus, the south-west monsoon does
not fill this river in Upper Burma, which would be a serious drawback
to fish-breeding, especially for the shad which ascend from the sea for
this purpose; but fortunately this period is concomitant with that of the
greatest heat at its snowy source, which keeps the river in full flood
above where the south-west monsoon reaches, and thus renders it suit-
able for the ascent and spawning of marine and other fishes in its
higher reaches. The Sittoung or Pouugloung River rises in the hills 25
miles north of Yemetheu and about 130 from Tounghoo. It mostly
flows in a southerly direction through the middle of the district, but its
tortuous course has been not inaptly compared to the writhings of a
wounded snake ; it frequently deviates to almost every point of the com-
pass within a distance of a few miles. The Salween arises somewhere in the
Province of Yunam in China ; receiving- many affluents as it passes through
the Shan States, it passes in a southerly direction towards Moulmein; it
is divided from the last-named river by a range of hills, and receives near
its termination the Gynne, from a north-easterly or easterly direction.
This river is connected by creeks with the Sittoung, and that again with
the Pegu River, which is an affluent of the Irrawaddi through its Hieing
or Maimakhat branch, which is given off near Prome, and runs direct
through that district to the town of Rangoon and so on to the sea. It
does not again join the main stream directly, with which, however, it
has several connecting creeks and channels.

365. The tanks or " eengs" are principally due to the yearly inunda-

t, , „ tions of these rivers, which increase the

Tanks or " eengs." . . . ' „

size of those existing, or form vast ex-
panses of water in large tracts of the country, and these, or small
water-courses and tanks or channels in paddy-fields, are great places for
fish to breed in, (see para. 46 — dhunds in Sind). These watery tracts
are mainly of two sorts, those which are perennial, and those which yearly
dry up ; the latter, provided free ingress to, and egress from, them is per-
mitted to breeding and young fish, will scarcely require any measures
being adopted for their care after all communication with the running
water is naturally cut off, as I shall subsequently allude to. More especially
in the Pegu District are many plains, which become vast sheets of water in
the rainy season, but which it is unnecessary to enumerate. At Rangoon
are the so-called Royal Lakes, originally a marsh, deepened and bunded
by a native governor some 40 years since. There are many marshes
useful for fishing stations during the rains. Certain lakes termed " Bayme"
are deemed to possess a sacred character, so are not fished ; also, as a
rule, all waters within the enclosure of a " Kyoung," or Buddist monastery.

366. The races of British Burma may be referred, according
„ . „ _ . , to the late Chief Commissioner, to four great

Races of Burma fish-eaters. r, ... ., m V ■ at ,. n

families — the lalaing or Mon, the Burman,
the Karen, and the Shan or Tais. As Buddists they profess a horror

CXCV1

of taking the lives of the lower animals, but being exceedingly partial
to a fish diet, they console their consciences, whilst indulging in it, with
the idea that the deaths of these creatures will be laid in a future state
to the fault of the fishermen by whom they were captured. Even their
" Poongees " or priests who eat fish, adorn the approaches to their temples
with illustrations, showing what will be the award to fishermen in eternity.
In some of these interesting representations are large fires being stirred
up by devils, whilst other demons or " Beloos " are dragging one or more
fishermen in a net towards these roaring furnaces, helping each on by
means of striking fish-spears into them from behind, and hauling them
forwards by hooks and lines towards the place of punishment.

367. In districts where large rivers exist, the Burmese are from

necessity boatmen and of choice fishermen.
aBffi™eerLreral,y ^"^ This has an important bearing ^ upon the

fisheries, as the capture of the finny tribes
is not in the hands of a certain limited class of people.

368. As to the proportion of the general population who eat fish, it

-u n , .. may be concluded that all do so, as the

Burnians are a fish-eating race. • . .... ' . .

exceptions are too trivial to be worth noticing.

369. Hoio are the local markets supplied with fish ? It is unfortunate

that the answers sent in in 1869, or replies
pliedwittTfish S genera y sup" to the question circulated last year, have, in

the majority of instances, not been forwarded,
so only general replies are available for examination. It would appear
that, as a rule, they are well supplied, but in the Amherst District, they are
stated to be insufficiently so. Out of ten returns, three assert the markets
to be fully supplied, one fairly so, and in six insufficiently so, but some of
these localities are near the sea-coast, and the supply partly depends on
the tides.

370. Have the fish increased, decreased, or remained stationary ?

. _ „ , . , , This question is responded to by only ten

Amount of fish in the waters l' a> ' i n ?• i a -li_ j. j.i

decreasing. native officials, live or whom assert that the

amount in the waters remains stationary,
whilst the other five report a decrease. When in Burma, the impression
prevailed at Prome that fish were decreasing. At Henzada, the fisher-
men held the same opinion, and considered the decrease due to the small
meshed nets which were being used. Around Pegu they were also
asserted to be diminishing ; the same is now reported from Shwegyen.
and Amherst.

371. As to whose the fisheries are ? As a rule, they appear to have

v. , . n always been Royalties in Lower Burma, as

Fisheries Government pro- +1 J ,-,, • \, AT ,. c, . , '

perty. they still are in the .Native state, and may

be considered Government property, although
certain private or communal rights may co-exist. Rules were framed
by a former Chief Commissioner, in order that the renting system might
cause the least possible amount of hardship to the people, so the general
public were permitted to take whatever fish they pleased anywhere for
home consumption, but not for sale ; only the lessee could sell fish. Be-
sides this, certain localities were set aside as free fisheries, and, so far as 1
could ascertain, any one might now use fixed traps (except in certain
leased localities) free of tax. This I believe to be the origin of the

CXCV11

present assumed deterioration of these fisheries ; the rules are not regu-
larly carried out : thus, amongst the untaxed nets at Thyetmyo are
recorded sorts 400 cubits long", &c, which it is impossible can be employ-
ed simply to take fish for home consumption. Again, below Prome I
examined a boat in which two men had been fishing for home consump-
tion, who had as many fry of fish in it as they could carry, perhaps
1501bs. weight. In fact, the philanthropic plans allowed are most grossly
abused, and these free fisheries and unlimited fishing ought to be subject
to regulations.

372. Are breeding -fish or fry destroyed? I cannot see how two
_ ' , „ opinions can exist upon this subject : every

Breedmg-fish and fry gene- < , ,.-, i -rn_ j. i * l\ l.

rally destroyed. reporter (except (jreneral rvtche) agrees that

they are, and my own observation (see para-
graph 374) led to the same result. Fixed traps and engines, weirs com-
pletely barring streams, damming up and lading out waters, nets with
meshes so fine that scarcely more than water can pass, and the interstices
of traps still more minute, are freely used : even poisoning the waters is
carried on, as will be detailed.

373. The Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of British Burma,
Opinion of the Chief Com- General Fytche, reported (August 3rd 1 86 IS) —

missioner that fish are carefully " I nave the honor, by direction ot the Chief
preserved throughout British Commissioner, to acknowledge the receipt of
Burma- yours No. 3006, dated July 16th, and in

reply to state that there is a tax upon nets and fisheries in British
Burma, that fish are carefully preserved, and that no wanton destruction
takes place within the province.'"

374. Having been directed, in 1869, to proceed to Burma and inves-

tigate into the state of its fisheries, the fol-
wlfTri f°pi!-ion p\&\ a lowing are some of the conclusions I came to,

wasteful destruction of fish oc- -. n ° , , . *

curs throughout British Burma, deduced from personal observation, as to

whether a " wasteful " destruction of fish
occurs in the province, and I considered that it did, and to a great
extent. This was being effected by two ways — fixed engines and small
meshed nets. Fixed engines were of two main descriptions : (1) large
weirs, " Tsays/' or bunds crossing whole rivers, and with the interstices
between the pieces of bamboo of which they were formed, or of those
in the cruives or other moveable traps, so fine that only water could pass
through. Some of these, viz., bunding, I shall allude to further on (para-
graph 384). No regulation whatever existed; streams were simply let out,
and the native fishermen permitted to capture everything they were able,
in any way they pleased. Weirs had been left standing for years, not
only taking every fish ascending or descending, but impeding naviga-
tion, &c. Every villager who liked might fix a weir where he wished,
and at each creek within high-water mark, these weirs were placed so
that fish passed over these bamboo fences to their best feeding-grounds
as the flood-tide made, but as it ebbed they were left floundering in the
mud due to this weir standing as an insuperable obstacle to their return-
ing to the river. The same process was permitted where large tracts of
lands were yearly inundated from the river ; fish passed into these places,
but weirs were fixed to prevent even the smallest fry ever obtaining
an exit into the river, the bamboo weir being too fine in its texture

CXCV111

even to permit them to pass. (2) Secondly, traps of innumerable
descriptions and miniature weirs were permitted in every small stream,
irrigation channel or water-way to entrap breeding-fish ascending or
descending, and so finely constructed that even the fry could not pass.
This destructive mode of fishing was said to have been the subject of a
tax by the native Government, but made free about 1863. If ever there
was a mode of fishing employed calculated to ruin fisheries, it is this
kadone, so properly prohibited in Great Britain. I found agricultur-
ists with as many as 60 and 80 traps in their possession, aud working
them daily at every small water-way where ingress or egi^ess for fish
could occur. These traps were termed ley a, whether in the shape
of a horn or a shoe, and were extensively employed in paddy-fields.
Weirs in streams sometimes had a platform, khonsin, thus constructed :
a bamboo fence was fixed entirely across a stream or water-way, reach-
ing some feet above its surface, except in one spot, where it was cut
down either to the level of the water or three or four inches above it.
Thus, a fence entirely bars the stream, except where the free gap exists.
Now a platform is constructed of fine bamboo, having raised bamboo
walls on three sides, and this platform just fits the gap already described.
In the dry season, as October, when the fish, which have bred, and their
fry are descending, this platform is fixed below the opening; in the rainy
season, as they are ascending, it is fixed above it. This platform touches
the water, or nearly so, at the gap, and here its wall is absent, so that fish
reaching a weir which has only a gap in its middle jump at that spot,
but only to fall on the platform. In some places weirs are not permitted
to go quite across rivers, because such impedes navigation, and this
open spot, as far as the river's bank, is studded with reeds, which makes a
noise as the water passes through them, thus frightening the fish to the
opposite side where the weir with a gap exists ; they jump at the lowest
part, and are safe on the khonsin. Occasionally a tsanda is construct-
ed : a number of stakes are driven into the bed of a river in a V shape,
the apex of which is a rattan net that is raised every few minutes by
means of ropes running over drums and worked on a stage erected for
the purpose. Another very common mode of capturing fish by the aid
of a tank is as follows : should one exist near a paddy-field, or some
water-course well stocked with fish, or up which they proceed to deposit
their spawn, it is just what is desired, and the time of year for working
it is the rainy season. A shallow channel is cut from the tank, leading
into an enlarged space about three feet deep — a stew, in short ; from this
the channel is continued into the paddy-field or place where the breed-
ing-fish are known to be. In this outer channel, or just external to the
stew, is a small weir permitting fish to go up, but preventing their return.
Water from the tank is made to flow down the new channel through the
stew, and so on to the fishes' haunts. Breeding-fish finding this nice
stream press up it, pass the weir, but become prisoners in the stew, from
whence they are removed next morning by a hand-net. Traps in the
form of long conical baskets or cages were also used in rivers, and other
contrivances were everywhere employed to take both breeding-fishes
and fry; and observing this being carried on with impunity, founded one
of my reasons for believing the Chief Commissioner had been mistaken or
misinformed when stating that fish were carefullv preserved in the province.

CXC1X

375. Secondly, moveable engines. These, again, are of two sorts :

(1) those constructed of bamboo, rattan,
Moveable fishing engines em- reec^ or SOme such substances ; (2) those in

ployed in the fresh-waters of ^ form of ^ RaUan Qr bamboo netgj

gyan, have each piece fixed to its neighbour
by grass or fibre in the place of string-, the interstices being of various
sizes, from 1'^th of an inch to 1 inch. Yindoons, or a species of lave-net,
of an elongated triangular shape, made of closely woven bamboos and
affixed to a long pole, is employed to clean out all small water-courses
of the fry of fish ; it is pushed along them and raised every now and
then, as it usually is as wide as these channels ; fry are easily captured
thus. Another and larger form is dragged by bullocks or pushed by men
through the haunts of the fry ; it lets none escape ; for, as it goes through
the muddy water, the weeds, &c, choke up all the interstices, so not the
smallest fish can pass. There are other descriptions, but the principle is
identical not to allow anything, except water, to pass. (2) Those in the
form of nets are also variously constructed, but it is in the free fisheries
more especially, that I witnessed the most minutely meshed nets em-
ployed. Mek-kwoon or Umbel is a form of net which has very small
meshes; it is about 12 feet long, having a bamboo along either end,
whilst one side is attached to a boat, so that it can be lifted like a board
affixed by a hinge. The boat is moored broadside on, in an appropriate
situation, the fish, mostly fry, are frightened to above where it is placed, and
all the fisherman has to do is to raise the net, when the fish fall into the
boat. Purse-nets ai'e used, fixed or moveable, in the small water-courses.
I went the whole length of that portion of the Irrawaddi which is in
British territory, either in steamer or country boat, up the Pegu River to
the town of that name, across by boat to Sittoung, and down again to
Moulmein. Wherever I went I found small meshed nets being em-
ployed by the villagers to obtain fish for their own consumption, and
as they had no interest in the leased fisheries, whilst fry are most easily
captured, these they were destroying wherever they had the chance.
Near Rangoon, nets, 30 feet long, were being dragged along the sides of
the Irrawaddi in the haunts of the fry, the mesh of which was -,8Dths of an
inch in circumference. I counted 15 such in use at one time and on one
bank of the river between Rangoon and the sea. Nothing escapes
them, nothing is returned to the river, and thus excessive injury must
be caused. AtProme I saw two women fishing with a short drag-net, the
meshes of which were T8(jths of an inch in circumference. I took some 20
of the young of the " Nga-hoothans," Labeo calbasu, out and weighed
them; they just turned the scale at £ an ounce, whilst in a few months more
each individual fish should weigh, if alive and well, | a pound. The same
long drag-nets as observed at Rangoon were being used all along the British
portion of the Irrawaddi ; also numerous other forms of fine meshed
nets and minutely woven baskets. But not only here were the fry
being destroyed wholesale by those who were permitted to fish without
payment, but also in every other portion of Burma which I visited;
and this is a second reason why I consider that, even if the Chief
Commissioner was correct in stating that no wanton destruction takes
place in the province, he must have admitted a wasteful one, had he
time to investigate the subject.

ce

376. But it may be pointed out what is the reason that some of

the Burmese fisheries are still pretty fully

Reasons fisheries are not stocke(j even if Some decrease is reported,

more depopulated. . S. . , . r *

especially as throughout that province the

same rules obtain. I am unable to give the European authorities credit

for anything that has been done. I could not ascertain that young fish,

except in some leased fisheries, or religious tanks, were preserved at all.

I saw those good-natured thoughtless Burmans only I'egarding to-day's

wants, and in fact, preservation was due to a sparse population, large

swamps and vast inundated tracts of country, as well as the impetuosity

of the current in the main rivers. Assuming the census returns to be

correct, the demands for fish must have been yearly becoming greater,

for, with an augmented fish-eating population, an increased supply must

be a self-evident necessity. This has probably been met by additional

methods of capture. Weirs, not permitted by the Burmese, seem to

have been allowed by the British, until every outlet is now choked

by them, and the fish fry are captured by the whole population. Now,

the increased supply must have been derived from fisheries previously

insufficiently worked, or else due to their being now overworked,

leaving future years to suffer from diminished supply, consequent upon

the immature fish being taken to meet present demands. In most places

it was said that the supply was decreasing ; anyhow, the fisheries

were being fully worked, and in an economic point of view, I proposed

the following measures as deserving of consideration.

377. I do not intend making any remarks upon the mode of

letting Burmese fisheries, except a proposi-
Letting fisheries cheaply not tion « that figh ghould be considered the
of any use to nsh-consumeis. . n ., . , ~ .

property of the people, and Government
should remit all rents on fisheries." The absolute giving up of fisheries
to the people — I think the reports from Bombay, Madras, Mysore, and
elsewhere distinctly show — eventuates in their annihilation, unless
rules for the preservation of the fish from unnecessary and wasteful
destruction are passed and strictly carried out. Where everybody
observes that all his neighbours are permitted to capture fish as they
like, it is very improbable that he will be exceedingly particular not
to kill the young, as a Burmese fisherman, who fully admitted that
were the destruction of fry prohibited, such in time must work good,
but he remarked he was a yearly tenant and got all he could, whilst
if harm is really being done, he supposed Government would have in-
terfered. Thus, restrictions would be necessary, and water-bailiffs an
indispensable portion of the scheme; whereas, if all waters, except re-
served ones, were let, the lessees would have an interest in preserving
the immature fish. Likewise a prevalent belief seems to obtain to
let the fisheries " as cheaply as possible/' and for the good " of the
consumer." Nothing can be a greater fallacy ; the lessee does not sell his
spoil below market rate because he obtains his fishery cheaply, any more
than the farmer will take less than the market rate for his rice be-
cause he lives on an untaxed farm. The difference goes into the pocket
of the lessee, not into that of the consumer. To benefit the consumer,
the fish should be protected, so that the largest possible amount is
obtained from the water, and that is the only true way in which

eci

the general public will be benefitted, for, as the supply augments, prices
will fall. However, as the native official at Akyab pithily remarks,
" more could be sold, but if more were brought to market, the price would
fall, and then perhaps it would not pay the fisherman.'-' Looking at both,
sides of the question, one'naturally considers— are the fish simply for the
good or gain of the fisherman, or to be employed in the most advantageous
manner for the benefit of the people at large ?

378. As a temporary measure, and solely in order to meet strong

local objections, I would not propose to
Present propositions as tem- carry 0ut at once measures that are certainly

obSionT5111'6 t0 °bViate l0CUl very desirable, but to work by degrees. In

this way I feel sure that eventually the local
officers will see the necessity or advantage of conservancy being fully
established everywhere, except in tanks which yearly dry up, and after
all watery communication with flowing streams has been naturally
cut off. I would, therefore, propose as a commencement that (1) no
fixed engines of any description be permitted either in rivers, streams,
tanks, irrigated fields, or water-courses, unless such are leased fisheries,
whilst it would be very advisable to insist upon 1 inch between the
interstices of all substances forming such. These would have to be dealt
with at a future date, as the fish commence to increase ; (2) that a
mesh of 1 inch between knot and knot be the minimum size permitted
in any nets employed in free fisheries or along the banks of any river;
(3) nets and weirs for the capture of prawns might he exempted, pro-
vided the latter did not extend above 30 feet in length, such distance
not being" more than one quarter of the breadth of the river, at low
water, at the place where they are being used ; (4?) that poisoning of
waters to obtain fish be strictly prohibited.

379. The answers to the questions on Burmese fisheries, circulated

at my request by General Fytche in 18(>9,

t ,A.nsToCSnt0 Tlcf °ns ?ir?la" have not as yet * been received (September
ted in 1869 not yet received. , __rt. , . , •. , , v l

18/2), which is to be regretted.

380. The Chief Commissioner of British Burma (Sir. Eden)

proposed (April 4th, 1872) that in future,
_ Proposals of Chief Commis- ^^ jeasm„ fisheries, " no lessee of a lake
sioner. n , ° v , ,

fishery, nor any person licensed to use nets

and traps in rivers, shall use a net haviug a mesh of less than -i inches
in circumference, that is, 1 inch from knot to knot, nor any weir having
less than 1 inch between the bamboos, rattan, reed, or other substance
of which such weir is composed. Provided that this shall not apply to
the use of weirs of not more than 30 feet in length, or \ the breadth
of the stream or river in which they are placed, whichever may be
the shorter, where such weirs are used solely for the purpose of catching
prawns." Dams to be prohibited. Subsequently (July 19th, 1872) the
Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner observed, — " the report of
the Committee of experienced officers to the effect that the prohibition
contaiued in sections 18 and 19 (above) of the provisional rules would
necessitate the entertainment of an expensive establishment of inspect-
ors, and that a considerable loss of revenue would be occasioned thereby,
seemed to the Chief Commissioner sufficient grounds for modifying
these sections." The Committee observed, first, as regards the minimum

ecu

size of the mesh of nets and the distances between the substances
forming- weirs : — " There are in inland lakes and rivers upwards of a
dozen kinds of fish (these are generally the most numerous and plentiful)
that wonld pass through nets and weirs of that size, and would be lost to
the fishermen. These small fish are used in the manufacture of ngapee."
If not taken by man, it is suggested they will be by water-fowl, and a great
loss of fish and revenue must result. They proposed as follows : — " The
use of weirs across all streams and channels not included in fisheries is strictly
prohibited, provided that this shall not apply to weirs of not more than
30 feet in length, or £ of the breadth of the stream or river in which
they are placed, whichever may be the shorter, when such weirs are used
solely for the purpose of catching prawns/'' * * " Several fisheries in the
province, if the use of dams is prohibited, cannot be worked. The
Committee are quite aware that the use of dams is often injurious
to paddy crops, in so far that at present streams get gradually filled
up by them, and in consequence crops are inundated/'' They pro-
posed that, in exceptional cases, they should be allowed, but not
to be erected prior to January 1st, and to be removed by April 15th in
each year. The Government of India (August 6th, 1872) decided with
reference to a mesh of 4 inches in circumference : — " His Excellency
the Governor Genei'al in Council is disposed to doubt whether this is
not too small, and whether a mesh of \\ inches from knot to knot, or
5 inches in circumference, would not be preferable/' The Officiating
Secretary to the Chief Commissioner (August 29th; 1872) observed : —
" The Chief Commissioner agrees in the views expressed by the Commis-
sioner of the Tenasserim Division, who has given the subject great attention,
and has personally discussed the question of the size of the mesh
frequently with Mr. Eden. There is, I am to say, no occasion in the
present condition of the population to take any such measures for the
preservation of fish as will involve serious interference with the people.
It is impossible to have establishments to prevent the people taking fish
fry in the creeks and paddy-fields, and if they were not caught, they
would be eaten by birds, or die as the waters recede. The supply of fish
throughout the country is ample, and indeed in the Tenasserim Division
this year, fish is so cheap as to make the fisheries unremunerative. The
great article of consumption in Burma is ngapee, which is made from
young fish mixed with other fish. The Chief Commissioner had this
year ordered that the meshes of nets should be not less than 1 inch,
and the consequence was such unwillingness to buy the fisheries that
the rule had to be altered."

381. The Commissioner of Arakan, Colonel J. F. J. Stevenson,

(July 22nd, 1872,) remarks, that in the
Offic^t11' °PinionofEuropean report from the Deputy Commissioner

of Akyab, he has revised the original text
in three or four passages and also given marginal notes. The
Deputy Commissioner of Akyab observes that " breeding-fish are de-
stroyed to some extent. Very young ones are also caught for
consumption. Shrimps are taken from October to May, the greater
portion of which is used in making ngapee." T" It will be borne
in mind that we have no ' eeng ' (tank) fisheries in Arakan ; no
leased fisheries whatever, only a tax on nets." J. F. J. S.J

CC111

The above fish are caught by nets and traps in the sea, rivers,
creeks, streams, jhils, ponds, and tanks throughout the year. In
the raiuy season, daring the months of June and July, small fish
are caught in the fields. The smallest mesh employed is about h
an inch square, but the net by which shrimps are taken is roughly
woven like cloth, the holes of which are about y^th of an inch
in size. The meshes of nets might be regulated without difficulty,
according to the description of fish it is desired to take. The
ordinary size is from ^ to 8 inches from knot to knot. Prawn
nets are not adapted to catch large fish. Screens made of split
bamboo, fastened close together, are also used along the banks.
P" I believe, as said above, that alterations can easily be intro-
duced. I am not aware that there is any economic necessity for
it in Arakan, though on general principles it may undoubtedly be
desirable." — J. F. J. S"]. As to whether any objections exist against
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fishes in the bazars, he continues : —
" Prohibition seems to be absolutely necessary. But the fry of
fish is of course sold in considerable quantities in the bazars, and
is eaten cooked and made into ngapee." £" It is, of course,
as I have above remarked, probable that unnecessary destruction
results." — J. F. J. S.^. There are no objections against prohibiting
the capture of fish in hilly regions during the first two months
of the monsoon when they are breeding. [" 1 cannot say ; not
so, I think, as to Arakan." — J. F. J. S.]. The Deputy Commissioner
in Ramree (July 17th, 1872) observes that the fresh-water fisheries
in the district are very insignificant. There are no lakes or ponds,
and but four small rivers, in which fresh-water fish are found. Breed-
ing-fish and very youn^ ones are not destroyed to any great extent,
as the fishing is limited, but to a considerable extent when com-
pared with the amount of such fishing ; the breeding ones in November
and December by nets, the young ones by making dams and baling out
the water ; by bamboo scoops, placing bushes in the stream, and when
the STiall fish have got among them, surrounding them with cloths or
very fine nets, at all times of the year. The smallest mesh employed
is 4 'in inch from knot to knot, but coarse cloth is often used for the
smallest nets. No practical difficulty exists in regulating the minimum
size; one inch between the knots is proposed. No objections against
prohibiting the sale of fry in the bazars, or forbidding fishing for two
months in the hilly regions, when the fish go there for breeding pur-
poses. The Officiating Deputy Commissioner of Sancloway (July 11th,
1872) reports that breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed in
his district by the use of small meshed nets. The young fry are usually
taken during August and September in the paddy-fields and small
creeks with traps made of bamboo. They are not caught in large
quantities, and in this district are rarely sold. The smallest meshed
nets upon which a tax is paid are 2 £ inches square, but the nets which
are free of tax, and generally used by the people to supply their own
wants, have a mesh which is ^thof an inch square. There is no objection
whatever to regulating the minimum size, which it is proposed should
be |th of an inch between each knot, whilst fry might be prohibited
being sold in the bazars.

CC1V

382. The Deputy Commissioner of Thyetmyo (July 29th, 1872)

observed that he fully replied to the ques-

'+2??rgg! *""** *T\<ri?°ir,in i869 [«■ -r»*»

which the duel Commissioner never forward-
edj, and that he believes that report contained the whole of the informa-
tion now applied for with regard to the entire Prome District, of which
Thyetmyo then formed a part. No great destruction of breeding-fish,
except the shad, occurs, judging from the fish in the bazars. " Very
young fish, I fear, are destroyed in great numbers during the rainy sea-
son. At this period of the year they leave the river, and ascend any
little stream or backwater they can find, and here they fall an easy prey
to men, women, and children, who pursue them with all sorts of contri-
vances, which, though generally very simple, are very killing. Two
women, for instance, holding a sheet between them, will in half an hour
or so collect a few pounds of small fry. The smallest mesh of the nets
in use is | an inch each side. The greatest objection to regulating the
size of the mesh would be, that if the size of mesh is decreased (?) there
would be a diminution of the Government revenue." For the fisheries
one inch between each knot is recommended. If fry are allowed to be
caught, they may as well be eaten; therefore there would be no use
prohibiting their sale.

383. The Commissioner of the Tenasserim Division, (July 15th,

n . . „ „ „_ . , 1872) reported that breeding-- fish and very

Opinion of European (Jmcials ' ji j • i • tj.-i.j_

of the Tenasserim Division. youn£ ones are destroyed in his district to

a great extent by nets, weirs, hooks, basket-
traps, dameng, traps in streams and rivers, and in other different ways
in rented fisheries. They are caught at all seasons of the year, and in
inland fisheries from January to April. There is no restriction as to the
size of the mesh of nets employed, and there would be many difficulties
in regulating such, the chief of which is, that fish, both large and small,
are mixed up to form the compost called ngapee. Without the small fish
the bulk of the large fish caught would be small, and the value of the
fisheries very much reduced. Deprecates any rule fixing the minimum
size of meshes, but would leave the people to use nets as they found them
best suited for their work. Fry not sold in the bazars would be turned
into ngapee, so any prohibitory order against its sale would be of little
use. " In my opinion, generally in this province, the rivers and creeks
are so large and numerous, and the space of country covered by inun-
dation every year so vast, that there is yet ample breeding-ground for
fisli without imposing any strict rules as to preservation of fish and
their fry. As population, however, increases, and as embankments are
raised to confine the present spill-water of the rivers within narrower
bounds, then it may be necessary to assist Nature by causing less
destruction of the fry ; but I am sure that, as yet, generally the
supply is enormous, the breeding-grounds are extensive, and there is no
need of any great interference to preserve the stock. To give the large
breeding-fish and their fry free ingress and egress to the inundated
plains from the rivers, the use of tsuys or bamboo traps across streams
not rented as fisheries has been prohibited. This is all that is required
at present. As time goes on, other restrictions can be made as they
were found to be necessary." [If prohibiting " the use of bamboo traps

ccv

across the streams not rented as fisheries" is necessary, it is difficult
to see why permitting" their entirely blocking* rented streams can be
anything but injurious, especially as they only allow water to pass,
stopping every fish. Likewise at present fixed traps, nets, &c,
prevent migrating breeding-fish from freely obtaining ingress to, or
egress from, the inundated plains, and the mesh is so small that the
most minute fry are entrapped ; surely these ought to be prohibited or
subject to some regulation as to the size of the mesh which is employed.
This mode of fishing is entirely illegal in Great Britain.] The Deputy
Commissioner, Amherst District (July 11th, 1S72) replies that the answers
of four of his most experienced native officials (myo-okes) are unanimous
iu saying that the supply of fish brought to the bazars is not equal to the
demand. Breeding-fish and fry are destroyed to a very great extent
in the district, most so " at the commencement of the rains, when
breeding-fishes migrate to spawn : in this condition the fish are said
by the Burmans to be utterly reckless as regards capture, and passively
allow themselves to be taken in very great numbers. Those fish which
escape this critical period spawn in shallow water, from which, generally
speaking, the small fry have little chance of returning to the larger
streams. Another cause of wholesale destruction is the practice of
unrestricted fishing, that is to say, the indiscriminate use of traps,
nets, and dams, by which fish of every kind are caught, with
regard only to present wants rather than the probability of future
scarcity/'' The smallest mesh of nets used is £ an inch between
each knot ; the difficulty in regulating it would depend upon the
nature of the regulations themselves. Any sudden restriction upon
the present means of supply would cause great inconvenience, and
temporary misery, perhaps, to the poorer classes, because the staple food
•of a whole people would for a time be sensibly diminished, and the
revenues would temporarily deteriorate ; the smaller kinds of fish in tanks,
jhils, and paddy-fields would become a prey to birds instead of food for
man. [This, of course, only refers to those pier-es of water which are not
perennial, in which, after all communication between them and the risers
has ceased, they gradually dry up, and the fish, unless taken by man,
would die or be eaten by the lower animals]. The supply in the bazars
now is unequal to the demand ; regulations would decrease the present
supply, although they would eventually increase it. If possible, would
prohibit the capture of the fry of those species which grow to a large size,
especially of the "Nga-yans" \Ophiocephalusstriatus'\; and if their posses-
sion or sale under a certain weight and size were declared penal, some
stop might be put to its indiscriminate capture, and the result would be
a great increase in the present food-supply/' [This course I do not think
could be carried out ; it is true that this is a most valuable fish and
attains 3 feet or more in length, whilst the young are killed in
numbers as small fry, but the practical difficulty would be as follows : —
There are several species of Ophiocephalus, termed thus, with one or two
words added to show which is meant. Generally "Ng-a-yan" was the large
Ophiocephalus striahts, but near Henzada it was termed "Nga-yan-pa-nan."
The Ophiocephalus punctatus, which closely resembles the last species,
excepting that, though very broad, it rarely, if ever, exceeds a foot in
length, at this place was termed "Nga-yan-thin-ohn/-' whilst the perhaps

CCV1

lesser OphiocepTialas gachua was known as " Nga-yan-goun-doh," and the
possessor of one of these smaller species might be considered as
having- obtained the young- of the larger sort. It appears to be a more
practical plan to forbid fixed traps and nets, and poisoning water at first,
and then, as fish augment, to see if any regulation, affecting the minimum
size of the mesh of the nets which might be employed, would not be
feasible. Perhaps, at first, passing regulations on those used in the
free fisheries might be tried, prior to doing so in the rented fish farms.]
Major Sladen appends the names in Burmese of the following fish with
remarks : — " Fish which become large, but are not captured when young,
owing, it is said, to their keeping to the deeper portions of the rivers : —
'Nga-bat' [lVallago attii]; 'Nga-gyin' [Cirrhina mrigald] ; fNga-tan'
\Gagata tgpus] ; 'Kah-thamyim' \Pseudeutropius taakree] ; 'Kah-thaboung'
[Mutropiichthys vacka] ; 'Kah-kooran :' 'Nga-ywe' [Saccobranchus fossilis] ;
'Nga-youug' [Arius Burmatiicus], The following fish are caught indis-
criminately, large and small, but they never attain to over 51bs. : — 'Nga-
hpannua' \_Kquula rucouius] ; 'Nga-pyema' [Anabas scandens]; 'Kah-kadit:'
fNga-khoomma' \Barbu8 stigma] ; 'Nga-khoo' [Clarias magur] ; <Nga-
kyay' \_Datuioides polota] ; 'Nga-nuthan' \Calllchrous maeropkthalmus] ;
'NgaTsin-bya' [? Pellona Sladoui]; 'Nga Tsin-yeing' [Perilampus atpar].*
The Deputy Commissioner of the Tavoy District reports that breeding-fish
and very young ones are destroyed to a considerable extent, the former
being captured in the beginning of the rains, about May or June, when
they ascend the tidal streams to deposit their spawn ; they are caught by
damming up the stream with bamboo screens (weirs), leaving a passage
in the middle of the stream, where basket traps with enclosures (cruives)
are laid to catch them. Some also use casting-nets called koon at the
mouth of the streams. Large fish as well as young ones are caught in a
similar way during the three months, commencing in September, about
the close of the rainy season, but on a much larger scale by an arrange-
ment called isliai when all fish, large and small, descending the stream,
are captured. £These are the fish which have completed their spawning,
and the young which are attempting to pass to the deeper parts of the
rivers.] The smallest rnesh used is f th of an inch ; there may be some
difficulty in regulating it, as it may affect the capture of prawns and
shrimps employed for the manufacture of ngapee ; still, if the present
small mesh be permitted, immature fish will be taken. "The only way
to get over the difficulty will be by appointing fishery inspectors, whose
duty it will be to see that rules decided on are not evaded. These rules
should prescribe what nets, screens (weirs), and traps (cruives), are legal,
and in what month and in what places they may be used. To issue
orders without informing them will be useless : every one, from the
<Thoogyee, (fishery lessee) downwards, is too much interested ia obtaining
the fish to care about the way in which they are caught/'' Would per-
mit the meshes to be, as at present in use, under proper restrictions.
" The capture of fish in streams should be prohibited during May and June,
when the fish ascend the streams for spawning, and again during three
mouths from September, when they descend to the river with the fry ;

* The scientific names have been added by myself from information I obtaiued iu
Burma, but I have uot received specimens of the above, so souie errors may exist.

CCV11

and, further, the taking of fish by baling out pools and ponds should be
prohibited. The use of lamoos should also be prohibited : these are
screens (weirs), the rods of which are placed very close, and when the tide
is high and the fish are feeding amongst the bushes and grass on the
side of the tidal creek, those screens are so placed as to enclose a large
tract. When the tide falls, all the fish left are naturally caught. The
large are taken by the fishermen, but the small are left to die. The space
between the rods of lamoos allowed should never be less than 1 inch.
Here also an inspector would be required to see the order is not evaded."
The Deputy Commissioner of S/nveg/jen ( July 13th, 1872) remarked that
" breeding-fish get out of the deep rivers and ponds at the very com-
mencement of the rains, and force themselves up the runs of water flow-
ing towards the freshly covered plains. Many are caught in screen traps
made of split bamboo or reeds stretched across the small creeks and runs.
The young fish (four months old) are caught by the same contrivance on
their way back to the deep water in October." The smallest mesh u>ed
is about ^ an inch. In reeds or bamboo screens (weirs), the interstices
are frequently under a \ of an inch. " The only difficulty against
regulating the size of the mesh is a pecuniary one as regards rents. There
would be a little more trouble in making the lessees of fisheries use
screens of a certain space between the rods, but only at first, and public
and religious feeling amongst the Buddist population would certainly be
in favor of letting small fish escape, but there would necessarily he some
loss of revenue." Does not know of any objection against prohibiting
the sale of fry in the bazar. " It appears to me that there is not much
known upon the subject of the fresh-water fishes of Burma and their
habits. As books of reference are not available, I would suggest that
the head-quarters of each district be supplied with some comprehensive
work on Indian fishes." [None exists; the late Dr. Jerdon's manuals did
not extend to this class of animals, and without native names and illus-
trations, works simply giving descriptions would be of little, if any, use.]
" Officers will then be able to turn their attention to the subject.
The breeding times and the habits of different species might be
learnt by enquiring of the fishermen, that is, as far as they
themselves know. A few of the smaller kinds which are supposed
at present to be distinct species, but which may be only the fry, should
be transferred to an enclosed piece of water to see what they would
come to. " There are many fish supposed to be adults, as ' Nga-khoo '
\Clarias magur] ; one species of ' Nga-yan ' \_Ophiocephalus gachua or
punctatus~] — see my observations near the commencement of this para-
graph under the head of the Amherst District] ; 'Nga-gyee' [Saccobran-
c/ius fossilis] ; 'Nga-hpan-ma' \_Mola Jt&insonii] ; ' Khoan-ma' [Barbus
stigma}, &c, which would pass through in bamboo screens, the interstices
of which are an inch apart, and before absolutely prohibiting their use,
closer enquiries and more knowledge of the subject is necessary to show
at what seasons such may be used, and at what times they should be
prohibited." £With the exception of the ' Khoan-ma/ Barbus stigma,
adult of all the other fish would be stopped by a one-inched mesh
between the knots, calculating that the fullest stretch would be 1 \ inches,
some due to their width, others to their depth or their spines. Even
large ones of the last species would be unable to pass.] " Generally the

CCVlll

closing' of water-courses to fish ascending in the month of May should
be prohibited, and the use of close screens until after November.'" The
Deputy Commissioner of Mergui (August 3rd, 1872) reported "that the
fishing in his district is all sea-fishing-, and it is not known where the
fish breed, fee" [This will stand over for the report on the marine
fish and fisheries.] The Deputy Commissioner of Tounglwo (June 24th,
1872 ) observed " that all fish caught are killed, both breeding and young
ones.''' Fish breed in June and July, in which latter month the
country becomes inundated, and the fry enter the small creeks, and
thence find their way to the paddy-fields, and are caught by the culti-
vators. The ' Nga-yan' [Ophiocephalus siriatits~\ is, I believe, the
only large fish which, when very young, leaves the rivers and is found
in the paddy-fields. The people use 'yethai/ a bamboo frame-work,
with a mat bottom, dragged sometimes by buffaloes and sometimes
pushed by a man ; no fish, let the size be ever so small, can escape.
These instruments are used in the paddy-fields and swampy ground
during the monsoon generally/'' Sees no reason for altering the mesh
of nets or fence months in hilly districts.

381. The Commissioner of Pegu (March 27th, 1872) reported upon

ft the damming up of certain creeks in the
Opinions on bunding streams p township with bunds, by the fishermen

fur hiking purposes. » . .. * .' J n , .

renting the same, to the impeding of their
free navigation and the flooding of the neighbouring lands. The
Principal Revenue Settlement Officer, in the course of his season's work,
observed the same evil which has been brought to notice by the
Assistant Engineer in charge of the Pegu and Iwantay roads."
f Respecting this bunding of streams by fishermen, I observed on my
report on the fisheries of that province in October 2nd, 1869, "but the
other form of bunding tanks, or rather bunding streams into tanks, is
most destructive, for it must be remembered that in Burma there is no
necessity to conserve water as in India; on the contrary, they have
generally too much. An earthen dam or bund is thrown across a stream,
which, of course, causes the water to collect above it : next, smaller ones
are erected parallel with the course of the stream, or cutting off a portion
of it from the main channel. The water is laded out, the whole of
the fish captured, and this is continued portion by portion, till not
a fish is left. The injury is not prospective, it is now going on, and
thus in one fishery alone the rents have sunk, owing to decrease of fish,
as follows : Rs. 700 to 500, and this year to Rs. 200. It is a lazy,
destructive, and iniquitous mode of fishing, doing injury to the river, for its
bed silts up behind this bund, and thus the neighbouring paddy-fields
suffer in times of floods, as well as positively destroying the fisheries;
all this bunding of streams should be absolutely prohibited ; the renters
can employ bamboo weirs ;" para. 16. "In making an earthen bund,
two rows of strong stakes, 6 feet apart, are driven in across the stream,
the interval is filled in with grass and clayey mud. When all the fish
have been destroyed above this by lading out the water, they leave it and
raise another bund lower down the stream. The old stakes and banks
are never removed, but remain to be an obstruction to navigation, and
floating trees, which often permanently remain ; sometimes the bunds
give way, a great volume of water suddenly rushes down, and fortunate

0C1X

>

for any bridges in its course, if they are not injure! or carried away
para. 57. "That bunding- rivers for fishing- purposes be absolutely pro-
hibited/' para. 60.] The Deputy Commissioner of Rangoon (March 22nd,
1872) stated, — " I have reason to believe that the damming up of the
water does inundate the country round Pegu, and I fear a similar
result is felt in other parts of the district. There is much land in the
Syriam township kept uncultivated for the personal benefit of a few
fishermen/'' The Senior Revenue Settlement Officer (March 21st, 1872;
reported that in the Rangoon District, in some tidal streams, certain
large fishery dams exist, which appear to be productive of great evils.
" The dams are permanent structures. The fishery-holders also put up,
within the limits of their fisheries, numerous small dams termed baling-
out dams, while creeks not claimed by the fishery lessees fall to ^ the share
of the villagers, who forthwith choke them up in all directions with
small dams. These, it is true, are broken down in the rains, but stakes
and debris remain, which contribute more or less to impede the flow of
the water. The principal dams have been in existence some years; one,
indeed, is said to have been erected in the time of the Burmese rule, but
more probably was about the time of the last war, when the affairs of the
country were in some confusion, for from enquiries made, it appears that
under the Burmese Government dams were not allowed in any of the
main streams ; they cause the channels to silt up, hinder the passage of
boats, and land is rendered difficult of access. Owing to the abo^e causes,
it has to be assessed at a much lower rate than it would be under other
conditions. Crops are frequently destroyed by floods owing to the obstruc-
tions to the flow of water, and revenue is lost through this conversion
of extensive tracts of land into swampy wastes, which, prior to the con-
struction of the dams, were well cultivated. The loss of revenue, which
the removal of the dams might at first sight seem to threaten, may
be provided against if the neighbouring pond fisheries, and all places
suitable for the formation of such fisheries, be assessed for terms of
years, as the opening of the main streams will enhance their value, and
low spots unfitted for cultivation, and now unremunerative, may be
readily turned to a very profitable account, as fisheries, and even in the first
year of the removal of the dams, no loss of revenue need be incurred."
[The Deputy Commissioner of the District was directed to see to their
removal before the rains, and prior to the new settlement.]

385. The following are the native reports, including the modes

Observations upon the native of fishinS in ,the f™S}\ *aterS' showing which
official reports. nets are taxed and which untaxed.

386. In the Ahjab District, the native official reports that out of

a population of 268,000 persons, 1,982 took
a Opinion of native official of oufc licenses for fishing. in the district this

year ; some work as fishermen entirely, others
also follow other occupations. They are composed of Mussulmen termed
" Judiahs," Madrassees, and natives of Chittagong, Arakan, and Burma.
The markets are fairly supplied with fish : during spring-tides the most are
taken from the sea, and the least during the neaps. " More could be sold,
but if more were brought to market, the price would fall, and then per-
haps it would not pay the fishermen. The whole population eat fish, the
supply of which is stationary. Very small fish are taken in the

ccx

fields, lakes, ponds, or JMls, and everywhere by nets and traps, and
by emptying water from the hollows during- the rains. This practice
might be stopped with advantage/'' The following are the taxed
nets used in the fresh and back waters of this district: — (I) Hmyaw-
paik, each piece 60 feet long and 18 deep, with a mesh from 1 to 4
inches square; these are drift-nets; (2) Kyee-doung, very similar to the
last; (3) Laigivenpaik, 60 feet long, 15 deep, with rneshes of 3 or
4 inches square, and are fixed in shallow parts of rivers and across
streams; (4) Nga-tha-louk-paik — these are cast-nets employed from a
boat, and used for the purpose of taking the shad as they ascend the
rivers for breeding purposes ; (5) Ngin-paik, 60 X 18 feet, 2 to 3
inches square in the mesh, and used from boats ; (6) Paik-gyee, 75 to 120
feet long, and about 38 feet deep at the mouth, with meshes from %
an inch to 6 inches square ; these are fixed in the shallow parts of the
biy and in rivers ; (7) Paik-tsoon-kyoo, from 30 to 36 feet long, and
about the same depth at the mouth, with a mesh from \ an inch to
4 inches square ; sometimes they are used as fixtures, at other times
dragged in the streams and creeks ; (8) Tsein-paik, in one set of six traps
(cruives), 37^ feet long and 9 to 12 wide at the opening, and composed
of split bamboo fastened close together ; these bamboo traps are fastened
to posts fixed in the rivers and creeks; (9) Ts/nvay -paik-gyee or Paik-
htouk-gyee, from 1,200 to 2,400 feet long, 18 deep, and meshes of 2 or 3
inches square ; they are drag-nets ; (10) Tshioay-paik-galay are also drag-
nets, 120 X 6 feet, with meshes 1 or 2 inches square; (11) Tim-divin-paik,
stationary nets in the rivers, about 30 feet square bagnets, and i to 4
inches square in the meshes. Irrespective of the foregoing taxed nets, the
untaxed contrivances for capturing fish are rods and lines, traps and small
nets in fields, and also in shallow streams by means ot bamboo weirs.

387. In the Ramree District, the native official reports that there

.. . . „ L. _ . , „ are about 50 fishermen, including those who

Opinion of native official of i i , , ,. c

Rauliree use bamboo scoops; the greater portion ol

the cultivators likewise use these scoops

during the rains. The markets are fully supplied, but the amount of

fish in the water has slightly decreased. Very small fish are taken in

considerable quantities, in comparison with the extent of the fresh waters,

by making dams, with bamboo traps and scoops ; the minimum mesh

employed is \ an inch, but a coarse cloth is used for small nets. Bushes

are also placed in side streams, and when fish have taken refuge in them,

they are surrounded by nets.

388. In the Sandoway District, the three native officials reply

that very few of the fishermen make fishing

Sandoway. "* ^ °f their sole occupation, there being no local

markets ; fishing is only carried on to supply
personal requirements ; however, the price of fish is given at from 8 to
24 lbs. weight the rupee. The whole population eat fish, the amount of
which is believed to have remained stationary. Very small fish are
taken, as the river rises during the rains, by men and women along the
banks of the streams; one-sixth of an inch square is the smallest size of
the mesh of the nets that is employed. Fish are also trapped to a small
extent in irrigated fields during the rains. Nets, traps, and weirs are
used for inland fishing.

CCX1

389. In the Thyetmyo District, one native official answers as

follows : — That there are 137 resident fisher-

Th°etmyo. °f "^ ^^ ^ men> but many others come down temporarily

from Upper Burma ; as a rule, the fishermen
do not follow any other occupation. The local markets are generally
fully supplied: now and then the fishermen take a holiday, and then no
fish at all is to be had. The supply of fish has always been equal to the
demand. Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields to a small extent.
The taxed nets in use are as follows: — (1) Hmaw, 240x8 cubits,
and an 8-inched mesh ^several of the sizes of meshes given, being
erroneous, are omitted], it is floated down a river; (2) Let-mat an-paik,
250 X 8 cubits, with a mesh of 1 inch, one end is affixed to a sand-
bank, and the other is carried out into the stream and brought round to
the sand-bank; (3) Paik-woon-boo, 800x35 cubits, with a mesh of 1
inch, drifted down the river by the aid of two boats and hauled on to the
bank; (4) Kiooon-gee-paik or Mek-kiooon-paik are casting nets ; (5) Paik-
lot, or Hna-loon-qneng is similar to No. 2, but is only made in Upper
Burma; (6) Hmyaw-aing-dan, 25 X 10 cubits, used in backwaters close
to the river's bank, one end is fastened to the shore at the head of the
backwater, and the other end anchored out in the stream ; (7) Ret-
giveng, 25 X 25 cubits, and a mesh of \ an inch, this is like the Chinese
dip-net, and said to be very destructive to the young shad. The untaxed
nets are given as follows : — (1) Nga-tsein-paik, 50x1 cubit, with a mesh,
of 1 inch, it is pulled along in shallow waters during the dry season near
the shore ; (2) Oo-tsein-paik, 60x4 cubits, with a mesh of an inch
used as the foregoing; (3) Rong-ma, a casting net; (4) Paik-byon,
80 X 8 cubits, having a mesh of 3 inches, worked like No. 1 of the taxed
nets ; (5) Let-pyit-kwon, 7x7 cubits, with a mesh of three-fourths of
an inch, pulled along in shallow water ; (6) Khyee-kwon, 400x7 cubits,
and a mesh of 2 inches, these nets are worked lite the last, and are now
and then brought down from Upper Burma ; (7) Kwon-neng, 6x7 cubits,
with a mesh of 4 inches between each knot [?], a casting-net; (8) Daing-
won, a prawn-net ; (9) Gaw, a net let down to the bottom of the stream
and baited; (10) Doo-khyoon, a float-net used in large rivers to capture
ascending fish during the dry season.

390. From the Amherst District, the answer of four Myo-okes have

_ . . . been received : they report that the great

Opinion of native officials of •• o ii_ t± r ij.* j. „„j

Amheret. majority of the fishermen are cultivators, and

very few solely employed in this occupation.
The markets are stated not to be fully supplied in any of the districts :
the whole of the population eat fish. The amount in the waters is con-
sidered to have remaiued stationary in two, and to be decreasing yearly in
the remaining two. Small fish are caught in the fields and creeks during
the rains by means of dams, tamans, and traps, yeen and yethai,
and other contrivances. The smallest mesh employed is \ an inch in
the hand nets. Fish are trapped in the fields during the rains, and
caught by means of hviyone, yeen, kooudoung, and yethai, &c.
The names only of the implements employed in fishing is given.
£ Poisoning of waters is also resorted to during the dry season in this
district, as will be observed from the following report furnished by Mr.
J. W. Dig lis, Executive Engineer of the Amherst Division, in 1869: —

CCX11

"la the Amherst District, about six or eight miles from the sea, it has
been frequently brought to my notice, and I have also observed, the prac-
tice prevails extensively of poisoning the water of the streams for the
purpose of obtaining the fish. The process adopted is as follows : —
Pools formed in the streams by some natural obstructions are chosen for
carrying out this iniquitous mode of capturing fish. Different methods
are pursued. In one the bark of the Bunboay tree is floated on the
surface of the water for a short space of time, when the fish come to
the surface intoxicated, and are easily removed by the hand. The reason
for removing the bark so quickly from the water is, that the fish might
not become unwholesome, because too much of this substance causes the
flesh of the fish to act deleteriously on the health of the person who
eats it. The other modes are similar. The bark of the Kyee, or the
leaves and root of the Hong, or the fruit of the Bongalong, are used.
I have seen considerable quantities of fish obtained in the above manner.
They would measure 2 feet down to the minutest size. In fact, these
substances appear to intoxicate every fish which may be in the pools at
the time they are used ; the time of the year this is adopted is the dry
season, when I have large numbers of workmen employed in the con-
struction of the Yeh road, many of whom are rendered sick, due to the
state of the water, as well as eating fish which has been procured in the
manner described/'']

391. In the Tavoy District, answers have been received from one

native official, who observes that four-fifths
Opinion of native official of of the fishermen are likewise engaged in
voy* other occupations. The local markets are

only sufficiently supplied with fish at certain seasons, which is eaten
without exception by every one in the district. The amount in the
water has decreased during the last five or six years; the fry are
captured in large quantities during the latter end of the rains in
the months of September, October, and November ; they are taken
in tshais, a building constructed in the middle of the streams with
bamboo screens or weirs placed across the stream, leaving the part,
where the building is, open, in which a sloping tray, about 20 yards long,
is placed, one end touching the ground, and the other above water, with
wall-like screens on each side of the tray : over this is placed another
moveable tray or lift, which, when the fish are driven in by the current,
is tilted up, and they are caught, or baled out and put into baskets kept
in the water. The smallest sized mesh of nets is fths of an inch. Fish
are trapped in the irrigated fields during the rains in a few places, by
laying screens and bamboo basket traps in the water-courses when the
water recedes from the fields : this is generally done by lads for home
consumption only. The following are the fishing implements em-
ployed : —

1. — Tshway-paik-gyee {see Akyab, No. 6); mesh fths of an inch.
2. — Tshicay-paik-galay (see Akyab, No. 1U) ; mesh fths of an inch.
3. — Hmyaw-paik-galay, a river net floated; mesh 2^ inches.
4. — Tsauda-gyee, a place built in the river or at its mouth,
where fish are caught on a large scale, worked by eight men :
there is £ an inch between the bamboos of which the screens
are made.

CCX1U

5. — Tsanda-glay, similar, but smaller., and built in the narrow part
of the river, worked by four men : \ of an inch between the
bamboos.

6. — Hmi/oon and Khaya. The first is a cylindrical bamboo basket,
from 3 to 6 feet in length, and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter,
with a trap-door at both ends, in which fish are caught ; it
is used in the streams. The latter is a long cone-shaped
basket, held under water in a strong tide ; the fish gets in
and is jammed at the sharp ends ; when the tide recedes the
basket is pulled up by means of a rope : §ths of an inch
between each piece of bamboo.

7. — Htsaij is the same as tsanda, but constructed in tidal streams.

8. — Kwoon, a casting-net.

9. — Tsoung, a conical basket, open at both ends ; the lower one is
put down over fish in shallow water, and the fisherman
removes the game from above : £ of an inch between the
bamboos.

392. From the Shivegyen District, one native official reports that

_ . , . most of the fishermen engage in other occu-
Opinion of native official of ,-, ■, i i L i> n r j

Shw^ven. pations : the local markets are lully supplied ;

the price has not risen, " but there seems to
be a general impression that fish are decreasing. This is what the fish-
ermen say ; there is no means of testing it." Numbers of small bright
silvery fish, termed " Shoay-hmong," or gold-dust fish, are found, after
the first week's rains, ascending some of the rivers in prodigious shoals.
They swim close to the banks, avoiding the deep water and current, and
are caught in great quantities by women and children with pieces of
mosquito netting or cloth. These have all the characters, to the casual
observer, of fish-fry, but the Burmese say they grow no larger. The
smallest sized mesh of nets is ^ an inch and a £ of an inch between
bamboos, or even less. Fish are taken in the inundated fields. The
names of fishing implements are given.

393. .Replies from the Mergui District have been given by four

Thoogyees and Myo-ohes, but as their answers
Replies from Mergui. refer to the sea fisheries, they will be included

in that report.

ecxiv

MADRAS.

(Supplementary Report).

394. The Acting Collector of Bellary (7th September 1872) ob-

serves— breeding-fish and fry are destroyed in
• 5tn of ^ropean Officials th t k fe t y t fc k tfa ^ ,

in the Bellary Collectorate- ,. , '. . , . ' J ..J

die when the water dries up. Ihe smallest

size of mesh in use appears to be one through which a quill can just
be passed : it could only be regulated in leased waters, a proceeding he
does not consider necessary, and as regulations are not recommended,
" fry will still be caught, and when caught, it must be sold/'' The Col-
lector (see page lxxix) stated, as regards letting the fisheries of this
Collectorate, that it is not probable that any persons will be found to
bid for them. They have been put up to auction this year and realized
672 rupees. The Sub-Collector contradicts all the others who assert
breeding-fish and young ones are destroyed, but gives the minimum
size of the mesh of nets at T\>th or ^th of an inch ; replies ■ s to what
difficulties there are against regulating it — " none much. The Police
would be always able to get fish for nothing, by the threat of charging
fishermen with fishing with an improper net." Prohibiting the sale
of fry in the bazars would be useless, as they would be sold just as
much, though more privately ; whilst were a close season declared for
two months during the monsoon in hilly districts, such might " cause
the wild tribes to starve during the breeding season." The Head
Assistant Collector replies — all fish are caught irrespective of their size
and condition : by nets and basket-traps chiefly, and in the tanks
when the waters are low. The minimum mesh in use is given at
probably ^ an inch in diameter, and as to regulating such, " it will be
as easy a matter as the prohibition of illicit arrack-stills, and I do not
think that much hardship would ensue :" one inch between the knots
of each mesh is proposed.

395. The Acting Collector of Trichinopoly reports (10th August

1872) that fishermen spare no fish, however

lectoro? THchinoPoly.ting ° " sma11 > a tremendous destruction takes place

below the irrigation weirs where their ascent
is arrested, and in the pools of the river as they subside, also in tanks
that are rented out. One-eighth of an inch is given as the smallest size
mesh employed, which ought to be regulated as tending to increase the
fish population, and thus secure a good supply to the market ; five inches
in circumference is proposed.

396. The Acting Collector of the Kistna (29th August 1872)

^ . . „ _ _„ . , observes that fish are caught wherever found,

Opinion of European Officials 3 • •, , ° , , ,.

in the Kistna District. and in eveiT possible way j hence breeding

ones and fry can hardly escape. The smallest
mesh will hardly permit a grain of red gram to pass, but great difficul-
ties would exist in regulating it, or prohibiting the sale of the fry

ccxv

of fish. Is not satisfied that a diminution of fish has been proved, or
that if it exists, such can have been caused by destroying the breeding1
ones and their fry ; therefore sees no necessity for legislation, but if
decided that something- is to be done, a short close season would be the
least objectionable and unpopular form it would take. The Head
Assistant Collector replies that it has been shown that " fish of all ages
and sizes, clean or otherwise, are taken at all seasons," whilst as to
regulating the minimum size of the mesh of nets he sees "no difficulty.
The fishermen are all known ; and their nets can be inspected when
being used or being dried/' He ventures, " however, to express an
opinion that a case for the legislature interfering with the capture
and sale of fish has not been made out. Salmon decreased in British rivers
from two main causes — (1) the pollution by manufactories, (2) from
the increased demand. [ This opinion is correct, yet incorrect, except
that (1) the pollution of rivers was one of the causes of decrease
of fish, but (2) the increased demand can hardly be given as the
only other, unless that such led, due to the baneful absence of
proper regulations, to every poaching practice being resorted to ; each
owner of a fishery " sought to do what he liked with his own part of
the river, and often selfishly resorted to weirs, dams and fixed engines,
with the view of driving every living inhabitant of the waters into
his own net, regardless of the impoverishment of his neighbour."
" The decay of the fisheries having then become conspicuous, it was
necessary for the legislature to intervene on the ground of* public policy,
and with an eye to the benefit of all parties, to restrain the suicidal
policy of the riparian owners, making it no longer possible for each
to do what seemed good in his own eyes." Fixed engines were
considered the chief cause of this injury in many places.] The Acting
Sub-Collector (24th April 1872) reported that breeding-fish and very
young ones are destroyed to a great extent. The fishermen catch them
at all times and in any way they can, but most of all in the hot
season, when the Kistna is fordable in many places. "In riding
through fishing villages on the coast, I have often seen numerous
large heaps of fish of the very smallest size. I have no doubt but
that the villagers mainly live on them in some seasons, and sell their
larger fish. If small fish are caught in such quantity on the coast, I
see no reason to doubt but that the same thing goes on in the
fresh waters." In Guntur the salesmen considered the markets fully
supplied. £The Tehsildar, p. xcv, reported the markets as very
insufficiently supplied, and re-states it now : also that the amount in
the waters had decreased. ] No wasteful destruction of fish occurs,
except the use of the young as food. " It is not used at all as manure,
or only to a very small extent."

397. The Collector of South Canara (September 9th, 1872) re-
Reply from the Collector of Plied tnat the first six questions have been
South Canara, and his draft answered (see paragraphs 167 and 168.) For-
Fishery Act. tunately the use of nets is practically prevented

during the first two months of the monsoon, owing to the violence of the
floods. The process of spawning is also spread over many months out
of the twelve, and angling is impracticable at some of the periods in
question, as mahaseer, at any rate, will not take a bait when the water

CCXV1

is eoloured. The following- is the draft Fishery Act proposed bv Mr.
H. S. Thomas in 1870:—

Whereas it is expedient to provide for the improvement of the
fisheries in the Madias Presidency, it is hereby enacted as follows : —

Preliminary.

1. Short Title. — This Act may be cited for all purposes as the
Madras Fishery Act, 1870.

2. Application of Act. — This Act shall apply to all places subject
to the authority of the Madras Government, provided that it shall be
lawful for the Governor in Council, by notification published in the
Fort St. George Gazette, to exempt any place from the operation of
this Act.

3. Commencement of Act. — This Act shall come into operation
on the day of one thousand eight hundred and
seventy

4. Definition of terms. — In this Act, unless there is something-
inconsistent in the context, the words and expressions hereinafter
mentioned, shall have respectively the meanings hereby assigned to them;
that is to say —

" Tidal waters" shall include the sea, and all rivers, creeks, streams,

canals, and other water as far as the tide flows and re-flows.
" Inland waters" shall mean all waters that are not tidal waters.
" Dams" shall mean all weirs, anicuts, and other fixed obstructions

used for the purpose of damming up running water.
" Fishing weir" shall include any artificial structure fixed across

the whole or any part of a river for the purpose of catching or

facilitating the catching of fish.
" Fixed engine" shall include stake nets, anchored nets, basket

traps and all fixed implements or engines for catching or for

facilitating the catching of fish.

5. Penalty on mixing poisonous substances in waters. — Every person
who has poisonous substances in his possession, or who causes or know-
ingly permits to flow, or puts or knowingly permits to be put into any
•waters containing fish, or into any tributaries thereof, any liquid or
solid matter to such an extent as to cause the waters to stupefy or kill
fish, shall incur the following penalties ; that is to say —

1. Upon the first conviction a penalty not exceeding fifty rupees.
II. Upon the second conviction a penalty not exceeding one
hundred rupees, and a further penalty not exceeding twenty
rupees for every day during which such offence is continued.
III. Upon a third or any subsequent conviction a penalty not
exceeding two hundred rupees, and a further penalty not
exceeding two hundred rupees a day for every day on which
such offence is repeated or continued, commencing from the
date of third conviction.

6. But no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties if he
satisfy the Court before whom he is tried that the poisonous substances
in his possession were intended for some legal purpose.

7. And no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties if he
prove to the satisfaction of the Court before whom he is tried that he has

CC'XVll

used the best practicable means within a reasonable cost to render harmless
the liquid or solid matter so permitted to flow or to be put into waters.

8. And no person shall be subject to the foregoing- penalties if he
prove to the satisfaction of the Court before whom he is tried that the
poisoning- complained of existed before the passing of this Act; that
the cost of rendering it harmless would exceed one hundred rupees, or
would exceed a reasonable tax on his means ; and that he has, prior to
the date of the complaint, applied to the Collector of the District for the
aid of Government.

9. In the event of the Collector being applied to for Government
aid, he shall cause the poisoning to be rendered harmless, and shall proceed
in accordance with the provisions of Act of (the Arbi-
tration Act) to apportion the share of the expense thereof to be borne by the
applicant and the sum to be paid him for any damage done to his property.

10. If the Collector considers that the applicant has no claim
under section 8 on the assistance of Government, he shall give notice
to the applicant that, unless he himself renders the subject of the com-
plaint harmless within one month or other longer period fixed by the
Collector, a complaint will be lodged against him under section 5.

11. Penalty on destroying Roe. — No person shall do the following-
things, or any of them, that is to say —

I. Buy, sell, or expose for sale, or have in his possession,
any spawned roe.
II. Wilfully disturb any place in which fish have spawned.
And any person acting in contravention of this section shall, for
each offence, incur a penalty not exceeding twenty rupees, and shall
forfeit all roe found in his possession ; but this section shall not
apply to any person who uses or has in his possession roe for artificial
propagation or other scientific purposes, or gives any reason satis-
factory to the Court by whom he is tried for having the same in his
possession.

12. Penalty on rising certain nets. — No person shall take or attempt
to take any fish, except shrimps or prawns, with any net having a mesh
of less than the following' dimensions, that is to say, in the inland
waters of less than half an inch in extension from knot to knot (the
measurement to be made on each side of the squai-e, or two inches
measured round each mesh when wet ; or in the tidal waters of less
than three inches measured round each mesh when wet) ; and any
person acting in contravention of this section shall forfeit all nets
and taokle used by him in so doing, and shall, for each offence, incur
a penalty not exceeding rupees fifty j and the placing two or more nets
behind or near to each other in such manner as to practically diminish
the mesh of the nets used, or the covering the nets used with canvas
or Ihe using any other artifice so as to evade the provisions of this
section with respect to the mesh of nets, shall be deemed to be an
act in contravention of this section.

13. Penalty on placing or fixing fixed engines. — No fishing weir
or fixed engine of any description shall be placed or used for catching
fish in any inland water ; and for the purposes of this section any water
flowing to, through, or from irrigated fields shall be included in the term
inland water ;

CCXV111

(2) and no fixed engine of any description shall be placed in tidal
waters between sunset on Saturday and sunrise on Monday : provided
that it shall be lawful for the Governor in Council, by notification made
in the Fort St. George Gazette, to exempt auy tidal water from tlie
operation of this clause;

(3) and no fixed engine other than fixed nets of legal meshes shall,
for the purpose of catching fish, be set on or near the banks of, or
between high and low water marks of, any tidal waters ;

(4) and any engine placed or used in contravention of this section
may be taken possession of or destroyed; and any engine so placed or used,
and any fish taken by such engine, shall be forfeited, and in addition
thereto, the owner of any engine placed or used in contravention of this
section shall, for each day of so placing or using the same, incur a
penalty not exceeding one hundred rupees.

14. When fish or the young of fish are led aside out of a main
stream by means of any artificial channel used for irrigation, or for the
purpose of supplying towns with water, or for supplying any navigable
canal, the revenue authorities shall determine whether it is necessary to
place and maintain gratings before such diversions of water, or to make
and maintain a free passage therefrom to the main stream, in what man-
ner the same shall be done, and by whom, and at whose cost, in whole
or part ; and after the expiration of a period of six months from the
commencement of this Act, any person or persons failing to put a grat-
ing or gratings, or to make a free passage in cases where they are
required to do so by this section, shall incur a penalty not exceeding fifty
rupees for every day after the expiration of such period of six months,
during which he fails to comply with the provisions of this section ; and
any such person failing so to maintain the same shall incur a penalty not
exceeding ten rupees for every day during which such failure continues :
provided always that no such grating shall be so placed as to interfere
with the passage of boats on any navigable canal.

15. Penalty on netting near dams. — No person shall catch or
attempt to catch, except by rod and line, any fish within one hundred
yards of any dam ; and if any person acts in contravention of this provi-
sion, he shall incur a penalty not exceeding twenty rupees for each offence,
shall forfeit all fish caught in contravention of this section, and all nets
or other instruments used or placed for catching the same.

16. Penalty on taking undersized fish. — No person shall wilfully
take, destroy, injure, buy, sell, or expose for sale, or have in his posses-
sion any fish declared, by notification of the Governor in Council in the
Port St. George Gazette, to be under-sized fish.

17. Power to make bye-laws. — For the better application of
this Act, it shall be lawful for the Governor in Council to make
from time to time, by notification in the Fort St. George Gazette, any
bye-law not repugnant to the tenor of this Act.

18. Power to impose taxes. — From the date of the commencement
of this Act, it shall be lawful to collect the following dues from all persons
fishing in waters which are the property of Government : — For every drag
or wall net (&c, &c, as in paragraph 139 of the report) not more than
nine rupees per annum (and so on as in paragraph 139 of the report), the
rates only being trebled.

CCX1X

19. Recovery of arrears. — All taxes imposed under this Act shall be
recoverable, whether by the Government or by renters under Government,
or by such sub-renters as may be thereto authorized by the Collector in a
notification in the District Gazette, in the same manner as arrears of
land revenue.

20. Penalty for litigiousness and imposition. — Every person resist-
ing* the recovery of a lawful demand of tax (or interest thereon), or
vexatiously and litigiously applying" to a Magistrate to stay the recovery
thereof, and every person wilfully making an unlawful demand, shall incur
a penalty of fifty rupees.

398. In the Bellary Collectorate,fifteen tehsildars (see paragraph 1 73)

compute the fishermen at 7,880, but they
Bellary Collectorate: opinion ^ We other occupations . in one tehgil
of the native officials. „ , , r T, .

nsh are stated to be sold m abundance, but
in all the others the supply is insufficient and more could be disposed of,
the fish-eating class being set down at 66 per cent, of the people, The
amount in the waters is universally considered to have decreased, due
to the deficiency of rain, for the last ten or fifteen years. During the
monsoon months, small fish are taken in the jungle streams and nallas by
placing thread and basket nets concavely against the running water.
The following are the minimum size of the mesh of nets which are stated
to be employed : — One, "as big as a broomstick ;" one, "as broad as the ring-
finger ;" three, as wide " as a 2-anna piece ;" one, " as big as half the ring-
finger ;" one, the "size of a dholl or pigeon pea/'' two, "as big as lamp-
oilseeds;" two, as small as the circumference of a bodkin; two at gthof
an inch ; one at ^th of an inch ; and one at less than T'nth of an inch between
the knots. Fish are said to be trapped in the irrigated fields by three
of the reporters. Amongst the various modes of fishing in the Collecto-
rate are the following : — Idapola, a drag-net used by two men in tanks;
isara-vala, a casting-net ; galam, baited hook : in nallas and channels
small banks of earth and sand are thiown across running water, leaving a
gap, wherein a net is fixed : poison is said to be employed in Alur.
Basket nets — fixed nets placed over-night across streams and removed of a
morning, and in the irrigation streams nets are likewise fixed.

399. In the Trickinopoly Collectorate, five tehsildars reply (see para-

graph 175) as before, except that the popula-

.3S3S. 33*7*" *» ™ 'b"* *»* 1.1W.8OT pJ out Of

whom 407,068, or upwards of one-third, eat
fish. All the native officials now report that the amount in waters has
decreased of late years (previously one stated they had increased) : the
use of small meshed nets is universally reported; the minimum size of the
mesh is given thus :— One, the "size of the little finger;" one, the "size of
a quill;" one, about the " size of a tamarind stone;" one, ±t\\ and one, |th
of an inch. In one talooka only, are fish said to be trapped.

400. In the Kistna Collectorate, the Deputy Collector observes, as
v. . „ „ , .. regards prohibiting the sale of fry in the

Kistna Collectorate : replies i , T L , J? , ,. , -, , J ,

of the native officials. bazar, that any attempt "would be useless.

The best way prohibition can, I think, be
effected would be by preventing them from being caught in the first
instance by regulating the meshes of the nets employed, and by renting
out the fisheries with the requisite prohibitory conditions on the subject."

ccxx

The Tehsildars report as in paragraph 171. The one oiBezwada gives the
fish-eating population at 70 per cent, of the whole : the minimum size of
the mesh of the nets which he previously observed would " admit one fin-
ger," he now states " is just large enough to contain a cholum seed."
The Tehsildar of Palnad now alters his opinion respecting the amount
of lish in the waters, which, instead of being " stationary," he now asserts
have "decreased." The Tehsildar of Vinukonda gives the minimum
size of the mesh of nets as equal " to the size of the end of the little
finger." The Tehsildar of Yissanapet observes — the fishermen have other
occupations ; the markets are not supplied ; more fish could be sold ; about
80 per cent, of the people eat it, whilst the amount in the waters has
decreased : half an inch is the minimum sized mesh used : fish traps,
snares, and dams are employed ; nets are likewise fixed across channels
for fishing purposes. The Tehsildar of Bapalla states that the markets
are supplied; about 80 per cent, of the people eat fish, the amount of
which in the waters has decreased ; that small ones are captured during the
rains, whilst the minimum size of the mesh employed is "just large
enough to hold a Bengal gram seed." Waters are dammed, and im-
plements fixed in the current going through a gap where they are taken.
In Bunder, the fish-eating community is given at 70 per cent. ; the
amount of fish in the waters has decreased ; small ones are captured dur-
ing the rains ; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets is given
as "just large enough to hold a Bengal gram seed" (previously he
gave it at quarter of an inch). In Sattenapally, about 75 per cent.
of the people are stated to eat fish, which are "decreasing every
year, because the fish in the Kistna River that pass over the
weir cannot return :" the smallest mesh used " is of the circumfer-
ence of a grain of Bengal gram." The Tehsildar of Qudewada
considers the amount of fish in the waters to be stationary; 80 per
cent, of the people eat fish; numbers of small ones are taken during
the rains : the minimum size of the mesh of nets equals that of a 2-anna
piece.

401. In the South Canara Collector ate, the following are the re-
turns from the native officials : — The Tehsil-
Jl o^CS£"e°to™te : ~ ** <>/ Vdipi reports the number of fishermen

at 1,110 ; they do not live solely by fishing ;
they are mostly of the Moger caste; but in one place people of the
Karvi caste also follow the same calling. The local markets are sup-
plied ; 68 per cent, of the people eat fish ; quantities of small ones were
formerly destroyed by poison. This is now stopped ; " people, therefore,
say that the number of fish in such rivers and streams has greatly
increased of late and is still increasing," but such fish are taken in fresh-
water streams and paddy-fields ; also by fixed traps and weirs : the mini-
mum size of the meshes of nets employed is £th ofan inch. The Tehsildar of
Uppmangadi observes that the fisherman have other occupations ; every-
one catches what he requires, and about 40 per cent, are computed to
eat it; the amount in the waters is said to be increased; numerous small
fish are trapped in water-courses ; the minimum size of the mesh ol
the nets is \t\\ of an inch ; fish are extensively trapped in paddy-fields.
The Tehsildar of Mangalur's answers, as applicable to the sea or fresh-
water fisheries, cannot be accurately sub-divided. The Tehsildar of

CCXX1

Cundapur considers that out of 2;000 fishermen 500 are solely thus
engaged; they consist of Kara, Moger, Dalji, Karvi, Gabith or Upparcar,
and Boyee. About 85 per cent, of the people eat fish ; the minimum size
of the mesh of nets " is that of a green gram, say ^th of an inch from
knot to knot/'' Small fish are trapped in paddy-fields. The Tehsildar
of Cassergode's replies refer mostly to the sea fisheries.

CCXXlt

BRITISH BURMAH.

(Supplementary Report.) (1)

402. The Officiating Assistant Secretary to the Chief Commissioner
(> (October 12th, iS72) observes "that the

Fmal opinion of the Lniet »„„,,„ 4-1-,^ ni,:n f r<~ ~ • •

CommissioLr of British Burma. raoie the Chlf Commissioner enquires into

the matter, the more satisfied he is that any
attempt to prohibit the capture of small fish would be as impolitic as it
is unnecessary" — [an opinion orjposed to what he gave April 4th, 1872
(see p. cci) and July 19th, 1872.)]]

403. The Commissioner of Pegu (September 25th, 1872) forwards

extracts from the opinions of those serving1

•P^SlTi05S0F under him- The l>'P«t9 Commissioner of
mous of European Officials. J J . J

Rangoon replies that " there is no doubt that
in some parts of the district large numbers of breeding-fish are destroyed.
This is done at the commencement of the rains, when they go up small
streams, and where the water is clear and shallow, for the purpose of
spawning : they are at this time easily caught and destroyed, so much so,
that the instruments which many persons use are common sticks : very
many young fish, too, are no doubt caught where they can be, but this is
done chiefly in the small streams which are not rented out, and in the
small fisheries. It is the practice in this district in large fisheries to
set apart a portion of the fishery for the young fish which may be caught
or which pass through the screens, and some of the large fish which are
caught are also put into this for purposes of breeding." " I do not think
there would be any great difficulty in regulating the size of the mesh. If
once the order were given, people would be afraid to use nets with
meshes smaller than the regulated size, as the fact could be so easily
proved. I am not prepared to say what size of mesh would be advisable,
nor am I much in favor of regulating the size. I think that if such a
regulation were made, a large number of persons who catch a few fish for
their own consumption, and do no harm, would be debarred from doing
so." [It is most remarkable that poaching the fry of fish should be
held to do no harm if people do not pay for the right, whilst this paragraph
ends as follows, showing the loss that such acts must entail on fisheries :]] —
<c I think that those who work them are quite aware of the advantages
to be gained by not destroying the small fish, and would protect them
where the fisheries are leased for a term of years" "As far as this district
is concerned, I would certainly prohibit the capture of breeding-fish, Aga-
vit, as they are called : their haunts are well known, and the right to catch
these only is rented out in some parts separate from the fishery itself, which
is worked at a different season." [How the fishermen must be astonished
at such short-sighted policy. This is the period probably adverted to

(I) Only received October 23rd, 1872. Replies to questions circulated in 1869 not yet
come to hand.

CCXX111

by the Burmese Government when fishing- is stopped.] Besides the
fishermen, " there are many who, in the parts of the district where the
fisheries are worked in the dry season, cultivate lands during* the rains/'
The Deputy Commissioner of Bassein reports, that " except the hilsa
breeding-fish are not destroyed ; [this is erroneous, as I have personally
witnessed it to a great extent] but young fish are captured to a consider-
able extent by traps in the paddy-fields, and in low-lying grounds
after the floods have subsided." The minimum sized mesh used is frds
of an inch, and the chief difficulty in regulating such is the small varieties
of fish which would thus escape, whilst a fine sized mesh is more expen-
sive than a large sized one. No objections exist to prohibiting the sale
of fry in the bazars. " It is very easy to say that it is objectionable to
have the young of fish destroyed, a matter which is universally admitted,
nor do the fishermen who have a permanent interest destroy the young
fish, for they are probably far better acquainted with the habits, breeding
season, and of the varieties of fish they catch than more scientific
observers, and are not so blind to their own interest as to commit
such suicidal acts." [As regards the foregoing, "scientific observers"
may not be more competent to give opinions than " Munnese fisher-
men," but surely they may be permitted to report upon what they see,
and how they think. Destroying fry is denounced by this official to
be a suicidal act in leased fisheries, but he would permit such unchecked
in paddy-fields and in his district by cultivators. Scientific enquirers
may have their doubts as to the practical wisdom of such a distinction,
and not be prepared to believe that destruction of fry wholesale in paddy-
fields does no injury, whilst killing the same in leased fisheries is a
suicidal act ! In fact, they may perceive a wasteful destruction, not
far removed from folly, and which perhaps has escaped the notice of
" non-scientific local observers".] " The young fish are, however, destroyed
by cultivators in their own paddy-fields, but it is questionable whether
the prohibition of this, with the exactions and prosecutions for the breach
of the prohibitions, would not entail greater evils than allowing it."
The Deputy Collector of Myanoung observes that " breeding-fish and very
young ones are captured in considerable numbers by means of weirs
and traps, the size of the mesh or intervals between the bamboos con-
stituting the trap being so small as to preclude the exit of any fishes
however minute :" " baby fish are destroyed in numbers along the
banks of the various streams, where they take refuge from the current."
In branches of main streams, which are filled only in the floods, all fishes
are totally destroyed on the waters falling ; but the proportion must be
but small to those that escape. £ Tradition, always to be received with
great caution, and the opinion of the oldest inhabitant, which is generally
more or less liable to errors of recollection, as with such "all times are
good when old," are adduced to prove the fact that the fisheries have not
diminished in productiveness] whilst "the Burmese themselves, on being
asked whether they considered the system hitherto in force in Burma had
the effect of diminishing to a serious extent the fish food of the province,
seemed quite surprised that such a question should be asked." [Doubtless
they would have been still more astonished had they been asked whether the
present slaughter of young fish in all imleased fisheries and irrigated

CCXX1V

land was a beneficial or suicidal act. It is, however, stated they were asked
if it had diminished to a serious extent the fish food ; then by the
interrogatory a diminution seems almost conceded, whilst an increase of
population is admitted.] But it is continued — " that fish are now as
plentiful as ever they were known to be." The smallest interval
between the stakes of a weir " was just sufficient to let the water flow
through, and of course precluded the exit of fish." If a net, it was of
" sufficient size to admit the nail of the little finger of a man's hand." If
minute meshed nets were prevented, any regulation " would possibly
deprive the poor man, who occasionally gets a few fish for home consump-
tion, of his dinner." So he " recommends that the people be left to use
their own nets in their own fashion." If any rules are enforced respecting
fry, " it should be imposed on the catchers of fish, and not on the bazar
sellers, chiefly women, who would be unable to comprehend or carry
out such a rule." The Deputy Collector of Prome, whose opinions are
so mixed up with the replies of the Myo-okes that some given amongst
the latter have been referred to this place instead, observes that
especially about Padoung breeding-fish and fry are destroyed. Young
fish are also caught in Shway-Lay, but there are very few fisheries there;
" Fish are taken indiscriminately, and numerous breeding and young
fish must be destroyed. They are taken all the year round in the rivers,
and during the rains in the inland or pond fisheries." Is averse to legisla-
tion on the minimum size of the mesh of the net which is employed, and
there would be difficulties in prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish. The
bazar is not fully supplied ; more fish could be sold at Padoung; the price
is Rs. 45 a viss for large, and Rs. 25 a viss for small fish : at Shwe-doung
i s. 35 per 100 viss for the former, and Rs. 15 for the latter : during the
cold season it is cheaper, but the relative proportions continue. He
observes that fish are said to have increased, and " I think that 1 can
confidently assert that, notwithstanding the wanton destruction of young
fish, of which Dr. Day saw reason to complain, but which, with all
respect, I venture to assert, does not take place, &c." [[Really, this is a very
remarkable statement : an official, who, I believe, was not in the place,
most distinctly denies the statements I made of the destruction of young
fish occurring in my presence at Prome when there in 1869, the sorts of
which I pointed out, and a few of the very specimens are now in
my possession or in the Imperial Museum at Calcutta. He asserts this,
although I showed the captures on the spot to Colonel Stoddart and
more than one official who were then there, whilst the same destructive
proceeding his own answers prove even now to be going on in the paddy-
fields and banks of the streams in or near that place. And the next
answer is from a contiguous official, who makes, in other words, exactly
the same statement as I did, and the accuracy of which is strictly
correct. "J " Very small fish are taken during the rains in the rice-fields by
means of traps called tsoung, made of bamboo slips, plaited and
tied together in the shape of a basket, the spaces being as small as the
spaces between the bamboos of a chick almost. This is carried by the
hand, and is suddenly put into the water with the mouth downwards,
and pressed down, and the fish caught inside its walls is then collected.
Another trap employed for taking small fish on the banks of the streams
and in the paddy-fields is called yek-thai, which is made of plaited

ccxxv

bamboos like a mat, and is shaped somewhat like a shovel." He goes on
to describe a lave-net, and remarks upon the leng-bai, one of the very
nets I complained of, and which in his own words " consists of a very-
fine meshed net, with two bamboos fastened along each end. It is
worked by two men, who take each one end of the bamboo ; in fact, it
is first taken out at right angles from the bank; the man holding1 the
outer end makes a curve until his bamboo touches the bank * * and the
small fish swept up and confined between the bank and the net are
caught." He also describes the Chinese dip-net, which he states is a
fine net, capturing " any small fish that have been swimming over.'"
The Deputy Collector of Thyetmyo, in addition to his former report,
observes, — " Very young fish, I fear, are destroyed in great numbers
during the rainy season ; at this period of the year, they leave the
river and ascend any little stream or backwater they can find, and
here they fall an easy prey to men, women and children, who
pursue them with all sorts of contrivances, which, though generally
very simple, are very killing. Two women, for instance, holding a sheet,
between them, will, in half an hour or so, collect a few pounds of small
fry." Were the size of the mesh regulated, one inch is proposed as the
minimum.

404. The replies of the Myo-okes or native officials are thus given : —

The Myo-okes of Rangoon state " that as a rule

Pegu Commissiouership. Re- fi h sufficient for one's daily requirements,

plies of native officials. ; . . . . . , . . i x ; , ;

can always be obtained in the market, but

there is a difficulty at times in purchasing large quantities, especially
at those seasons of the year in which the fisheries are not being worked."
" Opinions differ very much as to whether fish have increased or decreased
of late years. The last rainy season was an unusually favourable one,
and fish were more plentiful than they had been for years. But I
think the general opinion is that fish are not so plentiful as they
were some years ago before we took the country." As regards the
modes of fishing — one is by putting up bunds and leaving one opening,
through which the fish pass and jump into a kind of tray placed to
receive them ; or by erecting a large thick screen, and having another
immoveable one, which is dragged towards the stationary one until
the fish are enclosed in such a small space as to be easily caught by
bunding off different portions and draining away the water; also by
putting up large screens to prevent the fish escaping, and catching them
with nets. The Myo-okes of Prome reply that by far the larger number
of fishermen follow other occupations as well. More fish would be sold
in the bazar were it provided : the amount in the waters is said to be
increasing. The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Pantanaw replies — the
number of fishermen as given by the Myo-okes is 791, and they do not
pursue any other occupation ; they are Taleins and Karens. The local
markets are fully supplied. Large fish sell at Rs. 15 per 100 viss,
and small at Rs. 7. Fish have slightly increased of late years,
considering the rate at which fish was sold last year {see answer from
Rangoon, that it was an unusually favourable one), I may safely say
that the quantity is dependant more on the rise of the waters : if
the catching of Nga-Tit or fish with spawn is prevented, it will no
doubt lead to the increase of fish. The minimum interspace in weirs

P

CCXXV1

or between the knots of meshes of nets is -j'gth of an inch. Fish are
trapped in the irrigated fields for home consumption by the cultivators.
The modes of fishing enumerated are the same as previously recorded.
The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Myonng Mya reports that the fisher-
men generally carry on petty trades during the rains. The amount of
fish in the waters remains stationary ; some are trapped and otherwise cap-
tured in irrigated fields. The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Theegwen
observes that fish are sold at the fisheries, as there is no proper market :
those " obtained in my township sometimes equals former years and some-
times less, but never more.'''' The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Tsabai
Yoon reports that the fishermen also engage in trade. " The fish in
the bazar is neither scarce nor plentiful. I think there is a slight
increase in the quantity of fish this year than the previous five or six years/'
" In using the gyan, the fishes are put into a place called Ma-yai-bouk,
whence they are removed to another place termed win, whence they
are taken to the market." The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Yay-gyee
observes that out of 768 fishermen in his district 500 exclusively follow
this occupation, and 200 employ themselves thus for home consumption.
As to the bazar supply of fish, it is " not plentiful every month ; scarce
in August and September/'' Small fish obtain half the price per viss that
large ones do : the amount in the waters " is rather limited to what
it was years ago." Fish are trapped in the irrigated fields. The Extra
Assistant Commissioner of Lay-myet-hna replies that the bazars are well
supplied during the dry weather, but not so in the rains. Of late years
the amount in the waters has decreased : they are trapped in irrigated
fields. The Extra Assistant Commissioner of Shwe-lonng reports that
" there is no bazar in my township. The fish are carried about and
sold in quantities merely sufficient for the people. During the last
year fish was carried about and sold sometimes in sufficient quantities,
sometimes more, sometimes less/' Small fish are taken during the rains,
and traps are employed in the fields.

CCXXV11

BENGAL.

{Supplementary Report, received November 5th, 187:2.)

405. The Agent to the Governor General, North-Eastern Frontier,
Opinions of European Officials and Commissioner of Assam observes (October,
in * North-East Bengal, and 9th, 1872) that he is " not sufficiently well
Assam, informed on the subject to have any tempta-

tion to be discursive about it/' and has to " deplore the absence of the
tastes which, either as sportsmau or naturalist, would have led me to
bestow some attention on the numerous varieties of fishes that are to
be found in Assam." No doubt a very unnecessary destruction of fresh-
water fish goes on at present in Assam ; but, on the whole, it may be
doubted whether such is a wasteful one, in the sense of injuriously affect-
ing- the supply available for legitimate consumption. He observes that
" I should be slow to believe that there were fewer fish anywhere in
Assam now than there used to be, unless it were demonstrated to me
that the actual take of fish anywhere over the same area of water with
the same engines and the same skill was less than it used to be ; and
then, unless the same fact could be proved as to many localities in differ-
ent parts of Assam, I would not allow the extension of an inference of
diminished fish-supply to the whole province/'' Crocodiles (termed
alligators) during the dry season are in extraordinary numbers ;
the natives assert they have increased, and, as a consequence, that fish
have decreased, the Commissioner, considering just the contrary
must be the true solution, continuing — " at all events, I have little
doubt but that the number of fishes destroyed by the crocodiles on the
Brahmaputra is beyond all proportion greater than what is destroyed
by man, and it would seem, therefore, that the first duty of a system of
fish conservancy for that river would be the killing of the crocodiles/'
Breeding-fish and their fry and those in all conditions are destroyed by
the Assamese by every engine and contrivance that they can command.
Owing to a sparse population and a large amount of water, it is sur-
mised that the destruction caused by village populations must be but a
small proportion to the whole, consequently that there is not any emer-
gent necessity for atteuding to the conservancy of its fish, but poisoning
the waters is objected to. " Dr. Day will, perhaps, pardon me for sug-
gesting to his objections that the onus probandi is with him, and not
with those who differ from him, for his is the affirmative proposition,
viz., that the supply of fish has diminished, and it is for him to prove it,
by showing that the fishermen have improved in their means of capture,
have changed their times of fishing, and that the fish-eating population
has increased, or in any other way/' fHere I must dissent from the
statements advanced. First, no onus probandi lies with me, because I
have not wished to prove anything, but impartially carry out an inves-
tigation given me by the Government of India, whilst the most satis-
factory conclusion would have been that, due to the care of the fisheries
by officers in civil employ, they were not deteriorating. Secondly,

ccxxvni

I would suggest that I could give no opinion respecting Assam until
after the receipt of the present reports (as I have never been in the pro-
vince), and have to observe from such the state of the fisheries until I am
able personally to proceed there. J The Deputy Commissioner of Durrung
(October 9th, 1872) observes — there is good reason to suppose that the
supply of fish is falling off. Fish has become of late years much dearer,
the fisheries are falling in value, and many of the Dome fishermen are,
in consequence, I believe, taking to agricultural pursuits. With, per-
haps, the exception of some Marwari merchants and some sepoys, fish
would be consumed by all classes in this district could they get it, but,
as it is, the supply by no means equals the demand. Fish is neither
salted, dried, nor exported, but some is imported. Fish are neither put
in tanks nor reared, but on the contrary all means are employed for
their destruction and that of their spawn. Everything from a weir to
a basket is used, and the meshes of nets are so small that no fry can
eseape. The fish never have rest, and must decrease in numbers. The
only measure for conservation possible would be regulating the smallest
size of the meshes permitted. The prevention of the destruction of the
fry in the fields is a more serious consideration, as the people for years
have procured daily meals from them, and to suddenly withdraw the pri-
vilege, even although it would be doubtless much to their eventual
advantage, might cause discontent and trouble. " In case of the enact-
ment of fishery laws (and, if the supply of fish is to be kept up, they
are most necessary), I am of opinion that they should not come in force
all at once, but be tried first in one district and then in another, and
even then but partially, going further and further as the people become
more accustomed to them. The nets and the regular fishermen might
be first commenced with, and when the latter "were quieted, and the cry
(which would be certain to arise) that Government was going to put a
tax on fish got over, other sections of the law might be put in force.'"
The Deputy Commissioner of Nowgong replies : — " My own origiually
acquired knowledge on the subject of fishes is most limited, my study
and attention during my Indian career having been devoted principally
to ponies, goats, and cats; but from intelligent natives I have been able
to glean the following information/'' There is no reason to suppose that
the supply of fish is falling off; it is largely consumed by all classes,
except Hindu Marwari traders or k}rahs, who entirely eschew fish. The
upper classes of Hindus do not preserve, dry, or salt fish at all ; but hill
tribes, as the Mtkirs, Lalungs, and Cacharies, dry it ; also low-caste Hindus,
as Domes and Charals, as well as Mahomedans. Dried fish is said to be
largely exported to Paniumr on the borders of the Naga hills district,
where a ready sale is found for it. Fish are neither privately bred nor
put into tanks in the district. " I do not think that any measures for
conservation of fish seem to be necessary or called for." The Deputy
Commissioner of Seebsagur observes, — " the supply of fish is not, in my
opinion, falling off; not only is every stream well stocked with fish, but
at this season of the year, the drains alongside of roads, paddy-fields
and ponds all contain an ample supply of fish, and are regularly fished by
the people. The Assamese of all classes eat fish, and the consumption
is, therefore, very gi'cat, and the wholesale destruction which is always
going on of the small fry would lead one to suppose the supply would

CCXX1X

fail, but the River Brahmaputra appears to be sufficient to keep up an
ample supply for the numerous streams which communicate with it.
Although the people are such large consumers of fish, they do not dry
or preserve it, nor is there any trade carried on in fish with distant
places. The Nag-as, when they come down in the cold weather, purchase
or barter cotton for fish, which they dry before taking back to their
hills. Nothing whatever is done in the way of breeding fish or stock-
ing tanks, and the only thing, in the way of conservation that is
necessary, is to prevent as much as possible the wholesale destruction of
fish in small streams, which have run up to spawn. What with dams,
traps, baskets and nets, which the villagers use, very few fish escape to
the larger streams. But, even with this wholesale destruction, the supply
of fish appears abundant, and if this destruction were only partially
checked, there would be no fear of the supply running short/'' The
Assistant Commissioner, Gologhat, reports: — "I cannot say that I see at
present any signs of the fish-supply falling off; but looking at the reck-
less way in which the young fry are destroyed, it is but reasonable to
suppose that, could this habit be checked, the supply would become more
plentiful. Many of the river fish, some of which attain a large size,
come annually up the smaller streams and deposit their spawn, and the
young ones of these are during the rains dispersed over the surface of the
country in rice-fields, swamps, drains and ditches. These endeavour sub-
sequently to make their way to the large rivers, but the dangers that
beset them on the road are more numerous than those which Bunyan's
Pilgrim had to encounter. In the shallow waters in the rice-fields,
women and children may be seen in crowds fishing with baskets called
jaJcai, through the interstices of which a tadpole could not pass.
Those that escape this danger, and, following the flow of the water,
arrive at one of' the innumerable little bunds separating the various
paddy-fields, find their further progess barred by funnel-shaped bamboo
traps called Jckoka, chapa, or ghunee, through which the water is
made to pass, but whose outlets are so small that only the most minute
fish can get through. Escaping to the smaller water-courses, their dan-
gers seem to increase. The Assamese divide the channel into sections
by erecting bunds, and from one of these they proceed to bale out all the
water, capturing every fish, large and small : they then bund off another
portion and do likewise. The fish that finally arrive at the smaller
rivers find their exit barred by weirs, which will let nothing pass ; and
not content with this, the Assamese will sometimes resort to poison,
employing for this purpose the fruit of a tree called ' Konibehee/
Nearly the entire population consume fish; the only method of pre-
serving it being drying it, and this is only done by Mahomedans and
the hill tribes." " Although fish may be occasionally put into tanks,
it can hardly be said that they are reared, for within a few months the
water in the tank is sure to be carefully baled out and all its inmates
destroyed, the net result being the capture of (say) a thousand fish,
weighing in the aggregate a couple of pounds/'' The Assistant Commis-
sioner of Jorehat observes that " the numerous streams which run
through the country are well stocked with fish, as are the numerous blieels
and swamps. In the rainy season fish are to be found in every puddle
and paddy-field. * * The supply of fish is at present amply sufficient,

ccxxx

and, so far as I can ascertain, it is not falling off appreciably. The
Brahmaputra, which is never properly fished, is a preserve from which a
supply is constantly forthcoming1 to stock the other waters which com-
municate with it. Fish is used as an article of diet by all classes of the
Assamese, and the consumption is therefore great. The only professional
fishermen are Domes, who use boats and nets of large size on the
Brahmaputra and the larger streams and bheels, and who regularly
sell what they catch. Villagers, however, of all classes fish for them-
selves with baskets, hand-nets and the hook, and also set traps in the
streams. In the rainy season numbers of people are continually to be
seen at work catching fish in some way or other for their own consump-
tion/'' They do not preserve it in any way, but use it fresh, or very often
half putrid. Fisli are not privately bred, nor is any attempt made to
stock waters artificially. " The only thing in the way of conservation
that I see necessary is to prevent, as far as possible, the wholesale de-
struction of fish that have run up small streams to spawn, and of their fry.
The villagers, if left to themselves, are very fond of damming streams at
the end of the rains, when fish, large and small, are running down ; this
they do in such a way that scarcely anything can escape the traps set in
the dam. As long as a fair number of young fish are spared, the supply is
not likely to fall off, especially of the better kinds of fish, which,
so to speak, have their head-quarters in the Brahmaputra." The
Deputy Commissioner of the K/iasi Hills states that in most of the rivers
which drain the high lands, small-scaled and scaleless fishes are found,
but not plentifully. Again, in the rivers near the plains, at the lower
levels, below the water-falls, the fish are in abundance ; they can be seen
swimming about in the clear deep pools, and at the foot of the hills.
During the dry season, when the rivers are low, a very large quantity
of fish, some of them weighing as much as five or six seers, are caught
by throwing dams and weirs across the shallows. There are very few
tanks in the hills, and in such as exist the fish are very scarce." Sun-
dried fish is a staple for food with the hill people. Fish' have not
diminished.

406. The Officiating Collector of Tipper ah (October 18th, 1872)

_ . . „ , „ observes that " breeding-fish are undoubtedly

Opinion of the Collector of i , i . . ,

Tipperah destroyed to some extent, as are very young

fish, but with respect to these a very sensible
practice prevails. Every one who has even a very small tank will put
young fish into it for the purpose of creating a fishery. It is said that
the greater portion of young fish caught, is disposed of this way."
[[The native officials of this Collectorate report " very small fish are
sold by weight," and again that the minimum size of the. mesh of
nets is y'^th of an inch, and very small fry are trapped.] " I understand
that to the north of the district, where fish is far more plentiful than
here or in the south, the destruction of breeding-fish is not considered
very injurious." They are only caught in rivers by means of nets and
a bamboo snare called parou, which is baited with shells and insects;
the chief months are between May and August. Young" fish are also
caught in rivers, by means of small-meshed nets, from August to Octo-
ber inclusive. The minimum size of the meshes of nets used is from
,'pth to y2th of an inch square, and it would be impossible to regulate

CCXXX1

such, being- opposed to public prejudice, and due to the irritation it would
cause, although it is our duty to keep up the fish-supply if it can he done.
As to prohibiting the sale of the fry offish in the bazars, such could only
be carried out at head-quarters, and it would " interfere with the sensible
practice of storing tanks/' £ I would here suggest that the fry of fish
sold dead in the bazars would hardly be adapted for this purpose, whilst
live fry for such a use need not be subjected to regulations.] " I am
told that natives, when recovering from sickness, eat the young fry as
being more delicate in flavour/' £This is curious conjoined with the
statements made elsewhere in India. In the Panjab, in the Multan
Division, it is a popular belief that fish used as food during the rains
occasion sickness (p. xxi) : in the Central Provinces (p. cxxi) that fish
eaten at such seasons are the reputed originators of disease.] " I
think that the supply is falling off, but very little, if at all, though
in the south of the district there is much more difficulty in procuring
fish than in the north/' Fish are consumed by all classes, except
widows of respectable Hindus, and by a man here and there, who
objects to eat animal food on principle. The upper and middle classes
eat fresh fish, the poorer dried fish ; some is dried in the north,
but salted in the south of the division. " During the cold season
live fish are exported to Calcutta, though this trade is said to have
fallen off owing to the opening of the Eastern Bengal Railway. Dried
and salted fish are exported to Chittagong in considerable numbers."
Young fish that have been reared in tanks are eaten on great occasions
in the family, as marriage feasts, saradhs, &c. " I do not think that con-
servation is absolutely necessary here : it would be very difficult to
enforce, aud would cause a very great deal of discontent, while it seems
hardly sufficiently justified by necessity. That is to say, I would not
interfere with net or trap fishing, but I think I would prohibit the use
of fixed engines, such as bamboo screens and fences in the bed of any
river, khal, or water channel. Such a mode of catching fish might fairly
be put down, while the obstructions are a serious nuisance to passing*
boats."

407. The Officiating Commissioner of Dacca (October 4th, 1872)

replies : — " East Bengal, of which this division
Opinion of European Officials f th ^ f . j t d f j

of Dacca, and Dr. Bose. t Tr*» ciw A n i

plies of fish. In Dacca, bylnet, and Cachar,

the supply is supposed to be falling' off, but not to such an extent as to
interfere with the ordinary consumption of the people. The causes of
this diminution are alleged to be exsiccation of bheels, tanks, and other
water-courses, reckless destruction of the fry of fish, passing and
re-passing of steamers, which are said to drive the river fish to distant
quarters, &c. In Backergunge, INIymensing, and Furreedpore, no dimi-
nution is reported or supposed to exist." Fifteen-sixteenths of the
population may be set down as fish consumers. Fish is salted or
dried for home consumption or export, and largely exported to Calcutta
and elsewhere by rail or boats. '"''Everybody in this district, after
digging a tank, puts in small fish and fry of various species to be reared,
and in every district the number of such tanks is innumerable. Fish
is, besides, to be found in abundance in the several rivers, canals, bheels
and other water-courses with which every district abounds. Under

CCXXX11

these circumstances it does not seem necessary that any measures need be
taken for the conservation of fish in this division. On this subject, I
beg- to submit a very exhaustive and carefully drawn-up report from
Dr. Bose, Civil Surgeon of Furreedpore." [The report alluded to doubt-
less is very creditable, but hardly in accordance with the zoological
knowledge of the present half century. Fortunately, however, the
native names of most of the fishes are given, by which a few may be
recognised ; a few more by Hamilton Buchanan's designations, but from
whence species of the Cod family, Gadida, could have been procured, it
is difficult to understand, as the little sea and estuary Bregmaceros is its
only representative in India. Others of the Latin terms perhaps have
been derived from a dictionary, but certainly not from any zoological
work, whilst the last two, excluding the eels, are a Zeus, quite an unknown
genus in Hindustan, and " a very common fish of the fresh-water, which,
seldom reaches a foot," Lacerfa scincus is stated to be its scientific
name, terms, however, each of which is that of a genus amongst lizards,
forms the bases of family designations of reptiles, but becomes un-
known amongst fishes !] Dr. Bose, Civil Surgeon of Furreedpore,
after his list of fish, continues — " the supply is not diminishing here.
I can speak from a personal local experience of upwards of fifteen years,
and certainly during this time I have never noticed such falling off.
On the other hand, the markets always appeared fully a9 well supplied
and sometimes as glutted as ever." All classes consume fish, and even
many voishnabs and widows, who usually abstain from it elsewhere.
Hilsa are said to be largely salted for Calcutta and other markets ; no
other fish are preserved, but oil is sometimes taken from this fish as well.
Tanks are few, but are generally kept well stocked with fish. In this
district, which is annually inundated during the rains, " and where, by the
latter means, nature, as it were, by a preconcerted arrangement, undertakes
to carry on the breeding of fish on a large scale herself, any artificial
culture by the hand of man would appear to me to be almost unneces-
sary or superfluous," &c. In short, he considers that the inundations
occur during the spawning time of fishes, whilst these watery districts are
the nurseries for the fry, and admirably adapted for supplying them with
food. " Inundations, therefore, far from being a source of great evil,
ought to be looked upon as the most beneficent provision in the economy
of nature for the breeding and preservation of fish ; and such being
the case, where these obtain, any other protective measures, which cannot
but be of a molecular or liliputian character compared to these gigantic
natural operations to the same end, would seem to be hardly called for, or
pos"sibly needed." Ignoring how the breeding-fish and fry are destroyed,
he considers such destruction as not to be compared with what would
accrue were there no inundations or localities where proper pasture could be
found by these baby fishes. Breeding-fish are only accidentally caught,
and the fry to some extent as inundations recede ; but as they are not
wantonly so, it is useless to enumerate the machines. If fry were not
permitted to be sold, " the effect wrould be simply to interfere with the
food -supply of the people without in the slightest manner helping the
cause of pisciculture." The answers given by the Collectors and others are
tabulated. In Dacca breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed to
a great extent, indiscriminately, in all v\vers,j/iee/s, water-courses, &c,

CCXXXlll

and at all seasons. The minimum mesh of nets is stated to be the size of
a grain of gram, interference with which would be unpopular. [In the
five districts this one answer is given in the lump, whilst the Commis-
sioner observes " nor is it necessary :" whether this is the opinion of
each of the reporters is left to conjecture.] Were the sale of the fry of
fish prohibited, a very large amount of food would be taken from the people.
The castes of fishermen are Jalooa, Koebarta, Teor, and i\ J allow. The local
markets are generally fully supplied, and fish is eaten, by fifteen-sixteenths
of the population : the amount in the waters has decreased by
one-fourth from some unknown causes; very young ones are trapped
during the rains in irrigated fields ; snares are likewise employed. In
Furreedpore, breeding-fish and young ones are said not to be destroyed to
any great extent, but some are taken by the hand and various fish traps.
The minimum size of the mesh of the nets equals a grain of gram,
interference with which would be extremely unpopular (see remarks above),
whilst prohibiting the sale of fry would interfere with the food-supply of
the people. In Backergunge, breeding-fish and very young ones are not
destroyed to any great extent; the minimum size of the mesh of the nets
equals a grain of gram, interference with which would be extremely
unpopular (see remarks above), whilst prohibiting the sale of fry is not
necessary. In Mymensing, breeding-fish and very young ones are destroyed
to a very great extent, which destruction continually goes on in all parts
of the district. The minimum size of the mesh of the nets equals a grain
of gram ; interference with such would be extremely unpopular (see re-
marks above). Prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars
" would be a vexatious and altogether unnecessary interference. It would
lead to great abuses and oppression, and the prohibition would be directed
against an evil which is altogether imaginary, as there is not the least
reason to suppose that the sale of the fry of fish has exercised, or
can exercise, any injurious effect upon the fish-supply." In Sylhet,
breeding-fish and young ones are destroyed to a great extent, and in
all parts of the district continually. The minimum size of the mesh
of the nets equals a grain of gram ; interference with such would
be extremely unpopular (see remarks above). No objections exist against
prohibiting the sale of the fry of fish in the bazars.

408. The Commissioner of Chota Nagpore (October 4th, 1872)

forwards replies. The Deputy Commissioner of

Opinions of European Hazareebangh (July 23rd, 1872) observes that

Officials in Chota Nag- (( j.r„„„ i \lu • ■ xi.- j«_l • j ■

e> D there are only three rivers in this district in

which fish can be caught, viz., the Barrakur, the
Damoodah, and the Soobunrekha." During the rains these rivers are
too much flooded to be fished, but as they subside, fish are left in the
pools, and are then either netted or taken by angling. As a matter of
course, the supply of fish is greater just after the break-up of the rains,
and gradually falls otf as the pools dry up during the hot weather, and
their contents have been almost entirely, if not quite, emptied. The
supply of fish is confined to the vicinity of these pools, and consequently
is not a common article of diet amongst the people of the district.
Fish are never dried or salted ; neither are the tanks stocked with young,
nor are any privately bred. Basket traps are used which will retain the
smallest fry ; some tanks near temples, which are perennial, are never

CCXXX1V

netted. "Without interfering' with the rights of private property,
1 cannot suggest any measures, therefore, for the conservation of fish,
although I am sure that, if a considerably larger supply could be
obtained, it would be eagerly sought for as an article of consumption
throughout the district/'' As the rains subside nallas and streams are
bunded and emptied of water ; thus many small fish are taken ; this is
generally carried out from February to April inclusive. There would be
difficulties in carrying out any order regulating the minimum size of
the mesh of nets, as the only people who use nets are the Mullahs, " a very
poor tribe who could not pay a fine, if inflicted ; while to confiscate their
nets would only drive them to commit theft and robbery to keep body
aud soul together." Fry are not sold in the bazars ; " it would be
impossible to prevent the villagers catching and eating the fry them-
selves, if so inclined. The nature of the country is against forming
any hope of improving the supply of fish, so as to make it an
article of consumption in this district."" The Deputy Commissioner of
Singbkoom (August 6th, 1872) remarks that "all fish are caught
and disposed of indiscriminately, without letting go either the
breeders or the very young fish. Annually, when the rivers are at
their lowest depth, aud the pools are low, or in April and May,
crowds of persons gather to catch all the fish in these pools, and all is
fish that comes to the net with this district people. The tanks are about
this time also very low, and are treated in the same way/'' The smallest
mesh of the nets, " I fancy, would admit the little finger •" the diffi-
culties against regulating it " would be those that, in civilized society,
are considered and felt as interference with private actions of individuals."
The fry of fish are not sold in the bazars. Fish are not captured
during the first two months of the monsoon, but just before it : there
are few fishermen, and they have other occupations ; their castes are
Keot or Mullah, Ghooneah, Ghasi, and Dome. The local markets are not
fully supplied with fish ; the supply is not equal to the demand. The
price per seer of fish and mutton is the same : the entire district com-
munity eat fish : " reports state that at the annual captures, less quantity
is now obtained than before. A large quantity of small fish are not
taken during the rains ; the minimum sized mesh of the nets would
admit the little finger. Fish are trapped in the fields during the rains
with ghoogees. The modes of fishing are : (1) trapping by ghoogees,
polois, ghoonees, and jimrees ; (2) netting by chargoriah, geera-
jal, theld-jdl, and gentoi-jdl, (3) rod and line, bungsee." In a
second letter (August 7th, 1872), the same officer observes — "the
supply of fish is not equal to the demand, but the supply at the present
time is far greater than formerly. Fish, as a rule, is consumed when-
ever got, and by all classes of people. The quantity is never so much
as to need preserving, but, as a matter of taste, it is consumed both salted
and fresh. There is no fish trade to distant places from this district.
In a very few instances fish are privately bred and reared in tanks. I do
not consider that conservation of fish is of that importance as to call
forth any measures, or to form a question of the day in Singbhoom."

The Deputy Commissioner of Maunbhoom (June 28th, 1872) replies
that the nets in use are (i) phandi ; (2) ganti (large) ; (3) ganti (small) ;
(4) push ; (5) donra j (G) chap ; (7) chuna. " Those numbered 3 and 7

ccsxxv

have the meshes so small that nothing- whatever can escape them, and,
as fishing- goes on all the year round, immense numbers of small fish are
destroyed long before they can come to maturity/' The fishing cates
are Kewuts, Ghoonas, Matas, Bagtees, and Harees : the supply of fish
is very limited, except in the immediate vicinity of large rivers and a
few reservoirs, but it is not at all adequate to meet the wants of the
people : in some parts of the district the use of fish is almost unknown,
and there are no waters to propagate them. " In other parts, if fishing
were prohibited during the breeding season, and the use of net with
meshes below a certain size forbidden, there is no doubt the supply of
fish would increase, and much good be done by adding to the quantity
of this very valuable description of food, which would thus be made
available to the people at large.-''' " Fish is not largely consumed by the
people of this district, simply from the fact of its not being obtainable
in sufficient quantities, and none, either salted or dried, is ever imported,
whilst exportation is, of course, quite out of the question. The stocking
of tanks and reservoirs with young fish is common, and is rendered
necessary by the majority of the tanks and reservoirs running dry,
or so nearly dry, in the hot season, that all the fish are caught and
consumed, when a fresh batch has to be introduced in order to ensure a
further supply, but, beyond this, nothing is done for the purpose of
conserving it."

409. The Officiating Commissioner of the Chittagong Division

(October 5th, 1872) forwards a single
Opinions of European Officials of ft from the CoUector 0f tfoaMally,

who remarks that " breeding-fish and
very young ones are destroyed, but not to a great extent, in this district.
The young ones are destroyed by the villagers in khlas, rivers, tanks,
ditches, and paddy-fields during the rainy season." The smallest size
mesh of the net used is one quarter of an inch ; discontent would be
caused by regulating such. Fry of fish are not sold in the bazar, but
there would be difficulties preventing people catching it for their own
use. A close season would cause great inconvenience, and perhaps sick-
ness, whilst it would be almost impossible to enforce. There are 6,310
fishermen in the district, more than two-thirds of whom earn their
livelihood entirely by fishing. Nearly all villagers fish for their own
use; the Hindu fishing castes are Jaliah, Das, and Jhalo : the
Mahomedans, Myforash. The local markets are not fully supplied
with fish ; more might be sold ; it is consumed to a large extent by
about fifteen-sixteenths of the population, in fact by all classes, even
by Hindu widows. Small fish are taken in large quantities during
the rains; they are caught with nets, hooks, Jioolias, open baskets,
and chais, cages. Fish are trapped during the rains in inundated
fields. Spearing is one form of fishing which is employed. There
is no reason to suppose that the supply of fish is falling off: it is
neither salted nor dried, but some is imported from Sylhet and
Chittagong; none is exported; tanks are stocked with fish. "In
the dry season fish die largely, owing to the water becoming
hot and very shallow : the only measure adopted by the people for the
protection of fish is to put a shade over a part of the tank. It would
be well if some measures were adopted to deepen the tanks to a certain

CCXXXVl

depth, of at least five cubits of water, in the dry season." [ See similar
propositions in Dharwai*, p. lii, and South Canara, p. xcii, where
even a, precedent will be found, although the originator was a native ruler.]
The fishermen of Noakhally are said not to be very expert in their
calling-. The Collector of Chittagong observes — fish, both fresh and dried, is
largely used by all classes of the population with the exception of a
few Hindu religious mendicants (Boiragis). Fish is often dried; hilsa is
salted ; none is exported except sharks' fins to Rangoon. Dried fish is
imported from Sylhet and Dacca. To the north fish are reared in tanks —
not so to the south. No special measures of conservation are considered
necessary.

CCXXXV11

FISH AS FOOD, OR THE EEPUTED ORIGIN OF DISEASE.

410. The following- notes on fish as food (exclusive of the remarks

in the commencement of this report) or
^ General observations on a fish medieiaej ag a cause of sickness or the occa-
sion of accidents, have been collected during"
the last few years (see Indian Medical Gazette, January and February
1871). In investigating- the effects of a fish diet upon the population
of a district, it becomes necessary first to take into consideration the
condition of the people generally, or very erroneous conclusions may
be arrived at. Thus, during the Burmese war of 1852-53, the Indian
native army suffered severely from scabies and low forms of skin
disease, due, it was commonly asserted, to their eating- fish conjoined
with their poor diet. The European troops had a scorbutic taint, a
result, it was argued, of an insufficient supply of vegetables. On the
Malabar or western coast of India, leprosy, intestinal worms, and
severe skin affections are considered to be consequent upon a fish diet.
An important primary consideration should be — what was the condition
of the people ? Was not impoverished blood, possibly arising- from some
other cause, the true origin of these various diseases ? In olden times we
read of leprosy, so common in Europe, being attributed to the consumption
of salt pork or fish in an unwholesome state.

411. It has been asserted that the Asiatic conquerors of India

have all been consumers of a more nourishing
Animal food a necessity. Mil- f i ,i • i , i , cc •. i r> i

lions in India, who would eat fish food than rice, and that « it may be safely

could they obtain it, now pre- argued that, if the people had been fed upon

vented by the depopulated state the simple diet of the inhabitants of the

of the fisheries-a good cause for *j & ^ t ld fa

more care of them to be taken I ' . p-

in future. occurred. The physical powers and moral

courage, necessary to the achievements of feats

of valour and conquest, have never yet been found in a people who,

like the degenerate races in the lowlands, live on grain deficient in

nitrogen, and eschew animal food." If this is admitted, how great

must be the moral responsibility of legislators, who, living amongst a

population such as exists throughout India, more than half of whom would

consume fish could they procure it, have permitted the depopulation of the

fresh-water fisheries, and allowed the destruction of so great a source for the

supply of animal food. Now that it clearly appears millions would eat fish

could they obtain it, surely the re-population and future protection of these

fisheries will be considered an important subject for consideration as a

means of supplying loss of physical powers and nervous energy.

412. Amongst the different races of the Indian Empire, fish as food
„. . ..... is held in various kinds of estimation.

The various estimations in ~ . 0. , .

which fish is held by the differ- Commencing at bind in the extreme west,
ent races inhabiting the where the population are chiefly Mahomedans,
Indian Empire. ^is fce^ js aim0st universally esteemed; even

the siluroids are eaten, so long- as they have large gill openings : in
fact, it is the Shias amongst this race who, following' the Koran, appear

CCXXXV111

to reject the scaleless fishes. In the Panjab, fish (except by Brahmins
and a few others) is almost equally relished, as will be seen on turning- to
the returns from that Administration ; but as we examine to the south-
wards, as Delhi aud the upper part of the North-Western Provinces, the
Brahmins, high-caste Hindus, and even the Mussulmen who reside amongst
them in rural districts, are less addicted to its use, and mostly refuse ifc
entirely, unless they happen to be living on the banks of a large fishing
river, as the Jumna. Still in all these districts, unless from some peculiar
local cause, 50 per cent, of the urban population may be fairly reckoned as
not prohibited by their religion from eating fish. In Lower Bengal it is
largely consumed, whilst in Madras, Mysore, Haidarabad and Bombay a
very great proportion of the people would eat it could they obtain it; general-
ly the Brahmins, Vysias, Nairs in Malabar, and Jains appear to reject it.
In the Central Provinces, from 50 to 95 per cent, are reported as consumers
of fish. In hilly districts, fish is almost uniformly eaten when it can
be procured, whilst in the extreme east no Burman would consider his
meal complete, were it deficient in the odoriferous nga-pee. The
Andamanese may be said to principally exist on fresh fish, pork, tortoises
or turtles, for vegetables are consumed to a very inconsiderable extent,
so long as they can procure animal food.

413. Of the foregoing races, an important question is — are any

peculiarities noticeable amongst those who

General effects of a fish diet eat figh and thoge who re-ject ;t ag food?

on the natives of the East. TTri , -, . , • i - • j_t i^i

When one takes into consideration the wealth

or the poverty of these various people, and the differences in climate,
I do not think that amongst the Hindu races much distinction can be
drawn. We may certainly find such, however, if we compare, for instance,
the people of Malabar with the Panjabese or Burmese, but this mode
of comparison is useless. The state of the intermediate people and
climate must be looked at, and, when this is done, I cannot perceive
much differences between the Nairs of Malabar who reject all fish and
flesh and the people of Orissa and Lower Bengal who eat the finny
tribes. A great and marked change may be observed in Malabar in those
who have turned from Hinduism to Mahomedanism, but this generally
occurs amongst the fishermen castes, who do not reject animal food. On
the other hand, the soil slaves of Malabar are about the most degraded
race, except the Naidis, wild in the jungles, whilst they all consume
fish. The Black Jews, who are in Malabar merely the converted
people of the country, or their pure or semi-Jewish descendants,
do not appear to be superior to the surrounding population. Neither is
any marked difference observable between the native Christian and Hindu,
which might not fairly be attributed to greater wealth and a superior
mode of living. The Burmese certainly have greater physical powers
to the natives of India, than whom they consume more fish, but the
diminutive Andamanese are very deficient in these qualities, although
the finny tribes form the chief constituent of their diet.

414. It has been asserted that a fish diet has some effect on pro-
creation, and that fish-eating tribes are un-
Has a fish diet any relation- usually prolific, concerning which Dr. Pareira
ship to the procreative powers ,q ry , oe^ ronvirks- "There is T

of the Asiatic races? >,.,£.*?■ '. remarks, ineie is, i

think, suliicient evidence to prove that ichthy-

CCXXX1X

ophagous people are not moi'e prolific than others. In Greenland and
amongst the Esquimaux, says Forster, where the natives live chiefly on
fish, seals, and oily animal substances, the women seldom bear children
oftener than three or four times. Five or six births are reckoned a very
extraordinary instance. The Passerais, whom we saw, had not above
two or three children belonging* to each family, though their common
food consisted of mussels, fish and seal flesh. The New Zealanders
absolutely feed on fish, and yet no more than three or four children are
found in the most prolific families.'" Amongst the Andamanese, whose
chief diet may be said to be fresh fish and pork, it is very rare to find
so many as three children in one family; and as they do not indulge in
such early marriages as the natives of India, that reason cannot
be adduced to account for their paucity of offspring. In Burma, it is
sometimes advanced that the chief reason why the Burmese are not more
prolific is because they consume so much fish, and they cannot be con-
sidered, in comparison with other Asiatic nations, as given to very early
marriages. The least prolific races I have personally seen appear to be
the Nairs of Malabar, the Burmese, and the Andamanese ; the first never
touch fish, but their ladies are espoused to the whole of their own and
the males of any superior caste. The Burmese wives are faithful to one
husband so long as he lives in the neighbourhood, or is only tem-
porarily absent. The Andamanese are reputed to be very particular
in only having one, and not changing him so long as they are
both alive. The Nairs and Burmese are well off and have good
domiciles ; the Andamanese live more like wild beasts iu the jungles
than human beings, are destitute of clothes and houses, and are
alternately feasting and pinched with hunger as food is common or
the reverse.

415. For the natives of the plains of Asia it appears very question-
Fish diet probably more suit- abljr "-hether fresh fish is not more suitable,
able to the inhabitants of the as lood, than the flesh of sheep, pigs and
plains of Asia than that of poultry. Anyhow, in certain situations, as the
mammals- Malabar Coast, the Andaman Islands, and

Burma, where sheep deteriorate so rapidly, healthy indigenous
fresh fish must be more suitable, as diet for natives, than the
exotic sheep. In Europe, mutton appears to be superior to
fish ; thus, during Lent, persons who change from meat to fish are asserted
to complain of debility, which may be due to a sudden alteration in their
diet. Jockeys, however, when "wasting" themselves, are said to take
fish instead of meat. But fish-eating people in many parts of the
world are models of strength, and a fish diet can hardly be asserted
as conducing to the deterioration of the physique of races. Opinions,
however, are divided as to the nutritious qualities of fish in northern

climates. Leenwenhoek (Select Works, ?'., p. 154) observes: "At

a town in my neighbourhood, where the people get their living by
fishing, and feed principally on fish, especially wdien they are on the
sea, the men are very robust and healthy even to a great age. * * It
is also my opinion that a fish diet is more wholesome than flesh, parti-
cularly to those persons who do not use much exercise, because fish
is more easily comminuted and digested in the stomach and bowels
than flesh."

ccxl

416. A great deal has been written and said about the natives of

T r, , e , India preferring small fish to large ones ;

Large fish of much more * f . 5 7°'

value, weight for weight, than therefore the destruction ot try ought not to
small ones, which putrefy rapid- be put a stop to, or the poorer classes might
v" suffer. There is no exception throughout the

British possessions in India and Burma where small fresh-water fishes
obtain so great a value as large ones, taking weight for weight — one
maund of large fish realising from 30 to 50 and sometimes 100 per
cent, above what a maund of small fish does. The latter have to be sold
quickly, because, being usually immature, decomposition sets in rapidly.

417. Fish as food is employed in many ways in Asia, which it is
_. , f , unnecessary to specify in detail. Fish roes are

either salted or dried. Coarse isinglass is
prepared from various marine forms, and exported to China from Bombay :
towards the Arabian Sea mostly from the percoid forms : in Malabar
chiefly from the siluroids : and at the months of the Ganges and down
the Burmese coasts from both siluroids, polynemi and other genera.
Salt and dried fish is largely consumed in the Madras and Bombay Presi-
dencies ; also in Sind ; but far inland, where the Hindu element is strong,
it does not find such a ready sale. Oils of two kinds are obtained — the
" medicinal" from the livers of sharks and other chondropterygious or carti-
laginous fishes: and the " simple" from either marine or fresh-water species.

418. Fish employed as food may act injuriously on the system,

_,. , . occasioning poisonous symptoms, and this

Fish eaten may occasion . . ° \, ,, . n -, f . x . \. ,

poisonous symptoms more or irrespective ol their flesh being diseased or

less severe, and due to several undergoing putrefactive changes. There may
causes- be gastro-intestiual irritation, or great ner-

vous depression, with coldness of the body and extremities. Fish may
occasion indigestible or poisonous symptoms if eaten, which may be due
to their age : thus some, which are eatable when young, have been found
to set up irritable or poisonous effects as they become large, as Caranx
fallax, ahorse mackerel, which it is illegal to sell in some places should it
weigh above 2 jibs. Sometimes these results are attributed to the breeding
season ; thus, on the Indus, in the Central Provinces, and elsewhere such
causes have been adduced by local observers in the foregoing reports, and in
Europe it has been observed that the eggs and milt act as great irritants.
Occasionally some fish in Europe have been found to be unwholesome just
before the breeding season, and they have been considered unfit for food.
But this is not the case in all ; thus the mackerel and other marine fishes
are extensively eaten at this season, and in Asia the shad, Clupea palasak,
and the raangoe fish, Polynemus paradisevs, are excellent up to the period
they have deposited their eggs, after which they become thin, flabby and
positively unwholesome. Thus the unwholesomeness of kelts, or female
salmon, which have spawned, but not yet gone to the sea so as to have
recovered and become fit for food, has been known from ancient times.
Dr. Gerard Boate, Doctor of Medicine to the State in Ireland, observed
(1645) — " of the leprosie, which in former times used to be very common,
especially in the province of Minister, which was filled with hospitals
expressly built for to receive and keep the leprous persons. This horri-
ble and loathsome disease was caused through the fault and foul gluttony
of the inhabitants, in the unwholesome devouring of foul salmons

ccxli

when they are out of season, which is after they have cast their spawn,
upon which they do not only grow very weak and flabbie, but so
unwholesome as it would loathe any man to see them. Nevertheless, the
Irish, a nation extremely barbarous in all parts of their life, did use to
take them in that very season, and by that means that horrible disease
came to be so common amongst them. But the English, having once
gotten the command of the whole country into their hand, made very
severe laws against the taking of salmons in that unwholesome season,
and saw them carefully observed, whereby hindering these barbarians
against their will to feed on that poisonous meat ; they were the cause that
that woeful sickness, which used so mightily to reign amongst them,
hath in time been almost abolished." It seems doubtful, however,
whether it is not in India more amongst fish which deposit their eggs at
one period, as the hilsa, than amongst those who do so more gradually, as
the barbels, that the spent condition is most seen in. Although I have
heard of mahaseer in this condition, I have not personally witnessed
them, and, as they do not deposit all their eggs in one batch, they rarely
become very lean and flabby, unless ill from some other cause likewise.
Fish may also be unwholesome, due to their having been kept until par-
tial decomposition has set in, or to some substance the fish has swallowed,
or to the food which it has eaten. Thus eels often feed upon very foul
food, and their flesh has been known to occasion very dangerous symptoms ;
thus in France, near Orleans, cramps and diarrhoea attacked a whole family
who had partaken of some which had been captured from a stagnant
castle ditch in the vicinity. Irritation may likewise be occasioned by
swallowing fish bones or scales, whilst some persons possess a peculiar
idiosyncrasy rendering fish unsuited for their digestive powers. " There
can be no form of animal food/'' observes St. Jules Cyr, " more objec-
tionable than decomposed or putrid fish, and this is especially seen in a
season when diarrhoea is prevalent." In India and Burma, where fish in
this condition is rather freely consumed throughout the hot season, it does
not appear to be proved that semi-putrid fish is more injurious than
meat in the same condition, if so much so. During the monsoon months,
when the atmostphere is moist, semi-salted fish absorb moisture, and,
in Malabar at least, not uofrequently appears to occasion or assist in the
production of dysentery and diarrhoea, whilst in Burma such results do
not seem to be attributed to vga-pee. However, eating fish during the
monsoon months often sets up symptoms of indigestion, and even more
serious attacks to some persons, due either to partaking of spent fish, or
else of the immature, which, having commenced to putrefy, set up^derange-
ment of digestive system.

419. It would fill up too much space to detail all the most whole-
some species of Indian fresh-water or ma-

Acanthopterygian, or spiny- r- i , , £ , .

rayed fish of India as food. nne hshes> but a few general remarks may
Those having accessory breath- be made upon their general digestibility, pre-
ing organs, whether of this mising that certain local peculiarities may

family or siluroids, most esteem- _„■ a „u •„ „. j.1, j.i n , 1 <

ed by convalescents. x st' altemi& theother wise excellent character

of a fish. Amongst the Acanthopterygian or
spiny-rayed families, all that are found in the fresh- waters appear to be
adapted for food, without occasioning deleterious effects. Religious
prejudices may militate against the employment of some species, but not

ccxlii

sanitary reasons, unless the last may have been due to any substances
swallowed by the lish. Thus at one time the gouramy, Osphromenm olfax,
taken from a tank in the Mauritius, was found unfit for human food, when
it was discovered that they had been consuming- the filth from below a
latrine which opened into it. Hamilton Buchanan observed of the
estuary and marine fish, Scdtqphagus argns, that it is "easy of digestion and
excellent flavour, but after death it becomes soft and strongly tasted." This
fish, however, is as foul a feeder as the last, and is consequently generally
rejected as food. The Indian mackerel, Scomber hanagurta, taints very
rapidly after death, and not unfrequently sets up gastric irritation, whilst
the mullets, Mugilida, are usually unwholesome, unless eaten when quite
fresh. The fishes with accessory breathing organs or cavities are those as
a rule most esteemed as nourishing by the natives, whether aoanthop-
terygiaus or siluroids; thus convalescents in some parts mostly esteem the
coie, or climbing' perch, or the siluroid magnr, Clarias magiir ; next
perhaps the singi, Saccohranchus fossilis ; whilst the spiny-rayed family
of ojihiocephalns likewise hold a high place. In short, it is these fami-
lies so peculiar to the tropics which are found to be the most wholesome
and invigorating. Munier, nearly a century since, informed Sonuerat that
fishes of the marine genus Scarus, commonly known as " parrot fishes,"
owing to their brilliant colours and bill-like teeth, were not eaten in Bour-
bon and the Mauritius between December and April, owing to their
unwholesomeness, due, it was supposed, to their consuming large quantities
of coral polype. Commerson makes much the same remarks, and observes
that it gnaws the coral. It has also been said that fishes which consume
the medusae, commonly termed "Portuguese men-of-war," the Sfephan-
onia, appear to be rendered unfit for human food, probably consequent
upon their acrid qualities. However, fish are found to be poisonous where
these polypes abound ; and in other localities where they are also numer-
ous, as the Andaman Islands, the fish appear to be eaten with safety.
Dr. Hill (Pro., Scien. Asso., Trinidad, 1868) observes theFormigas consti-
tute a very warren or vivarium of all kinds of fishes, and the fishes
there are poisonous. The sea is very shallow, covered with coral reels,
and these again by sea-cucumbers, star-fishes, sea-urchins and sponges.
420. Regarding the Siluridm or scaleless fishes as food, rather

m ., . , , , „ , diverse opinions are held. The Jews were

The suunda; or scaluless nshes v j. i • t •.!_• i n i

asfoo d directed in Leviticus, chap. xi, that

" whatsoever hath no fins, nor scales in the
waters, that shall be an abomination unto you." They were only permit-
ted to eat " whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas
and in the rivers," and this law is likewise generally, but not invariably,
observed by the Mahomedans. It is well known that persons of neither
of the foregoing religions are to eat the blood which is the life, so they
cut the throats of all animals before death, in order to permit it to escape.
In Sind, however, the Mahomedans have a tradition that the prophet
did this for them in regard to fish, because they die so rapidly after
they are removed from the water, and they point to the gill-opening in
proof of this having been done, consequently they eat all siluroids which
possess well developed ^'ill-openings. In the last paragraph it was observed
that the Clarias and Saccohranchus are much esteemed in India for convale-
scents, whilsi the Burmese have likewise a great partiality for them in their

ccxlm

nga-pee. Some of the larger species of Macrones and Anus which are
found in fresh waters are not esteemed, as they consume ordure whenever
procurable : perhaps it may be considered questionable whether cholera
may not be spread by this agency, if the fish are eaten before being
thoroughly cleaned or cooked. This family of fishes, with the exceptions
noted, does not appear to be very wholesome, being, as a rule, rather rich,
or else hard and indigestible. Their flavour is likewise generally insipid,
still the Aor, Macrones aor, in some localities is excellent, whilst the
absence of bones renders the operation of eating it, not a service of
danger, as in many Asiatic fresh-water fishes.

421. The carps, Cyprinida, which abound in the waters of the

plains of India, are all more or less useful
Carps iu hilly districts may ag food alfchoU£?n differing widely in their
set up deleterious effects. » rj ji

gastronomic value. But as the mountain

regions are approached the value of some as food becomes impeached,

at least when eaten by strangers, although generally to the residents,

and perhaps many of the visitants, no deleterious effects are produced.

Dr. McClelland observed of a mountain barbel, Oreinus progastus, that

" this species is said by the natives of Assam to cause swimming in the

head, and temporary loss of reason for several days, without any

particular derangement of the stomach. It is the most herbivorous of

the barbels," [a statement open to doubt] "and, like some of the

gudgeons, tends rapidly to decay after death, and in the abdominal cavity

U copious oily secretion is found," [in oommon with other Indian carps

before the breeding season and after they have recovered from such,]

f< which is probably the cause of its bad effects. * * * Mr. Griffith

was informed by the fishermen that, if eaten, it occasions all the symptoms

of drunkenness, which coincides with what I have myself heard regarding

its effects." (Trans-Asiatic Society, Bengal, xix, page 344.) The late

Dr. Jerdon informed me that he had witnessed these symptoms amongst

his own servants, produced from eating some species of mountain fishes.

When in the Chumba State in the Himalayas, I found another mountain

barbel, Oreinus sinuatus, very common, but the natives asserted that it

never occasioned uncomfortable symptoms, although they were consumed

by every class of the community. Some European residents, and others

who were visitors, likewise eat them with impunity ; however, one of my

native servants who tried one declined a second attempt, as he was

unwell for 24 hours subsequently. Low down the Ravi, and in some of

the other Panjab rivers, I have heard of deleterious effects being occasioned

from partaking of these fishes. Certainly at Chumba the fish were netted

and not captured by means of poisoning the water.

422. Amongst the Clupeida, or herring family, which abound in
Herring family •• members of the Indian seas, some being visitants to the

it occasionally 0l. always poison- fresh-waters for breeding purposes, and a
ol*s- few entirely residing there; several marine

forms have been reputed as poisonous, which in some instances appears
to be due to the food which they have eaten. Engraulis boelama, a small
anchovy, has been accused by Dussumier of occasioning death in a few
hours, if dressed without its head and intestines having been first
removed; they abound, however, at the Andamans, where they are largely
eaten, and there is no record in that settlement of any individual having

ecxliv

suffered deleteriously from the effects of eating- them. They are mostly
consumed in a dry state ; certainly neither their heads nor intestines are
removed. Along- the Malabar Coast of India and in Ceylon, eating
sardines, either the Clupea Neohowii or C. melanura, has been thought to
occasion poisonous symptoms, but both species abound in the Anda-
mans and are eaten with impurity ; still I have personally witnessed
many cases of vomiting and purging- resembling- cholera, especially
about the month of October, and which could only be traced to the
fact that some unwholesome fish had been the cause. The Clupea
venenosa was found to be poisonous at the Seychelles by Dussumier,
but Colonel Playfair at Zanzibar considered that they " do not appear
to possess any such property ; on the contrary they form no incon-
siderable part of the daily food of the lower orders." (Alosa venenosa,
Fish, Zanzibar, p. 122.) Dr. Cantor observed, when remarking upon
the Clupea perforata, that it is found in the Straits, where it is
termed a sardine, and most common from June to August. Some
specimens procured by Mr. Lewis " were accompanied by the following
account of a phenomenon witnessed by that gentleman during his
official residence at Bencoolen. In 1822, great numbers of what
w^as supposed to be this identical species presented the appearance
of having- red eyes. Many natives, after having eaten these fishes,
were suddenly attacked with violent vomiting, which, in cases where
remedies were not immediately applied, was known within an hour
to terminate fatally. At the same time, such of these fishes with the
ordinary silver eyes were, as formerly, eaten with impunity.'''' This
phenomenon re-occurred the two succeeding years, and he considered
it probable that the poisonous fishes were shoals of C. venenosa. Any of
the foregoing would appear to be poisonous from some local or accidental
cause, as the abundance of food which may suit them but renders
their flesh poisonous ; but in the West Indies, the Clupea thrissa is
stated to be inherently so. The Clupea humeral] s is so poisonous at
the Antilles, due to feeding on the Physalia, that it occasionally causes
death in a few minutes ; even the common herring, Clupea harengus,
is sometimes very irritating when eaten, in the North Sea, conse-
cpuent on living on some minute red worm which are occasionally
abundant there. The Indian shad, Clupea palasah, when in season,
is somewhat rich, and the Burmans do not eat it during sickness,
or should they be suffering at the time from skin affections, or have
suffered from such during the few preceding months, as they affirm
it will aggravate it when present, and reproduce it if only recently
recovered from.

423. Amongst the eels, Muranida, none appear to be reputed

. , unwholesome, still there is no reason they

Eels as food. i i i j. i t j • • -n

should not become so in India as in Europe

(see para. 418). The appearance of some is considered repulsive, whilst

Jews and Mahomedans reject them.

424. In the Sclerodermatous family, species of the Batistes are

„ , . eaten by the Andamanese, but none of the

Scleroderun as food, or noison- n * • r t l •

Ustracions, so tar as 1 can ascertain, are em-
ployed as food. It is curious that the
Ostracion cornutum and the Balistes vetula are said to be very poisonous

cexlv

off Bourbon and the Mauritius. The frog or puff fishes, Tetrodons, are
generally reputed to be poisonous, and are rejected as an article of diet
by the people of India, but they are highly relished by the Andamanese,
and the native doctors in Malabar use them as medicine in phthisical
cases. In Burma, where the large yellow Xenopterus naritus is found
in all the branches of the Irawaddi, the natives bait for them with small
fish, and consider their flesh as good for eating. However, at the Cape of
Good Hope a spotted Tetrodon has caused so many deaths, that the officers
of all ships anchoring there are warned against their being used as food.
In the Nile, one species is reputed to be very poisonous if eaten. In
Japan is found a sort which is used for the purpose of effecting suicide,
whilst an edict exists in the army of that country, declaring that, should
any soldier die from eating it, his son is prohibited from entering the
military service.

425. Sharks, saw-fishes, rays and skates, with the exception of the

n ., . ,, , „ , torpedo, are esteemed as food by many of the

Cartilaginous fishes as food. i\yr l j j.t_ o j ■ t» i t

° Madrassees and the Seedees in Bombay. In

Bengal, however, they are rejected by all but the very poorest, some

of whom even will refuse them.

426. Many diseases have been attributed to the effects of a fish

diet. In Bergen, " fish is perhaps more
^Diseases attributed to a fish ^^ uged M &n a(jticle of ^ than in any

other part of the world. * *" * There
are two large hospitals devoted exclusively to the treatment of patients
suffering from a peculiar form of disease, brought on by eating badly
cured fish : the disease is a mixture of leprosy and elephantiasis." {Lancet,
July 1.866, p. 83). " A scorbutic taint is considered to ensue in some
portions of Europe from a fish diet. Leprosy in the south of Spain
is ascribed to this cause." Amongst the Norwegians, phthisis is
common and also struma. "Of fresh meat the Norwegians, get but
little, and their fish and milk are often used in a state of partial decom-
position instead of fresh. * * * Their constitution could rally and
get well on a regimen under which an Englishman would sink." {Medical
Times and Gazette, July 1869). Examining the foregoing statements, one
observes that it is not a good fish diet which is accused of producing
leprosy, elephantiasis, scurvy and skin diseases, but fish consumed in a state
of putrefaction or badly cured ; but even this may be open to argument.
Natives in some portions of Asia consider that eating fish predisposes to
cholera, and many object on that account to its use during epidemics
of that malady {see ante-paragraph 420 on the Silurida). Leprosy is a
well-marked disease, and has been attributed to an unwholesome fish diet.
Leprosy is by no means unfrequent in the Panjab, North-West Provinces,
and other districts far inland, amongst people who resolutely refuse ever
to eat salt-fish however prepared. The only way in which they consume
putrid fish is purchasing the fry during the rainy months, which, prior to
being cooked, generally is in a more or less putrid condition. But if we
go a little further to the east, we find the Burmese race, who most
assuredly are a fish-consuming one {see para. 366) and prefer their
odoriferous nga-pee to fresh fish. In my travels through Burma, I
never saw a single instance of leprosy amongst the indigenous population,
nor a case of those congenital malformation of the fingers and toes, so

)

ccxlvi

common in India amongst the natives born with a leprous taint. In fact

it has been frequently remarked that this disease does not exist amongst

the Burmese. The same remark applies to the fish-and-animal-food*

eating- Andamanese ; whilst on the other hand it is as common in India

amongst inland classes who do not eat fish, as those who do so. As

regards Elephantiasis Arabum, there does not appear to be any stronger

reason for attributing its origin to a fish diet, than there is in regard to

E. Greecorum, or the true leprosy. Hamilton Buchanah observed that

this disease, in some parts of India, is attributed by the natives to eating

a carp, Labeo cur chilis, and. taking large draughts of fresh milk on the

same day.

427. Skin diseases of a low character and inveterate itch have

„, . ,. , been considered to be occasioned by this form

Skin diseases and scurvy at- c j- , ,1 • • ^ , ,

tributted to a bad fish diet. of diet > tms seems m many cases to . be

thought so, because very poor persons residing

along the sea coast, and are unable to procure proper sustenance, con-
sume the refuse of the fish taken, which are either given them gra-
tuitously as worthless) or disposed of at a very cheap rate. This^
however, can scarcely be assumed as the sole cause of the low forms of
disease (excluding dysenteric diarrhoea, occasionally passing into
dysentery) from which these people suffer, which in reality are due
to privations, though doubtless badly-cured fish may aggravate diseases,
or render the individual more susceptible to the attacks of maladies
indigenous to the locality. In the badly nourished, itch or other
skin affections, when contracted, are generally severe, and in sea-port
towns are mostly perceived amongst the poverty-stricken, who consume
the refuse of fish in lieu of more wholesome food, which they are
unable to purchase. Scurvy has by some been partly attributed to a
fish diet. Dr. Gamack, reporting on the Convict Settlement at the
Andamans in 1860, observed — " a very limited quantity of fresh meat
and fish has been occasionally procurable by the convicts generally,
but for the sick the supply has been more liberal, and in the scurvy
'cases was found of the greatest benefit/'

428. Fish wounds, or those occasioned by their spines, are by no

„. 4 means uncommon. They may set up poison-

WouiKis from fish spines, es- i. j . ,i • i- • V ■_■ n

pecially of siluroids. ou? symptoms, due to their having a distinctly

poisonous character, or severe irritation
caused by the jagged nature of the injury inflicted. Severe inflamma-
tion, terminating in stiffened joints, have frequently resulted in Europe
from wounds caused by the spines of the weever, Trachinns vipera.
In some cases of injuries caused by siluroids, skates, and ray fishes, one
can scarcely resist believing that some species have the power of secre-
ting a direct poison, as the symptoms are often too severe to be attribut-
able to simple inflammation. We perceive some snakes, however, with
venomous, others with innocuous, saliva, and it is an interesting question
whether the mucous secretions of fishes may not partake of either one
or the other of these qualities. Dr. Gunther apparently has discovered
a poison gland in a fish brought from Guatemala, the Thalassophryne
reticulata, the secretion from which seems to arise in the mucous
system. The effects of some of these injuries from fish spines are
doubtless entirely due to the extent of the inflicted wound. Thus, at

ccxlvii

Cochin, a man was brought to one of my hospitals with gangrene of

the fore-arm, occasioned by a ray-fish having wound its tail around it,

and dragged its armed spine through the muscles down to the bones.

Accidents from spines of fishes, especially of the siluroid and ray

families, are exceedingly common in the East. In both France and

Spain, police regulations require that all spines on fish, which inflict

injurious wounds, should be removed prior to their beiner brought to

market. In Orissa, the serrated spine at the base of the tail of the

ray-fish is believed to cause fatal wounds. Fishermen invariably remove

it, and usually break off the dorsal and pectoral spines from all siluroids.

429. Dr. Jerdon (Madras Journal, Literature and Science, 1849)

_ , „ mentioned that wounds from the spiny rays

Wounds from spiny rays of c j-i r> t jt

fislies> tf j o 0t the Folyacantkus cupanns occasion severe

pain for a few hours. But it may be generally

considered that injuries from these hard rays of most of the Acanlhop-

terygian. fishes may induce irritation, and even inflammation, lasting for

an uncertain time. This irritation may be due to acrid mucus,

normally secreted, or rendered irritable, due to excitement in the fish.

The severity of the injury will be increased or diminished in accordance

with the state of the health of the injured person at the time of the

receipt of the injury.

ccxlviii

FRESH-WATER PISHES OE INDIA.

430. The fresh-water fishes are divisible into those which are

, „ , strictly so, and marine ones which ascend

The fresh-water fishes of In- i .• i in p i j- _ .„j„

dia above tidal influence tor breeding or preda-

ceous purposes. The following list enu-
merates those at present known and described, with their geographical
range, their native names (the pronunciation of the latter in accordance
with the English language), and the size they attain to : —

Sub-class— TELEOSTEI.

Eishes having an osseous skeleton, completely separated
vertebrae, and the posterior extremity of the vertebral
column either bony or armed with bony plates. Bulb
of aorta simple, with a pair of valves at its origin.
Branchiae free.

Order— A CANTHOPTERYGII.

A portion of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fin-rays unarticulated, forming
spines. Air-vessel, when present, completely closed, not having a
pneumatic duct.

Family — PERCiDiE, Cuv.

Percoidei, pt., Cuvier : Percida, pt., and Theraponida, pt., Richardson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven : pseudobranchise, as a rule, present. Form of body-
generally oblong. Eyes lateral. All or some of the opercles (except in Apsilus)
serrated or armed. Mouth in front of snout, having a lateral cleft, occasionally
situated on the lower side. A barbel on the lower jaw in Pogonoperca. Teeth
villiform or conical in the jaws, canines occasionally present, the vomer and
generally the palatines armed with teeth. Anterior portion of dorsal fin spinous :
ventrals thoracic, each having one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid. Lateral
line, when present, continuous, except in some species of Ambassis. Air-vessel
usually present, and, when so, simple. Pyloric appendages in varying numbers.

Genus — Lates, Cuv. Sf Val.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchia. Pre-orbital and shoulder
bone serrated: pre-opercle with strong spines at its angle, and denticulated
along its horizontal limb : opercle spinate. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer
and palatine bones : tongue smooth. First dorsal Jin with seven or eight,
anal with three spines : caudal rounded. Scales of moderate size. Ccecal
pylori feiv.

1. Lates calcarifer, Bloch. This marine, predaceous fish ascends
all the large rivers of India and Burma. Dangara, Sindee : Nuddee meen
or Nair meen, Malyalim : Painnee meen, Tamil : Pandu kopah or Pandu
meenu, Telugu : JJiirruah, Ooriah : Begti, Bengal : Cock-up of Euro-
peans. D. 7-8/TTiT2, A. si\, L. 1. 52-60, L. tr. 7/12, Caec. pyl. 3. Of a
grey colour. It attains several feet in length.

ccxlix

Genus — Ambassis, Commerson.

Chanda, Hamilton Buchanan ; Bogoda, pt., Bleeker.

Branchiostegals six. Body compressed, more or less diaphanous.
Lower limb of pre-opercle with a double denticulated edge: opercle without
a prominent spine. Villiform teeth on the jaws and palate, generally no
canines. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the anal with three spines:
a recumbent spine directed forwards in front of the base of the dorsal fin.
Scales of moderate or small size, frequently deciduous. Lateral line
complete, interrupted or absent.

2. Ambassis nalua, Ham. Buch., B. vi. D. 1 I\qI\\, A. §=io, L. 1. 30.
Lateral line continuous. Lower Bengal to a few inches in length.

3. Ambassis ranga, Ham. Buch. Chandee, Ooriah and Beng. B. vi.

L\ 7/f2^i4, A. 13^15, L. 1. 58. Found in Bengal and Madras to a few
inches in length.

A. Ambassis baculis, Ham. Buch. Kung-gi, Panj.; Nga-koun-ma or

1 3

Nga-zin-zat, Burm. B. vi. D. 7/i3=r5j A. j^. Scales minute. Found
throughout India and Burma, very similar to the last.

5. Ambassis Thomassi, Day. Mullu-cheru, Mai. B. vi. D. 7/fij A. k>j
L. 1. 38, L. tr. 6/13. Western Coast of India.

6. Ambassis nama, Ham. Buch. Mucknee and Ched-du-ah, Panjab ;

Pud-du and Put-to-lah, Sindee : Ak-ku-rati, Telugu : Buck-ra aud Pom-

1 3

pi-ah, North-West Provinces; Cart-kana, Ooriah. B. vi. D. 7/n,, A. 15*

Lateral line absent. A small fresh-water fish found throughout India.

7. Ambassis lala, Ham. Buch. Pee-dah, Sind; Chandee, North-

1 3

West Provinces ; Laal chandee, Ooriah. B. vi. D. 7/n, A. n- Scales

minute : lateral line absent. Orange with four or five vertical bands,

first dorsal nearly black. Found throughout the continent of India

except Madras. Only attains a few inches in length.

Family — Pristipomatid^;.

Percoidei, pt., Scicenoidei, pt., Sparoidei, pt., et Manides, pt., Cuv. :
Theraponida, pt., Hcemulonida, pt., Sparidce, pt., et Mcenides, pt.,
Richardson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven. Pseudobranchife, usually well developed. Body-
oblong, compressed. Eyes of medium size, lateral. Mouth moderately or very
protractile, placed in front of the snout, and with a lateral cleft, Muciferous
system of the head rudimentary or slightly developed. Pre-opercle serrated or
entire, barbels absent. Teeth in villiform bands, with conical canines in some
genera, but neither molars nor cutting ones in the jaws : palate usually edentu-
lous. A single dorsal fin, the spinous and soft portion being of about equal
extent, the first containing sti'ong spines, or continuous with the soft : anal
mostly with three spines, its soft portion similar to that of the dorsal: lower
pectoral rays branched : ventrals thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales
finely ctenoid or cycloid, extending over the body and head ; cheeks not cuirassed.
Lateral line continuous. Air-vessel present, more or less simple. Stomach csecal.
Pyloric appendages few, or in moderate numbers.

Genus — Therapon, Cuv.

Datnia, Cuv. and Val. : P elates, Cuv.

Branchiostegals six. Eyes of moderate size. Opercle with spines : pre-
opercle serrated. Teeth villiform in both jaws, the outer being sometimes

ccl

the larger : deciduous ones on the vomer and palatines. Scales of
moderate size. Air-vessel divided by a constriction. Pyloric appendages
in moderate numbers.

8. Therapon servus, Rloch. B. vi. D. 10-11/Jj, A. g, L. 1. 80,
L. tr. 1&/27. Silvery, with three longitudinal dark bands having a
slight convexity downwards. Is found in some of the larger rivers as the
Hooghly. occasionally above tidal influence. It attains to twelve or
thirteen inches in. length.

Genus — Datnoides, Bleeher.

Branckiostegals six. Psen dob ranch) a>. Bod// somewhat elevated. Eyes
of moderate size. Iuler-maxillaries very protractile. Pre-opercle serrated ;
opercle with short spines. One dorsal Jin, with a deep notch, having
twelve stout spines, anal with three. Caudal rounded. Scales rather small.
Air-vessel simple. Pyloric appendages few.

9. Datnoides polota, Ham. Buch. Nqa-hya, Burm, B. vi. D.
t3»_2¥, A. |, L. 1. 48, L. r. 70, L. tr. 12/25, Ca^c. pyl. 5. Brown,
with six or seven narrow black vertical bands on the body, and others
radiating from the orbit. Is found throughout the lower portions of
the Ganges and Irrawaddi, ascending above tidal reach : it attains
about 12 inches in length.

Family — Sci^Nid^, Cuv,

Branchiostegals seven. Pseudobranchise sometimes concealed. Body compressed and
rather elongate. Eyes lateral, of moderate or small size. Mouth in front of or
below snout. Cheeks unarmed : opercles sometimes weakly armed. Muciferous
system on the head well developed. Teeth in villiform bands : canines present
iii some genera, but neither cutting nor molar ones in the jaws : palate edentulous.
Two dorsal fins, the second much more developed than the first, or than the anal :
spines of first dorsal usually feeble : anal with two spines : pectoral rays
branched : ventrals thoracic, having one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid.
Lateral line complete, often continued on to the caudal fin. Stomach cecal.
Pyloric appendages generally few. Air-vessel, when present, as a rule, with
branching or elongated appendages.

Genus — Scijena, Cuv.

Johnius, BIocli : Corvina, pt., Cuv. ; Leiostomus, pt., Cuv. & Val. :
ttomoprion, Holb.

Pseudobranchia. Body oblong. Eyes of moderate size, and the inter-or-
bital space rather broad and slightly convex. Snout rounded ; the upper jaw
longer than the lower, or both equal. Cleft of motitJi horizontal or slightly
oblique. Barbels absent. The outer row of teeth generally the largest :
canines absent. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages Jew, or in moderate

numbers.

This genus has been subdivided artificially, in accordance to the
length of the second anal spine, as follows: — (1) weak and about half
the length of the first ray, Scieena : (2) moderately strong and nearly two-
thirds as long as the first ray, Johuius : (3) very strong and about
equalling the first ray in length, Corvina.

10. Sciana cotior, Ham.: Buch. Fella Jcctchell.ee, Tarn. : Boiahl and
PuUheri-ki, Ooriah : JSga-poJc-thiu, Burm. B. vii. D. 10/2'7, A. 'j, Cac.

ccli

pyl. 7-9. Silvery. Ascends all the large rivers of India and Burma for
breeding purposes : it attains about 12 inches in length.

Family — Squamipinnes, Cuv.

Chatodontida, pt., Richardson.
Branchiostegals six or seven : pseudobranchise well developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Eyes lateral and of moderate size. Mouth generally small, with a
lateral cleft, and situated in front of the snout. Teeth villiforra or setiform,
neither incisors nor canines : in most of the genera the palate is edentulous. Soft
portion of the dorsal fin more developed than the spinous, sometimes considerably,
more rarely slightly so: anal with three or four spines, its soft portion _ similar
to that of the dorsal : lower pectoral rays branched : ventrals thoracic, with one
spine and five rays. Scales cycloid or very finely ctenoid ; they extend more
or less over the vertical fins, but occasionally are absent from the spinous portion.
Air-vessel present, generally simple. Intestines usually much convoluted : stomach
csecal. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers*

Genus — Toxotes Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchio?. Body oblong, compressed^
bach depressed. Eyes of moderate size. Snout rather produced j I nicer jaw
the longer. Villiform, teeth on jaws, vomer, and palatine bones. A single
dorsal Jin, having jive strong spines situated in the posterior half of I he
back : anal with three spines. Scales cycloid, of moderate or rather small
size, some are extended to over the soft portions of the vertical Jin s. Air-
vessel simple. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.

11. Toxotes jaculator, Pallas. D. tji^, A. i^u, L. 1. 28, Case,
pyl. 7-9. Greenish brown, with broad dark bands or blotches. Attains
about a foot in length. Found in and above tidal influence in the large
rivers of Bengal and Burma.

12. Toxotes microlepis, Blyth. ISga-lya-ma Burmese. D. -jf, A.
T3T, L. 1. 42, Ca?c. pyl. 8. Golden, with two to four large black oblong
blotches or stripes along its sides. Found in Burma along with the last,
attaining about the same size.

'b

Family — CaHANGID^, Giinther.

Scomberoidei, pt., et Squamipi?ines, pt., Cuv. : Scombrisida, pt»,
Richardson.

Branchiostegals usually seven, sometimes less : pseudobranchia? as a rule present,
absent in Lichia and Trachynotus. Body oblong or elevated, and generally com-
pressed. Eyes lateral, sometimes large. Infra-orbital bones do not articulate
with the pre-opercle. Gill-openings wide. Dentition exceedingly varied. The spinous
dorsal of less extent than the soft, sometimes even being rudimentary ; it is either
continuous with, or distinct from, the soft portion : the posterior portion of the
dorsal and anal sometimes consisting of detached finlets. The soft dorsal and
the anal may be of nearly equal extent, or the latter much the most developed.
"Ventrals, when present, thoracic, but they may be rudimentary or absent. Scales
small, sometimes absent. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages usually in
large numbers, whilst some genera have but few.

Genus — Equvla, Cuv.

Branchiostegals from four to jive : pseudobranchia. Body elevated
and strongly compressed. Eyes lateral. Mouth very protractile. Lower

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edge of pre-opercle serrated. Minute teeth on jaws ; palate edentulous. A
single dorsal jin, having less spines (8-10) than rays (15-17) : anal with
three spines and less rays than the soft dorsal (13-14) : ventrals thoracic.
Scales small, cycloid, and generally deciduous. Lateral line unarmed,
usually complete, but in some species terminating beloio the end of the dorsal
jin. Air-vessel ending posteriorly in two horns. Pyloric appendages few.
13. Equula runconius, Ham. Buch. Tunka-chandee, Ooriah : Nga-

hpee-ma, Burra. D. iq-U) A. T3^, L. 1. 68. Silvery, with short greyish
bauds descending- from the back. This small fish is found iu the large
rivers of Lower Bengal aud Burma.

Family — M u g i l i d m, Rich a rds on .
Mugiloidei, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from four to six : pseudobranchiae. Form of body oblong', compressed,
and tbe anterior portion and head may be depressed. E}Tes lateral, with or
without adipose lids. Gill-openings wide : gills four. Opercles unarmed. Mouth
narrow or of moderate width. Teeth very fine, sometimes absent. Anterior portion
of dorsal fins consisting of four stiff spines : anal slightly longer than the second
dorsal. Ventrals abdominal, suspended from an elongated shoulder bone ; it
consists of one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid, rarely ctenoid. Lateral line
absent. Pyloric appendages generally few.

Genus — Mugil, Artedi.

Branchiostegals from four to sir: pseudobranchice. Eyes with or with-
out an adipose lid. Anterior edge of lower jaw sharp. Teeth, when present,
minute. Pyloric appendages generally few (2-10). Upper portion of
stomach very muscular.

14- Mugil cascasia, Ham. Buch. Cuck-se or Buah, Panj.: D. 4/^-,
A. f, L. 1. 32, L. tr. 16. Silvery: uncovered space on chin, eye, base of
pectoral, and centre of base of caudal gamboge yellow. This small
mullet is found in the upper parts of the Ganges and Jumna, also in
the Indus.

15. Mugil corsula, Ham. Buch. Hurd-ioah-re, Panj.: Ka-kun-da,
Ooriah; Corsula and In-ge-lee, Beng. : Undala, Hind : Nga-zen, Burm.
D. 4/^, A. -|, L. 1. 50, L. tr. 15. Ascends all the large rivers east of the
Kistna far above tidal iuflueuce ; it attains a foot in length.

16. Mugil Hamiltonii, Day. D. 4/£, A. f , L. 1. 44, L. tr. 18. Scales
ctenoid. Found throughout the large rivers of Burma to nearly 5 inches

in length.

Fa mily — G O B 1 1 D M ,

Fseudob ranch iae present, sometimes rudimentary. Body generally elongated. Eves
lateral, occasionally prominent. The infra-orbital ring of bones does not articulate
with the pre-opercle. Gill-opening varying from extremely narrow to wide. Gill
membranes attached to the isthmus : four gills. Teeth of various characters,
canines sometimes present. A single dorsal fin, sometimes divided into two
portions ; the spines are flexible, and this part of the fin is not so developed as
the soft : anal similar to the soft dorsal : ventrals sometimes united so as to form
a disc. Scales and lateral line present or absent. Air-vessel generally absent.
Pyloric appendages, if present, few.

Genus — Gobius, Artedi.

Branchiostegals five, pseudobranchice. Body low and elongated. Gill-
openings of moderate width. Opercles unarmed. Teeth in several rows in

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the jaws ; canines sometimes present. Anterior dorsal fin with from five to
six flexible spines : the posterior more developed and of the same character
as the anal : ventrals united, forming a disc, which is not attached to the
abdomen ; each has one spine and five rays. Scales present or absent and
either cycloid or ctenoid. Lateral line absent. Air-vessel when present gene-
rally small. Pyloric appendages usually absent.

17. Gobius giuris, Ham. Bucli. Goo-loo-tvah and Boul-la, Panj. :
Gooloo, Sind and N. YV. Prov. : Kurddn, Mai. : Oolooway, Tam. : Tsikidundu
Tel. : Gulah, Ooriah : Nga-tha-boh, Burm. : Poo-dah, And. D. G/^.-g, A. ^,
L. 1. 26-34. Blotched and spotted with rusty brown. Found in all pieces
of fresh water throughout the plains of India, Burma, the Andamans,
and occasionally within tidal influence. It attains a foot and a half in
length.

18. Gobius nanus, Ham. Buch. D. 6/5 (?) A. 7. Greenish, with six
black belts. A small goby, found in the lower portions of the Ganges
and Irrawaddi Rivers, but ascending above tidal influence.

19. Gobius Malabaricus, Day. D. 6/^, A. ll,L.l. 50, L. tr. 10.
Brown with a black crescentic white edged mark on the first dorsal
fin. It is found in Malabar and Madras, and is only a small species.

Gobius neglectus, Jerdon. D. 6/11, A. 10-11, L. 1. ca 50. A mo-
derately sized goby, found along the bases of the Western Ghats.

Genus — Euctexogobius, Gill.

Branchiostegals six. Body elongated. Eyes not prominent. Gill-
openings rather narrow, not extending to the lower surface of the head.
Teeth in one row in the upper jaw, in several rows in the lower : no ca-
nines : palate edentulous. Inferior pharyngeal bones of an elongated tri-
angular shape, having a median longitudinal suture. Two dorsal fins — the
first with six flexible spines : ventrals united, not adherent to the abdomen.

20. Euctenogobius striatus, Day. Coondallum oolooway, Tam. :
Mahturi, if young Naotti, Ooriah : Nga-ka-tha-po, Burm. D. 6/TJy, A. 11,
L. 1. 54, L. tr. 20. Buff coloured with some vertical bands. Found
throughout the lower districts of Madras, Bengal, and Burma, attaining
6 inches in length.

Genus — Perioprthalmus, Bl.-Schn.

Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchice rudimentary. Body sub-
cylindrical. Eyes placed close together, very prominent, and the outer
eyelid well developed. Gill-openings rather narrow. Teeth in both jaws
vertical and conical. Two dorsal fins — the first with a varying number of
flexible spines: ventrals united in their lower two-thirds : base of pectoral
■muscular: caudal with its lower edge obliquely truncated. Air-vessel
absent. Scales, small or of moderate size, ctenoid, covering body and base
of pectoral fin.

21. Periophthalmus Schlosseri, Pall. Nga-pyan, Burm. D. 7/ J , A.
1 4. Colours, with blue spots on the body ; fins banded with varying colours.
Mouths of large rivers in India and Burma, ascending above t'dal
influence ; rarely exceeds 3 inches in length.

ccliv

Genus — Eleotris, Gronov.

Philypnns, Cuv. and Val.; Bostrichthys, Dura.; Cu litis, Butis, Valen-
oiennea, Belobranehus, and Eleotrioides, Bleeker; Lembus, Giinther.
Branchiostegals from four to six, occasionally terminating anteriorly in a
spine: pseudobranchia present. Gill-openings of moderate width. Body
subcylindricaly scaly. Head oblong. Eyes lateral, not prominent, and of
moderate size. Teeth small, present or absent on the vomer. Two dorsal
fins, the anterior with few (5-8) spines, and these sometimes filamentous :
base of pectoral slightly muscxdar : venfrals placed close together, but not
united. Air-vessel large. Anal papilla distinct. Pyloric appendages
generally absent.

..','. Eleotris fusca, Bl. Poollan, Mai. : Cul-coondallum and Mus-
sonrief^ava. : Kalawishi and Bimdi-bala/i-hera, Ooriah : Kyonh-ka-tha-bho,
Burm. D. 6/£, A. \, L. 1. 63, L. tr. 16. Of a dark colour. Found
throughout the lower districts of India and Burma, also at the Anda-
mans. It does not attain a span in length.

Fatnily — Nandid^e, Giinther.

Pseudochromides et Manoidei, pt,, Mull, and Trosch.
Branchiostegals from five to six : pseudobranehia? present in marine genera, but
sometimes bidden or absent in some of tbose of tbe fresh-water. Body oblong
and compressed. Teetb feeble, but dentition more or less complete. Dorsal fin
single ; tbe spinous portion most developed, or of nearly equal extent to tbe soft ;
anal with three spines, and its soft portion resembling tbat of tbe dorsal: ventrals
thoracic, with one spine and four or five rays. Scales ctenoid, covering the body.
Lateral line interrupted, or absent. No superbvanchial organ. Air-vessel present.
Pyloric appendages few or abaent.

Genus — Badis, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchice absent. Gills four. Eyes la-
teral. Mouth protractile. None of the bones of the head armed. Teeth
on jaws, vomer, and palatines ; none on the tongue. A single dorsal fin,
the spinous portion being of much greater extent than the soft : anal with
three spines, its rayed portion similar to that of the dorsal. Scales
ctenoid, and of moderate size. Lateral line interrupted or absent. Air-
vessel large and simple. Pyloric appendages absent.

23. Badis Buchanaui, Bleeker. Kala-poo-ti-ah and Chi-ri,
Pani. : Biindei, Ooriah. : Bin-lay -nga-ba-m ah and Nga-mee-loung, Burm.

* 1 ft— 1 7 "3

B. vi. D. ~8T, A. jP7, L. 1. 30, L. tr. §, Ceec. pyl. o. Lateral line
interrupted. Purplish black, banded. This small fish appears to he
pretty generally distributed through India and Burma, except in
Madras.

%. Badis dario, Ham. Buch. B. vi. D. *-£, A. f, L. 1. 26.
Lateral line absent. Colours and size as in the last species. Gangetio
Provinces and the Wynaad.

Genus — Nandus, Cuv. and Val.

Bedula, Gray; Pristolepis, Jerdon.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranrhire absent (Bedula), or present
(PeistOLEPIS) . Eyes lateral. Body oblong, compressed. Mouth very or

cclv

moderately protractile. Opercle with two spines : pre-opercle wore or less
serrated: preorbital entire. Teeth villiform in jaws, vomer, and palatines,
and (in N. marginatus) tubercular on base of the tongue. A single dorsal
fin, the spinous portion being of slightly greater extent than the soft :
anal with three spines. Scales ctenoid and of moderate size. Lateral line
interrupted. Air-vessel large and simple. Pyloric appendages absent.

25. Nandus marmoratus , Cuv. and Val. Gud-ha, llool-sa, and Mus-
soas-sah, Panj. : Mootaharce, Mai. : Septi, Tel. : Vaad-hul, Hind. : Latha
and Gud-ha, Beng. : Budusl, Ooriah : Nga-weh-ma, Burm. B. vi. D.

12-14 3

nrn$, A. TTg, L. 1. 46-57. No pseudobranchise. Throughout the fresh-
waters of India (Sind ?) and Burma, attaining1 6 inches in length.

26. Nandus marginatus, Jerdon. CIMlchi, Mai. B. vi. T>. \\, A.
L. 1. 25, L. tr. £. Pseudobrancliise present. Western Ghats, at-

8 -

taining 4 inches in length

Genus — CatOPRA, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals six : psendobranchice absent. Eyes lateral. Month
protractile. Opercle with two fiat spines : pre-opercle and pre-orbital ser-
rated. Teeth villiform on jaws, vomer, palatines and the tongue. A single
dorsal fin, the sphious portion being of slightly less extent than the soft :
anal with three spines. Scales ctenoid, of rather a large size. Lateral
line interrupted. Pyloric appendages two.

27. Calopra nandloides, Bleeker. B. vi. D. — 1^_ . A.f, L. 1. 27

1 ' 15-16, a' f

L. tr. % Caec. Pyl. 2. Greenish. Burmese rivers and ponds, to 8 inches

in length.

o

Family — Labyrinthici, Cuv.

Jnabantida, pt.; Richardson; Spirobranchida, pt., Swainson; Osphro-
menoldei, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from four to six : pseudobranchise rudimentary or absent. Gills four.
Body compressed, oblong, or elevated. Eyes lateral. Gill-openings rather narrow ;
the membranes united below the isthmus. Above the third or upper portion of
the first branchial arch, exists a cavity in which is contained an elaborate apparatus
consisting of thin laminae of bone covered by a vascular mucous membrane,
and which is emploj'ed for respiratory purposes. Number of dorsal and anal
spines variable : ventrals thoracic. Scales ctenoid and of modeiate size. Lateral
line interrupted or absent. Air-vessel present or absent. Pyloric appendages few
or absent.

Genus — Anabas, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchiai absent. Branchial arches with
toothed tubercles. Mouth rather small. Opercles and pre-orbital serrated.
Teeth villiform injaios, and on the anterior and posterior extremity of the
vomer ; none on the palatines. Dorsal fin single, the spinous portion of greater
extent than the soft: anal spines numerous, less than those of the dorsal.
Scales rather large, ctenoid. Lateral line interrupted. Air-vessel bifid pos-
teriorly, with either extremity produced. Pyloric appendages few or absent.

28. Anabas scandens, Dald. Climbing perch of Europeans. Uudee-
collee, Mai. : Pauni-eyri, Tamil : Col, Bengallee and Ooriah : Nga-byays-

ma, Burm. : Kavaya or kaivhy-ya, Singalese. B. vi. D. -grnj, A.

^_Yi, L. 1. 2S-32, L. tr. 5/9-10. Estuaries and fresh-waters of India and

cclvi

Burma, Imt most numerous in situations but little removed from tidal in-
fluence. Attains to 8 inches in length.

Genus — Polyacanthus, Cuv. and Val.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchice glandular or absent. Body
oblong, compressed. Mouth small and hit little protractile. Opercles spine-
less. Teeth small and fixed in the jaws ; palate edentulous. Dorsal fin
single, the spinous portion of much greater extent than the soft : the anal of
a similar character: ventral with one spine and five well developed rays, some
of which are usually elongate. Scales rather large, ctenoid. Lateral line
interrupted, partially or even entirely absent. Air-vessel simple. Pyloric
appendages few.

29. Polyacanthus cupanus, Cuv. and Val. Punnum, Tarn. B. vi.

14-16 16—19 4

D. -5—7, A. Wn, L. 1. 29-32, L. tr. fig. Greenish, fins barred, with a dark
spot at the base of the caudal, and the prolonged ventral ray scarlet.
Found in ditches, irrigated fields, and shallow fresh and brackish waters,
but slightly above tidal influence, both on the Coromandel and Malabar
sides of the Madras Presidency. It rarely exceeds 3 iuches in length.

Genus — Osphromenvs, Gomm.

Trichopus, Laeep.

Branchiostegals six. Body moderately elevated, compressed. Opercle
spineless : opercular pieces finely serrated in the immature. Mouth small,
protractile. Teeth in jaws fine and fixed ; palate edentulous. A single
dorsal fin, its spinous portion sometimes in excess, but usually less in ex-
tent than its soft part : anal spines in varying numbers. Outer ventral ray
long, filiform ; the remainder mostly rudimentary. Scales of moderate size,
ctenoid. Lateral line interrupted or absent. Air-vessel present. Pyloric
appendages two.

30. Osphromenus nobilis, McClell. D. U A. ^s, L. 1. 28-30.
Lateral line absent Two white bands along the sides, and a third
along the base of the anal fin. A small fish, found in the north and
north-east portions of Bengal.

Genus — Tuichogaster, Bl. Sclin.

Trichopodus, Ham. Buch. ; Colisa, Cuv. and Val.
Branchiostegals five. Branchial arches with toothed tubercles. Oper-
cle spineless : pre-opercle serrated, as is also usually thepre-orbital. Mouth
small and but little protractile. Teeth small, fixed, in the jaws; palate
edentulous. A single dorsal fin, the spinous of much greater extent than
the soft: anal spines similar, but the rayed portion more developed : ventral
fin consisting of one long filiform ray. Scales of moderate size, ctenoid.
Air-vessel bifid posteriorly, the two ends being prolonged. Pyloric appendages
few.

31. Trichogaster fasciatus,^>\. Schn. Kun-gee, Panj.: Pich-ru, Sind :
Kussuan and Coilia, Ooriah : Ponundi, Tel. : JVga-pin-lhick-kouk and Nqa-

phyin-thaleb, Burm. B. vi. D. -552, A. 13ZT7, L. 1. 30-31. Greenish, banded,
and some of the fins red-spotted. This little fish extends throughout

cclvii

the course of large rivers in India and Burma, except Southern and
Western Madras.

32. Trichog aster lalius, Ham. Buch. Knng-gee, Panj. B. vi. D. '£,
A. 1$. Banded, owing- to every scale being- half light-blue and half
scarlet ; fins spotted with red. Panjab and Lower Bengal, in the Jumna
and Ganges.

33. Trichogasfer chuna, Ham. Buch. B. vi. D. !f, A. {&. Caudal
fin slightly emarginate. A broad black lateral band. A small species
found near Calcutta.

Family — Ophiocephalid.e, Bleeher.

Labyrinthici, pt., Cuv.

Branchiostegala five:_ pseudobranchiae absent. Gills four. Body elongated, sub-
cylindrical anteriorly, head depressed, and superiorly covered by shield-like
scales. Eyes lateral. Gill-openings wide, the membranes of the two sides being
connected beneath the isthmus. A cavity exists, which is above and accessory
to the true gill-cavity for the purpose of retaining or receiving air, a super-
branchial organ is not developed, but some thin bony lamina are present. Villi-
form teeth on jaws, vomer, and palate, sometimes with conical ones intermingled.
One long spineless dorsal, and a similarly constructed, though shorter, anal.
Ventrals thoracic (Ophiocephalus) or absent (Channel) ; when present consisting
of six rays, the outer of which is unbranched and articulated at its extremity.
Scales of large, moderate, or small size. Lateral line abruptly curved or almost
interrupted. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages few.

Genus — Ophiocephalus, Block.

As defined in the family. Ventral fins present. Pyloric appendages
two.

34' Ophiocephalus marulius, Ham. Buch. Kub-rah, Sawl, and Bowlah,
Panj. : Choaree verarl and Gooravoo, Mai. : Phool-verarl, Tam. : Phool-
murl, Hind. : lloovina-murl, Can. : Poola chapa, Tel. : Nga-yan-dyne, Burm.
B. v. D. 49-55, A. 33-36, L. 1. 59-64. Orange, with vertical bands and
white spots. Found throughout the fresh-waters, especially the larger
rivers of India and Burma, attaining as much as 4 feet in length.

35. Ophiocephalus barca, Ham. Buch. Bora and Burr a chang,
Butan. B. v. D. 50-52, A. 35-36, L. 1. 62. Dark violet, dotted all
over with black. Calcutta, North-Eastern Bengal, and Butan, attaining
3 feet in length.

36. Ophiocephalus diplogramme, Day. Kuch-hi, Mai. and Canarese.
D. 43, A. 27, L. 1. 112. Two horizontal black lateral bands. Western
Coast of India, attaining a foot and a half in length.

37. Ophiocephalus striatus, Lacep. Chota Sawl and Carrodah, Panj. :
Char-Jcoor, Sind : Murl and Morrul, Hind. : Verarl and Wrahl, Mai. :
Verarlu and Curroopoo verarl, Tamil : Sowarah, Tel. : Sola, Ooriah :
Koochinda murl, Can. : Lolla, Sing. : flga-yan or Nga-yan-pa-nan, Burm.
B. v. D. 37-43, A 22-26, L. 1. 51-57. Grey above, whitish beneath,
striated with black. Found throughout the fresh, preferring the stagnant,
waters of the plains of India and Burma, attaining 3 feet or more
in length.

38. Ophiocephalus Slewartii, Playfair. Brownish black above,lighter
below, some black spots on the body. B. v. D. 39-40, A. 27, L. 1. 50.
Assam, attaining at least 10 inches in length.

r

cclviii

39. Ophiocephalus gachtia, Ham. Buch. Ckub-bn, Bow-lah, and
Do-ah-ra, Panj. : Bheri clhok, Hind. : Koravu, Mai. : Para korava, Tarn. :
Mar korava, Can. : Chenga or Cliayung, Ooriah : Nga-yan-goun-do/t,
Burm. : Chad-dah, Andamanese. B. v. D. 32-34, A. 21-23, L. 1. 40-45.
Greenish, pectoral barred, the other fins with orange edgings. Found
throughout the fresh-waters of India, Burma, and the Andamans, attain-
ing a foot in length.

40. Ophiocephalus punctatus, Bloch. Gra-e,Doivlah, or I) ul-loun-ga,
Panj. : Bhug-gu or Muk-koor, Sind': Gur-hi-e, N. W. Prov. : Phool
Dhok, Hind. : Korava, Tarn, and Can. : Gorissa, Ooriah : Nga-yan-
thin-ohn, Burm. B. v. D. 29-32, A. 21, L. 1. 40. Dirty green, banded
and sometimes with numerous black dots over the body. All fresh-waters
of India and Burma, attaining a foot in length.

Fa m ily — R hynchobdelliD2e, Bleeker.
Scomberoidei, pt., Cuv. & Val. : 3Iastacembelida, Giinther.

Branchiostegals six : pseudobranchise absent. Gill-opening a slit on side of head :
gills four. Body elongated, eel-shaped. Humeral arch not suspended from the
skull. Lower jaw long, but without much power of motion. A single long
dorsal fin, its anterior portion consisting of free spines : anal with three spines
anterior to it : soft dorsal and anal of similar extent : ventral fins absent. Air-
vessel present. Pyloric appendages two.

Genus — Bhynchobdella, Bl. Schn.

Mastacemblus, Gronov.

Branchiostegals six. Cleft of mouth narrow : a long and fleshy
snout, ivferiorly concave and transversely stiiated. Minute teeth on jaws
and vomer. Dorsal and anal not continuous with the caudal fin. Scales
small, cycloid. Lateral line present. Air-vessel elongated.

41. Bhynchobdella aculeata, Bloch. Aral, Tarn. : Bommiday, Tel. :
Grifti Ooriah : ftga-maivay-doh-naga, Burm. D. 16-20/48-54, A.
3/44-52. Brownish marbled; a row of from 3 to 9 black ocelli, having
buff edges, along the base of the soft dorsal. Throughout the deltas
of large Indian and Burmese rivers, but appears to be absent from the
northern portions of the Panjab and the Malabar Coast. It attains
about 12 inches in length.

»•

Genus — Mastacemblus, Gronov.

Branchiostegals six. Cleft of mouth narroto : a long and fleshy
appendage to the snout, which, is not transversely striated inferiorly :
pre-opercle generally with spinous teeth at its angle. Teeth in jaws minute.
Dorsal and anal fins distinct from, or confluent with, the caudal. Scales
small, cycloid. Lateral line present. Air-vessel elongated.

42. Mastacemblus Aleppensis, Bl. Schn. D. 32-35/80, A. 3/80.
Bootan, said to attain 18 inches in length.

43. Mastacemblus zebrinus, Blyth. N ga-maway-doh-wettoung , Burm.
J). 29/52, A. 3/56. Yellow with vertical black bands. Found through-
out Burma.

44- Mastacemblus nnicolor, Cuv. and Val. D. 33-34/80-84,
A. 3/75-81. Found in the upper portions of the Irrawaddi.

45. Mastacemblus pancalus, Ham. Buch. Chen-da-la, Gurchee,
and Gro-age, Panj.: Ju-gar, N. W. Prov.: Par-pa-raal, Tel.: Turi

cclix

and Bak-ru, Ooviah. D. 24-26/80-40, A. 3/31-44. Throughout India,
attaining 6 inches in length.

46. Mastacemblus avmalus, Lacep. Bahn and Gro-age, Panj. and
Sind : Shaa-ta-rah, Tarn. : Mudi-bom-mi-day , Tel. : Bahm and Bummi,
Ooriah and Beng. : Nga-maway-doh-aga, Burin. D. 35-39/74-87,
A. 3/79-87. Marbled and striped, sometimes with round spots. Found
throughout India and Burma, even on the Himalayas, attaining 2
feet and upwards in length.

47. Mastacemblns Guentheri, Day. D. 27-28/60-64, A. 3/62-64.
Horizontal limb of pre-opercle serrated. Marbled. Malabar, attaining
about seven inches in length.

Fa mill/ — C ii r o m i d e s, Midler.

Brancliiostegals five or six : pseudobranchise absent. Gills four. Body oblong or
elevated. Teeth in jaws small, none on the palate : inferior pharyngeal bones
triangular, having a median suture. Dorsal tin single, the spinous portion
usually of greater extent than the soft : anal with three or more spines, its rayed
part similar to that of the dorsal. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
Scales generally ctenoid. Lateral line more or less interrupted. Air-vessel
present. Pyloric appendages, when present, in small numbers.

Genus — Etroplus, Guv. 8f Vol.

Brancliiostegals six. Body elevated and compressed. Eyes lateral.
Cleft of mouth short. Teeth in two roivs in the jaws, compressed and
lobate. A single dorsal, the spinous portion being of greater extent than
the rayed : anal spines more numerous or of about, equal extent to the rays.
Scales ctenoid and of moderate size. Lateral line interrupted, or abruptly
ceasing. Air-vessel present. Pyloric appendages absent.

48. Etroplus Suratensis, Bl. Karssar, Tarn. : Pitul-has, Hind. :
Cashi-mara, Tel.: Cun-dah-la, Ooriah. D. gg, A. gig, L. 1. 45,

L. tr. 21. Green or purple, with eight vertical bands. Malabar and
Coromandel Coast, attaining a foot in length.

40. Etroplus maculat/is,B\. Pnl-lut-tay,~Ma\. D. jfT, A. '/, L. 1.
35, L. tr. 21. Canary yellow, with seventeen horizontal rows of golden
spots, and three dark blotches along the middle of the side. Found
throughout Madras and Malabar, attaining about three inches in length.

Order— A NA CA NTHInL

All the rays of the vertical and ventral fins articulated, the latter, when
present, being jugular and thoracic. Air-vessel, if existing, not hav-
ing a pneumatic duct.

Sub- Order— A NA CA NTHINI-PLE URONECTOIDEI,
Structure of head, uu symmetrical on the two sides.

Family — P leukonectiD-E, Flem.
Heterosomata, Bonaparte.

Pseudobranehiae well developed. Gills four. Bod}r strongly compressed, flattened, with
one of its sides coloured, the other being more rarely spotted. Both eyes (except
in the very young) placed on the superior or coloured surface. The two sides of
the head not equally developed, one continuing almost rudimentary. A single
long dorsal and anal fin. Air-vessel absent.

cclx

Genus — Synaptuea, Can lor.

Achiroides, Bleeker: JEsopia, Etiryglossa, and Eury pleura, Kaup.

Branchiostegah six. Eyes on the right * side, the upper in advance
of the lower. Cleft of mouth narrow, twisted round to the left side. Minute
teeth only on the left side : palate edentulous. One of the nostrils on the blind
side dilated in some species, not so in others, whilst amongst the latter both
pectorals may be present, the right being somewhat the longer. Some have the
nasal tube small or simple (Synaptura), or bifid (Euryglossa). Secondly,
the left pectoral may be longer than the right ( Anisochirus) . Thirdly, the
Left pectoral may be rudimentary (JEsopia). Eourthly, both pectorals
■ma y be absent (Achiroides) . The vertical fins are confluent. Scales small
and ctenoid. Lateral line straight.

50. Synaplura pan, Ham. Buch. Nga-la-chan, Burm. D. 59, A.
45, L. 1. 75. This species of sole is found in the Ganges and Burmese
rivers hig-h above tidal influence.

'&>■

Order— PHY SOSTOMI, Miiller.

All the fin rays articulated, except the first in the dorsal and pectoral,
which are frequently more or less ossified. Ventral fins, when pre-
sent, abdominal and spineless. Air-vessel, if existing, having a
pneumatic duct.

Family — Silurid^.

Margin of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries ; the maxilla rudimentary
often constituting the base of a barbel : no sub-opercle. The rayed or adipose
dorsal fins may be present or absent. Skin scaleless, and either smooth or covered
with osseous plates. Air-vessel, when present, either free in the abdominal cavity,
(Silurince) or more or less enclosed in bone (Amblyeepince) ; it communicates with
the organs of hearing by means of the auditory bones.

Sub-Family — Si luring.
Air-vessel not enclosed in bone.

Genus — Aktsis, Bleeker.

Body rather elongated: dorsal profile nearly horizontal: neck not ele-
vated. Head depressed, covered superiorly with soft skin. Eyes small, sub-
cutaneous, Mouth terminal, transverse : jaws of unequal length. Nostrils
somewhat remote from one another. Gill-openings wide. Barbels eight,
their bases slightly dilated. Filiform teeth in the jaws : none on the
palate. First dorsal fin having a spine enveloped in skin, and five or six
rays : adipose dorsal low : pectoral horizontal, with a spine enclosed in
shin : ventral with six rays, entirely behind the dorsal: caudal forked : anal
if moderate length (9-11 rays). Air-vessel not enclosed in bone. Skin
smooth or tubercular.

51. Akysis Kurzii, Day. D. £/0, A. 11. Brown. Pegu hills, only
attaining a small size.

* Note.— The terms right or dextral, and left or sinistral, are thus employed in these flat fishes.
The, specimen is .placed with its tail towards the observer, the dorsal fin upwards, the anal downwards,
and the coloured side is the one referred to.

cclxi

Genus — Eretristes Mull, fy Trosch.

Hara, Blyth.

Head someivhat depressed, osseous superiorly. Gill -openings narrow,
the membrane being confluent with the skin of the isthmus. Mouth small,
terminal. Barbels eight, the maxillary ones with broad bases. Villiform
teeth in the jaws, and in a band on the palate. First dorsal fin arising
anterior to the ventrals, having an osseous serrated spine, and five or six
branched rays : adipose dorsal of moderate extent : ventral with six rays ;
anal of moderate length (10 rays) : caudal forked. Air-vessel not enclosed
in bone.

52. Erethistes hara, Ham. Bucli. Nga-kyouk-yia, Burm. D. ^/0,
A. 10. Brown banded. In the large rivers of Orissa, Bengal, Assam,
and Burma, attaining 2^ inches in length.

53. Erethistes conta, Ham. Buch. Nga-thit-lo and Nga-kouk-thwa,
Burm. D. ^/0, A. 10. Lower Bengal and Burma, attaining 4 inches
in length.

54- Erethistes Jerdoni, Day. D. £/0, A. 10. Another small
species from Sylhet.

55. Erethistes elongata, Day. D. i/0, A. 10. From the Naga
Hills.

G en us — Ma cr ones. Du merit.

Bagrus, pt., Cuv. & Val. : Hypselobagrus, Hemibagrus, Pseudobagrus,
and Aspidobagrus, Bleeker : Batasio, Blyth.

Branchioslegals from about six to twelve. Eyes with free circular
margins. A separate inter-nettral shield on the nape (Macrones), or no
such shield (Hemibagrus) . 31otilh terminal, transverse : iijjper jaio generally
the longer. Barbels eight, one nasal, one maxillary, and Uvo mandibu-
lar pairs. Villiform teeth in the jatvs, and in a more or less uninterrupted
curved band on the palate. First dorsal fin with one sptine, and from jive
to seven rays : adipose dorsal of varying length : pectoral spine
serrated: anal short or of moderate length : ventral with six rays : caudal
forked. Air-vessel of moderate or large size, attached to the under
surface of the bodies of the anterior vertebra.

a. With a separate inter-neural shield on the nape.

56. Macrones aor, Ham. Buch. Seng-ga-la and Sang-go-ah, Panj. :
Sing-ha-ree, Sind and N. W. Provinces : Cumboo kelletlee, Tarn. : Mtiti
jella, Tel.: Alii or Addi, Ooriah : Nga-joung, Burm. D. -i/0, A. 13.
Maxillary barbels extend to the end of the caudal fin. Adipose dorsal
with a black spot at its posterior extremity. This large cat-fish is
found throughout the plains of India and Burma, attaining several feet
in length.

57. Macrones Lamarri, Cuv. and Yal. Teng-ga-ra, Panj. D. f/0,
A. 12. Maxillary barbels extend to the end of the first dorsal fin. A
black spot at the posterior end of the adipose dorsal. Found in the upper
portions of the Ganges and Jumna, attaining several feet in length.

58. Macrones affinis,J5\yth. D. -I/O, A. 12. Maxillary barbels do
not pass the eye. Body with cross bands. A small species from the
Tenasserim Provinces.

cclxii

b. No separate inter-neural shield on the nape.

59. Macrones chri/sens, Day. Mavjil yete, Mai. : Pila hulurnee,
Hind. D. j/0, A. 27. Barbels scarcely longer than the head. This and
the following species have no separate inter-neural shield on the nape.
Body golden, a black blotch behind the opercles. Western Coast of
India, attaining upwards of a foot in length.

60. Macrones batasio, Ham. Buch. D. A/0, A. 16. Barbels
shorter than the head; diaphanous. River Tista, attaining three inches
in length.

61. Macrones gullo, Ham. Buch. Nuna iengara, Beng. D. }/0,
A. 14. Maxillary barbels reach anal fin : adipose dorsal short. Brown-
ish. Mouths of large Indian and Burmese rivers, ascending above tidal
reach, attaining eight inches in length.

62. Macrones tengana, Ham. Buch. Dum-sah, Panj. D. |/0,
A. 14. Maxillary barbels reach to middle or end of pectoral : adipose
dorsal short. Golden with longitudinal stripes. Assam and Panjab, up
to 3 inches in length.

63. Macrones carcio, Ham. Buch. Ka-gur and Kut-taJi-rah, N. W.
Provinces : Ten-ga-ra, Beng. : Kel-lel-tee, Tarn. : Sakujdla, Tel. : Bi-
hin-li-a, Ooriah : Nga-zin-yine, Burm. D. |/0, A. 12-14. Maxillary
barbels reach the caudal fin. Dorsal spine serrated on both sides : adi-
pose fin short. Banded and having a shoulder mark. India, Ceylon,
and Burma, to a few inches in length.

64- Macrones corsula, Ham. Buch. Punjah-guggah, Ooriah : Nga-ilce,
Burm. D. j/0, A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach anal fin : adipose dorsal
of moderate length. Brownish, with vertical rows of fine spots. Orissa,
Lower Bengal, and Burma, attaining a foot or more in length.

65. Macrones pnnctatus, Jerdon. Psetta kelletee, Tarn. D. j/0,
A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach the base of the ventral fins : adipose
dorsal of moderate length. About ten round, black spots along the
lateral line. Bowany River in Madras, attaining 18 inches in length.

66. Macrones cavasius, Ham. Bnch. Cut-taak kug-ger, Panj.: Vella
hellettee and Cutta, Tam. : Muti jella, Tel. : Guniea, Ooriah : Nga-zin-
zine, Burm. D. j/0, A. 11. Maxillary barbels reach the base of the
caudal fin. Dorsal spine entire : adipose fin long. Silvery. India and
Burma, to upwards of a foot in length.

67. Macrones nangra, Ham. Buch. D. -I/O, A. 10-11. Maxillary
barbels reach the vent. Dorsal spine entire : adipose fin short. Mud
coloured, with three vertical greenish bands. Ganges and Jumna, to
about 2 inches in length.

68. Macrones (?) botius, Ham. Buch. D. £/0, A. 11. Barbels
shorter than the head. Dorsal spine entire. Brown. Northern Bengal,
to 6 inches in length.

69. Macrones leucophasis, Blyth. D. j/0, A. 11. Maxillary barbels
reach the end of anal fin. Dorsal spine posteriorly serrated : adipose fin
prolonged. Black, with some white spots. Burma.

70. Macrones vittatus, Bloch. D. j/0, A. 8-10. Maxillary barbels
reach the middle of the ventral fin : dorsal spine serrated on both sides.
Malabar and Coromandel Coast.

cclxiii

71. Macrones Malabaricus. D. i/0, A. 10. Maxillary barbels reach
the middle of the ventral fin : dorsal spine short and entire : pectoral
serrated on both sides. A round black shoulder mark. Malabar.

72. Macrones oculatus, Cuv. andVal. Cuaree^laX. D. |/0, A. 11.
Eye large. Maxillary barbels reach the caudal fin. Occipital process
extends to the base of the dorsal fin. Dorsal spine serrated on both sides :
adipose fin short. Uniform, with two indistinct, lateral, longitudinal
bands. Southern India and Malabar.

73. Macrones lengara, Ham. Buch. D. i/0, A. 10. Ting-ga-rah and
Karaal, Panj. : Mulleer and Kug-ger, Sind. Maxillary barbels reach the
caudal. Dorsal spine entire : adipose fin long". Longitudinal bands and
a dark shoulder mark. Upper portions of Jumna and Ganges, Panjab
and Sind, to 6 inches in length.

7 If. Macrones keleilus, Bleeker. D. i/0, A. 9. Maxillary barbels
reach the base of anal fin. Dorsal spine entire : adipose fin short. Greyish,
with two light longitudinal bands. Jumna and Granges, also Panjab, not
attaining a large size.

75. Macrones (?) cavia, Ham. Buch. Kanya teng-gara, Hind.
D. I/O, A. 9. Maxillary barbels as long as the head. Dorsal spine
entire : adipose fin short. Brownish, with two transverse bands across
the tail. Northern Bengal, attaining 6 inches in length.

Genus — Rita, Bleeker.
Gognus, Day.

Branchi ostegals eight. Eyelids without free circular margins. Mouth
transverse : upper jaw the longer. Nostrils on either sule contiguous, but
the pah on one side 10'idely separated from that on the other. Barbels
six, a minute pah at the posterior nostrils, a maxillary and one mandibular
pah. Granular or molar-form teeth on the palate. Rayed dorsal fin,
with one spine and six rays : the adipose and the anal of moderate lengths :
ventral with six or eight rays : caudal forked. Ah-vessel large, not
enclosed in bone, whilst it may possess posterior elongations.

76. Rita ritoides, Cuv. & Val. D. ^-/O, A. 12. Humeral process
about as long as the head. Air-vessel with posterior horn-like prolong-
ations. Gangetic Provinces, Panjab, Sind and Burma, attaining a
foot in length.

77. Rita pavimeniata, Val. D. £/0, A. 12. Humeral process
about half as long as the head. Deccan and Bombay.

78. Rita kuturnee, Sykes. D. ^/0, A. 12. Humeral process two-
thirds as long as the head. Air-vessel without posterior prolongations.
Deccan.

79. Rita {?) rama, Ham. Buch. D. £/0, A. 15. Assam.

Genus — AriuS, Cuv. 8c Val.

Sciades, sp., et Anodes, Mull. & Trosch. : Hexanematichthys,
Guitinga, Hemiarius, Cephalocassis, JSetuma, et Pseudarius, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from five to six. Head osseous superiorly or covered
with very thin skin. Byes with free orbital margins. Mouth anterior :
upper jaw generally the longer. Anterior and posterior nostrils placed
close together, the latter being provided with a valve. Barbels six, one
maxillary and two mandibular pahs. Teeth in the jaws villiform, always

cclxiv

palatine, and sometimes vomerine ones, these may he villi form or granular.
First dorsal with one spine and seven rays : the adipose of moderate
length or short : pectoral spine strong and serrated : ventral tviih six rays,
situated behind the vertical from the posterior margin of the first dorsal
-fin: caudal forked or emarginate. Air-vessel not enclosed in bone.

80. Arius gagora, Ham. Buch. Nga-youn and Nga-yeh, Burm.
D. |/0, A. 18-19. Teeth, palatine, molar form. Silvery. Seas of India
and Burma, ascending large rivers above tidal influence, and attaining
about a foot in length.

81. Arius Burmanicus, Day. ISlga-young, Burm. D. y/0, A. 20-22,
Maxillary barbels reach the base of the pectoral fin. Teeth in palate
villiform, in two widely set patches. Colours purplish above, silvery
below. Rivers of Burma.

82 m Arius sona, Ham. Buch. D. j/0, A. 16-17. Maxillary barbels
roach the end of the head. Teeth in palate villiform, in two triangular
patches, almost confluent with the vomerine ones. Brownish, becoming
white below. Ascends large Indian and Burmese rivers, often above tidal
influence.

Genus — Pangasitts, Cuv. 8f Val.

Pseudopangasius, pt., Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from about six to tioelve. Gill-membranes over-lap

the isthmus, but are more or less separate from it. Eyes with free orbital

margins. Upper jaw the longer. Anterior nostrils patent and situated

in front of snout. Barbels four, slender, one maxillary , and at some

distance behind the symphysis, one mandibular pair. Teeth villif&rm in the

jaws, intermixed with conical ones : they are also present in the vomer and

palate, the continuity of these tioo last being usually interrupted. A short

first dorsal, with a spine and seven rays situated anterior to the ventrals :

adipose fin short: anal long, not confluent with the caudal, which latter is

forked: ventrals with six rays. Air-vessel (in P. Buchanani) thick,

elongated, extending from the anterior vertebra to opposite the posterior

end of the anal fin, it has a slight contraction between its anterior and

posterior two-thirds.

83. Pangasius Buchanani, Cuv. and Val. Jellum, Ooriah. D. |/0,
A. 31-34. Large rivers and estuaries of India and Burma, attaining
four feet or more in length.

Genus — Pseudeutropius, Bleeker.

Schilbeichihys, Bleelcer.

Branchiostegals from six to ten. Body elongated and compressed.
Abdominal profile more convex than that of the back. Eyes large, generally
having broad adipose lids, situated behind and slightly beloiv the angle of
the mouth, often partly on the loicer surface of the head. Head covered
with soft skin. Mouth anterior ; npperjaw generally the longer. Nostrils
patent, transverse, the posterior being nearer to one another than they are
to the anterior ones. Barbels eight, one pair at the posterior nostrils, one
maxillary, and two mandibular pairs, these last arising on a transverse line
close to the hind margin of the loicer lip. Teeth villiform in the jaics,

cclxv

vomer, and palate. Dorsal fin short, with one spine, and six or seven rays ;
a very small adipose dorsal, which may be absorbed in the adult (Schilbcich-
thys) : pectoral with a serrated spine; anal long, terminating at some distance
from a forked caudal : ventral with six, or it may have eight rays. Air-
vessel heart-shaped, and closely attached to the anterior vertebra.

84. P seudeutropius atherinoides, Bl. Put-tul and Chel-lee, Van}. :
Ah-hee, Sind. : Put-tah-re, N. W. Prov. : AJcJcu jella, Tel. : Batfuli

and Bo-potassi, Ooriah. D. g^/O, A. 36-42. Maxillary barbels reach base of
anal fin. Three or four longitudinal lateral bands. Throughout the
fresh-waters of the plains of India .and Burma,, attaining- about four
inches in length.

85. Pseudentropius goongwaree, Sykes. Nga-myenohe-hpa, Burm.
D. £/0, A. 43-54. Maxillary barbels reach anal fin. Silvery. Deccan,
Bengal and Burma, attaining 10 inches in length.

86. P seudeutropius taalcree, Sykes. Salava jella, Tel.: Nga-zin-sap

and Nga-myin, Burm. D. &r7/0, A. 51. Maxillary barbels reach the anal
fin. Silvery. Deccan and the Kistna River, also Orissa and Burma,
attaining a foot in length.

87. P seudeutropius acntirostris, Day. D. ±/0, A. 46. The maxillary
barbels reach the anal fin. Silvery ; a black spot on occiput, and a black
base to the dorsal fin. Rivers of Burma, mostly in their lower portions.
It attains four inches in length.

88. P seudeutropius murius, Ham. Buch. Ke-raad, Panj. : Motusi,
Beng. : Butchua, Hind.: Muri-vacha, Ooriah. D. %/0, A. 39-43.
Maxillary barbels reach the base of the anal fin. Silvery. Pan/jab, Gan-
getic Provinces, and Orissa, attaining eight inches or more in length.

89. Pseudentropius Sykesii, Jerdon. Nah lellettee, Tarn. D. £/0,
A. 35-37. Southern Madras and Malabar, to six inches or more in
length.

90. P seudeutropius garua, Ham. Buch. Punia buchua, Ooriah:
Pultosi, Beng. : Buchua, Beng\ : Bhon-ga-nu, Sind. : Buchua, Chel-lee
and Ka-raad, Panj. D. |, A. 29-36. Maxillary barbels reach the ventral
fin. Adipose dorsal fin becomes absorbed in the adult. Silvery. Larger
rivers of India, except Southern Madras, Malabar and Burma, attaining
a foot or more in length.

Genus — Callicrrous, Ram. Buch.

Kryptojtlerus, Kryptopterichthys, Micronema, Phalaerouotus, Hemisilurus,
Silurodes, Pseudosilurus and Silurich/hys, Bleeker : Pterocryptis, pt., Peters.
Gill-membranes overlap the isthmus, but are more or less separated
from it. Head covered with shin. Byes behind and slightly below the
cleft of the mouth, lateral, or sometimes partly on the inferior surface of
the head; lids without free orbital margins. Cleft of mouth oblique; lower
jaw the longer. Nostrils remote from one another. Barbels four or two, one
maxillary, and some distance behind the symphysis, one mandibular pair,
the latter may be rudimentary or absent. Teeth villiform in the jaws in an
■uninterrupted band f Silurodes, Bleeker) or interrupted one (Callichrous,
Bleeker) on the vomer, none on the palatines. B or sal fin spineless, short,
rudimentary , or absent ; when present, anterior to the ventrals ; no adipose fin :

cclxvi

pectoral with a serrated or entire spine (sometimes apparent I// due to se.vj ;
anal long continuous with or terminating close to the caudal, the latter
forked or emarginate : ventrals with ten or less rays. Air-vessel in the
abdominal cavity not enclosed in bone.

a. Vomerine teeth in an uninterrupted band.

91. Gtlfichrous Gangeticus, Peters. D. 2, A. 75. Four barbels, the
maxillary hardly reach the anal. Vomerine teeth in this species in an
uninterrupted band. Anal confluent with caudal. Stated to have been
obtained from the Ganges.

b. Vomerine teeth in an interrupted band.

92. Callichrous macrophthalmus, Blyth. Nga-noo-than and Nga-
myin-boulc, Burrn. D. 4, A. 74-76. Eyes, diameter ^rd of length of head.
Four barbels, the maxillary reaching to the middle of the length of the
fish. Vomerine teeth in this, and all the succeeding species, in an
interrupted band. Anal not confluent with the caudal ; pectoral spine
strongly serrated internally in its last half. A round black blotch above
the posterior third of the pectoral fin. Irrawaddi and all its branches.

93. Callichrous pabo, Ham. Buch. D. 5, A. 73. Four barbels,
the maxillary scarcely reaching beyond the eye. Anal not confluent
with the caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally. Assam.

94- Callichrous checkra, Ham. Buch. Dirn-mon, Sind : Chelah-
wahlah, Tarn. : Pob-tah, Ooriah. D. 4, A. 73. Four barbels, the maxillary
reaching the end of the pectoral spine. Anal not confluent with the
caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally. Sind, Bombay Presidency,
Central Provinces, Mysore, and portions of Madras and Bengal.

95. Callichrous nigrescens, Day. D. 5, A. 66-71. Four barbels,
the maxillary reach the posterior edge of the orbit. Anal not conflu-
ent with the caudal ; pectoral spine entire. Finely dotted with black
points. Rivers of Burma.

96. Callichrous notatus, Day. D. 4, A. 65-73. Four barbels, the
maxillary reach to the middle of the length of the fish. Anal not
confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine serrated internally near its end.
A round black spot above the middle of the pectoral fin. Burmese
rivers, to four inches in length.

97. Callichrous bimacidatus, Bl. Pob-tah, Puf-ta, Goong-wah,
and Pallu, Panj. : Goong-wah-ree and Puf-ta, N. W. Prov.
D. 4, A. 57-66. Four barbels, the maxillary reach the middle of the
fish. Anal not confluent with the caudal; pectoral spine internally
denticulated near its end. A round black spot above the middle of the
pectoral fin. Throughout India and Burma.

98. Callichrous lalovittutuSj'Playfaiv. D. 4, A. 56-58. Four barbels
(stated erroneously only to have two), the maxillary reaching to the end
of the pectoral fin. Anal not confluent with the caudal ; pectoral spine
strongly denticulated internally. Cachar, to 4^ inches in length.

99. Callichrous pabda, Ham. Buch. D. 4, A. 54. Four barbels,
the maxillary reaching to the second third of the anal fin. Anal not
confluent with the caudal ; pectoral spine smooth. A black blotch
behind the gill-opening. Ganges.

cclxvii

100. Gallic /irons Egertonii, Day. Pul-wu-ah and Pallu, Panj. :
Pah-ba-noon, Sind. D. 4, A. 52-54. Four barbels, the maxillary
extend slightly beyond the base of the pectoral fin. Anal not con-
fluent with the caudal ; pectoral spine denticulated internally. Nu-
merous brownish blotches cover the body, and a large black one exists
over the posterior half of the pectoral fin. Panjab and Sind.

101. Callichrous anastomus, Cuv. and Val. D. 4, A. 52-54. Four
barbels, the maxillary reach the anal fin. Anal not confluent with the
caudal ; pectoral spine serrated internally. A round black spot behind
the gill-opening-. Hooghly.

Gen us — Walla g 0, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from fifteen to twenty-one. Body elongated and
compressed, the dorsal profile straight. Eyes above the level of the angle
of the mouth. Read covered with shin. Cleft of mouth deep. Snout
rather produced : lower jaw slightly the longer. Barbels four, one
maxillary and one mandibular pair. Teeth numerous and cardiform in
both jaws, and in an oblique patch on either side of the vomer : none on
the palatines. A short, spineless dorsal, situated above, or slightly before,
the ventrals : no adipose fin : anal long, terminating near the caudal,
which last consists of two ronnded lobes : ventrals with from eight to
eleven rays. Air-vessel heart-shaped, not enclosed in bone.

102. Wallago altu, Bl. Bo-al-le and Mul-lee, Panj. : Po-i-kee and
Mul-lee, Sind : Vah-lah and Wah-lah, Tam. : Va-la-ga, Tel. : Bo-al-lee,
Ooriah : Nga-bat, Burm. D. 5, A. 86-93. Found throughout the Indian
Empire, attaining several feet in length ; it is esteemed as good eatin^,
but is very voracious, and not a cleanly feeder. Sometimes this fish
is termed a fresh-water shark by Europeans.

Genus — Oltra, McClelland.

Branchiosteus, Gill.

Dorsal projile nearly horizontal. Body low and elongate. Head
depressed, superiorly covered with soft skin. Gill-openings zvide. Eyes
small. Mouth terminal and transverse : jaivs of about equal length or
the lower the longer. Nostrils remote from one another. Eight barbels
one to posterior nostril. Villiform teeth in the jaws and on the palate.
First dorsal sp'meless, and having six or eight rays : adipose fin long
and low : anal of moderate extent (15 to 23 rays). Ventrals inserted
below the dorsal and having six rays. Caudal rounded or lanceolate.
Skin smooth. Air-vessel not enclosed in bone.

103. Olyra longicatidata, McClelland. D. 7/0, A. 23. Jaws of
equal length. Caudal lanceolate. Khasya Hills. This, and the followino-
of the genus, are all small fish.

104-. Olyra Burmanica, Day. D. 8/0, A. 16. Jaws of ecp;al
length. Caudal lanceolate. Pegu Hills.

105. Olyra laticeps, McClelland. D. 6/0, A. 15. Lower jaw the
longer. Caudal rounded. Khasya Hills.

Genus — Silurus. Artedi.
Dorsal profile nearly horizontal ; neck not elevated. Head covered
with skin ; eyes situated above the level of the angle of the month. Gape

cclxviii

of mouth transverse. Nostrils remote from one another. Barbels six
(Silurus, Bleeker), or four (Farasilurns, Bleeker), one pair being maxillary,
and one or two pairs mandibular. Teeth cardiform or villiform in the
jatvs, in one or two transverse bands on the vomer, none on the palatines.
One very short and spineless first dorsal fin, but no adipose one : anal
terminates close to, but is not continuous with the caudal : ventral
situated posterior to the dorsal, and consisting of eight or more rays.
Air-vessel in the abdominal cavity, not enclosed in bone.

106. Silurus Wynaadensis, Day. D. 5, A. 58-62. Six barbels.
Leaden colour. "Wynaad.

107. Silurus Cochinsinensis, Cuv. & Val. D. 4, A. 62. Dark
coloured. Darjeeling, Akyab, Tenasserim Provinces to Cochin China.

Genus — ChaCA, Cuv. fy Val.

Head very large, broad and depressed. Gill-membranes confluent,
with the skin of a broad isthmus, and the gill-opening somewhat contract-
ed; eyes minute. Gape of mouth very wide, lower jaio prominent. Barbels
six, small. Teeth villiform in both jaws, none on the palate. Two rayed
dorsal fins, the first with one spine and three or four rays, the second con-
fluent with the caudal : tioo rayed anal fins, the first with from eight
I '<> ten rays, the second longer (8 to 12) and confluent with the caudal:
ventral with six rays : air-vessel in the abdominal cavity, not enclosed
in bone.

108. Chaca lophioides, Cuv. & Val. D. i/25, A. 10/12. Some
short tentacles on head and body. Ganges. Dr. Gunther states there
is a stuffed specimen in the British Museum of this fish from Nepal,
presented by Mr. Hodgson : it is also found in Calcutta.

109. Chaca Bankanensis, Bleeker. D.^/22-24, A. 9/11-12. No

tentacles ; head and body granular. Assam and Burma.

110. Chaca Buchanani, Gunther. D. J/18, A. 8/8. Head and
body with short tentacles ; a ring of them around the eye.

Sub-Family — Amblycepin2E.
Air-vessel more or less enclosed in bone.

Genus — Clarias, Gronov.

Macropteronolus, Lacep.

Form of body elongated and compressed. Gill-membranes separated
by a deep notch ; a dendritic accessory branchial apparahis is attached to
(lie convex side of the second and fourth branchial arches, and is received
into a recess behind the place of the usual gill-cavity. Eyes small, the lids
having a free circular margin. Superior and lateral portions of the head
osseous, and covered with very thin skin. Gape of mouth moderate, an-
terior, and transverse, its cleft small. Barbels eight, one nasal, one
maxillary and two mandibular pairs. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and
a similar or granular band across the vomer. Dorsal fin spineless
and with an elongated base, extending from the neck to the caudal, with
which it may be continuous: no adipose fin : ventrals with six rays: pectoral
with a spine. Air-vessel small, transverse, entirely enclosed in a bony cavity,
formed across the body and lateral processes of the anterior vertebrae.

cclxix

111. Glarias jagur, Hani. Buch. D. 53, A. 50. Maxillary barbels
slightly longer than the head, vertical fins united. Buchanan does not
mention where this species resides, as yet I have not found it; attains 1£
feet in length.

112. Clarias magur, Ham. Buch. Kng-ga, Panj. : Ma-gnr, Beng. :
Nga-khoo, Burm. D. 64-70, A. 50-53. Maxillary barbels reach nearly
to the end of the pectoral fin; vertical fins not united; dirty brown
colour. Fresh-waters of the plains of India and Burma ; attaining 18
inches in length, and as food considered very nourishing.

Genus — Saccobbanchus, Cuv. and Val.

Heleropneusies, Muller.

Branchiostegals seven. Form of bod?/ elongated and compressed. Gill-
membranes separated by a deep notch : gill-cavity with an accessory poste-
rior sac, which extends backivards on either side of the neural spines,
amongst the muscles of the abdominal and part of the caudal regions. Eyes
small, the lids having a free circular margin. Superior and lateral portions
of the head osseous, and covered with very thin skin. Gape of mouth mode-
rate, anterior, transverse, the cleft small. Barbels eight. Filiform teeth
in the jaws, and vomer. Dorsal Jin spineless and short: adipose absent:
ventral tender the dorsal: anal long, confluent with, or separated by a notch
from the caudal. Air-vessel placed transversely (in the form of two lobes
connected by a tube) across the body of an anterior vertebra, where it is
entirely enclosed in bone : a duct passes forwards from either sides, unites and
is continued into the pharynx.

113. Saccobranchus fossilis, Bloch. Sin-gee and Noor-i-e, Panj..:
Lo-har, Sind : Thar-lee, Tarn. : Mar-pu, Tel. : Sin-gee, Ooriah, Beuo-.,
and in North-West Provinces; Bichu ka mutchee, Hind.: Nga-gyee
and Nga-kyee, Burm. D. 6-7, A. 60-79. Maxillary barbels reach the
middle of pectoral or even commencement of the ventral fins. Leaden,
sometimes with two longitudinal yellow bands. Throughout the fresh-
waters of India and Burma.

Genus — Silundia, Cuv. aud Fa I.

Branchiostegals eleven to twelve. Body elongated and compressed.
Head covered with soft skin. Byes lateral, having a free circular orbital
margin. Mouth wide, lower ja?v the longer. Nostrils wide apart, the an-
{<t tor pair being in front of the snout, patent, and external to the posterior
pair. Teeth in the jaws, and in a crescentic villiform band on the palate.
First dorsal fin with one spine and seven rays, the adipose short ; anal
long: ventral with six rays : caudal forked. Air-vessel lying across the
body of an anterior vertebra where there is a groove for its reception , and an
osseous process from either side of the vertebra to protect its lateral edges.

114- Silundia Gangetica, Cuv. and Val. Si-loud, Panj.; Wal-la-ke
kel-le-tee (slippery siluroid) and Poo-nat-tee, Tarn. : IFan-jou, Tel. : Jil-lung
aud Si-lond, Ooriah and Beng. D. {/ 0, A. 40-46. Barbels short. Silvery,
fins stained with grey. Estuaries and large rivers of India and Burma;
attaining 6 feet or more in length, and is sometimes termed a shark.

cclxx

Genus — Ailia, Cuv. and Veil.

Body elongated and compressed. Head covered with thin skin. Eyes
nearly or quite behind the angle of the mouth, and with adipose lids.
Upper jaw slightly the longer. Nostrils on either side approximating to
one another, the anterior being in front of the snout. Barbels eight — one
nasal pair, also one maxillary , the two mandibular pairs arise in a
transverse line behind the symphysis. Villiform teeth in the jaws, and in
two minute patches on the vomer. A small adipose dorsal Jin : ventral
with six rays, anal elongated, terminating at a short distance from the
caudal tohich latter is forked. Air-vessel, a transverse tube passing across
the body of an anterior vertebra, and more or less enclosed in bone.

115. Ailia Bengalensis, Gray. Pufta, Panj. : Mun-glee-ali-nee,
Sincl : Bounce-putti, Ooriah. D. 0., A. 60-72. The barbels extend to
nearly the middle of the length of the fish. Silvery, some of the fins
frequently stained with grey at their edges. This small, but well-flavoured
fish is found throughout all the laro'e rivers of India and Burma, exclud-
ing those of Madras and Bombay. It attains about 7 inches in length.

Genus — Ailiichthys, Bay.

Bijfers from Ailia, being destitute of ventral fins.

116. Ailiichthys punctata, Day. Put-las-si and Put-tu-ah, Panj.
D. 0, A. 76-82. Barbels extend to the middle of the length of the fish.
Silvery ; upper surface of the head nearly black ; a large black spot at the
base of the caudal fin. Upper portions of the Jumna, the Indus and
its affluents. It attains at least 4 inches in length.

*»'

Gen us — Eutropiichtiiys, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals eleven. Body and head compressed ; nape slightly
elevated. Branchiostegal aperture wide, its membranes not being confluent
with the skin of the isthmus. Head covered by skin. Byes situated above
the angle of the mouth, and having broad adipose lids. Cleft of mouth
deep, the lower jaw slightly the longer. Nostrils wide. Barbels eight,
one nasal, one maxillary , and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the upper
jaw sharp, and in a wide band, also in a broad band on the vomer and
palatines. First dorsal fin short, with a spine and seven rays : adipose
dorsal also short : ventral with six rays, and situated below the first
dorsal : anal having an elongated base, but terminating some distance from
the caudal, which latter fin is deeply forked. Air-vessel narrow, tubxform,
passing transversely across the body of an anterior vertebra, and all but
its central portion received into a bony capsule.

117 . Eulropiichthys vacha, Ham. Buch. Chel-lee, Sind. : Buchna
and Nandi-buchua, Ooriah : Nee-much, N.-W. Prov. : N ga-m yen-kouban,
and katha-boung , Burm. D. j(0, A. 47-50. Barbels about as long as
the head. Silvery, greyish along the back. Rivers of India and Burma,
attaining upwards of a foot in length.

Genus — Sisor, Haw. Buch.

Branchiostegals four. Gill-openings narroio and chiefly lateral. Oper-
clesjnoveable. Head and trunk rather broad and depressed. Eyes small.

cclxxi

Head osseous and rough in places. A longitudinal row of bony plates
along the median line of the bach. Mouth small, transverse, inferior.
Nostrils round, close together, but separated by a valve. Barbels, one pair
of maxillary and several of mandibular. Teeth absent. A single short
dorsal fin, without a distinct spine: ventral with seven rays : anal short:
caudal with the tipper ray prolonged. Air-vessel enclosed in a bony
capsule.

118. Sisor rabdophorus, Ham. Buch. EHr-ri-dee, Sind. D. £, A. 6.
Maxillary barbels reach base of pectoral spine : a species of flap from
lower lip with a moderately long barbel on either side, and two more
intermediate but shorter ones : between these flaps are several short
barbels on a transverse line across the chin, and several more minute
ones on the isthmus. Blackish above, lighter below. Upper portions
of Ganges, Jumna, and Indus with its affluents, attaining several feet
in length.

Genus — Gagata, Bleeker.

Callomystax, Giinther.

Branchiostegals about six. Gill-openings of moderate width, the
membrane being confluent with the shin of the isthmus : thorax destitute
of plaits. Superior surface of the head with rather rough ridges, and
covered by very thin skin. Byes subcutaneous. Mouth belotv the snout,
small and transverse. Nostrils close together, rounded, the posterior being
provided with a small barbel. Barbels eight, the maxillary slightly
osseous, and having a broad basal membrane : the two pairs of mandibular
ones in a transverse row just behind the loioer lip. Small teeth in both
jaws; none on the palate. First dorsal having one strong spine and six
rays : adipose fin of moderate length : ventral with six rays, situated entirely
posterior to the dorsal : caudal deeply forked. Air-vessel in two portions,
and enclosed in bony capsules formed from the bodies of an anterior vertebra:
these lateral portions, which are globular, communicate with one another.

119. Gagata typus, Bleeker. Pui/ah-chettah, Ooriah. D. ^/0, A.
15. Maxillary barbels reach a little beyond the root of the pectoral.
Dull grey; the outer two-thirds of the pectoral, dorsal and anal fins
black ; caudal white. Estuaries and large rivers of Lower Bengal and
Burma, attaining about a foot in length.

Genu s — Hehipiatel odus, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals fire or six. Gill-openings infer o-lateral, the mem-
branes attached to the isthmus. Upper surface of the head osseous. Byes
subcutaneous. Upper jaw the longer. Nostrils approximating, the posterior
being provided with a valve or even with a barbel. Barbels six or eight:
if six, consisting of one maxillary and two mandibular pairs : if eight,
likewise a nasal pair. Villiform teeth in the jatvs : palate edentulous.
First dorsal with one spine and six or seven rays : adipose fin short, or
of moderate length : pectoral spine strong : anal tvithout an elongated base :
ventral with six rays, situated posteriorly to the dorsal : caudal forked.
Air-vessel divided into two lobes and enclosed in bone.

a. With eight barbels.

130. Hemipimelodus itchkeea, Sykes. D. j/0, A. 13. Eight bar-
bels,, a short nasal pair. Yellowish bronze, three dark blotches on the

cclxxii

head, and four irregular black bands descending from the hack as low
as the lateral line : a black edging- to caudal fin, and a similar mark
on either lobe : dorsal fin also with a dark mark. Deccan, to a few
inches in length.

b. With six barbels.

121. Hemipimelodus cenia, Ham. Buch. Pud-du-ah, Chet-ivu-ah,
and Kul-la, Panj. : Ce-ni-a, Sind. : Jungla and Ce-ni-a, Beng. : Nga-
nan-joung, Burm. D. 6-^/0, A. 13. Six barbels, no nasal pair; otherwise
resembles the last species, excepting that its air-vessel is smaller. Large
rivers of India (excluding most of Madras) and. Burma. It attains

5 inches in length.

122. Hemipimelodus viridescens, Ham. Buch. Hud-dah, N.
W. Prov. D. ^-/O. A. 11. Greenish brown, with two light
green bands : a dark mark on the dorsal fin, and each lobe of the caudal
with a similar blotch. Jumna River. It is only a small species.

Genus — Bagabius, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals iivelve. Gill-membranes with their posterior mar-
gins free : thorax toithout any plaits on skin. Superior surface of the head
osseous. Eyes small. Mouth anterior : lower jaw the longer. Nostrils close
together, divided by a barbel, which belongs to the posterior one. Barbels
eight — one nasal, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs. Teeth in the
jaws cardiform and of unequal size. First dorsal fin in advance of the
ventral, having one spine and six rays : adipose fin rather short : ventral
with six rays : anal of moderate extent : caudal deeply forked. Air-vessel
small, consisting of two rounded portions, situated on either side of the
body of an anterior vertebra, and partially enclosed in bone.

123. Bagarius Yarrellii, Sykes. Goonch, Panj. : Bahti-jella, Tel. :
Sah-lun, Ooriah. D. ^-/O, A. 13-15. Yellowish, with large irregular
brown or black markings and cross bands ; a black base to the fins ;
all have likewise a black band, except the adipose dorsal. Large rivers
of India, extending to Java. It descends to the estuaries, and attains

6 feet or more in length.

Genus — Psetjdeckeneis, Blyth.

Body someiohat elongate. Head depressed. Gill-openings small, not
extending to the lower surface of the head. An adhesive apparatus,
formed of transverse folds of skin, situated between the bases of the pec-
toral fins, and on the thorax. Head covered superiorly tvilh soft skin. Byes
small, on the upper surface of the head. Mouth small, inferior. Nostrils
on either side close together and divided by a barbel. Barbels eight, the
maxillary pair having broad bases. Teeth villiform in the jaws, none on
Ike palate. Dorsal fin with one spine and six rays: the adipose one of
moderate extent : pectorals horizontal, spine finely serrated : ventral with
six rays, and situated tinder the dorsal : caudal forked. Air-vessel in two
rounded lateral portions, entirely enclosed in bone.

124" Pseud echencis sulcatus, McClelland. D. £/0, A. 11. Blackish,
with some large irregular yellowish blotches (of ground colour) : fins
yellow with black bands. Rivers below Darjeeling and the Khasy a Hills.
It attains at least 5^ inches in length.

cclxxiii

Genus — G lyptosternum, Mc Clella nd.

Glyptothorax, pt., Blyth.

Branchiostegals about ten. Gill-opening wide; gill-membranes separat-
ed by, and confluent with, the isthmus. An adhesive apparatus formed of
longitudinal plaits of shin, situated between the bases of the pectoral fins
on the thorax, which frequently become indistinct in old individuals.
Head more or less depressed, and generally covered with soft shin. Eyes
small, subcutaneous. Mouth inferior. Barbels eight, the maxillary ones
having very broad bases. Teeth in the jaivs villiform, palate edentulous.
Dorsal with one spine and six rays : adipose Jin rather short : pectorals
horizontal: ventral situated posterior to the dorsal and having six rays:
anal rather short: sometimes the pectoral and ventral rays are plaited in-
feriorly. Air-vessel in two rounded lateral portions, enclosed in bony
cap stiles.

125. Glyptosternum striatum, McClelland. Now-u and Nah-he, if
small Jup-pah, Panj. D. £/0, A. 9-11. Breadth of head nearly equals
its length. Maxillary barbels extend beyond the root of the pectoral.
Lips not fringed. Occipital process three times as long as broad.
Caudal peduncle nearly twice as long as high. Dorsal spine more than
half as long as the head. In the young, the outer pectoral and ventral
rays are plaited inferiorly. Brown, fins yellow stained with black.
Rivers on and along the bases of the Himalayas.

126. Glyptosternum lonah, Sykes. D. £/0, A. 11-12. Breadth
of head nearly or quite equal to its length. Maxillary barbels extend to
the end of the head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process nearly four
times as long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Fin
rays not plaited. Dorsal spine not quite half as long as the head.
Yellowish brown, banded with blackish, fins yellow. Dorsal, caudal,
and anal with black bands. Deccan, attaining at least 6 inches in
length.

127. Glyptosternum trilineatum, Blyth. D. £/0, A. 13. Breadth
of head about equals its length. Maxillary barbels reach to the end of
the head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process nearly three times as
long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Fins rays not
plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine rather above half the length of the
head. Chestnut brown, with three light longitudinal bands. Burma
and Nepal (?), attaining 12 inches or more in length.

128. Glyptosternum telchitta, Ham. Buch. Til-li-ah, Panj. and
N. W. Prov. : Go-a-che-rah, Beng. D. £/0, A. 11. Head longer
than broad. Maxillary barbels extend to the posterior edge of
the orbit. Lips roughened, but not fringed. Occipital process three
times as long as broad. Caudal peduncle twice as long as high. Fin
rays not plaited inferiorly. Dorsal spine two -thirds as long as the
head. Blackish-brown, fins yellow with black bands. Caudal black,
with a yellow edge. From the Panjab through Bengal and Beliar,
attaining 5 or 6 inches in length.

129. Glyptosternum Lekkanense, Giinther. D. ^/0, A. 11. The
breadth of the head equals its post-nasal length. Maxillary barbels
extend to the base of the pectoral. Lips smooth. Occipital process
from five to six times longer than broad. Caudal peduncle about twice

cclxxiv

as long as high. Fin rays not plaited interiorly. Dorsal spine half as
long as the head. Blackish, fins yellowish. Dorsal, caudal, and anal
banded with black. Jumna, near where it emerges from the Sewaliks,
said to be found in the Deccan. Attains 6 inches in length.

130. Glyptosternum modestum, Day. D. ^/0, A. 9. The breadth
of the head equals its length. Maxillary barbels nearly as long as the
head. Lips not fringed. Occipital process slightly longer than broad
at its base. Caudal peduncle two-thirds as high as long. Fin rays not
plaited interiorly. Dorsal spine half as long as the head. Uniform brown.
Upper portions of Jumna and rivers near Simla. It attains 3 inches
in length.

Genus — Amblyceps, Blytli.

Branchiostegals twelve. Gill-opening wide ; gill-membranes not con-
fluent with the skin of the isthmus. No thoracic adhesive surface. Head
covered with soft shin. Eyes small, subcutaneous. Mouth broad, anterior.
Barbels eight. Teeth in jaws villiform : palate edentulous. First dorsal
fin enveloped in shin, and having one spine and six rays : pectoral with a
short concealed spine : ventrals inserted behind the vertical from the pos-
terior margin of the dorsal, and having six rays : anal rather short : caudal
forked. Lateral line absent. Air-vessel almost wholly enclosed in a bony
capsule.

131. Amblyceps mangois, Ham. Bueh. Soock-se, Bil-li, and Su-daal
Panj. D. £/0, A. 11-12. Head as wide as long. Maxillary barbels
reach the end of the pectoral spine. Occipital process rudimentary.
Caudal peduncle as deep as long. Olive brown, with a dark line com-
mencing opposite the opercles, and dividing into two, one proceeding to
the centre of the caudal, the inferior to the base of the anal. Jumna,
from its source to Ghazipur on the Ganges, likewise the Kangra valley
and hills. It attains 4 inches in length.

132. Amblyceps cacutiens, Blytli. D. ^/0, A. 9. Caudal said to
be more sharply forked than in the preceding species. No bands. Burma.

Genus — Exostoma, Blyth.

Gill-openings narrow. Eyes small. Head depressed, covered supe-
riorly with soft skin. No thoracic adhesive apparatus. Mouth inferior, with
the lips reflected around it, and mostly covered with glands. Barbels
eight or six : when the latter, either one mandibular, or the maxillary pair
are absent. Teeth in the jaws in a single or double row : palate edentu-
lous. Dorsal fln with a slender or rudimentary spine and six rays;
adipose fln long : pectorals horizontal : ventrals with six rays : caudal cut
square, emarginate or forked. Air-vessel in two lateral lobes, both of which
are enclosed in bone.

133. Exostoma Blythii,Daj. D. £/0, A. 7. Head as wide as long.
Six barbels, the maxilla being destitute of any, but terminating in a
fleshy appendage. Yellowish brown. Rivers below Darjeeling, to above
3 inches in length.

131f.. Exostoma labiafum, McClelland. D. £/0, A. 6. Eight bar-
bels, the maxillary extend to the pectoral fin. Lips broad, having a
median and lateral lobe on either side with a barbel between. Colour
uniform. Mishni Mountain, East Assam.

cclxxv

185. Exostoma Berdmorei, Blyth. D. £/0, A. 6. Eight barbels.
Snout pointed. Caudal forked. Tenasserim Provinces.

Family — Scombresocice.

Pharyagognathi malacopterygii, Muller.

Pseudobrancbise concealed, glandular. Margin of upper jaw formed mesially by
tbe inter-maxillaries : laterally by tbe mamillaries. Barbels present or absent.
Lower pharyngeals united into a single bone. Dorsal fin rayed, with or with-
out Unlets posterior to it, and situated opposite the anal and in the caudal portion
of the vertebral column, no adipose dorsal. Body scaled : usually a keeled row
along either side of the free portion of the tail. Air-vessel generally present :
sometimes cellular, and destitute of a pneumatic duct. Stomach and intestines in
one straight tube, without division, and not having, any pyloric appendages*

Genus — Belone, Cuv.

BrancMostegals rather numerous. Body elongated, sub-cylindrical,
or compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. The jaws prolonged
into a long beak, the upper being formed of the inter-maxillaries* Fine
teeth or rugosities in both jaws, with a single row of long, widely set
conical ones. No finlets posterior to dorsal fin ; caudal usually forked.
Scales small. Lateral line on free portion of tail, with or without a keel.

136. Belone cancila, Ham. Buch. Kung-gah, Co-wa, Sou-ah and Ka-
haan, Panj. : Gon-gi-turi, Ooriah : Nga-oh-poung-yoh, Nga-phou-yo, Burm.
B. x. D. 16-17, A. 16-17. Lateral line not keeled. Four or five dark
blotches between the bases of the pectoral and anal fins. Throughout
the waters of the plains of India and Burma.

Genus — Hemieamphus, Cuv.

Hyporhamphus, Enleptorhamphus, Zenarchopterws, and Oxyporham-
ph/cs, Gill : Dermatogeuys, (K. and v. Hass.) Peters : Hemiramphodony
Bleeker.

BrancMostegals rather numerous. Body sub-cylindrical and elongated.
Eyes lateral. Upper jaw, which is formed of the inter-maxillaries, is more
or less triangular and short, whilst the lower jaw is elongated far beyond
the upper, which prolongation is not so apparent in the immature. Teeth
villiform in both jaws. No finlets posterior to the dorsal fin : pectoral may
or may not be prolonged : caudal mostly forked or emarginaie, sometimes
rounded. Scales of moderate or large size. Air-vessel large, sometime
cellular. Dorsal and anal rays may be modified. Some viviparous.

137. Hsmiramphus amblyurus, Bleeker. Nga-phov.ng-yo, Burm. T).
13-14, A. 10-12, L. 1. 48. Viviparous. An indistinct silvery lateral band.
Mouths of the Ganges and other large rivers of Bengal and Burma,
extending its range to above tidal influence.

Family — Cyprinodontid^t.

Branchiostegals from four to six : pseudobranchise absent. Eyes lateral : margin
of upper jaw formed entirely by the inter-maxillaries. Barbels absent. Teeth
in both jaws, likewise in the superior and inferior pharyngeal bones. One
spineless dorsal situated in the posterior half of the body. Stomach without
cul-de-sac. No pyloric appendages. Air-vessel simple, destitute of connection
with the auditory bones.

cclxxvi

This family has been sub-divided into those with the mandibles
united and intestines short, C. carnivores ; and those with the mandibles
disunited and intestines long, C. limnophagcc.

Genus — Cypbinodon, Lacep.

Leilas, Cuv. : Aphanius, Nardo. : Micromugll, Gulia.

Gape of mouth small : mandible short, with the bones on either side
united. Teeth of moderate size, in a single row, and each being notched.
The origin of the dorsal Jin anterior to that of the anal, whilst it is largest
in the male sex. Scales rather large. Colouration of sexes of ten different.
Intestines rather short.

138. Cyprinodon Stolicleanus, Day. D. 9, A. 9, L. 1. 27, L. tr. 8.
This small species is found in the waters of Cutch.

Genus — Haplochilus, McClelland.

Aplocheilus, McClelland : Panchax, Cuv. and Val : Zygonectes, Agas-
siz : Micrislius , Gill.

Branchiostegals from four to six. Body rather elongated : sides
compressed: upper surface of head broad aud depressed. Upper jaw
protractile. Mandibular bones united at the symphysis. Teeth villiform,
in a narrow band on both jaws and sometimes on the vomer. Dorsal Jin
short, commencing behind the origin of the anal, which latter has an
elongated base. Scales of medium size. Lateral line absent. Intestines
of moderate length.

139. Haplochilus argenteus, Day. D. 6, A. 14, L. 1. 27, L. tr.
11. Found near Madras, attaining" 1^ inches in length.

14-0. Haplochilus lineatus, Cuv. and Val. D. 8-9, A. 15-16, L. 1.
32-34, L. tr. 9. An emerald green spot on each scale; eight or ten ver-
tical black bands on the body. Fins tipped with red. Attains 4 inches
in length, and is found in Coorg and Malabar.

11^1. Haplochilus melastigmus, McClelland. D. 7, A. 22, L. 1. 29,
L. tr. 13. Found near Calcutta and Burma.

11$. Haplochilus panchax, Ham. Buch. Kanahuri, Ooriah : Nga-
cha-loom, Akyab : Cho-to-dah, Andamanese. D. 8-9, A. 15-16, L. 1.
32-34. A dark mark at the base of the dorsal fin. Bengal and the
Andamans, attaining 5 inches in length.

143. Haplochilus rubrosligma, Jerdon. D. 8, A. 14-15. Numerous
brilliant blue spots on the body, alternating with rusty red ones along
the sides. Madras and Sind hills. This is a small species.

Family — C yprinice.

Branchiostegals three : pseudobranchias generally present. Body oblong or elongated :
abdomen usually rounded, but if compressed or cutting destitute of ossicles. Margin
of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries. Opercles in four pieces. Mouth
toothless, but from one to three rows of teeth in the inferior pharyngeal
bones, which latter are strong, free and parallel to the branchial arches. A single-
rayed dorsal fin. Head scaleless : body scaled or scaleless, never covered by
osseous plates. No cut de sac to the stomach, nor pyloric appendages. Air-vessel,
if present, large : it may be divided by a constriction into an anterior and posterior
portion, neither of which are enclosed in bone (Cyprininse) : or into two lateral
portions, partially or entirely enclosed in a bony capsule (Cobitidina1) : or absent
(Homalopterinse)-

cclxxvii

Sub-Family — Cyprinince.
Air-vessel present, not enclosed in bone.

A. Abdomen rounded, not cutting.

Genus — Psilossynchus, Mc Clelland.

Back somewhat elevated. Head moderately depressed. Snout more or
less spatvlate. Mouth small, transverse, inferior. Lips entire, not con-
tinuous, reflected from off both jaws, and studded with glands. Barbels
absent. Borsal fin with few rays, commencing opposite the ventrals :
pectorals horizontal, with their outer rays simple and unbranched : anal
short. Scales of moderate size, none on the chest. Lateral line complete,
continued direct to the centre of the base of the caudal fin.

1£4- Psilorhynchus balitora, Ham. Bueh. D. 9-10, A. 7, L. 1. 33.
Reddish brown, irregularly marked with black. North-East Bengal and
Assam.

IJiB. Psilorhynchus sucatio, Ham. Bueh. D. 9, A. 7. Snout much
produced. Greeuish, with scattered dots. North-East Bengal.

Genus — Mayo a, Bay.

Body anteriorly depressed, posteriorly compressed : snout rounded and
smooth. Barbels four, two on the snout, and one at each angle of the
moiith. Byes lateral. Mouth small, transverse, on the inferior surface of
the head, and surrounded by a large sucker formed of both lips, which are
thick, and have a free posterior edge. Pectorals and ventrals horizontal:
dorsal without an osseous ray, and commencing somewhat in advance of
the ventrals. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, in three rows, 5, 3, 1/1, 3, 5.
Scales of moderate size, none on the chest. Lateral line continued direct to
the centre of the base of the caudal fin.

14.6. Mayoa modes ta, Day. D. 8, A. 6, L. 1. 35, L. tr. 41/4$. Green-
ish brown ; a blotch below dorsal fin and another at the base of the caudal.
Probably from the Himalayas, to 3| inches in length.

Genus — Biscognathus, Heckel.

Garra, Ham. Bueh. : Plalycara, McClell. : Biscognathicthys et Lis-
sorhynchus, Bleeker.

Body elongated, sub-cylindrical. Mouth transverse, semi-circular and
inferior : zipper and lower lips continuous : no lateral lobes to snout, which
projects beyond the mouth. A suctorial disc on the chin, formed by the
lower lip : upper lip fringed. Barbels four (Garra), or one pair only at
each angle of the mouth (Discognathus). Pharyngeal teeth hooked, in three
closely approximating rows, 2, 4, 5/5, 4, 2. Borsal fin with few rays,
commencing slightly in advance of the ventrals, its base scaleless.
pectorals horizontal : anal short. Scales of moderate size, no enlarged anal
scales. Lateral line continued to the centre of the base of the caudal
fin. Gill-rakers few, short, and widely set. Air-vessel small.

lift . Biscognathus lamta, Ham. Bueh. Uho-gu-ru and Koor-ka,
Pauj. : Cul-korava, (stone ophiocephalus) , Tam. : Pandi p alike, Can. :
Ko-rafi-kaoli, Hind. (Mysore) : P utter -chettah, N. W. Prov. : Choak-si,
Beng. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 33-36. Four barbels : a dark spot behind

cclxxviii

the gill- opening, and generally a band along the side. Throughout India
to Burma, attaining 6 inches in length.

Genus — Oreinus, McClelland.

Schizothorax, Sect. A., Heckel; Schizopyge, sp. Heckel.

Snout rounded. Mouth inferior and transverse : mandibles short, broad,
and flat, loosely joined together at the symphysis : margin of the lower jaw
having a thick horny covering, thickest internally, and a thick fringed lower
Up, which has a free posterior edge forming a sucker. Barbels four.
Pharyngeal teeth pointed, hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5. Dorsal fin rather short,
ivith a strong, osseous, serrated ray , and arising opposite the ventrals : anal
short. Scales very small, the vent and base of the anal fin in a sheath,
covered by enlarged tiled scales. Lateral line passing to the centre of the
base of the caudal fin.

lJf.8. Oreinus progastus, McClelland. Adoee, Assam. D. 12, A. 7.

14-9. Oreinus sinuatus, Heckel. Gool-goolli, and Saul, Panj.
D. 10-12, A. 7-8, L. 1. 105. Silvery and spotted : sometimes a few
of these latter are red, and it is termed a " trout." by some Europeans.
Found in the Himalayas and rivers along their bases, attaining 2 feet
or more in length.

Genus — Schizothorax, Heckel.

JRacoma, sp. McClelland : Schizopyge, sp. Heckel : Opistocheilus, pt.
Bleeker.

Snout conically rounded, and laterally somewhat compressed. Mouth
arched and antero -inferior : mandible neither broad, fattened, nor with a
sharp) margin, its edge sometimes having a thin, deciduous, horny covering.
Barbels four. Pharyngeal teeth pointed, hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5. Dorsal
fin rather short, with a strong, serrated osseous ray, and arising opposite
the ventrals : anal short. Scales very small, the vent and base of the anal
fin in a sheath covered by an enlarged tiled row. Lateral line passing
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin.

150. Schizothorax Hodgsonii, Gunther. Din-na-wah, N. W. Prov-
inces. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 155. Himalayas and head of the Ganges,
attaining at least 18 inches in length.

Genus — Labeo, Cuv.

Bohita, pt., Cuv. and Val. : Tylognathus, Heckel : Hypselobarbus,
Diplocheilus, Diplocheilichthys, Lobocheilus, Rohitichthys, Morulius,
Schismatorhynchus et Gobionichthys, Bleeker.

Body elliptical, or moderately elongated. Snout rounded, gene-
rally projecting beyond the mouth, and covered with tubercles, and some-
times having a lateral lobe or projection : mouth sometimes anterior, but
mostly inferior, transverse and demi-oval. Lips thick, covering the jaws,
one or both having an inner transverse fold : a soft horny covering, with
a sharp margin on the inner edge of one or both lips. Barbels small,
Jour or two ; if only one pair they belong to the maxilla, should there be
a second they are on the snout. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, and in three
rows, 5, 4, 2/2, 4, 5. Dorsal fin elongated or of moderate length, destitute
of any osseous ray, and arising anterior to the commencement of the

cclxxix

ventrals : anal short. Scales large, moderate, or of small size. Lateral
line running direct to the centre of the base of the caudal Jin. Gill-
rakers short.

151. Labeo nandina, Ham. Buch. Nandin, Bengal : Nga-ohn-doh,
Nga-ne-pyah, and Nga-yin-pounsa, Burm. D. 24-26, A. 7. L. 1. 41-44,
L. tr. 7^/8. Four barbels. Bengal, Assam, and Burma, attaining three
feet in length.

152. Labeo fimbriatus, Bl. Ven-cundee, Tarn. : Ruchu, and
Ganda-menu, Tel. : Bahrum, Ooriah. D. 20-21, L. 1. 44-47, L. tr. 2^2.

8-9

Four barbels. Southern India, to the Deccan and Orissa.

153. Labeo nancar, Ham. Buch. D. 20, A. 8. Four barbels.
Obtained from small rivers in the Gorakhpur district.

154- Labeo calbasu, Ham. Buch. Kala-beinse, and Di, Panj. :
Di-hee, Sind : Nulla ganda-menu, Tel. : Kala-beinse, Kunda, and
Kug-ge-ra, Beng. : Kala-beinse, Ooriah : Nga-neh-pya, Nga-noo-than, and
Nga-ong-tong, Burm. D. 16-18, A. 7, L. 1. 40-44, L. tr. 7|/9. Four
barbels. Throughout the fresh-waters of India and Burma, attaining
four feet in length.

155. Labeo cur chins, Ham. Buch. Cour-sa, Panj. : Cir-re-oh, Sind :
Mo-soo, Tel. : Cur-sua, Ooriah : Kurchi and Goni, Beng. : Cursa and
Coolloose, Hind. : Courie, Assam : Isga-pay, Tavoy : Nga-dane and Nga-

hoo, Burm. D. 16-17, A. 7, L. 1. 64-80, L. tr. M=p. Found throughout

India (except the lower parts of Madras) and Burma. It attains nearly
five feet in length.

156. Labeo kontius, Jerdon. Currumunnee-cundee, Tarn. D. 16,
A. 8, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. 9/8. Barbels four. Cauvery river and its
affluents.

157. Labeo nigrescens, Day. D. 16, A. 7, L. 1. 36, L. tr. 6/7. Four
barbels. Each scale with a black spot at its base. South Canara, attain-
ing 18 inches in length.

158. Labeo JDussumieri, Cuv. and Val. Toolee, Mai. D. j^? A. np»
L. 1. 53-55, L. tr. ~. Four barbels. Attains upwards of a foot in length,

and is found in Malabar and Ceylon.

159. Labeo rohita, Ham. Buch. Buhu, Panj., Beng., and Ooriah :
Bum-bra, Sind : Nga-myit-chin and Nga-myit-tsan-nee, Burm. D. -^^3)
A. 4 , L. 1. 41, L. tr. Q. Four barbels, the rostral sometimes absent.

Throughout India, except Madras and Burma, attaining three feet or
more in length.

160. Labeo morula, Ham. Buch. Morala, Beng. D. 13-14, A. |,
L. 1. 31. Four barbels. Ganges, attaining 6 inches in length.

161. Labeo Nashii, Day. D. 14, A. -f , L. 1. 41, L. tr. -^- No
barbels. A black lateral band. River at Fraserpett, the foot of tue
Coorg Hills.

162. Labeo ricnorhynchus, McClelland. Nepura, Assam. : Gid,
Panj. : Kul-ka-batta, Beng. D. 13, A. 7, L. 1. 41-44, L. tr. 8/9. One
pair of maxillary barbels. Himalayas and Sind Hills ; also in some of
the rivers of the plains in Bengal, as the Sone. This will probably
turn out to be identical with Labeo diplostomus, Heckel, whose name
has the priority.

cclxxx

163. Labeo falcatus, Gray and Hard. Boolla, Hind. D. 13, A. 7,
L. 1. 43, L. tr. %\\7\. One pair of maxillary barbels. Bengal, Assam
and Sikkim, attaining three feet in length.

164- Labeo pangusia, Ham. Buch. Lo-annee, Beng. D. 13, A. 7,
L. 1. 40, L. tr. 7^/7. One pair of maxillary barbels. Bengal and
Cachar, to eight inches in length.

165. Labeo boggut, Sykes. May prove to be the same as Labeo
striolaius, Giinther. Kolees, Mah. D." 12, A. 7, L. 1. 60-65, L. tr. 12/14.
One pair of maxillary barbels. Central India, Decean and Cutch.

166. Labeo bicolor, McClelland. Gicl-dah, Panj. : Thak-ree, Sind. :
Mohaylee and Gaywah, N. W. Provinces. D. 12, A. 7, L. 1. 43, L. tr.
8|/7^. One pair of maxillary barbels. Himalayas and Sincl Hills, as
well as contiguous districts in the plains, attaining two feet and upwards
in length.

167. Labeo ariza, Ham. Buch. Coal-arinza-cundee , Tam. : Ariza,
Tel. : Ban-gum-batta, Beng. : Morah} Panj.: Nga-loo, Burm. D. 12,
A. 7, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. 7^/7. One pair of maxillary barbels. Rivers
of India and Burma.

168. Labeo boga, Ham. Buch. KyouJc-nya-loo, Burm. D. 12, A.
7, L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 7-^- One pair of maxillary barbels. Fresh- waters
of India and Burma.

169. Labeo mullya, Sykes. D. 11, A. 8. Decean, to 6 inches in
length.

170. Labeo nuMa, Sykes. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 8/9. One
pair of maxillary barbels. Puna and other localities in the Bombay
Presidency.

Genus — Osteochilus, Giinther.

Bohita, sp. Cuv. & Val.

Mouth of moderate width, directed more or less downwards : snotit
obtusely rounded: lips thickened, continuous, fringed, or crenulated, hit the
lower is refected from off the mandible, leaving it uncovered in the form
of a sharp and hard transverse prominence. No tubercle inside the
symphysis of lower jaw. Barbels four or two. Pharyngeal teeth generally
5, 4, 2/2, 4, 5. Dorsal fin without osseous ray, having a moderate number
of branched ones ( 10 to about 20), commencing in advance of the ventrals :
anal rays few. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line passing
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short.

171. Osteochilus rostellatus, Cuv. and Val. Nga-lah, Burm. D.
20, A. 8, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 9/10. Four barbels; uniform colour. Irrawadi
and Sahvein Rivers in Burma, to two feet in length.

172. Osteochilus Neilli,D&j. D. J±, A. 7, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 5£/6£.
Four barbels : two dark marks on the body. Sittoung and Billing in
Burma, up to 6 inches in length.

173. Osteochilus cephalus, Cuv. and Val. D. 16, A. 9, L. 1. 36.
One pair of barbels. Pegu, to 1 foot in length.

Genus — C/eehina, Cuv. 8f Val., pt.

JDangilii , sp. Cuv. & Val. : Gyrene, sp. Heckel ; Mrigala, sp. Bleeker :
Crossochilus pt., Giinther.

cclxxxi

Snout depressed or obtusely rounded, with the soft coverings extremely
thin. Mouth broad, transverse. Upper lip fringed or entire. Lower jaw
rather sharp, without any, or with a thin lip, generally destitute of any
harm/ covering, but having a small tubercle above the mandibular symphysis.
Barbels small, four, two, or none. Dorsal fin rather short, moderate or
long, without any osseous ray, commencing in advance of the ventrals : anal
fin short and without any row of tiled scales. Pharyngeal teeth 5, 4, 2/2,
4, 5, or 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5. Scales of large, moderate or small size. Lateral
line continuous, passing to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Gill-
rakers short.

174. Cirrhina Kuhlil, Cuv. & Val. D. 28, A. 7, L. 1. 39-40, L. tr.
7/9. Four barbels : upper lip fringed. Moulmein and Tavoy.

175. Cirrhina Berdmorei, Blyth. D. 26, A. 7, L. 1. 31, L. tr.
6/? Four barbels : upper lip fringed. Tenasserim Provinces.

176. Cirrhina Leschenaultil, Cuv. & Val. Fen cundee, Tam. :
Aruzu, Tel. D. £±, A. 8, L. 1. 42-44, L. tr. 9/9. Four barbels .
upper lip entire. Southern India, and as far East as Orissa, attaining- at
least 1| f°°t in length.

177. Cirrhina mrigala, Ham. Buch. Mirrgah and Mrigah, Panj.,
Beng\, and Ooriah : also Nairn, North-Western Provinces : Mor-ah-hee,
Sind: Nga-hyin and Nga-gyein, Burm. Two barbels: upper lip entire.
Throughout the fresh-waters of India (except Madras) and Burma,
attaining three feet or more in length.

178. Cirrhina Sindensis, Day. D. 13, A. 7, L. 1. 43, L. tr. 8/8.
Two maxillary barbels. Sind Hills, to eight inches in length.

179. Cirrhina anisura, McClell. D. 12-13, A. 7, L. 1. 38, L. tr.
7i/l()i. No barbels : upper lip entire. Bengal and Assam.

ISO. Cirrhina dyocheila, McClell. Goreah, Assam. D. 13, A. 8,
L. 1. 42, L. tr. 8/S. No barbels : upper lip entire. Assam, to two feet and
upwards in length.

181. Cirrhina dew, Ham. Buch. Bhengro, Assam. D. 12-13, A.
7, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 1\\1. Two rostral barbels : upper lip entire. Assam,
Bengal, Sind and Cutch.

182. Cirrhina sada, Ham. Buch. D. 13, A. 7. Four barbels:
upper lip fringed. Assam.

183. Cirrhina gohama, Ham. Buch. B eh rah and Tellarree, Panj. :
Currn, Sind.: Kala-batta, Beng. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr.
6/6. Two rostral barbels : upper lip fringed. Throughout India, except
Madras, both on the hills and in the plains, attaining eight inches
in length.

184. Cirrhina latia, Ham. Buch. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 39, L. tr.
5|/6^. Four barbels : upper lip fringed. Northern Bengal, Nepal and
Assam : it appears to be a small species.

185. Cirrhina rostrata, Gunther. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 5^/7.
Two rostral barbels. Cossye River.

186. Cirrhina bata, Ham. Buch. Dunguda-porah and Bommarci-
batta, Ooriah: Gootellah, Hind. D. 11-12, A 7, L. 1. 36-38, L. tr.
5-f^. One pair of maxillary barbels : upper lip fringed. Lower

Bengal and Orissa, attaining two feet in length.

187. Cirrhina mosario, Ham. Buch. Herilwa, Assam. D. 10, A.
7, L. 1. 37. No barbels : lower lip fringed. Assam, to six inches in length.

cclxxxii

188. CirrMna reba, Ham. Buch. Soon-nee, Pauj., and Sind :
Eelemose and C'hiltahri, Tel. : Chetchna-porah, Ooriah : Batta, Beng. :
Reivah, Hind. D. 11-12, A. 8, L. 1. 35-38, L. tr. 7/7. One pair
of short rostral barbels : upper lip fringed or entire. Throughout India,
attaining a foot in length.

189. . CirrMna isnra, McClell. D. 10, A. 7., L. 1. 36, L. tr. 4£/5£.
One pair of rostral barbels : upper lip deeply fimbriated. Hooghly at
Calcutta.

Genus — Scaphiodon, Heckel.

Capoeta, sp. Chondrostoma, sp. Cuv. and Val : Dillonia, Gymnosto-
mus, sp. Heckel.

Snout rounded. Mouth transverse, inferior, with the mandibular edge
nearly straight and sharp: the mandibles angularly bent inwards. A
horny layer inside the loiver jaio, which is not covered by lip : no lower
labial fold. Barbels four, two, or absent. Pharyngeal teeth compressed,
truncated, 5 or 4, 3, 2/2, 3, 4 or 5. Dorsal fin of moderate extent (up
to about 10 branched rays) , its last undivided ray being osseous, and ser-
rated or entire, or else it is articulated: anal rather short. Scales large,
of moderate or small size, and sometimes irregtdarly disposed. Lateral line
passing to the centre of the base of the caudal fin.

190. Scaphiodon Watsoni, Day. D. 13, A. 7, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 6/6.
Two barbels : an osseous serrated dorsal ray. Scales regularly arranged.
Sind Hills.

191. Scaphiodon irregularis, Day. D. 13, A. 7, L. 1. 36, L. tr. 9/9.
Two barbels : an osseous serrated dorsal ray. Scales irregularly arranged.
Sind Hills.

Genus — Caxassius, Nilsson.

Snout obtuse, rounded. Mouth anterior, arched, and rather narrow •'
lips thin. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth compressed, in a single row,
4/4. Dorsal fin long, commencing opposite the ventrals, and having its
last undivided ray osseous and serrated : last undivided anal ray normally
serrated. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line complete, passing to the
centre of the base of the caudal fin.

192. Carassius auratus , Linn. D. 19-21, A. 8, L. 1. 27-29, L. tr.
6^/10. I here place the gold-carp on the authority of the British
Museum Catalogue, wherein it is stated that three adult specimens have
been received from India through Mr. Masters. I strongly doubt
whether this fish exists wild in India or British Burma. Dr. Wright
informs me that it has been introduced into the ponds in Nepal. Sykes'
species, C. nu/cla (No. 170), is a Labeo.

Genus — Semiplotus, Bleeker.

Snout thick and prominent. Mouth ivide, transverse, slightly curved,
inferior, having a knob at the symphysis. Inter -maxillaries more or less
adherent to the maxilla, and but slight powers of motion exist in the upper
jaw. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth (in S. modestus) 4, 3, 2/2, 3, 4.
Dorsal fin long, its last undivided ray strong, osseous, and either serrated
or entire: anal rather short. Scales large. Lateral line passing to the
centre of the base of the caudal fin.

cclxxxiii

193. Semiplotus modestus, Day. D. 24, A. 9, L. 1. 32-3*, L- tr.
l\ll\. Last undivided dorsal ray osseous and serrated. Hills above
Akyab.

194,. Semiplotus McClellancli, Bleeker. D. 28, A. 9, L. 1. 27, L.
tr. 6/5. Last undivided dorsal ray osseous and entire. Assam.

Genus — Catla, Cuv. 8f Val.
Gibelion, Heckel : Rypselobarbus, Bleeker.

Read broad : snout with very thin integuments : upper lip absent : the
lower moderately thick, having a continuous free posterior margin. The
lower jaw with a moveable articulation at the symphysis, but destitute of
any prominent tubercle. Eyes with free orbital margins. Barbels absent.
Pharyngeal teeth plough-shaped, 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5. Dorsal fin with rtlther
an elongated base, destitute of osseous ray, and commencing someivhat in
advance of the ventral : anal short : caudal forked. Scales of moderate
size, no tiled ones along the base of the anal fin. Lateral line complete,
continued to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers long,
rather strong, and moderately wide apart in the adult, but fine and closely
set in the immature.

195. Catla Buchanani, Cuv. and Val. Bo-assa, Hind., and Cutla,
Panj. : Tay-lee, Sind : Catla, Beng. : Bar-kur, Ooriah : Nga-thaing, Burm.
D. 17-18, A. 8, L. 1. 40-43, L. tr. 7i/9. Throughout the fresh-
waters of India and Burma, so far as the Pegu River : is not found in
the southern and western portions of Madras. It attains several feet in
length, and is excellent eating.

Genus — Mola, Reckel.

Thynnichthys, pt., Bleeker : Amblypharyngodon, pt., Bleeker : Bra-
chy gramma, pt. Day.

Pseudobranchia present. Read compressed, integuments over snout
thin : upper lip absent ; only a short labial fold on the side of the mandi-
ble. Mouth rather wide, antero-lateral, with the lower jaw somewhat
prominent. Byes in the middle of the depth of the head, and without any
adipose membrane. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth molar-form, close
together, 5, 3 or 4, 2 or 3/2 or 3, 4 or 3, 5 : or 5 or 3, 2 or 3 or 4, 2
or 1/1 or 2, 4 or 3 or 2, 3 or 5. Dorsal fin short, without osseous ray,
commencing nearly opposite the ventrals : anal short. Scales small.
Lateral line complete, running to the centre of the base of the caudal fin
(Thynnichthys) : or incomplete (Amblypharyngodon) . Intestinal tract
narrow, with numerous convolutions. Gill-rakers very short or absent.

196. Mola harengula, Cuv. and Val. Kala-tala and Ahku-chappah,
Tel. D. 9, A. 8, L. r. 120, L. tr. 22/25. Lateral line complete. Found
in the Godaveri and Kistna Rivers, attaining upwards of a foot in
length.

197. Mola Buchanani, Blyth. Talla-maya, Tel. : Morara, Ooriah :
Moah, Assam: Mukni, Panj. : Nga-beh-byoo and JVga-zen-zap, Burm. D.
10, A. 7, L. 1. 55-75, L. tr. 25/28. Lateral line incomplete. Fresh-
waters of India and Burma, to four inches in length.

198. Mola melettinus, Cuv. & Val. Wumboo, Mai. : Oolaree, Tarn. :
Kali-korqfi, Hind. : Paraga, Can. : Muckni, Panj. D. 9-10, A. 7-8, L. 1.

cclxxxiv

50-57. Lateral line incomplete. Punjab, Sind, Southern India, and
the Malabar Coast, rarely attaining four inches in length.

199. Mola Athinsonii, Blyth. Nga-pan-ma,~Burm. D. 8, A. 7, L.
1. 55, L. tr. 11/11. Lateral line incomplete. Burma; attaining six
inches in length.

Gen?is — Baxbus, Cuv. 8f Val.

Puntius, ipt., Ham. Buch. : Labeobarbus, et Varicorhinus, pt., Riippel :
Systomus, pt., McClell. : Capo eta, sp. Cuv. & Val. : Pseudobarbus, Bielz. :
Luciobarbus, Heckel : Cheilobarbus, sp. Smith : Balantiocheilus, Ilemibar-
bus, Cyclocheilichthys, Siaja, Anematichthys, Hi/pselobarbus, Gonopro-
hlqpterus, Gnalhopogon, Hampala, sp. Bleeker : Enteromius, sp. Cope.

Mouth arched. Jffyes without adipose lids. Jaws closely invested by
lips, which may have leathery lobes, but no inner fold, nor horny covering.
Barbels four (Barbodes) , or two (Capoeta) : or none (Puntius).
Pharyngeal teeth 5 or 4, 3 or 2, 2 or 3/3 or 2, 2 or 3, 4 or 5. Dorsal
Jin rather short, its last undivided ray being either ossified and serrated
or entire, or articulated and not osseous : it commences nearly opposite
the ventrals : anal rather short, in some species its second ray ossified.
Scales large, of moderate or small size. Lateral line complete or incom-
plete; when the former, continued to opposite the centre of the base of
the caudal fin.

1. With four barbels {Barbodes.)

a. Last undivided dorsal ray, osseous and serrated.

200. Barbus chagunio, Ham. Buch. Jerruah, Beng. : Chaguni, Behar.
D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 44-47, L. tr. 11/11. Pores on head and snout.
India, exclusive of Madras, attaining a foot and a half in length.

201. Barbus immaculatus. McClell. D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 32-33, L.
tr. 6/6. No pores on snout. Throughout Bengal, North- West
Provinces, Assam and Sikkim.

202. Barbus sarana, Ham. Buch. Jundoori, Panj. : Poh-pree and
Kun-nah-nee, Sind: llunduttee, Mai.; Pungella, Tarn. : Giddi kaoli, Bur hie
and Potah, Hind. : Gid-pakke, Can. : Ka?ma/cu, Tel. : Sarana, Ooriah and
Beng. : Nga-khon-mah-gyee and Nga-chong, Burm. D. 11-12, A. 8, L.
1. 29-31, L. tr. 5<y5^. Fresh-waters throughout India and Burma;
it attains uj)wards of 2 feet in length.

203. Barbus pinnauralus, Day. D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 27-29, L.
tr. 6/5. A black lateral blotch. Sind, portions of Bombay, Malabar, and
in the Kistna River, up to 5 inches in length.

WJf.. Baxbus goniosoma, Bleeker. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 24, L. tr.
4|/ \\. Mergui in Burmah, up to 6 inches in length.

205. Barbus roseipinnis, Cuv. & Val. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 22. Fins
red. Pondicherry, to \\ inches in length.

206. Barbus rodactylus, McClell. D. 10. Lower Assam, to 5
inches in length.

b. Last undivided dorsal ray, osseous and entire.

207. Barbus dubius, Day. D. 1 3. A. 7, L. 1. 42, L. tr. 9/7. Bowany
River at the foot of the Neilgherry Hills.

208. Barbus Mysorensis, Jerdon. Coatee cundee,rYa,m. D. 13, A.
7-8, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 7/7. Rivers along the bases of the Wynaad
and Neilgherry Hills, up to several feet in length.

cclxxxv

£09. Barbus Carnations, Jerdon. Poaree cundee, Saal cundee and
Shellee, Tam. : Giddi kaoli, Hind. : Gid-pakke, Can. D. 12, A. 7-8, L. 1.
30-32, L. tr. 5/5. Rivers along- the bases of the Wynaad and Neilg-herry
ranges of hills, attaining to 2 5 lbs in weight.

£10. Barbus Jerdoni, Day. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 6/4. Rivers
of South Canara.

£11. Barbus hexastichus, MeClell. Lobura and Bohar, Assam.
D. 12-13, A. 7-8, L. 1. 24-27. Rivers on and around the Himalayas,
and also in Assam, attaining' 2^ feet in length.

£12. Barbus mosal, Ham. Bueh. Burapatra, Assam. D. 12, A.
7-8, L. 1. 25-27, L. tr. Ji±. No lobed lip. Mountain streams and

rivers along the bases of the eastern range of the Himalyas, also Canara,
attaining 3 feet or more in length.

£13. Barbus tor, Ham. Buch. Kulckiah, Panj. : Kurreah, Sind :
Poo-meen-cundee, Tam. : Naharm, Hind. : Mahaseer,hy Europeans. D. 12,
A. 7, L. 1. 23-27. Lips lobed. Throughout the hill ranges of India and
rivers around their bases, extending their migrations to long distances,
attaining several feet in length.

£14- Barbus sop/tore, Ham. Buch. D. 12, A. 7, L. 1. 25, L. tr.
3i/4|. Khasya Hills.

£15. Barbus Neilli, Day. D. 13, A. 8, L. 1. 24-16, L. tr. 4£/4.
Kurnool in Madras, stated to attain to 6 (Jibs, weight.

£16. Barbus compiessus, Day. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 22, L. tr. 4/5. A
specimen in the Calcutta Museum, its locality doubtful, perhaps Cash-
mere.

£17. Barbus Himalayanus, Day. Chit-rah-too, Panj. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 32-34, L. tr. 5J/6. Ussun and Girri Rivers near Simla on the
Himalayas.

£18. Barbus microprogon, Cuv. & Val. D. 10, A. 8, L. 1. 38, L.
tr. 4 J/5. Stated to be from Mysore.

£19. Barbus chilinoides, MeClell. D. it*, A. 7, L. 1. 32-35,

L. tr. 5^/5. Himalayas and Ganges, to 8 inches in length.

880. Barbus Stracheyi,~Day. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1.23, L. tr. 3£/5.
Akyab and Moulmein, growing to a large size.

c. no osseous dorsal ray.

££1. Barbus pulchellus, Day. D. 13, A. 9, L. I. 30, L. tr. 0/51.
Upper half of body dark coloured. South Canara in inland streams,
attaining at least 18 inches in length.

£££. Barbus Stevensonii, Day. D. 12, A. 8,L. 1. 27, L. tr. 44/5.
Akyab.

883. Barbus Blythii, Day. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 22, L. tr. 4/5.
Tenasserim Provinces, to 2 inches in length.

884.. Barbus melanampyx, Day. D. 11, A. 7, L. I. 20, L. tr. 3£/3£.
Red, with three vertical black bands. Western Ghats and Neilgherries,
up to 3 inches in length.

2. With two barbels (Capoeta).

a. With osseous serrated dorsal ray.

££5. Barbus hampal, Giinther. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5/5
Tavoy, up to 9 inches in length.

cclxxxvi

b. Osseous dorsal ray entire.

226. Barbus dorsalis, Jerdon. D. 11-12, A. 8, L. I. 24, L. tr. 4^/4*
Lambi kaoli, Hind. : Saal cundee, Tam. : Mar-pakke, Can. Southern
India, extending to the Malabar Coast and Ceylon, not attaining a large
size.

227. Barbus chola, Ham. Buch. Karoon, Tam. : Kerrundi, Beng. :
Pilt/ia kerrundi, " bitter carp/' Ooriah : Chaddu paddaka, Tel. : Katcha
karawa, Hind. : Nga-khon-ma and Nga-lowar, Burmese. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5^/5. India and Burma generally, except the Panjab
and Sind. It attains 5 inches in length.

228. Barbus amphibius, Cuv. & Val. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 23,
L. tr. 4^/4. From Poona down the coast of Canara.

229. Barbus parrah, Day. Parrah perlee, Mai.: Katcha karawa,
Hind. D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 5/4. Malabar, Mysore and Madras,
to 6 inches in length.

230. Barbus titius, Ham. Buch. Tit pungti, Beng. : Pet-toh-ee,
Sind : Burajalee, Assam. D. 10, A. 7, L. 1. 25. Two black spots.
Throughout India, except its more southern portions.

231. Barbus thermalis, Cuv. & Val. D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 25,
L. tr. 5|/5^. Mysore, Cachar and Ceylon, to 3 inches in length.

232. Barbus lepidus, Day. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 21, L. tr. 5/3. Some
of dorsal rays elongated. From Canara down the Western Coast along
the base of the Neilgherries, also in Ceylon, attaining 6 inches in length.

c. No osseous dorsal ray.

233. Barbus kolus, Sykes. Nilisu, Tel. D. 12-13, A. 8, L. 1.
40-42, L. tr. 10/8. Deccan and throughout the Kistna River, attaining
upwards of a foot in length.

234. Barbus curmuca, Ham. Buch. D. 11, A. 8. Southern India,
to 3 feet in length.

235. Barbus Benisonii, Day. D. 10-11, A. 8, L. 1. 28, L. tr. 4|/3£.
Body longitudinally banded. Hill ranges of Travancore, to 6 inches in
length.

236. Barbus arulius, Jerdon. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 23, L. tr. 5/3^.
Body vertically banded. Wynaad and Neilgherry Hills, as well as the
rivers at their bases.

237. Barbus Puckelli, Day. D. 9, A. 8, L. 1. 24, L. tr. 4/3.
Mysore, up to 3 inches in length.

3. No barbels (Puntius).
a. With osseous serrated dorsal ray.

238. Barbus apogon, Cuv. & Val. Nga-ta-zee and Nga-lay-toun,
Burm. D. 12, A. 8, L. 1. 36, L. tr. 8/7. Burma.

239. Barbus ambassis, Day. Bunkuai, Ooriah. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 36, incomplete. Bengal, Orissa and Madras, attaining about 3 inches
in length.

240. Barbus conchonius, Ham. Buch. Kunckon pungti, Beng.
D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 26, incomplete, L. tr. 5&/'6$.. A black spot on side
over anal fin. North-West Provinces, Behar and Lower Bengal, attain-
ing 5 inches in length.

cclxxxvii

24,1. Barbus gelius, Ham. Buch. Cutturpon, Ooriah : Geli pungti,
Beng. D. 11, A. 3/5, L. 1. 25, incomplete, L. tr. 9. A black band over
tail : a spot across bases of the first 6 dorsal rays, another over base of
anal. Bengal and Orissa, to 2 inches in length.

242. Barbus ticto, Ham. Buch. Kaoli and Kotree, Hind. D. 11,
L. 1. 23, incomplete. Throughout India, except the Malabar Coast.
It rarely exceeds 4 inches in length.

243. Barbus punctatus, Day. Putter per lee, Mai. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 23, complete, L. tr. 6/4. Two black spots, one below commencement
of lateral line, the other near its termination. Malabar, attaining to
3 inches in length.

244. Barbus pliutunio, Ham. Buch. KudjiJcerundi, Ooriah: Phutuni
pungti, Beng. D. 10-11, A. 8, L. 1. 20-23, incomplete, L. tr. 8-10.
Tour vertical black bands on a brown body, and a dark one down the
centre of dorsal fin. Bengal, Orissa and Ceylon, up to 3 inches in
length.

%45> Barbus guganio, Ham. Buch. Gugani, Beng. D. 10, A. 7,
L. 1. incomplete. Gangetic Provinces and Assam.

246. Barbus Stoliczkanus, Day. D. 10, A. 7. L. 1. 25, complete,
L. tr. 5/6. Two black marks on lateral line. Eastern Burma.

247. Barbus pyrrhopterus, McClelland. D. 9, A. 7, L. 1. 22-24,
complete, L. tr. 4^/4 £. A dark spot near posterior end of lateral line.
Upper Assam.

6. Osseous dorsal ray entire.

248. Barbus stigma, Cuv. & Val. Po-ti-ah, Chiddu and Paandra,
Panj. : Kaicha Jcarawa and Pottiah, Hind. : Kate k- karate a, Can. :
C/iadu perigi, Tel. : Pattia/i-kerundi, Ooriah : Nga-k/ioon-ma, Burm.
D. 11, A. 8, L. 1. 25, L. tr. 5/4. A dark spot near posterior end of
lateral line, another across the base of middle dorsal rays. Found
throughout India and Burma, attains 5 inches in length.

249. Barbus chry&opterus, McClelland. Pot-ti-ah and Door-kah,
Panj.; Durru, Sind : Bo-ak-re, North-West Provinces. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 23, complete L. tr. 5/5. Fins black tipped. Assam, North- West
Provinces, Panjab and Sind.

250. Barbus unimaculatus , Blyth. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 24, in-
complete, L. tr. 4^/4^. A black mark at base of each dorsal ray.
A number of fry from the Tenasserim Provinces are in the Calcutta
Museum.

251. Barbus filamentosu s, Cuv. & Val. D. 8, A. 7, L. 1. 21,
complete L. tr. 5/3. Branched dorsal rays elongated. Southern India
and the Western Coast, attaining 6 inches in length.

252. Barbus terio, Ham. Buch. Boordah, Panj. : Kahatchia
herundi, Ooriah: Teri pungti, Beng. D. 11, L. 1. incomplete. A black
mark at side of anal fin, a second under posterior end of. dorsal. Panjab,
Gangetic Provinces and Orissa, attaining 3 or 4 inches in length.

253. Barbus Buvaucellii, Cuv. & Val. D. 10, A. 7, L. 1. 27,
complete. Bengal.

254. Barbus Waagneri, Day. D. 10-11, A. 7, L. 1. 23-24,
incomplete, L. tr. 4/7. One black spot. Salt range.

cclxxxviii

c. Without osseous dorsal ray.

255. Barbus Punjaubensis, Day. D. 11, A. 5, L. 1. 43, incomplete.
Labor, attaining- 2 inches in length.

256. Barbus cosuatis, Ham. Bnch. Koswati, Beng. D. 11, A. 7,
L. 1. 22, incomplete, L. tr. 6. Gangetic Provinces and Lower Bengal,
also Bombay, attaining 3 inches in length.

257. Barbus vittatus, Day. Kdoli, Hind. D. 10, A. 7, L. 1. 20-22,
incomplete, L. tr. 4/3. Four black spots on side and a black streak down
the dorsal fin. Mysore, Western Coast, and Cutch, attaining about
2 inches in length.

258. Barbus presbyter, Cuv. & Val. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 6/2.
Bombay.

259. Barbus puntio, Ham. Buch. D. 11, A. 7, L. 1. 23, incomplete,
L. tr. 4/4. A black spot encircles the free portion of the tail. Bengal
and British Burma, attaining about 3 inches in length.

Genus — Nuria, Cuv. Sf Val.

Esomus, Swainson.

Pseudobranchia present. Mouth narrow, directed obliquely iipioards,
sub-orbitals broad. Barbels four, the rostral shorter than the maxillary
pair. Pharyngeal teeth, crooked, pointed 5/5. Dorsal fin without osseous
ray, and with few branched ones, it is inserted posterior to the ventral but
not to over the anal, the latter having but few or a moderate number of
*branched rays. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line, when present,
passing to the loioer half of the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short.

260. Nuria albolineata, Blyth. D. 9, A. 13, L. 1. 31, incomplete.
A silvery lateral band. Moulmein.

261. Nuria danrica, Ham. Buch. Chid-diil-ln,Yzc&\.\ Soom-a-rah,
Mola, and Mah-wa, North-West Provinces : Danrica and Jongja, Beng. :
Kurriah dahwiee, Hind. : Nga-ziu-byoou, Burm. D. 8, A. 8, L. 1. 30-34,
complete, L. tr. 5^G. A black lateral band. Throughout India, Ceylon,
and Burma, attaining 5 inches in length.

262. Nuria Malubarica, Day. D. 9, A. 7, L. r. 32, L. tr. 7. Lateral
line absent. A silvery band along the sides, which occasionally has a narrow
black edge superiorly. The coast districts of India, Burma, and also the
Nicobars, attaining 3 inches in length.

Genus — Pas bora, Bleeher.

Leuciscus, sp. Cuv. & Val.

Pseudohranchia present. Eyes with free orbital margins. Cleft of
month oblique, lower jaw slightly prominent, having one central and on
either side a lateral prominence, fitting into corresponding depressions in the
upper jatv. Barbels two (rostral) or none. Pharyngeal teeth 5, 3 or 4,
2/2, 4 or 3, 5. Dorsal Jin without osseous ray, and but few branched
ones, inserted posterior to the origin of the ventral, but not extending to over
the anal, which latter is short. Scales large or of moderate size. Lateral
line concave, continued to the lotver half of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers
ahort, lanceolate.

cclxxxix

a. With a pair of barbels.

263. Rasboraelanga, Ham. Buch. Dakwiee, Hind. D. 9, A. 7-8
L. 1. 40-42, L. tr. 7/6. One pair of rostral barbels. Gangetic Provinces,
Assam, and Burma, attaining- 8 inches in length.

b. Without barbels.

264- Rasbora daniconius, Ham. Buch. Mile-lo-ah, Chin-do-lah
Raan-kaal-le and Charl, Panj. : Mile-lo-ah, North- West Provinces :
Kokanutchee, Mai. : Jilo, Ooriah : Danikoni and Angjani, Beng. : Nga-doung-
zee, and Nga-nauch-yoxm, Burm. D. 9. A. 7, L. 1. 30-32. No barbels,
mostly a black lateral stripe. Throughout India, Ceylon and Burma,
attaining 5 inches in length.

265. Rasbora Neilgherriensis, Day. Ovaree cundee, Tamil. D. 9,
A. 7, L. 1. 34, L. tr. 6^/5. A light lateral band. Rivers on or contiguous
to the Neilgherry Hills; it attains 8 inches in length.

266. Rasbora Buchanani, Bleeker. D. 9, A. 7, L. 1. 26-29. No
lateral band. Gangetic Provinces, Mysore, Madras and Burma.

Genus — Aspidoparia (HeckelJ , Bleeker.

Morara, Bleeker.

Mouth small, inferior : lower jaw having a sharp crescentic
edge, destitute of lip. Sub-orbital ring of bones, of moderate width or broad.
Pharyngeal teeth 4, 4, 2/2, 4, 4. Dorsal Jin without osseous and with very
few branched rays, commencing opposite to or behind the origin of the ven-
trals, but not extending to above the anal, which latter has a moderate
number (10 to 12) of rays. Scales of medium size. Lateral line con-
cave and passing along the lotoer half of the base of the caudal Jin.

267 . Aspidoparia morar, Ham. Buch. Pa-o-char, Chilwa, Panj. :
Kareer-ee, Sincl : Chippuah and Chel-lu-ah, North-West Provinces : Amlee,
Dec. : Morari and Morar, Beng. : Bayi, Ooriah : Nga-hpy en-boo, and Yen-
boung-za, Burm. D. t3, A. 1 1 -1 2, L. 1. 38-42, L. tr. 5|/5. Continent of

India (except the Western Coast and to the south of the Kistna River),
Assam and Burma, attaining 6 inches or even more in length.

268. Aspidoparia jay a, Hum. Buch. Pah-ru-ah, N. W. Prov. :
Chola, Assam. D. 12, A 10, L. 1. 58, L. tr. 7/10. Upper portions
of Gangetic Provinces in the plains, and Assam.

Genus — Rohtee, Sykes.

Osteobrama, Heckel : Smiliogaster (?) , Bleeker.

Body compressed and elevated. Pseudobranchia present. Mouth
anterior : lips thin. Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth 6 or 5 or 4, 4 or
3, 2 or 3/3, or 2, 3 or 4, 4 or 5 or 6. Dorsal fin short, having its last
undivided ray osseous and serrated, and commencing opposite the interspace
between the bases of the ventral and anal fins, the latter of which has
many rays. Scales small. Lateral line jessing nearly to the centre of
the base of the caudal fin. Gill-rakers short.

269. Rohtee cotio, Ham. Buch. Goord-ha, Duh-riee, and Put-too,
Panj.: Duh-riee, Sind : Goord-ha, Chen-da-lah, Muck-nee, N. W. Pro-
vinces; Zo^, Beng. : Nga -hpan-ma, Burm. D. 11-12, A. 29-32, L. 1.
71, L. tr. ~. Continent of India and Burma.

t

ccxc

270. Rohtee Alfrediana, Cuv. and Val. Goonta, Beng. D. 10-11,

ft 1 0

A. 31-36, L. 1. 42-60, L. tr. j^. Lower Bengal, Assam and Burma,
to 6 inches or more in length.

271. Rohtee Vigorsii, Sykes. Gollund, Ooriah : Khira,Te\. D. 11,
A. 25-26, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 18/19. Deccan, Kistna and Mahanuddee
Rivers, attaining 8 inches in length.

272. Rohtee microlepis, Blyth. Nga-hpeh-oung and Nga-net-pya,
Burm. D. 11-12, A. 21, L. 1. 71-73, L. tr. 18/22. The Godaveri
River, also throughout Burma; it attains 15 inches and more in length.

273. Rohtee Ogilbii, Sykes. D. 11, A. 16, L. 1. 55,L.tr. 13/11.
Deccan, and Kistna River, to 6 inches or more in length.

Genus — Barilius — (H. B.J Bleeker.

Opsarius, sp. McClelland : Pachystomus, sp. Heckel : Chedrus,
(Swains.) Bleeker : Opsaridium, Peters : Pteropsarion, sp. Schacra, sp. et.
Bola, sp. Gunther.

Pseudobranchia present. Mouth anterior, sometimes oblique, and
having a moderate or deep cleft : lower jaw with a knob above the sym-
physis, and a corresponding depression in the tipper jaw for its reception.
Sub-orbital ring of bones generally broad, more especially the third,
which may even extend entirely behind the vertical from the posterior
edge of the orbit. Barbels four {Pachystomus, " Heckel," Bleeker) or
two ( Bendilisis, Bleeker) , or none ( Barilius, Ham. Buch.) Pharyn-
geal teeth hooked, 5, 3 or 4, 2 or 1/1, or 2, 4 or 3, 5 : or else 5, 2 or 4/4 or
2, 5. Dorsal fin without osseous ray, of moderate length, inserted posterior
to the ventrals, sometimes extending to above the anal, which latter has a
somewhat elongated base. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line
concave continued on to the middle or lower half of the caudal, or incom-
plete or absent. Gill-rakers very short or absent.

1. With four barbels (Pachystomus).

27 !{.. Barilius rerio, Ham. Buch. Poncha geraldi, Ooriah. D. 9,
A. 15, L. 1. 26-28, L. tr. 6. Blue horizontal bands. Gangetic Provinces,
Orissa and Madras, to two inches in length.

275. Barilius piscatorius, McClell. Charl and Lo-har-ree, Panj.
D. 9, A. 13-14, L. 1. 42, L. tr. 8/4. Ten vertical bars. Panjab and
rivers in the Sub-Himalayan range : Nepal, and Sikkim, also the Gangetic
Provinces, attaining 5 inches in length.

276. Barilius radiolakis, Gunther. D. 10, A. 12, L. 1. 56, L. tr.
5/6. Central India.

277. Barilius modestus, Day. D. 9, A. 12-13, L. 1. 43, L. tr.
5 1/4^. Back dark, sides silvery. Panjab, to 4 inches in length.

278. Barilius Bleekeri, Day. D. 9, A. 12-13, L. 1. 43, L. tr.
7|/5|. Seven vertical bars. Sub-Himalayan range in the Panjab, up
to 3 inches in length.

279. Barilius shacra, Ham. Buch. Gurha, Panj. D. 9, A. 10,
L. 1. 53, L. tr. 11/9. Twelve vertical bars. Jumna, Gangetic Provinces,
and Assam, also Behar, not attaining above 5 inches in length.

280. Barilius bendelisis, Ham. Buch. D. 9, A. 11, L. 1. 43, L. tr.
8/4. Short vertical bars. Mysore and Southern India, to 4£ inches in
length.

CCXC1

281. Barilius cocsa, Ham. Buch. Pah-tah, Pufc-wah-re, Kun-nul,
Dahrah, and Bur-re-ah, Panj. : Kkoksa, Beng. : Johra, Mah. D. 9-10,
A. 9-10, L. 1. 42, L. tr. ^. Vertical bars Continent of India, especially

°n and near mountain ranges; not recorded from the Malabar Coast or
Sind. It attains 6 inches in length.

*&'

2. With two barbels (Bemlilisis) .

282 Barilius vagra, Ham. Buch. D. 9, A. 13-14, L. I. 42-45,
L. tr. 6£/4£. Indistinct vertical bars. Gangetic Provinces, to 5 inches
in length.

283. Barilius barila, Ham. Buch. Gilland and Caedra, Beng. :
Persee, Hind. D. 9, A. 13, L. 1. 43-46, L. tr. 6^/5. Fourteen or fifteen
vertical bars. Sind, Gangetic Provinces and Orissa, attaining 4 inches
in length.

284-. Barilius nigrofasciatus, Day. D. 9, A. 13, L. 1. 30, L. tr. 7.
Dark lateral bands. Pegu and Salwein Rivers. Does not appear to attain
an inch in length.

3. Without barbels (Barilius).

285. Barilius Bakeri, Day. D. 13, A. 16-17, L. 1. 38, L. tr. 9/4.
A row of large spots. Hill ranges of Travancore to six inches in
length.

286. Barilius Canarensis, Jerdon. D. 12, A. 15, L. 1. 38, L. tr«
9/4. Two rows of spots. Cauara, attaining 6 inches in length.

287. Barilius gatensis, Cuv. and Val. Aart cundee. "river carp,"
Tam. D. 10-11, A. 15-16, L. 1. 40, L. tr. 8/5. With fifteen vertical
bars. Western Ghats, Neilgherry Hills, and rivers around their bases.

288. Barilius tileo, Ham. Buch. Tilei, Assam. D. 10, A. 14, L. 1.
70, L. tr. 14/5. Two rows of spots. Eastern portion of the Himalayan
range and rivers in Assam, attaining 8 inches in length.

289. Barilius papillaris, Day. D. 10, A. 13-14, L. 1. 39, L. tr.
^M. From seven to nine vertical bauds. Orissa and neighbouring

provinces in Bengal, attaining 3 inches in length.

290. Barilius bola, Ham. Buch. Gool-lah, Panj. and N. W.
Prov. : Buggarah, Hind.: Korang, Assam: Bola, Beng.: Bugguah,
Ooriah. D. 10, A. 13, L. 1. 88, L. tr. »2». Two rows of blotches.

Panjab, North-West Provinces, Bengal, Orissa and Assam, attaining
a foot in length.

291. Barilius gutlatus, Day. Nga-la-wah, Burm. D. 9, A. 14,
L. 1. 44, L. tr. 9/5. Two rows of spots. Irrawaddi River, to 7 inches
in length.

292. Barilius barna, Ham. Buch. Balisundree, Assam : Bahri,
Ooriah. D. 9, A. 13, L. 1. 42, L. tr. §^9. Nine vertical bands. Gangetic

Provinces, Assam and Orissa, attaining 4 inches or more in length.

293. Barilius borelio, Ham. Buch. Boreli and Soli, Beng. D. 9,
A. 11, L. 1. 39, L. tr. 7/7. Silvery. Gangetic Provinces, to 4 inches
in length.

29J/,. Barilius hoalius, Ham. Buch. Hayali, Beng. D. 9, A. 10.
Uniform. Rivers of Northern Bengal, to 6 inches in length.

ccxcn

Genus — Danio, Ham. Buck. sp.

Perilampus, sp. McClell. : Paradanio, et Devario, Bleeker.

Body compressed. Pseudobranchice present. Mouth narrow, directed
obliquely upwards. Sub-orbitals broad. Barbels four, or two, or none : not
invariably constant in species. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, 5, 3, 2/2, 3, 5.
Dorsal Jin with a moderately elongated base: its posterior rays being opposite
to the anal, which is long. Scales of moderate size. Lateral line concave,
passing to the loioer half of the catidal fin. Gill-rakers short.

295. Danio devario, Ham. Buch. Khan-ge, Maal-le, Pnr-ran-dah,
Panj. : Chay-la-ree, Lower Sind : Da-bah and Duh-ri-e, N.-W. Prov. :
Debari, Beng. : Bonkuaso, Ooriah. D. 15-17, A. 17-19, L. 1. 41,
L. tr. 11/5. No barbels. Throughout India, except the Panjab and
south of the Kistua; it attains 4 inches in length.

296. Danio spinosus, Day. D. 15-16, A. 20, L. 1. 52, L. tr. 15/4.
No barbels, or only a short rostral pair. One or two spines on edge of
orbit. Pegu : to 4 inches in length.

297. Danio aurolineatus, Day. D. 14, A. 18, L. 1. 34-40, L. tr.
8/4. One pair of rostral barbels. South Malabar, to 3 inches in length.

298. Danio lineolatus, Blyth. D. 13, A. 17, L. 1. 33, L. tr. 7±/3.
Rostral and maxillary barbels. Sikkim and Darjeeling.

299. Danio dangila, Ham. Buch. D. 12-13, A. 17-18, L. 1. 38,
L. tr. 7/4^. Two pairs of long barbels. Darjeeling, Bengal, and Behar,
attaining 5 or 6 inches in length.

300. Danio chrysops, Cuv. and Val. D. 13, A. 20, L. 1. 45. No
barbels. Bengal.

301. Danio, Neilgherriensis, Day. Cowlie,Tam. D. 12-13, A. 13-14,
L. 1. 35, L. tr. 5z?. Rostral and sometimes maxillary barbels. Rivers on

Neilgherry Hills, to 3^ inches in length.

302. Danio osteographus, McClelland. D. 13, A. 16-17, L. 1.
35-37, L. tr. 7^/3. Rostral and usually maxillary barbels. India and
Ceylon, to 6 inches in length.

303. Danio aquipinnatus, McClelland. D. 12, A. 14-16, L. 1.
32-34, L. tr. 7/3^. Rostral and maxillary barbels. Base of Garrow
Hills, Assam.

B. A portion or the whole of the abdominal edge cutting.

Genus — Perilampus, McClelland.

Paradanio, sp. Day : Cachius et Eustira, Giinther.

Pseudobranchice present. Body oblong, compressed, with a cutting
abdominal edge. Mouth obliquely directed upwards. Barbels absent.
Pharyngeal teeth hooked, and in three rows, 5, 4 or 2, 2 or 1/1 or 2, 2
or 4, 5. Dorsal fin rather short, without any osseous ray, and commencing
opposite or behind the origin of the anal, which last has many rays. Scales
of moderate size. Lateral line concave, passing to the lower half of the
base of the caudal fin.

304,. Perilampus atpar, Ham. Buch. Mor-ri-ali, Panj. : Bi-dah,
Sind. : Bonkuaso, Ooriah : Kachhi, Beng. : Nga-man-dan, Ya-paw-nga, and
Nga-phyin-gyan, Burm. D. 9. A. 22-24, L. 1. 55, L. tr. 11/4. Greenish
with a silvery lateral band. Throughout India and Burma, attaining
4 inches in length.

CCXC111

305. Perilampus laubuca, Ham. Buch. Coon-che-li-e, North-
West Provinces : Dunnahrah, Hind. : Laynbuka and Dankena, "Beng\ :
Bankoe, Ooriah : Nga-me-loung, Burm. D. 11, A. 19-22, L. 1. 34,
L. tr. 7/5. A black mark above base of pectoral fin. Gangetic Pro-
vinces, Orissa and Burma, attaining 3 inches in length.

Genus — Chela, Ram. Bach.

Oxygaster, v. Hass. : Leuciscus, sp. Cuv. & Val. : Laubuca, Macro-
chirichthys et Paralaubuca, Bleeker.

Body rather elongated and compressed: abdominal edge cutting.
Pseudobranchia present. Mouth directed somewhat upwards, with the
lower jaw prominent, and generally having a knob above the symphysis.
Barbels absent. Pharyngeal teeth hooked, slender, and in 2 or 3 rows.
Dorsal fin short, without any osseous ray, situated principally or entirely
opposite the anal, which latter has an elongated base : pectorals long :
caudal forked. Scales of moderate or small size. Lateral line concave.

306. Chela Sladoni, Day. D. 10, A. 21, L. 1. 68, L. tr. 10/8.
The Irrawaddi River.

307. Chela argentea, Day. D. 9-10, A. 17-18, L. 1. 43-45, L. tr.
6|/3. Bowany and Cauvery Rivers in Madras, to 6 inches in length.

308. Chela bicaila, Ham. Buch. P?ir-rund, Panj.: Cun-da-lah,
Vounche, and Phar-ba-dan, Sind : Chel-liah and Charl, North-West
Provinces: Jellahri, Ooriah. D. 9, A. 14-15, L. 1. 90-110. Throughout
India except Malabar, attaining 6 inches in length.

309. Chela novacula, Val. I). 9, A, 17, L. 1. 60, L. tr. 15/3. India.

310. Chela flavipinnis, Jerdon. D. 9, A. 17-19, L. 1. 65, L. tr.
9/5. Cauvery and its branches.

311. Chela untrahi, Day. Untrahi, Ooriah. D. 9, A. 20, L. 1. 52,
L. tr. 7/5. Mahanuddee, to 5 inches in length.

312. Chela phulo, Ham. Buch. Bnng-ka-charl, Panj. : Muk-ka,
Sind : Phul-chela, Beng. : Dunnahree, Hind. D. 9, A. 20, L. 1. 87,
L. tr. 12/6. India, extending downwards to the Kistna River; it attains
4 inches in length.

313. Chela sardinella, Cuv. & Val. Nga-koon-nyat, Burm. D. 9,
A. 21, L. 1. 48, L. tr. 7^/4. Irrawaddi River, attaining 6 inches in length.

314.. Chela Panjdbensis, Day. Took, Panj. D. 9, A. 17, L. 1. ca.
110, L. tr. 12/9. Ravi River in the Panjab.

315. Chela alkootee, Sykes. D. 10, A. 10. Deccan, to 1 inch in
length.

316. Chela jorah, Sykes. D. 10, A. 11. Beema River near Pairgaon
in the Deccan.

317. Chela teekanee, Sykes. D. 10, A. 14. Beema River, attaining
2^ inches in length.

318. Chela gora, Ham. Buch. Boun-chi and Kundnl, Panj. :.
Phar-ri-e, Sind : Chel-li-ah, North West-Provinces : Chel-hul, Hind. :
Gora chela, Beng. : Hum-catchari, Ooriah. D. 10, A. 15, L. 1. 140-160.
Panjab, Gangetic Provinces, Assam, Orissa and Sind, attaining 8 inches
in length.

319. Chela clupeoides, Bloch. Netteli, Tam. D. 9-10, A. 14-15,
L. 1. 80, L. tr. 13^/6^. South of the Kistna River, attaining 6 inches
in length.

CCXC1V

Sub -Fa m ily — Hom alopterin.e, Me Clella nd.

(Air-vessel absent) .
Pseudobranchise absent. Branchial aperture vertical and narrow. Body elongated
and anteriorly depressed, having a broad smooth abdomen. Snout prominent, before
the mouth, which latter is small, transverse, central, inferior, and with fleshy
lips. Barbels present. Pharyngeal teeth in a single row, conical. Pectoral and
ventral fins horizontal, forming half discs. Body scaled. Air-vessel absent.

Genus — Homaloptera, v. Hass.

Balitora, Gray : Platycara, McClell.

Head and anterior part of body depressed : snout more or less spatu-
late. Mouth, small, inferior, with two pairs of rostral barbels, and one at
either angle of the mouth. Pharyngeal teeth small [from 5 to 15), and in
one row. Pectoral and ventral fins with many rays, the outer of which are
simple : dorsal short, situated opposite to the ventral : anal likewise short.

320. Homaloptera Brucei, Gray and Hard. Cul cundee, stone carp,
Tarn. D. 11. A. 7. L. 1. 70. Brown, blotched with darker. This fish is
found in the rivers of the Wynaad, attaining at least 3^ inches in length.

321. Homaloptera maczilata, Gray and Hard. D. 11, A. 7. L. 1.
70, L. tr. 10/7. Found in the Eastern Himalayas, from about.
Darjeeling, through Bootan, Assam and the Khasya Hills.

Sub- Family — Cobitidin-E.

Air-vessel present, partially, or entirely enclosed in a bony capsule conghina.

Pseudobranchise absent. Body elongated, oblong, compressed or cylindrical, but not de-
pressed. Eye with or without an erectile spine near the orbit. Snout and lips
fleshy. Mouth small, inferior, and furnished with from six to twelve barbels.
Pharyngeal teeth few and in one row. Vertical fins spineless ; dorsal with a varying
number of rays (8-30) : anal with few (7-8) : ventrals absent in one genus. Scales
small and cycloid when present, usually immersed in mucus. Lateral line single,
sometimes incomplete or absent. Air-vessel present, entirely or partially enclosed
in a bony capsule.

A. "With an erectile spine near the orbit.

Genus — Apua, Blyth.

Body elongated and compressed. A small, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital
spine. Bight barbels — one rostral, one maxillary, and two mandibular pairs.
Bursal fin in the posterior third of the body, but anterior to the anal :
ventral fins absent.

322. Apuafusca, Blyth, D. 8, A. 8. Pegu.

Genus — Acantrophthalmus, v. Hass.

Body elongated and compressed. A small erectile, bifid, sub-orbital
spine. Six barbels — one rostral, and two maxillary pairs. Dorsal fin situated
in the posterior third of the body, anterior to the anal, but behind the ventrals.

323. Acanthophthalmus p a tig i a, Ham.. Buch. Pangya,Beng.: Nga-
tha-lay-doh, Burm. P. 8, A. 7. Light cinnamon colour. North-East
Bengal and northern portions of Burma.

Genus — Acanteopsis, v. Hass.

Proslheacanthus, Blyth.

Body very elongated. Snout long and compressed. Barbels eight, two
being mandibular. A small bifid, erectile spine situated in advance of the
orbit. Dorsal fin opposite to the ventrals : caudal forked.

ecxcv

3<21t.. Acanthopsis choirorrhynchus , Bleeker. Nga-tha-lay-doh, Burm.
D. 12, A. 8. Upper portions of the Irrawaddi.

Genus — Cobitis, Artedi,

Somileptes, Bleeker.

Body elongated and compressed : dorsal profile nearly horizontal. Six
barbels, on the snout and upper jaw. A small, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital
spine. Dorsal fin inserted opposite to the ventral : caudal truncated or
rounded.

325. Cobitis gongota, Ham. Buch. D. 10, A. 8. Barbels short.
Assam.

326. Cobitis guntea, Ham. Buch. Kondaturi,nnd Gup-lcari, Ooriah :
Nga-tha-lay-doh, Burm. D. 8-9, A. 7. Barbels long. From Orissa,
through Bengal and Burma, also in the Bombay Presidency, attaining 4
inches in length.

Genus — Zepidocephalichthys, Bleeker.

Platacanthus, Day.

Body elongated and moderately compressed. Bight barbels, two of tohich

belong to the mandible. A large, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital spine. Dorsal

fin short, commencing opposite or nearly so to the ventral : the internal ray of

the pectoral fin may be modified into a fiat osseous spine : caudal truncated or

slightly emarginate.

327. Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Cuv. and Val. Assaree, Tam. :
Jubbi cowri, Ooriah : Bdlu, Hind. D. 9, A. 7. Dorsal 6lightly in
advance of ventral. Southern India, the Malabar Coast and Ceylon.

328. Lepidocephalichthys balgara, Ham. Buch. Jubbi coivri, Ooriah.
D. 8, A. 7. Dorsal not in advance of ventral. India generally.

Genus — Botia, Gray.

Hymenophysa, McClelland.

Body oblong, compressed, with the dorsal profile more or less convex.
Eyes with a free circular eyelid: a bifid, erectile, sub-orbital spine. Barbels
six to eight : when six, all are on the snout and upper jaw : if eight, the extra
pair are on the mandible. Dorsal fin commences anterior to the root of the
ventral : caudal forked. Air-vessel in two divisions, the anterior being
partially enclosed in a bony capsule, whilst the posterior portion is free in
the abdominal cavity.

329. Botia nebulosa, Blyth. D. 15, A. 7. Barbels six. Darjeeling.

330. Botia dario, Ham. Buch. Sahinga, Panj. : Buctea Hind. :
Shee-uharo, Sind. D. 13, A. 8. Barbels eight. Generally throughout
the rivers of India, except those of Madras : even in the Sind Hills.

331. Botia hymenophysa, Bleeker. Nga-tha-lay-doh and Shoay-
zagay, Burm. D. 11-15, A. 8. Barbels six. Upper portions of the
Irrawaddi.

332. Botia Almorhoe, Gray. D. ] 2, A. 8. Barbels eight. Almorah.
The Revd. W. Carleton informs that he has also procured it from a
stream at Kalka, 40 miles from Simla.

333. Botia rostrata, Gunther. D. 12, A. 8. Barbels eight.
Bengal and Assam.

CCXCY1

334. Botia Berdmorei, Blyth. D. 12, A. 7. Barbels eight. Tenas-
serim Provinces.

335. Botia histrionica, Blyth. D. 10, A. 7. Barbels eight. Pegu.

Genus — Jerdonia, Day.

Platacanlhus, sp. Day.

Body elongated and moderately compressed. Eight barbels, two of
which are mandibular. A free, erectile, bifid, sub-orbital spine. Dorsal fin
long ("27 branched rays) , commencing before the ventrals : the internal ray
of the pectoral fin modified into a flat osseous spine : caudal slightly
emarginate.

336. Jerdonia maculata, Day. D. 30, A. 9. Madras.

B. No erectile spine near the orbit.

Genus — Nemacheilus, v. Hass.

Acoura et Acourus, Swain. : Acanthocobitis, Peters.

Body elongated. Dorsal profile nearly horizontal. Barbels eight or
six: when the former, the extra pair belong to the posterior nostrils: none on
the mandibles. No spine on the head. Dorsal fin of moderate length, or
short, situated opposite the ventrals.

a. With eight barbels.

337. Nemacheilus Evezardi, Day. D. 17, A. 7. Greenish, with
small dark blotches. Poona.

b. With six barbels.

338. Nemacheilus pavonaceus, McClelland. D 15-17, A. 7. Body
with cross bands : caudal emarginate, with rounded angles. Assam
and Tenasserim Provinces.

339. Nemacheilus botia, Ham. Buch. Bil-turi, Assam: Soon-da-lee,
Panj. : Gool-ln-ah, North-West Provinces. D, 14, A. 7. Body irregu-
larly blotched. Caudal emarginate. Throughout India, except its most
southern portion.

34.0. Nemacheilus Bupelli, Sykes. D. 12-13, A. 8. Short bars on
body. Caudal emarginate. Poona.

34-1. Nemacheilus moreh, Sykes. D. 12, A. 7. Caudal wedge-
shaped. Deccan.

31$. Nemacheilus monocerosi McClelland. D. 12, A. 6. Caudal
rounded. Assam.

31$. Nemacheilus aureus, Day. D. 12, A. 7. Body blotched.
Caudal and dorsal fins barred. Caudal forked. Jubbulpur in the Central
Provinces.

344- Nemacheilus rupicola, McClelland. Zarreah, Gur-dun, and

Chi-fal, Panj. D. 10-11, A. 7. Eleven to seventeen brown bands wider

than the ground colour. Caudal forked. Himalayas, and from the Pan-

j£b through the North-Western Provinces, Bengal and Assam, attaining

3| inches length.

31$. Neynacheilus semiarmatus, Day. D. 11, A. 7. Irregular spots
and bars on body and fins. Caudal forked. Rivers along the base of the
southern slopes of the Neilgherry Hills in Madras.

CCXCV11

84-6. Nemacheilus zonaltemans, Blyth. D. 11, A. 7. Ten or eleven
vertical bands, with intermediate ones superiorly. Caudal entire.
Tenasserim Provinces.

34-7. Nemacheilus zonata,~MQC\e\\$\\\<\. D. 10, A. 6. Eleven to thir-
teen dark zones encircle the body, not half the width of the ground colour..
Caudal forked. Upper Assam, Bengal and North- West Provinces.

34-8. Nemacheilus subfuscus,~SlcC\e\\;xn&. D. 10, A. 7. Ten brown
zones encircle the body, wider than the ground colour. Caudal forked.
Upper Assam and Burma.

349. Nemacheilus sinuatus, Day. D. 10-11, A. 7. Vertical brown
bands, with shorter intermediate ones. Dorsal and caudal barred, the
latter fin cut square. Wynaad and Sind Hills.

350. Nemacheilus chlorosoma, McClelland. Wattara, Tel. D. 9, A.
7. A spotted dark line along middle of body. Caudal square. Kistna
River and Upper Assam.

351. Nemacheilus phoxocheila, McClelland (?). D. 11, A. 7. Assam.

352. Nemacheilus serpentarius, Day. D. 10, A. 7, L 1. 64. A dark
band from eye to dorsal fin. Some specimens in the Calcutta Museum.

353. Nemacheilus striatus, Day. Cul-irum and Cul-nakura, Tarn.
D. 10, A. 7. Numerous yellow bands. Caudal slightly forked. Wynaad,
attaining 3^ inches in length.

354- Nemacheilus mugah, Day. Mug ah, Beng. D. 9, A. 7-8.
Fifteen brown bands, one-third as wide as the ground colour. Caudal
forked. Midnapur, to ~l inches in length.

355. Nemacheilus notostigma, Bleeker (?). D. 10, A. 7-8. Blotched.
Caudal forked. Cauvery River above Trichinopoly, also (?) Ceylon.

356. Nemacheilus montanus, McClelland. Saant-alandZaalmutche,
Panj. D. 9-10, A. 7. Twelve vertical brown bands. Caudal forked.
Himalayas.

357. Nemacheilus spilopterus, Cuv. andVal. D. 9, A. 7. Eleven to
fifteen irregular bands. Caudal slightly emarginate. Himalayas and
Assam.

358. Nemacheilus savona, Ham. Buch. Savon-Ichor ka, Beng. D.
10-11, A. 7. Ten to twelve very narrow white bands. Caudal slightly
emarginate. Bengal.

359. Nemacheilus Beavani, Gunther. D. 10, A. 7. Dark bands
wider than interspaces. Caudal forked. Cossye River, to 2 inches in
length.

360. Nemacheilus Denisonii, Day. D, 10-11, A. 7. Nine to twelve
yellowish zones. Caudal forked. Neilgherry and Coorg Hills, and rivers
along their bases.

361. Nemacheilus triangularis, Day. D. 10, A. 7. Seven black-
edged bands. Caudal emarginate. Travancore Hills.

362. Nemacheilus Griffithii, Gunther. D. 10, A. 7. Marbled.
Caudal emarginate. Probably from Assam.

363. Nemacheilus corica, Ham. Buch. KhoriJca, Beng. : Chould-hi
and Taal-la-nah, Panj. D. 10, A. 7. About thirteen blotches along
the side. Caudal forked. Panjab, North-East Bengal and Assam.

364-. Nemacheilus Guentheri, Day. D. 10, A. 7. Reticulated with
brown. Caudal lobed. Rivers along the southern slopes of the Neil-
gherry Hills in Madras.

eoxcvm

365. Nemacheilus Blytldi, Day. D. 9, A. 7. Brownish. Caudal
forked. Two specimens in the Calcutta Museum.

366. Nemacheilus Bidanensis , McClelland. D. 9, A. 7. Caudal
rounded. Bootan, to 5 inches in length.

367. Nemacheilus rubripinnis, Jerdon. D. 8, A. 7. Nine vertical
bars. Caudal emarginate. Malabar.

368. Nemacheilus turio, Ham. Buch. D. 8 (10 ?), A. 7. Blotched.
Caudal emarginate. Assam.

369. Nemacheilus guttatus, McClelland. D. 8. Blotched. Caudal
entire. Upper Assam.

Genus — Misgurnus, Lacep.

Cobitichthys, Bleeker.

Body elongated and compressed. No sub-orbital spine. Ten or twelve
barbels, four being on the mandible. Dorsal fin arising opposite the ventrals.
Caudal rounded.

370. Misgurnus lateralis, Giinther. D. 10, A. 8. Barbels ten.
Body longitudinally banded, a black spot on base of caudal. Attains
above 3 inches in length. Bengal.

Family — C l u p e i d .e , Cuv.

Gill-openings usually very wide. Pseudobranchiae large (except in Megalops).
Abdomen compressed into a serrated edge or else smootb. Opercular pieces four.
Margin of tbe upper jaw formed mesially by tbe inter-maxillaries, laterally by
tbe maxillaries, wbicb are composed of tbree pieces, tbese are sometimes moveable.
Barbels absent. Dorsal fin witb a few or moderate number of rays, no adipose
fin ; anal sometimes witb an elongated base. Scales on body, none on tbe bead.
Stomacb witb a blind sac. Pyloric appendages numerous. Air-vessel more or
less simple.

A. Abdomen with a compressed, serrated edge.

Genus — Clupea, sp. Artedi.

Sardinella, Harengula, Rogenia, Clupeonia, Spratella, Kowala, Me-
letta, et Alausa, Val. : Clupalosa, Bleeker : Alausella, Pomolobus, Opis-
thonema, Brevoortia, Gill : Sardinia, Poey.

Body compressed : the serrature of the abdomen extending forwards
into the thoracic region. Upper jaw not projecting beyond the lower. Teeth,
when present, deciduous and rudimentary. Dorsal fin situated opposite
the ventral: anal of moderate or long extent : caudal forked. Scales large,
of moderate and more rarely of small size.

371. Clupea variegata, Day. Nga-la-bee, Burm. D. 15, A. 29,
L. 1. 90. Anterior scales irregularly, posterior regularly arranged.
A dark humeral spot. A row of about 18 bars across the back. Dorsal
with a black band in the lower portion of its posterior half: caudal
black-tipped. Irrawaddi and its branches, up to 7 inches in length.

372. Clupea c/tapra, Ham. Buch. Sou-e and Hilsa, Panj. : Pul-loo-
ree, Chu-chee, Sind. D. 15, A. 21-22, L. 1. 80. Scales regularly ar-
ranged, except over the abdomen. A dark humeral spot. Rivers and
tanks in their vicinity throughout India as low as the Kistna. It attains
6 or 7 inches in length.

373. Clupea palasah, Cuv. and Val. Pulla throughout the Indus
Oolum, Tarn. : Pulasa, Tel. : Hilsa and Ilisha, Ooriah and Beng.

CCXC1X

Nga-tha-louk, Bnrm. : "sable fish" Trichinopoly. D. 18-19, A. 19, L. 1,
45-49, L. tr. 17. This fish, a shad, ascends all the large rivers of India
and Burma during the S. W. or N. E. monsoons for breeding purposes.

Genus — Corica, Ham. Buck.
Clupeoides, Bleeker.

Body oblong, moderately compressed. Abdominal serrature generally
commences behind the ventral fins. Lower jaw longer than the upper. Teeth
rudimentary and deciduous. Dorsal Jin situated opposite the ventral:
anal of moderate extent, its last rays may be detached.

374- Corica soborna, Ham. Buch. Culwal-alise and Godhaee,
Ooriah. D. 16, A. 13 + 2, L.l. 40, L. tr. 9. Mahanuddee River, up to 2
inches in length.

Genus — Pellona, Cuv. fy Val.

Branchiostegals six. Body rather elongate and strongly compressed :
thoracic and abdominal edges serrated. Motith of moderate size : upper jaw
generally emarginate and shorter than the lower. Fine teeth in the jaws,
palatine and pterygoid bones, also on the tongue, but none on the vomer.
Dorsal fin medial : ventrals small, inserted anterior to the dorsal : anal
elongated. Scales large, or of moderate size, rarely small.

375. Pellona Sladeni, Day. Nga-zen-bya, Burm. D. 13, A. 44, L. 1.
48, L. tr. 10. Caudal black edged. Irrawaddi River, certainly above
Mandalay, attaining 7 inches in length.

Genus — Engraulis, Cuv.

Clupea, sp. et Stolephorus, Lacep. : Thrissa, Cuv.

Branchiostegals short, rather numerous. Gill-openings wide, the
membrane connecting them short, leaving the isthmus uncovered. Body
oblong or elongated and compressed. Cleft, of motith lateral, snout conical as
a rule, the tipper, but as an exception the lower jaw may be the longer. Inter -
maxillaries small, concealed: maxillaries of varying length, but alivays long,
and with a membranous attachment to the cheeks. Teeth small, sometimes of
unequal size, usually present on the jaivs, vomer, palatine and pterygoid
bones. The dorsal fin may be in advance of or posterior to the origin of the
anal : the upper pectoral rays may or may not be prolonged : anal of mode-
rate or great extent. Scales large or of moderate size.

376. Engraulis purava, Ham. Buch. Pussai, Ooriah. D. 13-14, A.
43-50, L. 1. 46, L. tr. 12. This fish ascends tidal rivers, and frequently
is found in fresh-water tanks to which inundations have extended.

377. Engraulis taty, Ham. Buch. D. 13-15, A. 51-56, L. 1. 42-46,
L. tr. 12. Found in the same localities as the last, but not so commonly.

378. Engraulis telara. Ham. Buch. Tampara, Ooriah : Pencha,
Beng. : Nga-hta-yawet, Burm. D. 13, A. 70-78, L. 1. 52-55, L. tr. 14.
Found in the whole exent of the Ganges, Jumna, Brahmaputra, Maha-
nuddee and Irrawaddi Rivers.

Genus — Chatoessus, Cuv. 8f Val.

Branchiostegals from four to six. Body oval, short, deep, and moder-
ately compressed, with a cutting serrated abdominal edge. Eyes with lateral
adipose lids. Snout overhanging a narrow transverse mouth. The superior
combs of the first branchial arches unite with those of the opposite side

ccc

forming two angles, one pointing forwards, the other backwards, the fourth
branchial arch having an accessory respiratory organ. Teeth absent. A
single-rayed dorsal fin, having the posterior ray prolonged in some species:
ventrals in front of or below dorsal fin : anal posterior to the dorsal, elongated :
caudal forked.

379. Chatoessus modestus, Day. D. 16, A. 28, L. 1. 47, L. tr. 17.
Last dorsal ray not prolonged. Uniform colour. Scales regularly ar-
ranged. Irrawaddi and its branches, to 51 inches in length.

380. Chatoessus manviina, Ham. Bueh. Mackundi, Ooriah. D. 14,
A. 21-24, L. 1. 58-60, L. tr. 22. Large rivers and tanks of Assam,
Orissa and Gangetic Provinces, attaining 8 inches in length.

B. Abdomen without a serrated edge.

Genus — Megalofs, (Commers) , Lacep.

Branchiostegals numerous : pseudobranchia absent. Body oblong,
compressed. Abdomen rounded. Snout obtusely conical. Mouth anterior,
lower jatv prominent. A narrow osseous lamella adherent to the symphysis
of the mandibles, covering the intermediate part, between the two bones.
Gill-membranes separated. Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer , palatine and
pterygoid bones, likewise on the tongue and on the base of the skull. A
single dorsal opposite the ventrals.

381. Megalops cyprinoides, Brouss. Cunnay, Mai, : Punnikowu and
Naharm, Ooriah : Nga-tan-youet, Burm. D. 18-20, A. 24-27, L. 1. 37-42,
L. tr 6/6. Throughout tanks along the coasts of India and Burma.

Family — Notopteeimi.

Pseudobranchise absent. Body compressed. Tail prolonged, tapering. Margin of the
upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries mesially, and the maxillaries laterally.
Barbels absent. Opercular apparatus incomplete. A parieto-mastoid cavity on
either side, leading into the interior of the skull. A single-rayed dorsal fin,
belonging to the caudal portion of the vertebral column : anal veiy long. Head
and body scaled. Stomach without blind sac : two pyloric appendages. Air-
vessel present, and divided in its interior. The ova fall into the cavity of the
abdomen before exclusion.

Genres — Notopterus, (Lacep.), Cuv. fy Val.

Mystus, sp. Ham. Bueh.

Branchiostegals from three to nine. Gill-membranes partly united.
Snout obtuse, convex. Muciferous channels on head well developed. Cleft
of mouth lateral, not deep. Maxilla formed of a single bone', and articulated
to the inter -maxillary. Loioer margin of pre-opercle serrated, likewise some of
the other bones of the head. Sub-opercle absent. Teeth in both jaws of
irregular sizes, also on vomer , palatines , pterygoid, and sphenoid bones, and
in two rows on the tongue. A dorsal rfn present (Notopterus) , or absent
(Xenomystus) : anal fin long, united to the caudal. Ventrals, when present,
rudimentary and united together. Scales small. Abdomen serrated along
its margin. Lateral line distinct. Muciferous channels on head well
developed. Air-vessel sub-divided internally, and ending in front in two
horns, the anterior of which is in immediate connection with the auditory
organs : posteriorly it ends in two branches divided from one another by the
hcemal spines. Intestines short. Cacal pylori long.

CCC1

38%. Notoplerus kapiral, Bonn. Moh, But, and Pur- ri, Pauj. : Moh,
N. W. Prov. : Ambutan-wahlah , " Barber's knife," Tain. : Wallah tattah,
Mysore : Pulli, " a slice," Ooriah : Nga-hpeh, and Nga-phe, Burm. D. 9,
A. 100-108, L. r. 225. Throughout the fresh-waters of India and Burma,
attaining 2 feet or more in length.

383. Notoplerus chitala, Ham. Buch. Gundun, Sind : Chitul,
Ooriah: Chitala, Beng. D. 8-10, A. 110-125, L. 1. 180. Upper pro-
file of head concave. Rivers and tanks of Sind, Lower Bengal, and
Orissa, attaining several feet in length.

Family — Symbranchid.e.

Symbranchii, Muller.

Gill-openings confluent into a single slit, which is situated on the ahdominal surface.
Body elongated. Margin of the upper jaw formed by the inter-maxillaries, the
maxillaries being internal and parallel to them. Barbels absent. Vertical fins
as mere folds of the skin, and no paired ones. Scales, if present, minute. Vent
far posterior to the head. Air-vessel absent. Ribs present. Stomach destitute of
blind sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries with ovi-ducts.

Genus — AMFRlPNOUiS, Muller.

Pneumabranchus, McClelland.

Gill-membranes almost entirely adherent to the isthmus. Three branchial
arches having rudimentary lamina, and with narrow slits between them.
An air-sac communicates with the gill-cavity . Palatine teeth in a single row.
Scales on body small, longitudinally arranged.

384-. Amphipnous cuchia. Ham. Buch. Cuchia, Ooriah and Bong. :
Nga-sheen, Barm. Found in the Lower Provinces of Bengal, Orissa,
Burma, and along the coast, attaining 2 feet or more in length.

Family — S ymbranchus, Block.

Unibranchapertura, Lacep. : Ophistemon, McClelland : Tetrabranchus,

Bleeker.

Gill-membranes not adherent to the isthmus. Four branchial arches with the gills well
developed : no air-sac accessory to the gill-cavity. Palatine teeth in a band
Scales absent.

385. Symbranchus Bevgalensis, McClelland. Lower Provinces of
Bengal, and coast districts of India.

Family — Mur-ENID.e.

Body elongated, cylindrical or band shaped. Margin of the upper jaw formed anteriorly
by the inter-maxillaries, which are more or less coalescent with the vomer aud
ethmoid, whilst laterally the sides of the jaw are formed by the maxillaries
Vertical fins, when present, confluent or separated by a projecting tail: no ventrals.
Scales rudimentary or absent. Vent far posterior to the head. Stomach with a blind
sac. No pyloric appendages. Ovaries destitute of ovi-ducts.

Genus — Angtjilla, Cuv.

Murmia, sp. Artedi : Torpolepis, pt., McClelland.

Gill-openings narrow, situated near the base of the pectoral fins. Upper
aw not projecting beyond the lower. Teeth small, in bands. Dorsal Jin

cccn

commences at some distance from the head: pectorals present. Scales small
and imbedded in the skin.

386. Anguilla labiata, Peters. Pa-lug-dah, Andam. Fresh-waters
of Andaman Islands.

387. Anguilla Bengalensis, Gray. Generally distributed through-
out India, attaining a large size.

388. Anguilla bicolor, McClelland. Lower Provinces of Bengal,
Orissa, and Madras.

389. Anguilla virescens, Peters. Jee-tah-dah, Andam. Fresh-
waters of Andaman Islands.

Order— LOPHOBRANCHII, Guv.

Fishes possessed of a dermal, segmental skeleton, with the opercular pieces
reduced to a single plate. Gill-opening small. Muscular system
very slightly developed. Gills composed of small rounded tufts
attached to the branchial arches. Snout produced. Mouth ter-
minal and small. Teeth absent. Air-vessel stated to be destitute
of a pneumatic duct.

" In most of the species the males perform the function of hatching
the eggs, which for that purpose are deposited, up to the time of the
evolution of the young, either between the ventrals (Solenostomus), or
in tail pouches (Hippocampus), or in pouches on the breast and belly
(Doryrhamphus), or in rows on the breast and belly (Nerophis), and are
thus carried about by the fish. The egg-pouches may be compared to
birds' nests, or to the skin-fold in which the wandering Penguin (Apte-
nodytes Patagonicus) transports its eggs : and remind one of the Mar-
supials amongst the mammals." — Kaup.

Family-— Syngnathid.ze.

Gill-openings round, small, and situated at the posterior-superior angle of the gill-cover.
A single dorsal fin : ventrals and occasionally one or more of the other fins
absent.

Genus — Ichthyocampus, Kaup.

The edges of the concave back and tail are continuous, and are con-
tinued, although sometimes very indistinctly , to the caudal fin. Dorsal fin
opposite or nearly so to the vent : pectorals and caudal present. Egg-pouch
in the males on the tail, having a cutaneous covering.

390. Ichthyocampus carce, Ham. Buch. D. 23-26. Rings 15-16
+ 38-40. This pipe-fish ascends rivers of Malabar and Bengal; it
attains 5 inches in length.

Genus — Doryighthys, Kaup.

DoryrhamphtiSyCharoichthys, et Microphis, Kaup. : Belonichthys, Peters.

Ridges well developed on the body. Humeral bones firmly united.
Dorsal fin of moderate extent or long, situated opposite the vent. Lateral
line interrupted or continued to the lower edge of the tail.

391. Doryichthys cunculus, Ham. Buch. Kunnur-dant, "Crocodile's
tooth," Ooriah. D. 50. Rings 17-18 + 25-27. Found ascending the
rivers of Malabar and Bengal.

ccciii

392. Doryichthys Bleekeri,Day. D. 41-45, Rings 20 + 23. Malabar,
ascending rivers.

Order— PLECTO GNATHI.

Fishes with the bones of the head completely ossified, whilst those in the
remainder of the body are incompletely so : vertebra? few. Gill-
openings narrow, situated in front of the pectoral fins : gills pectinate.
Head generally large. Mouth narrow : the bones of the upper jaw
mostly united, sometimes produced into the form of a beak. Teeth
may be distinct in the jaws, or absent. There may be a single soft
dorsal appertaining to the caudal portion of the vertebral column and
situated opposite the anal : in some a rudimentary spinous dorsal is
also present : ventrals, when existing, being in the form of spines.
Skin smooth, with rough scales, or ossified in the form of plates or
spines. Air-vessel destitute of a pneumatic duct.

Family— Gymnodontid.e.

Bones of upper and lower jaw form a beak, having a cutting edge, and covered
with a layer of ivory-like substance, in which a median suture may be present
or absent. A soft dorsal, caudal, and anal exist, but no spinous dorsal : pectorals
present : ventrals absent.

Genus — Xenopterus, Bibron.

Chonerinus, Bleeker.

Jaws divided by a median suture. Nostrils funnel-shaped, having
fringed tnargins. Dorsal and anal fins long. Body more or less covered
with fine dermal spines having a double or treble root. They are able to
inflate their bodies with air, and float on the water, abdomen uppermost .

393. Xenopterus naritus t Richardson. D. 25-26, A. 23-25. Of a
yellow colour. Found throughout the Burmese rivers far above tidal
influence. It attains a considerable size, and is used as food.

Genus — Tetrodon, Li

nn.

Bach broad or compressed into a ridge. Jaws divided by a median
suture. When a conspicuous nasal organ exists, there may be two on
either side in a papilla (Telraodon, Bleeker) : or only a single tubular
nasal opening on either side (Crayracion, Bleeker) : or an imperforate
nasal cavity with a fringed margin (body spiny) (Chelonodon, Miiller^:
or a simple round nasal cavity [body smooth) (Monotrelus, Bib.) ; or
two imperforate nasal tentacles on either side (Arothron, Mull.) :
or if invisible , and bach is compressed into a keel (Anosmius, Peters).
Dorsal and anal fins short. Body wholly or partially covered by fitie
dermal spines, which, however, may be entirely absent. There may be a
more or less distinct fold along the lower part of the tail (if nasal organs
are very distinct) (Gaslrophysus, MiillerJ : if there is no such fold (but
distinct nasal organs and spiny body) (Cheilichthys, Muller^ : or should the
fold be absent and the skin smooth (Liosaccus, Giinther).

394- Tetrodon cutcutia, Ham. Buch. Teepah-benki, Ooriah. A
simple round nasal cavity. Body smooth. Brownish lines forming a
net- work on the sides of the body, whilst a large black ocellus margined

CCCIV

with white exists on the side. Mouths of the Ganges, Irrawaddi, and
other large rivers, ascending far above tidal influence.

395. Tetrodon fluviatilis, Ham. Buch. Two imperforate nasal
tentacles on either side. Body nearly smooth. Superiorly greenish-
yellow,with vermiculated blackish lines, becoming white below : there
are also irregular black spots and blotches. Large rivers of India and
Burma, far above tidal influence.

396. Tetrodon patoca, Ham. Buch. Bheng-pulli, Ooriah : Nga-boo-
din, Burm. An imperforate nasal cavity with a fringed margin. Body
6piny. Light brown above with whitish spots, becoming silvery below.
Large rivers of India and Burma, far above tidal reach.

Sub-class— CHONDROPTERYGII.

Skeleton cartilaginous : no cranial sutures. Rarely a single
gill-opening, as the gills by their outer edges are attached
to the skin, and there exists an intervening gill-opening
between each : no gill-cover. Three series of valves at
the bulbus arteriosus. Optic nerves although united
do not decussate. Body with vertical and paired fins,
the posterior pair abdominal : caudal with an upper
lobe, which is elongated. Intestines with a spiral valve.
Male sex with prehensile organs attached to the vertical
fins. Ovaries containing large ova which are fertilised,
and in some likewise developed internally. Embryo with
external deciduous gills. No air-vessel.

Order— PL A GIO STOMA TA.

Body more or less cylindrical, or depressed : the trunk may or may not
pass into the tail. .From five to seven gill-openings, which may be
lateral or inferior. Jaws distinct from the skull.

Sub-Order— SELACH01DEI, OR SHARKS.

Body more or less cylindrical, gradually merging into the tail.
Gill-openings lateral.

Family — Carch ARIID.E.

The snout may be produced longitudinally (Carchariinse or true sharks) : or laterally
(Zyfsenina or hammer-beaded sharks). Spiracles absent or present Eye with
a nictitating membrane. A small pit may or may not exist above the root of the
tail, and a second bebind the angle of the mouth may be present or absent. Mouth
crescentic, inferior. Teeth may be erect or oblique, with a single cusp, hav-
ing sharp, smooth, or serrated edges : or they may be small, the cusps being
obsolete : or with one in the centre, or one or two lateral ones : or even obtuse.
The first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, is placed opposite the interspace between
the pectoral and ventral : anal fin present.

Genus — Carch arias, Hull, and Ilenle.

No spiracles. A pit above the root of the caudal Jin. Snout longi-
tudinally produced. Mouth crescentic : the labial fold or groove rarely

cccv

extends beyond the angle of the month. Teeth toith a sharp triangular cusp,
sometimes dilated. The first dorsal fin, destitute of a spine, is placed
opposite the interspace between the pectoral and ventral : caudal with a
distinct lower lobe.

397. Carcharias Gangelicus, Mull, and Henle. TeethJ^™. Of a

grey colour. This savage ground-shark ascends all the large rivers of
India and to above tidal influence; it attains 5 feet in length.

Sub-Order— BAT 01 DEI, OR RAYS.

Body depressed, forming, due to largely developed pectoral

fins, a more or less flat disc, and having a thin and

slender tail. Spiracles present. Gill-openings in five

pairs, inferior. Dorsal fin, when present, on the tail :

anal absent.

Family— Pristid^;.

Snout much produced, flattened, and having a saw-like appearance, due to large teeth
existing along its lateral edges.

Genus — Pristis, Latham.

Body elongate and depressed. Gill-openings inferior and of moderate
width. Spiracles wide and posterior to the eye, which latter has no nic-
titating membrane. Nos'rits inefrior, without tentacles. Teeth minute.
Dorsal fins spineless : the first quite or nearly opposite to the ventrals : front
edge of pectoral free.

398. Pristis cnspidalus, Latham. Mahanuddi and Irrawaddi
Rivers, ascending far above tidal influence.

Family — Try g o n t d m.

Body flattened and disc-shaped, with a long and slender tail. Pectoral fins are conti-
nued forwards anteriorly and laterally to'the end of the snout. No lateral longi-
tudinal folds to the tail. Vertical fins, if present, in the form of a serrated spine.

Genus — TRYGON, Adanson.

Nasal valves coalesce and form a triangular flap. Teeth flattened.
Pectorals continued forwards to the lateral edge of the snout. Tail long,
whip-like, either destitute of any fin, or with cutaneous folds, which do
not extend its entire length : armed superiorly with one or two serrated,
lanceolate spines. Body smooth or luberculated.

399. Trygon uarnak, Forsk. Sankush, Ooriah. Ascends rivers,
often above tidal influence.

4-00. Try-on sephen, Forsk. This species is also frequently captured
above the influence of the tides.

CCCV1

ON PRESERVING SPECIMENS OF EISH.

431. The best mode of preparing- speeimens of fish for scientific

~ L. purposes is in spirit,* having the following

On making preparations of -j , , m ,-, , .-, °

fislj, & advantages over stuffing- — that they are

more adapted for examination, are carried

with greater ease, and are less subject to injury whilst en route.

432. For preserving fish in spirit, the following five considerations
Preserving fish in spirit. should be attended to— (1) the spirit; (2)

the receptacles for the specimens ; (3) the
selecting and preparing the fish; (4) the treatment of the specimens
as regards how they are to be placed in spirit, their labelling, and their
packing ; (5) what fish there are for which this process is uusuited.

1st. — The spirit. — I prefer the methylated alcohol, it being unsuit-
ed for drinking, and consequently less chance of being tamper-
ed with. But bazar arrack, or any spirit which will burn on
the application of fire, and be entirely consumed, is of sufficient
strength for the preservation of fish. On this spirit becoming
too impure for use, it can be re-distilled.

2/id. — The receptacle for the specimens. — These for collectors (in con-
tradistinction to the glass jars or bottles required in muse-
ums) are of two kinds : — tins with screw lids, and glazed
earthenware jars wTith cork bungs, each having its advantages
and disadvantages. Tin cans are made at Calcutta of any size,
fitting wooden collecting boxes. The following I have found
useful : — a strong iron-bound wooden box, with a lid having
hinges and a hasp for a padlock, 16 inchesdiigh, 14 broad,
and 12 wide (inside measure), receiving two cans which accurate-
ly fit it. Each of these cans has an opening into which is
soldered a brass female screw of 4 inches in diameter; a
moveable top screws into this orifice (cost about Us. 30). The
disadvantage of the cans are that no means of evaporation
existing, the spirit is liable to become much heated during the
hot weather, to the great injury of the specimens whilst travel-
ling. The advantages are that there is no leakage, whilst each
tin, if so desired, can be singly carried by a cooly without any
chance of breakage. The glazed earthenware jars with cork
bungs are very well adapted for specimens, and spirit keeps
much cooler in them than in tin cans. The disadvantages are
that the bungs may leak, or the jars become broken ; they
require bladdering, and also painting or varnishing over the
bladder to render them secure. Small bottles well wrapped up
in rag are exceedingly useful, put inside tins or jars for the

* I omit weak solutions of carbolic acid, as we have yet to ascertain what
pioportions will he most suitable for them to stand the rough usage of Indian transit,
a- well as how long they will keep.

CCCV11

purpose of protecting small specimens, or small perforated tin
boxes would answer the same purpose.

3rd. — Choosing and preparing the specimens. — Fish need not be
above 6 or 8 inches in length, unless of an eel-like shape,
when they should be twice that length ; care must be taken
to obtain them fresh ; a long slit should be made up their ab-
domeus, the intestines, except the air-bladder, removed, and
the abdominal cavity well washed out. If it is desired to
preserve the intestines, they should be carefully and gently
smeared over with a thin layer of arsenical paste. Shai'ks,
rays, and skates should never be less than 10 inches in length
excluding the tail, whilst larger ones should be skinned, care
being taken not to injure the jaws or the teeth.

■ith. — The treatment of the specimen after it has been prepared. —
The first thing to be done to every specimen, whilst moving
about, is to attach a distinguishing mark to it. This may be
accomplished by appending a piece of tin having a number
scratched upon it, or a bit of parchment on which one has been
inscribed in indelible ink (or even in common dark ink if allowed
to thoroughly dry previous to being put in the spirit). The
locality where taken, and the native name when procurable,
should be invariably recorded. The specimens may now be
placed inside the first or soaking jar, or tin can full of spirit,
being careful that the fish should not fill up above half of the
receptacle in hot weather, or two-thirds in the cold season.
Here they may be left to soak for six or eight days, and then
be removed, washed, and placed in a second or intermediate jar
of clean spirit, from whence they may be finally removed after
ten days' soaking. Each must now (about 16 or 18 days after
capture, according to their size) be rolled up securely in rag, and
packed tightly in a case of fresh spirit. In rolling specimens
up in rag, no two should touch each other. Unless thus
secured, their fins will be destroyed when marching, their scales
rubbed off, and most probably they will be irretrievably ruined.
The spirit in the first and second jars can be used several times
over for the first process in fish-soaking; when it becomes
cloudy and dirty, it should be re-distilled.

bth. — The specimens for which this process is unsuited are the larger
fish, as it is presumed the collector will not carry a cask of
spirits in order to secure them. Large sharks, rays, and skates
it is intended to keep, should be skinned and preserved by
means of arsenical soap, and well soaked in turpentine. The
mode of skinning fish is too well known to require detailing
here.

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