GQuvOgssaug

bu

zs
ars
2 }
Pa
i og
g
a

4

_

ve.

PO Rae

ae be

LANDS OF THE ARID REGION

Or THE

UNTER D STATES,

WITH A

MORE DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE LANDS OF UTAH.

WDE MAUR S.

Tower Ow ET T..
. ERNHSONIAN

APR 06 1988
LIBRARIES,

SECOND EDITION.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
BBS) 1/5

CONGRESSTOF THE UNITED STaTEs (3D SEsston),
Ingrur House or REPRESENTATIVES,
March 3, 1879.
The following resolution, originating in the House of Representatives, has this day been con-
_ eurred in by the Senate: F

Resolved, by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed five thou-
sand copies of the Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States, by J. W. Powell; one
thousand for the use of the Senate, two thousand for the use of the House of Representatives, and two
thousand for the use of the Department of the Interior. : |

Attest:

GEO. M. ADAMS, Clerk. |

J. W. POWELL’S REPORT ON SURVEY OF THE ROCKY
MOUNTAIN REGION.

DETER

FROM

THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR,

TRANSMITTING

Report of J. W. Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical
and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands of
the Arid Region of the United States.

APRIL 3, 1878.—Referred to the Committee on Appropriations and ordered to be printed.

DrePARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
Wasuineton, D. C., April 3, 1878.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.
Powell, geologist in charge of the United States Geographical and Geolog-
ical Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, upon the lands of the Arid
Region of the United States, setting forth the extent of said region, and
making suggestions as to the conditions under which the lands embraced
within its limit may be rendered available for agricultural and grazing
purposes. With the report is transmitted a statement of the rainfall of the
western portion of the United States, with reports upon the subject of
irrigation by Capt. C. E. Dutton, U.S. A., Prot. A. TH. Thompson, and Mr.
G. K. Gilbert. .

Herewith are also transmitted draughts of two bills, one entitled ‘A

bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settie-

iii

iv LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

ments on the public lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only”,
and the other “A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts
by homestead settlements upon the public lands requiring irrigation for
agricultural purposes”, intended to carry into effect a new system for the
disposal of the public lands of said region, and to promote the settlement
and development of that portion of the country.

In view of the importance of rendering the vast extent of country
referred to available for agricultural and grazing purposes, I have the honor
to commend the views set forth by Major Powell and the bills submitted
herewith to the consideration of Congress.

Very respectfully,
C. SCHURZ,
Secretary.
Hon. Samvurt J. RanDAtu,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, GENERAL LAND OFFICE,
Wasninaton, D. C., April 1, 1878.
Str: I have the honor to submit herewith a report from Maj. J. W.

Powell, in charge of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky
Mountains, in regard to the Arid Region of the United States, and draughts
of two bills, one entitled ‘A bill-to authorize the organization of pasturage
districts by homestead settlements on the public lands which are of value
for pasturage purposes only”, and the other “A pill to authorize the organ-
ization of irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public
lands requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes”.

Major Powell reviews at length the features of, and furnishes statistics
relative to, the Arid Region of the United States, which is substantially the
territory west of the one hundredth meridian and east of the Cascade
Range, and the bills named are intended, if passed, to carry into effect the
views expressed in his report for the settlement and development of this
region.

He has, in the performance of his duties in conducting the geological

and geographical survey, been over much of the country referred to, and

LETTERS OF TRANSMITTAL. V

is qualified by observation, research, and study to speak of the top. graphy,
characteristics, and adaptability of the same.

I have not been able, on account of more urgent official duties, to give
Major Powell’s report and proposed bills the careful investigation necessary,
in view of their great importance, to enable me to express a decided opinion
as to their merits. Some change is necessary in the survey and disposal
of the lands, and I think his views are entitled to great weight, and would
respectfully recommend that such action be taken as will bring his report
and bills before Congress for consideration by that body.

Very respectfully,

J. A. WILLIAMSON,

Commissioner.
Hon. C. Scuurz,
Secretary of the Interior.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR,
U.S. GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION,
WasuinetTon, D. C., April 1, 1878.

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the lands of
the Arid Region of the United States. After setting forth the general facts
relating to the conditions under which these lands must be utilized, I have
taken the liberty to suggest a system for their disposal which I believe
would be adapted to the wants of the country.

I wish to express my sincere thanks for the assistance you have given
me in the collection of many of the facts necessary to the discussion, and
especially for the aid you have rendered in the preparation of the maps.

Permit me to express the hope that the great interest you take in the
public domain will be rewarded by the consciousness that you have assisted
many citizens in the establishment of farm homes thereon.

I am, with great respect, your obedient servant,
J. W. POWELL,
In charge U.S. G. and G. Survey Rocky Mountain Region.

Hon. J. A. WILLIAMSON,
Commissioner General Land Office, Washington, D. C.

PREFACE.

It was my intention to write a work on the Public Domain. The
object of the volume was to give the extent and character of the lands yet
belonging to the Government of the United States. Compared with the
‘whole extent of these lands, but a very small fraction is immediately
available for agriculture; in general, they require drainage or irrigation for
their redemption.

It is true that in the Southern States there are some millions of acres,
chiefly timber lands, which at no remote time will be occupied for agricul-
tural purposes. Westward toward the Great Plains, the lands in what I
have, in the body of this volume, termed the Humid Region have passed

from the hands of the General Government. ‘lo this statement there are

some sinall exceptions here and there—tractional tracts, which, for special
reasons, have not been considered desirable by persons in search of lands
for purposes of investment or occupation.

In the Sub-humid Region settlements are rapidly extending westward
to the verge of the country where agriculture is possible without irrigation.

In the Humid Region of the Columbia the agricultural lands are
largely covered by great forests, and for this reason settlements will pro-
gress slowly, as the lands must be cleared of their timber.

The redemption of the Arid Region involves engineering problems
requiring for their solution the greatest skill. In the present volume only
these lands are considered. Had I been able to execute the original plan
to my satisfaction, I should have treated of the coast swamps of the South
Atlantic and the Gulf slopes, the Everglade lands of the Floridian Penin-
sula, the flood plain lands of the great rivers of the south, which have here-

vii

vill LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

tofore been made available only to a limited extent by a system of levees,
and the lake swamp lands found about the headwaters of the Mississippi
and the region of the upper Great Lakes. All of these lands require
either drainage or protection from overflow, and the engineering problems
involved are of diverse nature. These lands are to be redeemed from
excessive humidity, while the former are to be redeemed from excessive
aridity. When the excessively humid lands are redeemed, their fertility is
almost inexhaustible, and the agricultural capacity of the United States
will eventually be largely increased by the rescue of these lands from their
present valueless condition. In like manner, on the other hand, the arid
lands, so far as they can be redeemed by irrigation, will perennially yield
bountiful crops, as the means for their redemption involves their constant
fertilization.

To a great extent, the redemption of all these lands will require exten-
sive and comprehensive plans, for the execution of which aggregated capi-
tal or coéperative labor will be necessary. Here, individual farmers, being
poor men, cannot undertake the task. For its accomplishment a wise
prevision, embodied in carefully considered legislation, is necessary. It was
my purpose not only to consider the character of the lands themselves, but
also the engineering problems involved in their redemption, and further to
make suggestions for the legislative action necessary to inaugurate the
enterprises by which these lands may eventually be rescued from their
present .worthless state. When I addressed myself to the broader task as
indicated above, I found that my facts in relation to some of the classes of
lands mentioned, especially the coast swamps of the Gulf and some of the
flood plain lands of the southern rivers, were too meager for anything more
than general statements. There seemed to be no immediate necessity for
the discussion of these subjects; but to the Arid Region of the west thou-

sands of persons are annually repairing, and the questions relating to the

c=)
utilization of these lands are of present importance. Under these considera-

tions I have decided to publish that portion of the volume relating to the
arid lands, and to postpone to some future time that part relating to the
excessively humid lands.

In the preparation of the contemplated volume I desired to give a

PREFACE. ix

historical sketch of the legislation relating to swamp lands and executive
action thereunder; another chapter on bounty lands and land grants for
agricultural schools, and still another on land grants in aid of internal
improvements—chiefly railroads. The latter chapter has already been
prepared by Mr. Willis Drummond, jr., and as the necessary map is ready
I have concluded to publish it now, more especially as the granted lands
largely lie in the Arid Region. Mr. Drummond’s chapter has been carefully
prepared and finely written, and contains much valuable information.

To the late Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, I am greatly indebted for access to the records of the Institution
relating to rainfall. Since beginning my explorations and surveys in the
far west, I have received the counsel and assistance of the venerable
professor on all important matters relating to my investigations ; and what-
ever of value has been accomplished is due in no small part to his wisdom
and advice. I cannot but express profound sorrow at the loss of a coun-
selor so wise, so patient, and so courteous.

Iam also indebted to Mr. Charles A. Schott, of the United States
Coast Survey, to whom the discussion of the rain gauge records has been
intrusted by the Smithsonian Institution, for furnishing to me the required
data in advance of publication by himself.

Unfortunately, the chapters written by Messrs. Gilbert, Dutton, Thomp-
son, and Drummond have not been proof-read by themselves, by reason of
their absence during the time when the volume was going through the
press; but this is the less to be regretted from the fact that the whole
volume has been proof-read by Mr. J. C. Pilling, whose critical skill is all
that could be desired.

J WOR:

Avueust, 1878.
sae

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

The first edition of this report having been exhausted in a few months
and without satisfying the demand which the importance of the subject
created, a second was ordered by Congress in March, 1879. The authors
were thus given an opportunity to revise their text and eliminate a few
formal errors which had crept in by reason of their absence while the first
edition was passing through the press. The substance of the report is
unchanged.

Jar We et
Juny, 18.79.

xI

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER T.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION:
The Arid Region ....--...---- .----+ e222 ee nn eee ce nee cee tens ce tees eee e eee nee cee eee
Irrigable lands..--.. .-----. se--<+ --=-<-=--- Se aan ae eee en aa eee
NO VaN GAP OS OLIFT SALON soc. see's soa 5 oa emeniominnie = cise wee ena as towalsoe ens enna
Codperative labor or capital necessary for the development of irrigation ...-....----
The use of smaller streams sometimes interferes with the use of the laTeerecssesataste
Increase of irrigable area by the storage of water ..-.......-.----0¢ ------05 +--+ eee
Mim ber land8 accesses see wie comes oso ce seh eas eminent seins sa'scie onseseeeei=aeeis sae
Agricultural and timber industries differentiated
GniltivatopOfeuiMh Oleee see sas eaten o actos mae ate lela wiomia) emesis 9) ciel Dacetn noel ele sls setae siete
Pasturage lands ..-.... ME RAG Sods He eae anes en OEE REE O RE OAC d Se Seer er See oe acerca) see
Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land ...-...----- ---. ------ e2- 22+ eee
The farm unit for pasturage lands... ..-. 22... weener cocces wosnne seceeecennes o- 2-8
Regular division lines for pasturage tf
Farm residences should be grouped
Pasturage lands cannot be fenced ..---..--------+ ---. ------ e+ 222 ee 22-2 eee ee eee
Recapitulation -.-..--- .---2- eee eee ene eee ne ee ene ce eee ee eee ce eee eens cree ee cone
Inrigable lands ...-.. .---22 ----22 ---- on n-ne one ene eee cece ne a nnn n cone cone nnceseee-
aN DOW ANS ae mie e se tee were ae anlaa see ciacicm Seeman \clenectaman an sctesest=—cinipmnn mel
Pasturage lands 2... 2c. ccc ncn an= cnccee comms tnsn no cennns on=nesinaaeessecsaesess

arms not practicable

CHAPTER II.

THE LAND-SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION:

Irrigable lands..-... ..---- 2-20 2-22 eee ene cee re cee cere tee nen cern teen ene cee nee
Mimperilandsetecoseeceo css saiic eco) aeeccls anne amen caneee nseces cncen= shassaceassnees=weeel
Pasturage lands ...--. .----- -----+ e200 2-2 = enn en nn enn renee ne nen s conte e cee ne erence ee
A bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts -....----.-+------------+----+
A bill to authorize the organization of pasturage districts..-.-.----------------+- +--+
NV SLELEIO NS steam cacctenescsta= = Pee e see seeweues asics wasawe
The lands should be classified

CHAPTER III.

Tur RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STATES:
Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region .-.. --------.----+ -----+ ee-eee cece ee eee eee cee eee eee
Precipitation of the Arid Region ....-.-.--.- ---. e222 2-2 eee eee eee een nee eee ee cree cee
Precipitation of the San Francisco Region - ..-..---------++ -+++ --+- +--+ 22-22-2222 rete eeeeee
Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia..--- Sap e cone acea ac sSeetccsimaescee seeee

47
48
49
49

Xiv LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF THE UNITED STaATES—Continued.
Distribution of rain through the year..---------------. ------ ---- --- = eee een ree ee eee
Precipitaton ot lexag meee eens ena eemiaee san welee aa ae elem eee =e i
Precipitation of Dakota .....--------------- ---- ---- === 2-0-2 = ee enn rns enn ne mene corner
Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains --.-..-.---------------- ---- +--+ ---+--++-
Seasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region..-..----- +--+ +--+ ---+ --++ +--+ +--+ ---+--
Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region..-.-..------------------------
Seasonal precipitation and temperature on the Pacifie Coast, ete.-.---.-------------------+-
Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico .----- ------------------- Aaesatessoancese

CHAPTER IV.
WaTER SuppLy.—By G. K. GILBERT:
IncreaseOlmstrealns cases aoe anes ae se cole ose e hennien eta mte = = melee eet (oe miele >
Tats? Gram osinLE Cs soso comaedeose sasaAe BSSasodSsne conSso Se nscoss seqoce Sado besos ona9
Wiolcanienbheory eee == sions sen aa aie melee se ee ee wee ee lane
(iinibhnkealGiay poemoe caeano Ree eee nosebco des sotach pads ComeSc eo sess RoSesc beSE aces SCS
Theory of human agencies ...-. -. ------ 02.0 22-3 -~ cee ne wens enews nwo e san ene www mann
Farming without irrigation......---. ..---- .-2--- ---- ---- 2+ -- 2-3 = conn ne ones ee enn e oan eee =

CHAPTER V.

CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS:
iPHe amitiob sw aber WSO im ArT O's LOW ee eres ste ee atta se ce lel eel tae tele
The quantitative value of water in irrigation ---.-....--. ---------- ..---- -----------+ ------
Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water supply-.----.:-----.------------------
Method of determining the supply of water....--..---.---- .-----2- 22-020 «+= - 22 eons eee
Methods of determining the extent of irrigable land unlimited by water supply ---.----------
The selection ofirrigable lands. ~~ = 22.5. <<. oi - oan ence ene a aan een
increassanwohe mater supply ae sers sam celem ae seis see eats a ne alee ete alae

CHAPTER VI.
THE LANDS OF UTAH:

Teaser TEN Abels seo aoe ss ESS 6 GS S08 BE QCOd 0506s ooc0 code sabmes Coos sesSesenSoSeeS a
Wirt) 61) ee po mG EEG HSB Ea SEE OOSEEe cOneod Basnbocbcs checds sdacos Sdaecd cSesds ocm5¢
Irrigable and pasturage lands .....-.. .-.- ---------+ 220-20 --- 22+ oo snes we === === ---

LOSI BERENS ooo msoasOseeo SanootoSo To neeces DOSED caso mores sous Sasse6
Dare Ohio) ILERVG Goo Gomcosneoenee sececo CooRS, SoHo Sect enc HE soOseres cece ocoenoscs
Thelsevierwuake DiSttiebass==ae aetna isan alates ee laine ele le eel
The Great Salt Lake District....-.-...-..-.. COE CED REED SROS CQHO RCO SECOUS SoREnD oSans =
(pe EES) aosogens cosneS SOSESo boob Huse Geos SOSee> SESE Sc Gone ashe SHoSaa ens nesses SacSeinicacc
Table of Irrigable lands in Utah Territory -....----.-------------- ---- ------ -----+ +--+

CHAPTER VII.

TRRIGABLE LANDS oF THE Sarr LAkE DrarNaGE SystemM.—By G. K. GILBERT:
Lrrigation by the larger streams. .... .---..---. .----- ------ ++ - 0-0 = 2-2 = eee oe eee eens
Bear River draimage basin ...--..-...--- ---- s----2 ---- ---- ---- oo = 2 2 = se enn e === =e
Weber River drainage basin .....-.--..----- --- == - 2-2 eo - oan enn on no ow one -=- ==
Jordan River drainage basin. ...-.. 2.2. 2200-2 == 200 - see ene <= n= en nnn eons === ===
Irrigation by smaller streams........----- -o 2-02 ccna oon ene on ene mone on nnn s conn ee one e = -- =

CHAPTER VIII.

TRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER RrvER.—By Capr. C. E. Dutton:
Altitudes of the|Sam Pete Valley <2 = -c-\.<cse- 2] erlenoniee = nan anaelemeaaeeecl= nena aa. ana
Volume of flowing water in San Pete Valley....-.------------ daacSanaciac aenboeiogagnDEo ones
Trrigable lands of the Sevier Lake District......--....----------------++ -------------- O05

98
103
103
105
106
106
107
111

117
119
121
124
126

133
140
144

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER IX:

Page.
TRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER AND ITS TRIBU-

TARIES.—By Pror. A. H. THOMPSON:

PPD eRVAT ONY RVR See ase sfc ciel sn esi Nec ata ere teenie oN ne howe See/\siiew ei eve nieaseeaeee 152
Kari DRO LEG ae eee era tit Ps ean cain cocmesist sissies bese icmcstnse Soe eaae senna 154
heteariathrvelr omen seno te met ane cece ancsemecerce ns so cee sa scocc bdiewesisceceeeesecscs 145
si eEbincalan teu von ee pee moment oe een sc vens sc otes=cas cesses: sccckessccesesesacce 156
HGeTOMON Ly Clete een eee eee eemiccccsce eases rect cscs ccc Scenacaeaseccen anes | LDt
he panthatwelehivenoens saeseeeeenisecsec sce sie-steccc- cance See eee ee eae ee a eee 158

ER ee ri Coshiny Giese mene te mania nents eee ance tics se ccics sa ceaeatcccscheiuacsmnceaews LOD
MINIs atldi Crookes nna sas Seas ete o ss cccs ews cesceicccacouesancisceccesccces: DO

Ud Pea ORE eed PA Ce eye a ae A ee a ee ea 160
PASH Ove LO Lome eee tee ete aes fonanaaee soe sina ceo aln nenic caine oa'ains) a ~s sntene'e'= so eiwmcisice 161
Henrys MORK 9 ane oo ace acsce acel—==-\= [ace neteeis wis)ateimialaictel Soisinlea’n's <a siapecsw arc toaas 161
SRN BRUVIDTTOMEGLY OL ee eetce aie sere ates aa iciscie cee Selo e ot eimisi tinisle) o eislewinialate tcatalesies owes eeecie 161
HGR LECUMLV Cliseticet cso ee sitee ee cie ae sis Sense side secs! Scie, th cedic.c majo sins seisia aisle cleus slew easels 162
MheiGrandURiverscs-<s:c ces c=si)<ss<5 eat ree ee oe aceon eniae Salata aiacies wineisa ae 163
hel sae Uae kVelses tess seas cance etcecccmics omacisce orca se! cimeae ance omsne secs cemmesaeicnme 1638
(THEMIS LL DAINS Meno en eee ee Mee a. = tea see tcrmecicccacccccecacecn concn. asus eect. avoeee 163

Irrigable lands of the Colorado drainage -.-......--..---. -----.+------- se------------------ 164

CHAPTER X.

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTs.—BY WILLIS DRUMMOND, Jr ...---.------ 165

REPORT ON THE LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF TIE UNITED STATES,

By J. W. POWELL.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID
REGION.

The eastern portion of the United States is supplied with abundant
rainfall for agricultural purposes, receiving the necessary amount from the
evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico; but westward
the amount of aqueous precipitation diminishes in a general way until at
last a region is reached where the climate is so arid that agriculture is not
successful without irrigation. This Arid Region begins about midway in
the Great Plains and extends across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific
Ocean. But on the northwest coast there is a region of greater precipita-
tion, embracing western Washington and Oregon and the northwest corner
of California. The winds impinging on this region are freighted with
moisture derived from the great Pacific currents ; and where this water-
laden atmosphere strikes the western coast in full force, the precipitation is
excessive, reaching a maximum north of the Columbia River of 80 inches
annually. But the rainfall rapidly decreases from the Pacific Ocean east-
ward to the summit of the Cascade Mountains. It will be convenient to
designate this humid area as the Lower Columbia Region. Rain gauge
records have not been made to such an extent as to enable us to define its
eastern and southern boundaries, but as they are chiefly along high moun-
tains, definite boundary lines are unimportant in the consideration of
agricultural resources and the questions relating thereto. In like manner on
the east the rain gange records, though more full, do not give all the facts
necessary to a thorough discussion of the subject; yet the records are such

1A E

2 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

as to indicate approximately the boundary between the Arid Region, where
irrigation is necessary to agriculture, and the Humid Region, where the lands
receive enough moisture from the clouds for the maturing of crops. Expe-
rience teaches that it is not wise to depend upon rainfall where the amount
is less than 20 inches annually, if this amount is somewhat evenly distrib-
uted throughout the year; but if the rainfall is unevenly distributed, so that
“rainy seasons” are produced, the question whether agriculture is possible

“rainy season” and the

without irrigation depends upon the time of the
amount of its rainfall, Any unequal distribution of rain through the year,
though the inequality be so slight as not to produce ‘rainy seasons”, affects
agriculture either favorably or unfavorably. If the spring and summer pre-
cipitation exceeds that of the fall and winter, a smaller amount of annual rain
may be sufficient; but if the rainfall during the season of growing crops is less
than the average of the same length of time during the remainder of the year,
a greater amount of annual precipitation is necessary. In some localities in
the western portion of the United States this unequal distribution of rainfall
through the seasons affects agriculture favorably, and this is true imme-
diately west of the northern portion of the line of 20 inches of rainfall, which
extends along the plains from our northern to our southern boundary.

The isohyetal or mean annual rainfall line of 20 inches, as indicated
on the rain chart accompanying this report, begins on the southern bound-
ary of the United States, about 60 miles west of Brownsville, on the Rio
Grande del Norte, and intersects the northern boundary about 50 miles east
of Pembina. Between these two points the line is very irregular, but in
middle latitudes makes a general curve to the westward. On the southern
portion of the line the rainfall is somewhat evenly distributed through the
seasons, but along the northern portion the rainfall of spring and summer
is greater than that of fall and winter, and hence the boundary of what has
been called the Arid Region runs farther to the west. Again, there is
another modifying condition, namely, that of temperature. Where the tem-
perature is greater, more rainfall is needed; where the temperature is less,
agriculture is successful with a smaller amount of precipitation. But geo-
altitude and

latitude. Along the northern portion of the line latitude is an important

graphically this temperature is dependent upon two conditions

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 3

factor, and the line of possible agriculture without irrigation is carried still
farther westward. This conclusion, based upon the consideration of rain-
fall and latitude, accords with the experience of the farmers of the region,
for it is a well known fact that agriculture without irrigation is successfully
carried on in the valley of the Red River of the North, and also in the south-
eastern portion of Dakota Territory. A much more extended series of rain-
gauge records than we now have is necessary before this line constituting
the eastern boundary of the Arid Region can be well defined. It is doubt-
less more or less meandering in its course throughout its whole extent from
south to north, being affected by local conditions of rainfall, as well as by
the general conditions above mentioned; but in a general way it may be
represented by the one hundredth meridian, in some places passing to the
east, in others to the west, but in the main to the east.

The limit of successful agriculture without irrigation has been set at
20 inches, that the extent of the Arid Region should by no means be exag-
gerated; but at 20 inches agriculture will not be uniformly successful from
season to season. Many droughts will occur; many seasons ina long series
will be fruitless; and it may be doubted whether, on the whole, agriculture
will prove remunerative. On this point it 1s impossible to speak with cer-
tainty. A larger experience than the history of agriculture in the western
portion of the United States affords is necessary to a final determination of
the question. :

In fact, a broad belt separates the Arid Region of the west from the
Humid Region of the east. Extending from the one hundredth meridian
eastward to about the isohyetal line of 28 inches, the district of country
thus embraced will be subject more or less to disastrous droughts, the fre-
quency of which will diminish from west to east. For convenience let
this be called the Sub-humid Region. Its western boundary is the line
already defined as running irregularly along the one hundredth meridian.
Its eastern boundary passes west of the isohyetal line of 28 inches of rain-
fall in Minnesota, running approximately parallel to the western boundary
line above described. Nearly one-tenth of the whole area of the United
States, exclusive of Alaska, is embraced in this Sub-humid Region. In the

western portion disastrous droughts will be frequent; in the eastern portion

4 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

infrequent. In the western portion agriculturists will early resort to irri-
gation to secure immunity from such disasters, and this event will be
hastened because irrigation when properly conducted is a perennial source
of fertilization, and is even remunerative for this purpose alone; and for
the same reason the inhabitants of the eastern part will gradually develop
irrigating methods. It may be confidently expected that at a time not far
distant irrigation will be practiced to a greater or less extent throughout
this Sub-humid Region. Its settlement presents problems differing mate-
rially from those pertaining to the region to the westward. Irrigation is not
immediately necessary, and hence agriculture does not immediately depend
upon capital. The region may be settled and its agricultural capacities
more or less developed, and the question of the construction of irrigating
canals may be a matter of time and convenience. for many reasons, much
of the sub-humid belt is attractive to settlers: it is almost destitute of for-
ests, and for this reason is more readily subdued, as the land is ready for
the plow. But because of the lack of forests the country is more depend-
ent upon railroads for the transportation of building and fencing materials
and for fuel. To a large extent it is a region where timber may be success-
fully cultivated. As the rainfall is on a general average nearly sufficient
for continuous successful agriculture, the amount of water to be supplied
by irrigating canals will be comparatively small, so that its streams can
serve proportionally larger areas than the streams of the Arid Region. In
its first settlement the people will be favored by having lands easily sub-
dued, but they will have to contend against a lack of timber. Eventually
this will be a region of great agricultural wealth, as in general the soils are
good. From our northern to our southern boundary no swamp lands are
found, except to some slight extent in the northeastern portion, and it has
no excessively hilly or mountainous districts. It is a beautiful prairie
country throughout, lacking somewhat in rainfall; but this want can be
easily supplied by utilizing the living streams; and, further, these streams
will afford fertilizing materials of great value.

The Humid Region of the lower Columbia and the Sub-humid Region
of the Great Plains have been thus briefly indicated in order that the great
Arid Region, which is the subject of this paper, may be more clearly defined.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 5

THE ARID REGION.

The Arid Region is the great Rocky Mountain Region of the United
States, and it embraces something more than four-tenths of the whole coun-
try, excluding Alaska In all this region the mean annual rainfall is insuf-
ficient for agriculture, but in certain seasons some localities, now here, now
there, receive more than their average supply. Under such conditions
crops will mature without irrigation. As such seasons are more or less in- ’
frequent even in the more favored localities, and as the agriculturist cannot
determine in advance when such seasons may occur, the opportunities
afforded by excessive rainfall cannot be improved.

In central and northern California an unequal distribution of rainfall
through the seasons affects agricultural interests favorably. A “ rainy
season” is here found, and the chief precipitation occurs in the months of
December—April. The climate, tempered by mild winds from the broad
expanse of Pacific waters, is genial, and certain crops are raised by sow-
ing the seeds immediately before or during the ‘rainy season”, and the
watering which they receive causes the grains to mature so that fairly
remunerative crops are produced. But here again the lands are subject to
the droughts of abnormal seasons. As many of these lands ean be irri-
gated, the farmers of the country are resorting more and more to the
streams, and soon all the living waters of this region will be brought into
requisition.

In the tables of a subsequent chapter this will be called the San Fran-
cisco Region.

Again in eastern Washington and Oregon, and perhaps in northern
Idaho, agriculture is practiced to a limited extent without irrigation. The
conditions of climate by which this is rendered possible are not yet fully
understood. The precipitation of moisture on the mountains is greater
than on the lowlands, but the hills and mesas adjacent to the great masses
of mountains receive a little of the supply condensed by the mountains
themselves, and it will probably be found that limited localities in Montana,
and even in Wyoming, will be favored by this condition to an extent sufl-

cient to warrant agricultural operations independent of irrigation. These

6 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

lands, however, are usually supplied with living streams, and their irriga-
tion can be readily effected, and to secure greater certainty and greater

yield of crops irrigation will be practiced in such places.
IRRIGABLE LANDS.

Within the Arid Region only a small portion of the country is irriga-
ble. These irrigable tracts are lowlands lying along the streams. On the
mountains and high plateaus forests are found at elevations so great that
frequent summer frosts forbid the cultivation of the soil. Here are the
natural timber lands of the Arid Region—an upper region set apart by
nature for the growth of timber necessary to the mining, manufacturing,
and agricultural industries of the country. Between the low irrigable
lands and the elevated forest lands there are valleys, mesas, hills, and
mountain slopes bearing grasses of greater or less value for pasturage
purposes.

Then, in discussing the lands of the Arid Region, three great classes
are recognized—the irrigable lands below, the forest lands above, and the
pasturage lands between. In order to set forth the characteristics of these
lands and the conditions under which they can be most ‘profitably utilized,
it is deemed best to discuss first a somewhat limited region in detail as a
fair type of the whole. The survey under the direction of the writer has
been extended over the greater part of Utah, a small part of Wyoming and
Colorado, the northern portion of Arizona, and a small part of Nevada, but
it is proposed to take up for this discussion only the area embraced in Utah
Territory.

In Utah Territory agriculture is dependent upon irrigation. To this
statement there are some small exceptions. In the more elevated regions
there are tracts of meadow land from which small crops of hay can be
taken: such lands being at higher altitudes need less moisture, and at the
same time receive a greater amount of rainfall because of the altitude; but
these meadows have been, often are, and in future will be, still more
improved by irrigation. Again, on the belt of country lying between
Great Salt Lake and the Wasateh Mountains the local rainfall is much

greater than the general rainfall of the region. The water evaporated

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. i

from the lake is carried by the westerly winds to the adjacent mountains
on the east and again condensed, and the rainfall thus produced extends
somewhat beyond the area occupied by the mountains, so that the foot hills
and contiguous bench lands receive a modicum of this special supply. In
some seasons this additional supply is enough to water the lands for remu-
nerative agriculture, but the crops grown will usually be very small, and
they will be subject to seasons of extreme drought, when all agriculture
will result in failure. Most of these lands can be irrigated, and doubtless
will be, from a consideration of the facts already stated, namely, that crops
will thereby be greatly increased and immunity from drought secured.
Perhaps other small tracts, on account of their subsoils, can be profitably
cultivated in favorable seasons, but all of these exceptions are small, and
the fact remains that agriculture is there dependent upon irrigation. Only
a small part of the territory, however, can be redeemed, as high, rugged
mountains and elevated plateaus occupy much of its area, and these
regions are so elevated that summer frosts forbid their occupation by the
farmer. Thus thermic conditions limit agriculture to the lowlands, and
here another limit is found in the supply of water. Some of the large
streams run in deep gorges so far below the general surface of the country
that they cannot be used; for example, the Colorado River runs through
the southeastern portion of the Territory and carries a great volume of
water, but no portion of it can be utilized within the Territory from the fact
that its channel is so much below the adjacent lands. The Bear River, in
the northern part of the Territory, runs in a somewhat narrow valley, so
that only a portion of its waters can be utilized. Generally the smaller
streams can be wholly employed in agriculture, but the lands which might
thus be reclaimed are of greater extent than the amount which the streams
can serve; hence in all such regions the extent of irrigable land is depend-
ent upon the volume of water carried by the streams.

In order to determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah it was
necessary to determine the areas to which the larger streams can be taken
by proper engineering skill, and the amount which the smaller streams can
serve. In the latter case it was necessary to determine first the amount
of land which a given amount or unit of water would supply, and then the

8 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

volume of water running in the streams; the product of these factors giving
the extent of the irrigable lands. A continuous flow of one cubic foot of
water per second was taken as the unit, and after careful consideration it
was assumed that this unit of water will serve from 80 to 100 acres of land.
Usually the computations have been made on the basis of 100 acres. ‘This
unit was determined in the most practical way—from the experience of the
farmers of Utah who have been practicing agriculture for the past thirty
years. Many of the farmers will not admit that so great a tract can be
cultivated by this unit. In the early history of irrigation in this country
the lands were oversupplied with water, but experience has shown that
irrigation is most successful when the least amount of water is used neces-
sary to a vigorous growth of the crops; that is, a greater yield is obtained
by avoiding both scanty and excessive watering ; but the tendency to over-
water the lands is corrected only by extended experience. A great many
of the waterways are so rudely constructed that much waste ensues.
As irrigating methods are improved this wastage will be avoided; so in
assuming that a cubic foot of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land
it is at the same time assumed that only the necessary amount of water will
be used, and that the waterways will eventually be so constructed that the
waste now almost universal will be prevented.

In determining the volume of water flowing in the streams great
accuracy has not been attained. For this purpose it would be necessary
to make continuous daily, or even hourly, observations for a series of years
on each stream, but by the methods described in the following chapters
it will be seen that a fair approximation to a correct amount has been
made. For the degree of accuracy reached much is due to the fact that
many of the smailer streams are already used to their fullest capacity, and
thus experience has solved the problem.

Having determined from the operations of irrigation that one cubic
foot per second of water will irrigate from 80 to 100 acres of land when the
greatest economy is used, and having determined the volume of water or
number of cubic feet per second flowing in the several streams of Utah by
the most thorough methods available under the circumstances, it appears
that within the territory, excluding a small portion in the southeastern

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 9

corner where the survey has not yet been completed, the amount of land
which it is possible to redeem by this method is about 2,262 square miles,
or 1,447,920 acres. Of course this amount does not lie in a continuous
body, but is scattered in small tracts along the water courses. For the
purpose of exhibiting their situations a map of the territory has been
prepared, and will be found accompanying this report, on which the several
tracts of irrigable lands have been colored. A glance at this map will show
how they are distributed. Excluding that small portion of the territory in
the southeast corner not embraced in the map, Utah has an area of 80,000
square miles, of which 2,262 square miles are irrigable. ‘That is, 2.8 per
cent. of the lands under consideration can be cultivated by utilizing all the
available streams during the irrigating season.

In addition to the streams considered in this statement there are

numerous small springs on the mountain sides scattered throughout the

territory—springs which do not feed permanent streams ; and if their waters
were used for irrigation the extent of irrigable land would be slightly
increased; to what exact amount cannot. be stated, but the difference would
be so small as not to materially affect the general statement, and doubtless
these springs can be used in another way and to a better purpose, as will
hereafter appear.

This statement of the facts relating to the irrigable lands of Utah will
serve to give a clearer conception of the extent and condition of the
irrigable lands throughout the Arid Region. Such as can be redeemed
are scattered along the water courses, and are in general the lowest lands
of the several districts to which they belong. In some of the states and
territories the percentage of irrigable land is less than in Utah, in others
greater, and it is probable that the percentage in the entire region is some-
what greater than in the territory which we have considered.

The Arid Region is somewhat more than four-tenths of the total area
of the United States, and as the agricultural interests of so great an area
are dependent upon irrigation it will be interesting to consider certain
questions relating to the economy and practicability of distributing the
waters over the lands to be redeemed.

2AR

10 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.
ADVANTAGES OF IRRIGATION.

There are two considerations that make irrigation attractive to the
agriculturist. Crops thus cultivated are not subject to the vicissitudes of
rainfall; the farmer fears no droughts; his labors are seldom interrupted and
his crops rarely injured by storms. This immunity from drought and storm
renders agricultural operations much more certain than in regions of greater
humidity. Again, the water comes down from the mountains and plateaus
freighted with fertilizing materials derived from the decaying vegetation and
soils of the upper regions, which are spread by the flowing water over the
cultivated lands. It is probable that the benefits derived from this source
alone will be full compensation for the cost of the process. Hitherto these
benefits have not been fully realized, from the fact that the methods
employed have been more or less crude. When the flow of water over the
land is too great or too rapid the fertilizing elements borne in the waters are
carried past the fields, and a washing is produced which deprives the lands
irrigated of their most valuable elements, and little streams cut the fields
with channels injurious in diverse ways. Experience corrects these errors,
and the irrigator soon learns to flood his lands gently, evenly, and econom-
ically. It may be anticipated that all the lands redeemed by irrigation in
the Arid Region will be highly cultivated and abundantly productive, and
agriculture will be but slightly subject to the vicissitudes of scant and
excessive rainfall.

A stranger entering this Arid Region is apt to conclude that the soils
are sterile, because of their chemical composition, but experience demon-
strates the fact that all the soils are suitable for agricultural purposes when
properly supplied with water. It is true that some of the soils are over-
charged with alkaline materials, but these can in time be ‘‘washed out”.
Altogether the fact suggests that far too much attention has heretofore been
paid to the chemical constitution of soils and too little to those physical con-
ditions by which moisture and air are supplied to the roots of the growing
plants,

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 11

COOPERATIVE LABOR OR CAPITAL NECESSARY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
IRRIGATION.

Small streams can be taken out and distributed by individual enter-
prise, but codperative labor or aggregated capital must be employed in
taking out the larger streams.

The diversion of a large stream from its channel into a system of canals
demands a large outlay of labor and material. To repay this all the waters
so taken out must be used, and large tracts of land thus become dependent
upon a single canal. It is manifest that a farmer depending upon his own
labor cannot undertake this task. To a great extent the small streams are
already employed, and but a comparatively small portion of the irrigable
lands can be thus redeemed; hence the chief future development of irrigation
must come from the use of the larger streams. Usually the confluence of the
brooks and ereeks which forma large river takes place within the mountain
district which furnishes its source before the stream enters the lowlands
where the waters are to be used. The volume of water carried by the small
streams that reach the lowlands before uniting with the great rivers, or
before they are lost in the sands, is very small when compared with the
volume of the streams which emerge from the mountains as rivers. This
fact is important. If the streams could be used along their upper ramifi-
cations while the several branches are yet small, poor men could oecupy
the lands, and by their individual enterprise the agriculture of the country
would be gradually extended to the limit of the capacity of the region;
but when farming is dependént upon larger streams such men are barred
from these enterprises until codperative labor can be organized or capital
induced to assist. Before many years all the available smaller streams
throughout the entire region will be occupied in serving the lands, and
then all future development will depend on the conditions above described.

In Utah Territory cobperative labor, under ecclesiastical organization,
has been very successful. Outside of Utah there are but few instances
where it has been tried; but at Greeley, in the State of Colorado, this
system has been eminently successful.

12 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE USE OF SMALLER STREAMS SOMETIMES INTERFERES WITH THE USE OF
THE LARGER.

A river emerging from a mountain region and meandering through a
valley may receive small tributaries along its valley course. These small
streams will usually be taken out first, and the lands which they will be
made to serve will often lie low down in the valley, because the waters can
be more easily controlled here and because the lands are better; and this
will be done without regard to the subsequent use of the larger stream to
which the smaller ones are tributary. But when the time comes to take out
the larger stream, it is found that the lands which it can be made to serve
lying adjacent on either hand are already in part served by the smaller
streams, and as it will not pay to take out the larger stream without using
all of its water, and as the people who use the smaller streams have already
vested rights in these lands, a practical prohibition is placed upon the use
of the larger river. In Utah, church authority, to some extent at least,
adjusts these conflicting interests by causing the smaller streams to be taken
out higher up in their course. Such adjustment is not so easily attained by
the great body of people settling in the Rocky Mountain Region, and some
provision against this difficulty is an immediate necessity. It is a difficulty
just appearing, but in the future it will be one of great magnitude.

INCREASE OF IRRIGABLE AREA BY THE STORAGE OF WATER.

Within the Arid Region great deposits of gold, silver, iron, coal, and
many other minerals are found, and the rapid development of these mining
industries will demand pari passu a rapid development of agriculture. Thus
all the lands that can be irrigated will be required for agricultural products
necessary to supply the local market created by the mines. For this pur-
pose the waters of the non-growing season will be stored, that they may be
used in the growing season.

There are’ two methods of storing the waste waters. . Reservoirs may
be constructed near the sources of the streams and the waters held in the
upper valleys, or the water may be run from the canals into ponds within
or adjacent to the district where irrigation is practiced. This latter method
will be employed first. It is already employed to some extent where local

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. ibs:
interests demand and favorable opportunities are afforded. In general, the
opportunities for ponding water in this way are infrequent, as the depres-
sions where ponds can easily be made are liable to be so low that the
waters cannot be taken from them to the adjacent lands, but occasionally
very favorable sites for such ponds may be found. This is especially true
near the mountains where alluvial cones have been formed at the debou-
chure of the streams from the mountain canons. Just at the foot of the
mountains are many places where ancient glaciation has left the general
surface with many depressions favorable to ponding.

Ponding in the lower region is somewhat wasteful of water, as the
evaporation is greater than above, and the pond being more or less shallow
a greater proportional surface for evaporation is presented. This wastage
is apparent when it is remembered that the evaporation in an arid climate
may be from 60 to 80 inches annually, or even greater.

Much of the waste water comes down in the spring when the streams
are high and before the growing crops demand a great supply. When this
water is stored the loss by evaporation will be small.

The greater storage of water must come from the construction of great
reservoirs in the highlands where lateral valleys may be dammed and the
main streams conducted into them by canals. On most streams favorable
sites for such water works can be found. ‘This subject cannot be discussed
at any length in a general way, from the fact that each stream presents
problems peculiar to itself.

It cannot*be very definitely stated to what extent irrigation can be
increased by the storage of water. The rainfall is:much greater in the
mountain than in the valley districts. Much of this precipitation in the
mountain districts falls as snow. The great snow banks are the reservoirs
which hold the water for the growing seasons. Then the streams are at
flood tide; many go dry after the snows have been melted by the midsum-
mer sun; hence they supply during the irrigating time much more water
than during the remainder of the year. During the fall and winter the
streams are small; in late spring and early summer they are very large.
A day’s flow at flood time is greater than a month’s flow at low water time.
During the first part of the irrigating season less water is needed, but during

14 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

that same time the supply is greatest. The chief increase will come from
the storage of this excess of water in the early part of the irrigating season.
The amount to be stored will then be great, and the time of this storage
will be so short that it will be but little diminished by evaporation. The
waters of the fall and winter are so small in amount that they will not
furnish a great supply, and the time for their storage will be so great that
much will be lost by evaporation. The increase by storage will eventually
be important, and it would be wise to anticipate the time when it will be
needed by reserving sites for principal reservoirs and larger ponds.

TIMBER LANDS.

Throughout the Arid Region timber of value is found growing sponta-
~ neously on the higher plateaus and mountains. These timber regions are
bounded above and below by lines which are very irregular, due to local
conditions. Above the upper line no timber grows because of the rigor of
the climate, and below no timber grows because of aridity. Both the upper
and lower lines descend in passing from south to north; that is, the timber
districts are found at a lower altitude in the northern portion of the Arid
Region than in the southern. The forests are chiefly of pine, spruce, and
fir, but the pines are of principal value. Below these timber regions, on
the lower slopes of mountains, on the mesas and hills, low, scattered forests
are often found, composed mainly of dwarfed pinon pines and cedars.
These stunted forests have some slight value for fuel, and even for fencing,
but the forests of principal value are found in the Timber Region as above
described.

Primarily the growth of timber depends on climatic conditions—humid-
ity and temperature. Where the temperature is higher, humidity must
be greater, and where the temperature is lower, humidity may be less.
These two conditions restrict the forests to the highlands, as above stated.
Of the two factors involved in the growth of timber, that of the degree of
humidity is of the first importance; the degree of temperature affects the
problem comparatively little, and for most of the purposes of this discussion
may be neglected. For convenience, all these upper regions where condi-

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 15

tions of temperature and humidity are favorable to the growth of timber
may be called the timber regions.

Not all these highlands are alike covered with forests. The timber
regions are only in part areas of standing timber. This limitation is caused
by fire. Throughout the timber regions of all the arid land fires annually
destroy larger or smaller districts of timber, now here, now there, and this
destruction is on a scale so vast that the amount taken from the lands for
industrial purposes sinks by comparison into insignificance. The cause of
this great destruction is worthy of careful attention. The conditions under
which these fires rage are climatic. Where the rainfall is great and extreme
droughts are infrequent, forests grow without much interruption from fires;
but between that degree of humidity necessary for their protection, and that
smaller degree necessary to growth, all lands are swept bare by fire to an
extent which steadily increases from the more humid to the more arid
districts, until at last all forests are destroyed, though the humidity is still
sufficient for their growth if immunity from fire were secured. ‘The amount
of mean annual rainfall necessary to the growth of forests if protected from
fire is probably about the same as the amount necessary for agriculture
without irrigation; at any rate, it is somewhere from 20 to 24 inches. All
timber growth below that amount is of a character so stunted as to be of
little value, and the growth is so slow that, when once the timber has been
taken from the country, the time necessary for a new forest growth is so
great that no practical purpose is subserved.

The evidence that the growth of timber, if protected from fires, might
be extended to the limits here given is abundant. It is a matter of expe-
rience that planted forests thus protected will thrive throughout the prairie
region and far westward on the Great Plains. In the mountain region it
may be frequently observed that forest trees grow low down on the
mountain slopes and in the higher valleys wherever local circumstances
protect them from fires, as in the case of rocky lands that give insufficient
footing to the grass and shrubs in which fires generally spread. These
cases must not be confounded with those patches of forest that grow on allu-
vial cones where rivers leave mountain canons and enter valleys or plains.

Here the streams, clogged by the material washed from the adjacent moun-

16 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

tains by storms, are frequently turned from their courses and divided into
many channels running near the surface. Thus a subterranean watering
is effected favorable to the growth of trees, as their roots penetrate to suffi-
cient depth. Usually this watering is too deep for agriculture, so that for-
ests grow on lands that cannot be cultivated without irrigation.

Fire is the immediate cause of the lack of timber on the prairies, the
eastern portion of the Great Plains, and on some portions of the highlands
of the Arid Region; but fires obtain their destructive force through climatic
conditions, so that directly and remotely climate determines the growth of
all forests. Within the region where prairies, groves, and forests appear,
the local distribution of timber growth is chiefly dependent upon drainage
and soil, a subject which needs not be here discussed. Only a small por-
tion of the Rocky Mountain Region is protected by climatic conditions
from the invasion of fires, and a sufficiency of forests for the country
depends upon the control which can be: obtained over that destructive
agent. <A glance at the map of Utah will exhibit the extent and distribu-
tion of the forest region throughout that territory, and also show what
portions of it are in fact occupied by standing timber. The area of stand-
ing timber, as exhibited on the map, is but a part of the Timber Region as
there shown, and includes all of the timber, whether dense or scattered.

Necessarily the area of standing timber has been generalized. It was
not found practicable to indicate the growth of timber in any refined way
by grading it, and by rejecting from the general area the innumerable
small open spaces. If the area of standing timber were considered by
acres, and all acres not having timber valuable for milling purposes rejected,
the extent would be reduced at least to one-fourth of that colored. Within
the territory represented on the map the Timber Region has an extent of
18,500 square miles; that is, 23 per cent. belongs to the Timber Region.
The general area of standing timber is about 10,000 square miles, or 12.5
per cent. of the entire area. The area of milling timber, determined in the
more refined way indicated above, is about 2,500 square miles, or 34 per
cent. of the area embraced on the map. In many portions of the Arid
Region these percentages are much smaller. This is true of southern Cali-
fornia, Nevada, southern Arizona, and Idaho. In other regions the percent-

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. LT

ages are larger. Utah gives about a fair average. In general it may be
stated that the timber regions are fully adequate to the growth of all the
forests which the industrial interests of the country will require if they
can be protected from desolation by fire. No limitation to the use of the
forests need be made. The amount which the citizens of the country will
require will bear but a small proportion to the amount which the fires will
destroy; and if the fires are prevented, the renewal by annual growth will
more than replace that taken by man. The protection of the forests of the
entire Arid Region of the United States is reduced to one single problem—
Can these forests be saved from fire?) The writer has witnessed two fires
in Colorado, each of which destroyed more timber than all that used by
the citizens of that State from its settlement to the present day; and at
least three in Utah, each of which has destroyed more timber than that
taken by the people of the territory since its occupation. Similar fires
have been witnessed by other members of the surveying corps. Every-
where throughout the Rocky Mountain Region the explorer away from
the beaten paths of civilization meets with great areas of dead forests ;
pines with naked arms and charred trunks attesting to the former presence
of this great destroyer. The younger forests are everywhere beset with
fallen timber, attesting to the rigor of the flames, and in seasons of great
drought the mountaineer sees the heavens filled with clouds of smoke.

In the main these fires are set by Indians. Driven from the lowlands
by advancing civilization, they resort to the higher regions until they are
forced back by the deep snows of winter. Want, caused by the restricted
area to which they resort for food; the desire for luxuries to which they
were strangers in their primitive condition, and especially the desire for
personal adornment, together with a supply of more effective instruments
for hunting and trapping, have in late years, during the rapid settlement of
the country since the discovery of gold and the building of railroads,
greatly stimulated the pursuit of animals for their furs—the wealth and
currency of the savage. On their hunting excursions they systematically
set fire to forests for the purpose of driving the game. This is a fact well
known to all mountaineers. Only the white hunters of the region properly
understand why these fires are set, it being usually attributed to a wanton

3AR

18 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

desire on the part of the Indians to destroy that which is of value to the
white man. The fires can, then, be very greatly curtailed by the removal
of the Indians.

These forest regions are made such by inexorable climatic conditions.
They are high among the summer frosts. The plateaus are scored by deep
canons, and the mountains are broken with crags and peaks. Perhaps at
some distant day a hardy people will occupy little glens and mountain
valleys, and wrest from an unwilling soil a scanty subsistence among the
rigors of a sub-arctic climate. Herdsmen haying homes below may in the
summer time drive their flocks to the higher lands to crop the scanty
herbage. Where mines are found mills will be erected and little towns
spring up, but in general habitations will be remote. ‘The forests will be
dense here or scattered there, as the trees may with ease or difficulty gain
a foothold, but the forest regions will remain such, to be stripped of timber
here and there from time to time to supply the wants of the people who
live below; but once protected from fires, the forests will increase in
extent and value. The first step to be taken for their protection must be
by prohibiting the Indians from resorting thereto for hunting purposes, and
then slowly, as the lower country is settled, the grasses and herbage of the
highlands, in which fires generally spread, will be kept down by summer
pasturage, and the dead and fallen timber will be removed to supply the
wants of people below. This protection, though sure to come at last, will
be tardy, for it depends upon the gradual settlement of the country; and
this again depends upon the development of the agricultural and mineral
resources and the establishment of manufactories, and to a very important
extent on the building of railroads, for the whole region is so arid that its
streams are small, and so elevated above the level of the sea that its few

large streams descend too rapidly for navigation.
AGRICULTURAL AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES DIFFERENTIATED.

It is apparent that the irrigable lands are more or less remote from
the timber lands; and as the larger streams are employed for irrigation, in
the future the extended settlements will be still farther away. The pastur-

age lands that in a general way intervene between the irrigable and timber

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 19

lands have a scanty supply of dwarfed forests, as already described, and
the people in occupying these lands will not resort, to any great extent, to
the mountains for timber; hence timber and agricultural enterprises will
be more or less differentiated; lumbermen and woodmen will furnish to
the people below their supply of building and fencing material and fuel.
In some cases it will be practicable for the farmers to own their timber
lands, but in general the timber will be too remote, and from necessity

such a division of labor will ensue.
CULTIVATION OF TIMBER.

In the irrigable districts much timber will be cultivated along the
canals and minor waterways. It is probable that in time a sufficient
amount will thus be raised to supply the people of the irrigable districts
with fuel wherever such fuel is needed, but often such a want will not exist,
for in the Rocky Mountain Region there is a great abundance of lignitic coals
that may be cheaply mined. All these coals are valuable for domestic pur-
poses, and many superior grades are found. These coals are not uniformly

distributed, but generally this source of fuel is ample.

PASTURAGE LANDS.

The irrigable lands and timber lands constitute but a small fraction of
the Arid Region. Between the lowlands on the one hand and the high-
lands on the other is found a great body of valley, mesa, hill, and low
mountain lands. To what extent, and under what conditions can they be
utilized? Usually they bear a scanty growth of grasses. These grasses
are nutritious and valuable both for summer and winter pasturage. Their
value depends upon peculiar climatic conditions; the grasses grow to a
ereat extent in scattered bunches, and mature seeds in larger propor-
tion perhaps than the grasses of the more humid regions. In general
the winter aridity is so great that the grasses when touched by the
frosts are not washed down by the rains and snows to decay on the moist
soil, but stand firmly on the ground all winter long and “cure”, forming a
quasi uncut hay. Thus the grass lands are of value both in summer and

winter. Ina broad way, the greater or lesser abundance of the grasses is

20 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

dependent on latitude and altitude; the higher the latitude the better are
the grasses, and they improve as the altitude increases. In very low alti-
tudes and latitudes the grasses are so scant as to be of no value; here the
true deserts are found. These conditions obtain in southern California,
southern Nevada, southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico, where broad
reaches of land are naked of vegetation, but in ascending to the higher
lands the grass steadily improves. Northward the deserts soon disappear,
and the grass becomes more and more luxuriant to our northern boundary.
In addition to the desert lands mentioned, other large deductions must be
made from the area of the pasturage lands. There are many districts in
which the ‘country rock” is composed of incoherent sands and clays;
sometimes sediments of ancient Tertiary lakes; elsewhere sediments of
more ancient Cretaceous seas. In these districts perennial or intermittent
streams have carved deep waterways, and the steep hills are ever washed
naked by fierce but infrequent storms, as the incoherent rocks are unable to
withstand the beating of the rain. These districts are known as the mau-
vaises terres or bad lands of the Rocky Mountain Region. In other areas
the streams have carved labyrinths of deep gorges and the waters flow at
great depths below the general surface. The lands between the streams
are beset with towering cliffs, and the landscape is an expanse of naked
rock. ‘These are the alcove lands and canon lands of the Rocky Mountain
Region. Still other districts have been the theater of late voleanic activity,
and broad sheets of naked lava are found; cinder cones are frequent, and
scoria and ashes are scattered over the land. These are the lava-beds of
the Rocky Mountain Region. In yet other districts, low broken mountains
are found with rugged spurs and cragey crests. Grasses and chaparral
grow among the rocks, but such mountains are of little value for pasturage
purposes.

After making all the deductions, there yet remain vast areas of valua-
ble pasturage land bearing nutritious but scanty grass. The lands along
the creeks and rivers have been relegated to that class which has been
described as irrigable, hence the lands under consideration are away from
the permanent streams. No rivers sweep over them and no creeks meander

among’ their hills.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 2]

Though living water is not abundant, the country is partially supplied
by scattered springs, that often feed little brooks whose waters never join
the great rivers on their way to the sea, being able to run but a short
distance from their fountains, when they spread among the sands to be
reévaporated. These isolated springs and brooks will in many cases furnish
the water necessary for the herds that feed on the grasses. When springs
are not found wells may be sometimes dug, and where both springs and
wells fail reservoirs may be constructed. Wherever grass grows water
may be found or saved from the rains in sufticient quantities for all the

herds that can live on the pasturage.

PASTURAGE FARMS NEED SMALL TRACTS OF IRRIGABLE LAND.

.

The men engaged in stock raising need small areas of irrigable lands
for gardens and fields where agricultural products can be raised for their
own consumption, and where a store of grain and hay may be raised for
their herds when pressed by the severe storms by which the country is
sometimes visited. In many places the lone springs and streams are suffi-
cient for these purposes. Another and larger source of water for the fertili-
zation of the gardens and fields of the pasturage farms is found in the
smaller branches and upper ramifications of the larger irrigating streams.
These brooks can be used to better advantage for the pasturage farms as a
supply of water for stock gardens and small fields than for farms where
agriculture by irrigation is the only industry. The springs and brooks of
the permanent drainage can be employed in making farms attractive and
profitable where large herds may be raised in many great districts through-
out the Rocky Mountain Region.

The conditions under which these pasturage lands can be employed

are worthy of consideration.
THE FARM UNIT FOR PASTURAGE LANDS.

The grass is so scanty that the herdsman must have a large area for
the support of his stock. In general a quarter section of land alone is of
no value to him; the pasturage it affords is entirely inadequate to the
wants of a herd that the poorest man needs for his support.

22 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Four square miles may be considered as the minimum amount neces-
sary for a pasturage farm, and a still greater amount is necessary for the
larger part of the lands; that is, pasturage farms, to be of any practicable
value, must be of at least 2,560 acres, and in many districts they must be

much larger.*
REGULAR DIVISION LINES FOR PASTURAGE FARMS NOT PRACTICABLE.

Many a brook which runs but a short distance will afford sufficient
water for a number of pasturage farms; but if the lands are surveyed in
regular tracts as square miles or townships, all the water sufficient for a
number of pasturage farms may fall entirely within one division. If the
lands are thus surveyed, only the divisions having water will be taken, and
the farmer obtaining title to such a division or farm could practically
occupy all the country adjacent by owning the water necessary to its use.
For this reason divisional surveys should conform to the topography, and
be so made as to give the greatest number of water fronts. For example,
a brook carrying water sufficient for the irrigation of 200 acres of land
might be made to serve for the irrigation of 20 acres to each of ten farms,
and also supply the water for all the stock that could live on ten pasturage
farms, and ten small farmers could have homes. But if the water was
owned by one man, nine would be excluded from its benefits and nine-
tenths of the land remain in the hands of the government.

FARM RESIDENCES SHOULD BE GROUPED.

These lands will maintain but a scanty population. The homes must
necessarily be widely scattered from the fact that the farm unit must be
large. That the inhabitants of these districts may have the benefits of the

local social organizations of civilization—as schools, churches, ete., and the

benefits of codperation in the construction of roads, bridges, and other

*For the determination of the proper unit for pasturage farms the writer has conferred with
many persons living in the Rocky Mountain Region who have had experience. His own observations
have been extensive, and for many years while conducting surveys and making long journeys through
the Arid Region this question has been uppermost in his mind. He fears that this estimate will disap-
point many of his western friends, who will think he has placed the minimum too low, but after making
the most thorough examination of the subject possible he believes the amount to be sufficient for the best
pasturage lands, especially such as are adjacent to the minor streams of the general drainage, and when
these have been taken by actual settlers the size of the pasturage farms may be increased as experience

proves necessary.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARID REGION. 23

local improvements, it is essential that the residences should be grouped
to the greatest possible extent. This may be practically accomplished by
making the pasturage farms conform to topographic features in such man-

ner as to give the greatest possible number of water fronts.
PASTURAGE LANDS CANNOT BE FENCED.

The great areas over which stock must roam to obtain subsistence
usually prevents the practicability of fencing the lands. It will not pay to
fence the pasturage fields, hence in many cases the lands must be occupied
by herds roaming in common; for poor men cobperative pasturage is
necessary, or communal regulations for the occupancy of the ground and
for the division of the increase of the herds. Such communal regulations

have already been devised in many parts of the country.
RECA PITULATION.

The Arid Region of the United States is more than four-tenths of the
area of the entire country excluding Alaska.
In the Arid Region there are three classes of lands, namely, irrigable

lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands. —
IRRIGABLE LANDS.

Within the Arid Region agriculture is dependent upon irrigation.

The amount of irrigable land is but a small percentage of the whole
area.

The chief development of irrigation depends upon the use of the large
streams.

For the use of large streams codperative labor or capital is necessary.

The small streams should not be made to serve lands so as to interfere
with the use of the large streams.

Sites for reservoirs should be set apart, in order that no hinderance
may be placed upon the increase of irrigation by the storage of water.

TIMBER LANDS.

The timber regions are on the elevated plateaus and mountains.

The timber regions constitute from 20 to 25 per cent. of the Arid Region.

Da LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The area of standing timber is much less than the timber region, as
the forests have been partially destroyed by fire.

The timber regions cannot be used as farming lands; they are valua-
ble for forests only.

To preserve the forests they must be protected from fire. This will
be largely accomplished by removing the Indians.

The amount of timber used for economic purposes will be more than
replaced by the natural growth.

In general the timber is too far from the agricultural lands to be
owned and utilized directly by those who carry on farming by irrigation.

A division of labor is necessary, and special timber industries will be
developed, and hence the timber lands must be controlled by lumbermen

and woodmen.

PASTURAGE LANDS.

The grasses of the pasturage lands are scant, and the lands are of
value only in large quantities. JO

The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres.

Pasturage farms need small tracts of irrigable land; hence the small
streams of the general drainage system and the lone springs and streams
should be reserved for such pasturage farms.

The division of these lands should be controlled by topographic
features in such manner as to give the greatest number of water fronts to
the pasturage farms.

Residences of the pasturage farms should be grouped, in order to
secure the benefits of local social organizations, and codperation in public
improvements.

The pasturage lands will not usually be fenced, and hence herds must
roam in common.

As the pasturage lands should have water fronts and irrigable tracts,
and as the residences should be grouped, and as the lands cannot be eco-
nomically fenced and must be kept in common, local communal regulations

or codperation is necessary.

CabwACEY hr RR. LL:

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID
REGION.

The growth and prosperity of the Arid Region will depend largely
upon a land system which will comply with the requirements of the con-
ditions and facts briefly set forth in the former chapter.

Any citizen of the United States may acquire title to public lands by
purchase at public sale or by ordinary ‘private entry”, and in virtue of
preémption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws.

Purchase at public sale may be effected whensthe lands are offered at
public auction to the highest bidder, either pursuant to proclamation by the
President or public notice given in accordance with instructions from the
General Land Office. If the land is thus offered and purchasers are not
found, they are then subject to “private entry” at the rate of $1.25 or $2.50
per acre. For a number of years it has not been the practice of the Gov-
ernment to dispose of the public lands by these methods; but the public
lands of the southern states are now, or soon will be, thus offered for sale.

Any citizen may preémpt 160 acres of land, and by settling thereon,
erecting a dwelling, and making other improvements, and by paying $1.25
per acre in some districts, without the boundaries of railroad grants, and
$2.50 within the boundaries of railroad grants in others, may acquire title
thereto. The preémption right can be exercised but once. No person can
exercise the preémption right who is already the owner of 320 acres of land.

Any citizen may, under the homestead privilege, obtain title to 160
acres of land valued at $1.25 per acre, or 80 acres valued at the rate of
$2.50, by payment of $5 in the first case and $10 in the last, and by
residing on the land for the term of five years and by making certain
improvements.

AR

26 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The time of residence is shortened for persons who have served in
the army or navy of the United States, and any such person may homestead
160 acres of land valued at $2.50 per acre.

Any citizen may take advantage of both the homestead and preémption
privileges.

Under the timber culture act, any citizen who is the head of a family
may acquire title to 160 acres of land in the prairie region by cultivating
timber thereon in certain specific quantities; the title can be acquired at the
expiration of eight years from the date of entry.

Any citizen may acquire title to one section of desert land (irrigable
lands as described in this paper) by the payment at the time of entry of 25
cents per acre, and by redeeming the same by irrigation within a period of
three years and by the payment of $1 per acre at the expiration of that
time, and a patent will then issue.

Provision is also made for the disposal of public lands as town sites.

From time to time land warrants have been issued by the Government
as bounties to soldiers and sailors, and for other purposes. These land
warrants have found their way into the market, and the owners thereof
are entitled to enter Government lands in the quantities specified in the
warrants.

Agricultural scrip has been issued for the purpose of establishing and
endowing agricultural schools. A part of this scrip has been used by the
schools in locating lands for investment. Much of the scrip has found its
way into the market and is used by private individuals. Warrants and
scrip can be used when lands have been offered for sale, and preémptors
can use them in lieu of money.

Grants of lands have been made to railroad and other companies, and
as these railroads have been completed in whole or in part, the companies
have obtained titles to the whole or proportional parts of the lands thus
granted.

Where the railroads are unfinished the titles are inchoate to an extent
proportional to the incomplete parts.

With small exceptions, the lands of the Arid Region have not been
ottered for sale at auction or by private entry.

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 2G

“=

The methods, then, by which the lands under consideration can be
obtained from the Government are by taking advantage of the preémption,

homestead, timber culture, or desert land privileges.
IRRIGABLE LANDS.

By these methods adequate provision is made for actual settlers on all
irrigable lands that are dependent on the waters of minor streams; but these
methods are insufficient for the settlement of the irrigable lands that depend
on the larger streams, and also for the pasturage lands and timber lands,
and in this are included nearly all the lands of the Arid Region. If the
irrigable lands are to be sold, it should be in quantities to suit purchasers,
and but one condition should be imposed, namely, that the lands should
be actually irrigated before the title is transferred to the purchaser. This
method would provide for the redemption of these lands by irrigation
through the employment of capital. If these lands are to be reserved for
actual settlers, in small quantities, to provide homes for poor men, on the
principle involved in the homestead laws, a general law should be enacted
under which a number of persons would be able to organize and settle on
irrigable districts, and establish their own rules and regulations for the use
of the water and subdivision of the lands, but in obedience to the general
provisions of the law.

TIMBER LANDS.

The timber lands cannot be acquired by any of the methods provided
in the preémption, homestead, timber culture, and desert land laws, from
the fact that they are not agricultural lands. Climatic conditions make
these methods inoperative. Under these laws ‘dummy entries” are some-
times made. A man wishing to obtain the timber from a tract of land will
make homestead or preémption entries by himself or through his employés
without intending to complete the titles, being able thus to hold these lands
for a time sufficient to strip them of their timber.

This is thought to be excusable by the people of the country, as tim-
ber is necessary for their industries, and the timber lands cannot honestly
be acquired by those who wish to engage in timber enterprises. Provision
should be made by which the timber can be purchased by persons or com-

28 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

panies desiring to engage in the lumber or wood business, and in such
quantities as may be necessary to encourage the construction of mills, the
erection of flumes, the making of roads, and other improvements necessary
to the utilization of the timber for the industries of the country.

PASTURAGE LANDS.

If divisional surveys were extended over the pasturage lands, favorable
sites at springs and along small streams would be rapidly taken under the
homestead and preémption privileges for the nuclei of pasturage farms.

Unentered lands contiguous to such ‘pasturage farms could be con-
trolled to a greater or less extent by those holding the water, and in this
manner the pasturage of the country would be rendered practicable. But
the great body of land would remain in the possession of the Government;
the farmers owning the favorable spots could not obtain possession of the
adjacent lands by homestead or preémption methods, and if such adjacent
lands were offered for sale, they could not afford to pay the Government
price.

Certain important facts relating to the pasturage farms may be advan-
tageously restated.

The farm unit should not be less than 2,560 acres; the pasturage farms
need small bodies of irrigable land; the division of these lands should be
controlled by topographie features to give water fronts; residences of the
pasturage lands should be grouped; the pasturage farms cannot be fenced—
they must be occupied in common.

The homestead and preémption methods are inadequate to meet these
conditions. A general law should be enacted to provide for, the organiza-
tion of pasturage districts, in which the residents should have the right to
make their own regulations for the division of the lands, the use of the
water for irrigation and for watering the stock, and for the pasturage of the
lands in common or in severalty. But each division or pasturage farm of
the district should be owned by an individual; that is, these lands could be
settled and improved by the “colony” plan better than by any other. It
should not be understood that the colony system applies only to such per-
sons as migrate from the east in a body; any number of persons already

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION, 29

in this region could thus organize. In fact very large bodies of these lands
would be taken by people who are already in the country and who have
herds with which they roam about seeking water and grass, and making no
permanent residences and no valuable improvements. Such a plan would
give immediate relief to all these people.

This district or colony system is not untried in this country. It is
essentially the basis of all the mining district organizations of the west.
Under it the local rules and regulations for the division of mining lands,
the use of water, timber, ete., are managed better than they could possibly
be under specific statutes of the United States. The association of a
number of people prevents single individuals from having undue control of
natural privileges, and secures an equitable division of mineral lands; and
all this is secured in obedience to statutes of the United States providing
general regulations.

Customs are forming*and regulations are being made by common con-
sent among the people in some districts already; but these provide no
means for the acquirement of titles to land, no incentive is given to the
improvement of the country, and no legal security to pasturage rights.

If, then, the irrigable lands can be taken in quantities to suit pur-
chasers, and the colony system provided for poor men who wish to coéperate
in this industry; if the timber lands are opened to timber enterprises, and
the pasturage lands offered to settlement under a colony plan like that indi-
cated above, a land system would be provided for the Arid Region adapted
to the wants of all persons desiring: to become actual settlers therein.
Thousands of men who now own herds and live a semi-nomadie life ; thou-
sands of persons Who now roam from mountain range to mountain range
prospecting for gold, silver, and other minerals; thousands of men who
repair to that country and return disappointed from the fact that they are
practically debarred from the public lands; and thousands of persons in
the eastern states without employment, or discontented with the rewards
of labor, would speedily find homes in the great Rocky Mountain Region.

In making these recommendations, the wisdom and beneficence of the
homestead system have been recognized and the principles involved have

been considered paramount.

30 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

To give more definite form to some of the recommendations for legis-
lation made aboye, two bills have been drawn, one relating to the organi-
zation of irrigation districts, the other to pasturage districts. These bills
are presented here. It is not supposed that these forms are the best that
could be adopted; perhaps they could be greatly improved; but they
have been carefully considered, and it is believed they embody the recom-
mendations made above.

A BILL to authorize the organization of irrigation districts by homestead settlements upon the public
lands requiring irrigation for agricultural purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be lawful for any nine
or more persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead from the
public lands, as provided for in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-
nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the Revised
Statutes of the United States, to settle an irrigation district and to acquire
titles to irrigable lands under the limitations and conditions hereinafter
provided. :

Src. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section
one of this act to organize an irrigation district in accordance with a form
and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of the
General Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said persons
may make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations, as they
may deem wise for the use of waters in such district for irrigation or other
purposes, and for the division of the lands into such parcels as they may
deem most convenient for irrigating purposes; but the same must accord
with the provisions of this act. ¢

Sec. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where
irrigation is necessary to agriculture, which can be redeemed by irrigation
and for which there is accessible water for such purpose, not otherwise
utilized or lawfully claimed, sufficient for the irrigation of three hundred
and twenty acres of land, shall, for the purposes set forth in this act, be
classed as irrigable lands.

Sec. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons, as
designated in section one of this act, to select from the public lands desig-

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 3

nated as irrigable lands in section three of this act, for the purpose of settling
thereon, an amount of land not exceeding eighty acres to each person; but
the lands thus selected by the persons desiring to organize an irrigation
district shall be in one continuous tract, and the same shall be subdivided
as the regulations and by-laws of the irrigation district shall prescribe:
Provided, That no one person shall be entitled to more than eighty acres.

Sec. 5. That whenever such irrigation district shall be organized the
recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the land
district in which such irrigation district is situate, and also the Surveyor-
General of the United States, that such irrigation district has been organ-
ized; and each member of the organization of said district shall file a
declaration with the register and receiver of said land district that he has
settled upon a tract of land within such irrigation district, not exceeding the
prescribed amount, with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining a
title thereto under the provisions of this act.

Src. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the irriga-
tion district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity, shall apply
for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of the United States,
he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together with a plat of the same;
and on this plat each tract or parcel of land into which the district is divided,
such tract or parcel being the entire claim of one person, shall be numbered,
and the measure of every angle, the length of every line in the boundaries
thereof, and the number of acres in each tract or parcel shall be inscribed
thereon, and the name of the district shall appear on the plat in full; and
this plat and the field-notes of such survey shall be submitted to the Sur-
veyor-General of the United States; and it shall be the duty of that officer
to examine the plat and notes therewith and prove the accuracy of the sur-
yey in such manner as the Commissioner of the General Land Office may
prescribe; and if it shall appear after such examination and proving that
correct surveys have been made, and that. the several tracts claimed are
within the provisions of this act, he shall certify the same to the register of
the land district, and shall thereupon furnish to the said register of the land
district, and to the recorder of the irrigation district, and to the recorder or
clerk of the county in which the irrigation district is situate, and to the

3) LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Commissioner of the General Land Office, a copy thereof to each, and the
original shall be retained in the office of the Surveyor-General of the United
States for preservation.

Src. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall, in
addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided for the
acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-
nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the Revised
Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable and consistent
with this act, and shall also furnish such evidence as the Commissioner of
the General Land Office may require that such land has actually been re-
deemed by irrigation, and may thereupon obtain a patent: Provided, That
no person shall obtain a patent under this act to any coal lands, town sites,
or tracts of public lands on which towns may have been built, or to any
mine of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or other mineral for the sale or dis-
posal of which provision has been made by law.

Sec. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall
be described as irrigation farms, and designated by the number of the tract
or parcel and the name of the irrigation district.

Src. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an
irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from the time of the organization
of the irrigation district, and in all subsequent conveyances the right to the
water shall pass with the title to the land. But if after the lapse of five
years from the date of the organization of the district the owner of any
irrigation farm shall have failed to irrigate the whole or any part of the
same, the right to the use of the necessary water to irrigate the unre-
claimed lands shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent right to water
necessary for the cultivation of said unreclaimed land shall be acquired
only by priority of utilization.

Sec. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a
homestead from the public lands as designated in section one of this act to
settle on an irrigation farm contiguous to any irrigation district after such
district has been organized by making the notifications and declaration
provided for in section five of this act, and by notifying the recorder of

such irrigation district, and also by complying with the rules and regula-

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 33

tions of such district; and such person may thereupon become a member
of the district and entitled to the same privileges as the other members
thereof; and it shall be the duty of the recorder of the irrigation district
to notify the register and receiver of the land district, and also the Sur-
veyor-General of the United States, that such claim has been made; and
such person may obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and
by conforming to the methods prescribed in this act: Provided, That the
water necessary for the irrigation of such farm can be taken without
injury to the rights of any person who shall have entered an irrigation farm
in such district: And provided further, That the right to the water neces-
sary to the redemption of such irrigation farm shall inhere in the land from
the time when said person becomes a member of said district, and in all
subsequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to
the land; but if, after the lapse of five years from the date of said notifica-
tions and declaration, the owner of said irrigation farm shall have failed to
irrigate the whole or any part of the same, the right to the use of the neces-
sary water to irrigate the unreclaimed lands shall thereupon lapse, and any
subsequent right to the water necessary for the cultivation of the said unre-

claimed land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.

A BILL to authorize the organization of pasturage districts by homestead settlements on the publie
lands which are of value for pasturage purposes only.

Be tt enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled, That it shall be lawful for any nine or more
persons who may be entitled to acquire a homestead from the publie lands,
as provided for in section twenty-two hundred and eighty-nine to twenty-
three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, to settle a pasturage district and to acquire titles to pastur-
age lands under the limitations and conditions hereinafter provided.

Sec. 2. That it shall be lawful for the persons mentioned in section
one of this act to organize a pasturage district in accordance with a form
and general regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of the Gen-
eral Land Office, which shall provide for a recorder; and said persons may
make such by-laws, not in conflict with said regulations, as they may deem
wise for the use of waters in such district for irrigation or other purposes,

5 AR

34 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

and for the pasturage of the lands severally or conjointly ; but the same
must accord with the provisions of this act.

Sec. 3. That all lands in those portions of the United States where
irrigation is necessary to agriculture shall be, for the purposes set forth in
this act, classed as pasturage lands, excepting all tracts of land of not less
than three hundred and twenty acres which can be redeemed by irrigation,
and where there is sufficient accessible water for such purpose not other-
wise utilized or lawfully claimed, and all lands bearing timber of commer-
cial value.

Sec. 4. That it shall be lawful for the requisite number of persons,
as designated in section one of this act, to select from the public lands
designated as pasturage lands in section three of this act, for the purpose
of settling thereon, an amount of land not exceeding two thousand five
hundred and sixty acres to each person; but the lands thus selected by
the persons desiring to organize a pasturage district shall be in one con-
tinuous tract, and the same shall be subdivided as the regulations and
by-laws of the pasturage district shall prescribe: Provided, That no one
person shall be entitled to more than two thousand five hundred and sixty
acres, and this may be in one continuous body, or it may be in two
parcels, one for irrigation, the other for pasturage purposes; but the parcel
for irrigation shall not exceed twenty acres: And provided further, That
no tract or tracts of land selected for any one person shall be entitled to
a greater amount of water for irrigating purposes than that sufficient for
the reclamation and cultivation of twenty acres of land; nor shall the
tract be selected in such a manner along a stream as to monopolize a
greater amount.

Sec. 6. That whenever such pasturage district shall be organized, the
recorder of such district shall notify the register and receiver of the land
district in which such pasturage district is situate, and also the Surveyor-
General of the United States, that such pasturage district has been organ-
ized; and each member of the organization of said district shall file a
declaration with the register and receiver of said land district that he has
settled upon a tract of land within such pasturage district, not exceeding

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 35

the prescribed amount, with the intention of residing thereon and obtaining
a title thereto under the provisions of this act.

Sec. 6. That if within three years after the organization of the pastur-
age district the claimants therein, in their organized capacity, shall apply
for a survey of said district to the Surveyor-General of the-United States,
he shall cause a proper survey to be made, together with a plat of the
same; and on this plat each tract or parcel of land into which the district
is divided shall be numbered, and the measure of every angle, the length
of every line in the botindaries thereof, and the number of acres in each
tract or parcel, shall be inscribed thereon, and the name of the district shall
appear on the plat in full; and this plat and the field-notes of such survey
shall be submitted to the Surveyor-General of the United States; and it
shall be the duty of that officer to examine the plat and notes therewith
and prove the accuracy of the survey in such manner as the Commissioner
of the General. Land Office may prescribe; and if it shall appear after
such examination and proving that correct surveys have been made, and
that the several tracts claimed are within the provisions of this act, he shall
certify the same to the register of the land district, and shall furnish to the
said register of the land district, and to the recorder of the pasturage dis-
trict, and to the recorder or clerk of the county in which the pasturage
district is situate, and to the Commissioner of the General Land Office, a
copy thereof to each; and the original shall be retained in the office of
the Surveyor-General of the United States for preservation.

Sec. 7. That each person applying for the benefits of this act shall,
in addition to compliance therewith, conform to the methods provided for
the acquirement of a homestead in sections twenty-two hundred and eighty-
nine to twenty-three hundred and seventeen, inclusive, of the Revised
Statutes of the United States, so far as they are applicable and consistent
with this act, and may thereupon obtain a patent: Provided, That no
person shall obtain a patent under this act to any coal lands, town sites, or
tracts of public lands on which towns may have been built, or to any mine
of gold, silver, cinnabar, copper, or other mineral for the sale or disposal of
which provision has been made by law.

Sec. 8. That the lands patented under the provisions of this act shall

36 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

be described as pasturage- farms, and designated by the number of the
tract or parcel and the name of the pasturage district.

Sec. 9. That the right to the water necessary to the redemption of an
irrigation tract of a pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the time
of the organization of the pasturage district, and in all subsequent convey-
ances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the tract; but if
after a lapse of five years from the date of the organization of the pasturage
district the owner of any pasturage farm shall have failed to irrigate the
whole or any part of the irrigable tract the right to the use of the neces-
sary water to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any
subsequent right to water necessary for the cultivation of such unreclaimed
land shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.

Sec. 10. That it shall be lawful for any person entitled to acquire a
homestead from the public lands designated in section one of this act to
settle on a pasturage farm contiguous to any pasturage district after such
district has been organized, by making the notifications and declaration
provided for in section five of this act, and by notifying the recorder of
such pasturage district, and also by complying with the rules and regula-
tions of such district; and such person may thereupon become a member
of the district and entitled to the same privileges as the other members
thereof; and it shall be the duty of the recorder of the pasturage district
to notify the register and receiver of the land district, and also the Sur-
veyor-General of the United States, that such claim has been made; and
such person may obtain a patent to the same under the conditions and by
conforming to the methods prescribed in this act: Provided, That the water
necessary for such farm can be taken without injury to the rights of any
person who shall have entered a pasturage farm in such district: And
provided further, That the right to the water necessary to the redemption of
the irrigable tract of such pasturage farm shall inhere in the land from the
time when said person becomes a member of said district, and in all sub-
sequent conveyances the right to the water shall pass with the title to the
land; but if, after the lapse of five years from the date of such notifications and
declaration, the owner of said irrigable tract shall have failed to irrigate the

whole or any part of the same, the right to the use of the necessary water

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. Birt

to irrigate the unreclaimed land shall thereupon lapse, and any subsequent
right to the water necessary to the cultivation of the said unreclaimed land
shall be acquired only by priority of utilization.

The provisions in the submitted bills by which the settlers themselves
may parcel their lands may need further comment and elucidation. If the
whole of the Arid Region was yet unsettled, it might be wise for the Gov-
ernment to undertake the parceling of the lands and employ skilled engi-
neers to do the work, whose duties could then be performed in advance of
settlement. It is manifest that this work cannot be properly performed
under the contract system; it would be necessary to employ persons of
skill and judgment under a salary system. The mining industries which
have sprung up in the country since the discovery of gold on the Pacific
coast, in 1849, have stimulated immigration, so that settlements are scat-
tered throughout the Arid Region; mining towns have sprung up on the
flanks of almost every great range of mountains, and adjacent valleys
have been occupied by persons desiring to engage in agriculture. Many of
the lands surveyed along the minor streams have been entered, and the
titles to these lands are in the hands of actual settlers. Many pasturage
farms, or ranches, as they are called locally, have been established through-
out the country. These remarks are true of every state and territory in
the Arid Region. In the main these ranches or pasturage farms are on Goy-
ernment land, and the settlers are squatters, and some are not expecting to
make permanent homes. Many other persons have engaged in pasturage
enterprises without having made fixed residences, but move about from place
to place with their herds. It is now too late for the Government to parcel
the pasturage lands in advance of the wants of settlers in the most avail-
able way, so as to closely group residences and give water privileges to the
several farms. Many of the settlers are actually on the ground, and are
clamoring for some means by which they can obtain titles to pasturage farms
of an extent adequate to their wants, and the tens of thousands of individual
interests would make the problem a difficult one for the officers of the Goy-
ernment to solve. A system less arbitrary than that of the rectangular

surveys now in vogue, and requiring unbiased judgment, overlooking the

38 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

interests of single individuals and considering only the interests of the
greatest number, would meet with local opposition. ‘The surveyors, them-
selves would be placed under many temptations, and would be accused—
sometimes rightfully perhaps, sometimes unjustly—of favoritism and cor-
ruption, and the service would be subject to the false charges of disappointed
men on the one hand, and to truthful charges against corrupt men on the
other. In many ways it would be surrounded with difficulties and fall into
disrepute.

Under these circumstances it is believed that it is best to permit the
people to divide their lands for themselves—not in a way by which each
man may take what he pleases for himself, but by providing methods by
which these settlers may organize and mutually protect each other from the
rapacity of individuals. The lands, as lands, are of but slight value, as they
cannot be used for ordinary agricultural purposes, 7. ¢., the cultivation of
crops; but their value consists in the scant grasses which they spontaneously
produce, and these values can be made available only by the use of the
waters necessary for the subsistence of stock, and that necessary for the small
amount of irrigable land which should be attached to the several pasturage
farms. Thus, practically, all values inhere in the water, and an equitable
division of the waters can be made only by a wise system of parceling the
lands; and the people in organized bodies can well be trusted with this right,
while individuals could not thus be trusted. These considerations have led
to the plan suggested in the bill submitted for the organization of pasturage
districts.

Tn like manner, in the bill designed for the purpose of suggesting a plan
for the organization of irrigation districts, the same principle is involved,
viz, that of permitting the settlers themselves to subdivide the lands into
such tracts as they may desire.

The lands along the streams are not valuable for agricultural purposes
in continuous bodies or squares, but only in irrigable tracts governed by
the levels of the meandering canals which carry the water for irrigation, and
it would be greatly to the advantage of every such district if the lands could
be divided into parcels, governed solely by the conditions under which the
water could be distributed over them; and such parceling cannot be properly

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 39

done prior to the occupancy of the lands, but can only be made pari passu
with the adoption of a system of canals; and the people settling on these
lands should be allowed the privilege of dividing the lands into such tracts
as may be most available for such purposes, and they should not be hamp-
ered with the present arbitrary system of dividing the lands into rectangular
tracts.

Those who are acquainted with the history of the land system of the
eastern states, and know the difficulty of properly identifying or determin-
ing the boundaries of many of the parcels or tracts of land into which the
country is divided, and who appreciate the cumbrous method of describing
such lands by metes and bounds in conveyances, may at first thought
object to the plan of parceling lands into irregular tracts. They may fear
that if the system of parceling the lands into townships and sections, and
describing the same in conveyances by reference to certain great initial
points in the surveys of the lands, is abandoned, it will lead to the uncer-
tainties and difficulties that belonged to the old system. But the evils of
that system did not belong to the shape into which the lands were divided.
The lands were often not definitely and accurately parceled; actual bound-
ary lines were not fixed on the ground and accurate plats were not made,
and the description of the boundary lines was usually vague and uncertain.
It matters not what the shape of tracts or parcels may be; if these parcels
are accurately defined by surveys on the ground and plotted for record,
none of these uncertainties will arise, and if these tracts or parcels are
lettered or numbered on the plats, they may be very easily described in
conveyances without entering into a long and tedious description of metes
and bounds. ,

In most of our western towns and cities lots are accurately surveyed
and plotted and described by number of lot, number of block, ete., ete.,
and sucha simple method should be used in conveying the pasturage lands.
While the system of pareeling and conveying by section, township, range,
etc., was a very great improvement on the system which previously existed,
the much more simple method used in most of our cities and towns would
be a still further improvement.

The title to no tract of land should be conveyed from the Government

40 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

to the individual until the proper survey of the same is made and the plat
prepared for record. With this precaution, which the Government already
invariably takes in disposing of its lands, no fear of uncertainty of identi-

fication need be entertained.
WATER RIGHTS.

In each of the suggested bills there is a clause providing that, with
certain restrictions, the right to the water necessary to irrigate any tract of
land shall inhere in the land itself from the date of the organization of the
district. The object of this is to give settlers on pasturage or irrigation
farms the assurance that their lands shall not be made worthless by taking
away the water to other lands by persons settling subsequently in adjacent
portions of the country. The men of small means who under the theory
of the bill are to receive its benefits will need a few years in which to con-
struct the necessary waterways and bring their lands under cultivation.
On the other hand, they should not be permitted to acquire rights to water
without using the same. The construction of the waterways necessary to
actual irrigation by the land owners may be considered as a sufficient
guarantee that the waters will subsequently be used

The general subject of water rights is one of great importance. In
many places in the Arid Region irrigation companies are organized who
obtain vested rights in the waters they control, and consequently the rights
to such waters do not inhere in any particular tracts of land.

When the area to which it is possible to take the water of any given
stream is much greater than the stream is competent to serve, if the land
titles and water rights are severed, the owner of any tract of land is at
the mercy of the owner of the water right. In general, the lands greatly
exceed the capacities of the streams. Thus the lands have no value without
water. If the water rights fall into the hands of irrigating companies and
the lands into the hands of individual farmers, the farmers then will be
dependent upon the stock companiés, and eventually the monopoly of water
rights will be an intolerable burden to the people.

The magnitude of the interests involved must not be overlooked. All
the present and future agriculture of more than four-tenths of the area of

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 41

the United States is dependent upon irrigation, and practically all values
for agricultural industries inhere, not in the lands but in the water.
Monopoly of land need not be feared. The question for legislators to
solve is to devise some practical means by which water rights may be
distributed among individual farmers and water monopolies prevented.

The pioneers in the ‘‘new countries” in the United States have inva-
riably been characterized by enterprise and industry and an intense desire
for the speedy development of their new homes. These characteristics are
no whit less prominent in the Rocky Mountain Region than in the earlier
“new countries”; but they are even more apparent. The hardy pioneers
engage in a multiplicity of industrial enterprises surprising to the people of
long established habits and institutions. Under the impetus of this spirit
irrigation companies are organized and capital invested in irrigating canals,
and but little heed is given to philosophic considerations of political econ-
omy or to the ultimate condition of affairs in which their present enterprises
will result. The pioneer is fully engaged in the present with its hopes of
immediate remuneration for labor. The present development of the country
fully occupies him. For this reason every effort put forth to increase the
area of the agricultural land by irrigation is welcomed. Every man who
turns his attention to this department of industry is considered a public
benefactor. But if in the eagerness for present development a land and
water system shall grow up in which the practical control of agriculture
shall fall into the hands of water companies, evils will result therefrom that
generations may not be able to correct, and the very men who are now
lauded as benefactors to the country will, in the ungovernable reaction
which is sure to come, be denounced as oppressors of the people.

The right to use water should inhere in the land to be irrigated, and water
rights should go with land titles.

Those unacquainted with the industrial institutions of the far west,
involving the use of lands and waters, may without careful thought suppose
that the long recognized principles of the common law are sufficient to
prevent the severance of land and water rights; but other practices are
obtaining which have, or eventually will have, all the force of common

law, because the necessities of the country require the change, and these
OAR

42 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

practices are obtaining the color of right from state and territorial legisla-
tion, and to some extent by national legislation. In all that country the
natural channels of the streams cannot be made to govern water rights
without great injury to its agricultural and mining industries. For the
great purposes of irrigation and hydraulic mining the water has no value
in its natural channel. In general the water cannot be used for irrigation
on the lands immediately contiguous to the streams—i. e., the flood plains
or bottom valleys—for reasons more fully explained in a subsequent
chapter. ‘The waters must be taken to a greater or less extent on the
bench lands to be used in irrigation. All the waters of all the arid lands
will eventually be taken from their natural channels, and they can be
utilized only to the extent to which they are thus removed, and water
rights must of necessity be severed from the natural channels. There is
another important factor to be considered. The water when used in irriga-
tion is absorbed by the soil and reévaporated to the heavens. It cannot
be taken from its natural channel, used, and returned. Again, the water
cannot in general be properly utilized in irrigation by requiring it to be
taken from its natural channel within the limits ordinarily included in a
single ownership. In order to conduct the water on the higher bench
lands where it is to be used in irrigation, it is necessary to go up the stream
until a level is reached from which the waters will flow to the lands to be
redeemed. The exceptions to this are so small that the statement scarcely
needs qualification. Thus, to use the water it must be diverted from its
natural course often miles or scores of miles from where it is to be used.
The ancient principles of common law applying to the use of natural
streams, so wise and equitable in a humid region, would, if applied to the
Arid Region, practically prohibit the growth of its most important industries.
Thus it is that a custom is springing up in the Arid Region which may or
may not have color of authority in statutory or common law; on this
I do not wish to express an opinion; but certain it is that water rights are
practically being severed from the natural channels of the streams; and
this must be done. In the change, it is to be feared that water rights will
in many cases be separated from all land rights as the system is now
forming, If this fear is not groundless, to the extent that such a separation

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION, 43

is secured, water will become a property independent of the land, and this
property will be gradually absorbed by a few. Monopolies of water will
be secured, and the whole agriculture of the country will be tributary

thereto—a condition of affairs which an American citizen having in view
the interests of the largest number of people cannot contemplate with favor.

Practically, in that country the right to water is acquired by priority
of utilization, and this is as it should be from the necessities of the country.
But two important qualifications are needed. The user right should attach
to the land where used, not to the individual or company constructing
the canals by which it is used. The right to the water should inhere in
the land where it is used; the priority of usage should secure the right.
But this needs some slight modification. A farmer settling on a small tract,
to be redeemed by irrigation, should be given a reasonable length of time
in which to secure his water right by utilization, that he may secure it by
his own labor, either directly by constructing the waterways himself, or
indirectly by cobperating with his neighbors in constructing systems of
waterways. Without this provision there is little inducement for poor men
to commence farming operations, and men of ready capital only will engage
in such enterprises.

The tentative bills submitted have been drawn on the theory thus
briefly enunciated.

If there be any doubt of the ultimate legality of the practices of the
people in the arid country relating to water and land rights, all such doubts
should be speedily quieted through the enactment of appropriate laws by
the national legislature. Perhaps an amplification by the courts of what
has been designated as the natural right to the use of water may be made
to cover the practices now obtaining; but it hardly seems wise to imperil
interests so great by intrusting them to the possibility of some future court

made law.
THE LANDS SHOULD BE CLASSIFIED.

Such a system of disposing of the public lands in the Arid Region will
necessitate an authoritative classification of the same. The largest amount
of land that it is possible to redeem by irrigation, excepting those tracts

44 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

watered by lone springs, brooks, and the small branches, should be classed
as irrigable lands, to give the greatest possible development to this indus-
try. The limit of the timber lands should be clearly defined, to prevent
the fraudulent acquirement of these lands as pasturage lands. The irriga-
ble and timber lands are of small extent, and their boundaries can easily be
fixed. All of the lands falling without these boundaries would be relegated
to the greater class designated as pasturage lands. It is true that all such
lands will not be of value for pasturage purposes, but in general it would
be difficult to draw a line between absolutely desert lands and pasturage
lands, and no practical purposes would be subserved thereby. Fix the
boundaries of the timber lands that they may be acquired by proper
methods; fix the boundaries of the irrigable lands that they may also be
acquired by proper methods, and then permit the remaining lands to be
acquired by settlers as pasturage lands, to the extent that they may be
made available, and there will be no fear of settlers encroaching on the
desert or valueless lands.

Heretofore we have been considering only three great classes of lands—
namely, irrigable, timber, and pasturage lands, although practically and
under the laws there are two other classes of lands to be recognized—
namely, mineral lands, #. e., lands bearing lodes or placers of gold, silver,
cinnabar, ete., and coal lands. Under the law these lands are made special.
Mineral lands are withheld from general sale, and titles to the mines are
acquired by the investment of labor and capital to an amount specified in
the law. Coal lands are sold for $20 per acre. The mineral lands proper,
though widely scattered, are of small extent. Where the mimes are lodes,
the lands lie along the mountains, and are to a greater or less extent value-
less for all other purposes. Where the mines are placers, they may also be
agricultural lands, but their extent is very limited. To withhold these
lands from purchase and settlement as irrigable, timber, and pasturage
lands will in no material way affect the interests of the industries con-
nected with the last mentioned lands. The General Government cannot
reasonably engage in the research necessary to determine the mineral
lands, but this is practically done by the miners themselves. Thousands
of hardy, skilful men are vigorously engaged in this work, and as mines

THE LAND SYSTEM NEEDED FOR THE ARID REGION. 45

are discovered mining districts are organized, and on the proper representa-
tion of these interested parties the mineral lands are withheld from general
sale by the Land Department. Thus, proper provision is already made for
this branch of the work of classification.

In many parts of the Arid Region there are extensive deposits of coal.
These coal fields are inexhaustible by any population which the country
can support for any length of time that human prevision can contemplate.
To withhold from general settlement the entire area of the workable eoal
fields would be absurd. Only a small fraction will be needed for the next
century. Only those lands should be classed as coal lands that contain
beds of coal easily accessible, and where there is a possibility of their
being used as such within the next generation or two. To designate or
set apart these lands will require the highest geological skill; a thorough
geological survey is necessary.

In providing for a general classification of the lands of the Arid
Region, it will, then, be necessary to recognize the following classes, namely :
mineral lands, coal lands, irrigable lands, timber lands, and pasturage lands.
The mineral lands are practically classified by the miners themselves, and
for this no further legal provision is necessary. The coal lands must be
determined by geological survey. The work of determining the areas
which should be relegated to the other classes—namely, irrigable, timber,

and pasturage lands—will be comparatively inexpensive.

CHP Ag BEE, Jaen.

THE RAINFALL OF THE WESTERN PORTION OF
THE UNITED STATES.

The Smithsonian Institution conducted for a number of years an
extensive system of measurements of rainfall in the United States, and at
the same time diligently collected pluvial records from every possible
source. The accumulated data thus collected were placed in the hands of
Mr. Charles A. Schott for reduction and discussion, and he prepared the
‘Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation in Rain and Snow”, which appeared
in 1868. Since that time much additional material has been acquired by
the continuation of the work to the present time, and also by a great
increase in the number of observation stations, and so valuable is this new
material that it has been determined to recompile the tables and issue a
second edition. By the time the present report was called for, the prelim-
inary computations for the tables had developed an important body of facts
bearing on the climate of the Arid Region, and through the courtesy of
Prof. Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and of Mr.
Schott, they were placed at my disposal. Mr. Schott also made such a
change in the order of computation as to give precedence to the states and
territories which form the subject of this investigation, and by this timely
favor made it possible to base the following discussion on the very latest
determinations of rainfall.

The results thus made available exhibit the mean precipitation at each
station of observation west of the Mississippi River for each month, for each
season, and for the year. A number of other data are also tabulated, includ-
ing the latitude, longitude, and altitude of each station, and the extent of
each series of observations in years and months. In selecting material for

the present purpose the shorter records were ignored. The variations from
46

tAINFALL OF WESTERN PORTION OF UNITED STATES. AT

year to year are so great that an isolated record of a single year is of no
value as an indication of the average rainfall. The mean of two or three
years is almost equally liable to mislead, and only a long series of observa-
tions can afford accurate results. In the following tables no stations are
included (with one exception) which show records of less than five years’
extent.

Table I shows the precipitation of the Sub-humid Region; Table II,
of the Arid Region; Table III, of the San Francisco Region; and Table
IV, of the Region of the Lower Columbia. The limits of each region have
been given in a former chapter, and need not be repeated. In each table
the first column contains the names of the stations of observation; the
second, their latitudes; the third, their longitudes (west from Greenwich);
and the fourth, their altitudes in feet above the level of the sea. The next
four columns show for each season of the year the mean observed rainfall
in inches, and their sum appears in the following column as the mean
yearly rainfall. In the last column the extent of each series of observa-
tions is given in years and months. In Table I the stations are arranged
by latitudes, in Tables II, II, and IV, alphabetically.

TABLE I.—Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region.

Mean precipitation, in inches. Fs
a . = : . oH |
Station. = S B S - °
| &] gp ee | See) ee |
‘S 3 3 Ne 3 ne Ss %
WW H =i ) 4 a | i) |
o 4 or Feet. | B fe &
Pem Dine GWAC eee San ae nc ae peso ces scenes 48 57 97 03 768 4.02 7. 24 | 2571 4 8
Morn Lotion; aes meaas ctercaaaccis os cise aeescc 47 56 99 16 1, 480 5.18 TM. 2.50 5 5
Fort Abercrombie, Dak ......-. 4627 | 96 21 ]........ 4.80| 867] 3.45 13 6 |
Fort Wadsworth; Dak ...< --..--.0ss20005250 45 43) 9710] 1,650 7.00 | 10.25 3. 98 6 5]
Omaha Aimeney. ODT << as. <-a<-sc0asersodececss | 42:07 | 96:22°)...2.. 2. 821) 870] 5.77 5p
Fort Kearney, Nebr...-.....--- 40 38-98 57 | 2, 360 7.81 | 11.13 | 4.83 14 4
Nort Riley, Kansjo-23 2.222222. 39 03 96 35 1, 300 5.49 | 10.48 | 5. 92 20 10 |
RortHaysaeKansiecss<c2.<c2s0c8,- 38 59 99 20 2, 107 6. 93 6.25 6.77 611
Fort Larned, Kans ...-.-...---. 3810} 9857] 1,932] 5.17] 9.63] 4.95 10 9)
Kort Belknap, Tex .....-...-... 33.08 98 46 | 1, G00 6. 41 9. 44 8. 34 5 10 |
MortiGrifiin Tex: 6s. ccsusee een 32 S4 tt ©: il tree 4.95 6.25 6.14 5 3
Fort Chadbourne, Tex .....-... | 3158} 10015] 2,020] 5.77| 653] 7.06 8 7)
Fort McKavett, Tex ...-....--. | 30 48, 100 08 | 2, 060 5.21] 6.71 7.81 9.7]
New Braunfels, Tex.--..-...--. -. | 2942] 98 15 720 7.60 | 6.90 8. 83 a a.
Mort (Clarkwlexcs 2s. <2 sec aos. ae all 29:17, | 100 25 1, 000 4.14 | 1.57 6. 595 12.54)
Fort Inge, Tex.. | 99 50 845 5.38 | 9.67 6. 88 7 4)
Vort Dunean, Tex --| 100 30) 1,460 3. 56 8.60) 6.54 aba!
| 29.5 | 97 37 50 3.18 7. G4 13. 02 15 0

43 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

TABLE II.—Precipitation of the Arid Region.

Mean precipitation, in inches. 2
; is 7; ca
S S A a | 2 og
Station. = = a sb z BI gE By =e
€ zl et & I # fal g a
H =| q ay : a 4 ia ‘al iol
o Oe Heet. DAW TE
| ATpuguerquer NeMexcseenessesseetaseeceseee 35 06 | 106 38 | 5, 032 0. 83 4.35 2. 04 0. 89 8.11 12 2
iC ampaBowleeAutlze meneame iain) si=e ass 3210 | 109 30 | 4,872 1.29 7.35 2. 03 4.59 | 15.26 6 8
Camp Donglas, Utah..----...--.------.----.-- | 40 46 | 111 50 | 5, 024 7.20 2.18 3. 24 6.20) 18.82) 10 3
Camp Grant, Ariz... .| 8254] 110 40] 4,833 2. 08 6. 25 3.27 3.48 | 15.08 6 10
GamprMallecks Nev 22.2... -2ce-=-S-\eemnccaaes 40 49 | 11520] 5,790} 3.66] 1.19] 231] 3.82| 10.98] 5 8
WGampiHameys Ores eseeenesse see re es teers | 43 00 | TH OVOOM Eames 2. 29 1.09 1.59 3.79 876) 6 0
Camp Independence, Cal. - .| 3650} 11811] 4,800 1.09 0. 35 0. 62 4.54 6.60] 8 2
Camp; MeDermitis Nev.->--- =-=----.--2------- 41 58 | 117 40 4,700 3. 02 0.72) 1.18 3. 66 8.53 6 4
Camp tMeDowellivAsiz..<-seeee eene-eaene sae 33 46 | 111 36 }........ TEaGl 4.79 1.73 3.82} 11.45 8 2
CampEMohaverani7 bass eee aoe clea ec ysoo- 35 02) 114 36 | 604 0. 81 1.27 0. 93 1. 64 4. 65 9)
Camp MELO PATI Zee eects eee se nee ta teen 34 84] 111 54 | 3, 160 1.25 4.65) 2.41 2.54} 10.85) 6 1
CampaWarner Orep anne eee eee eee see 42/28)| DIO AZs sea se 4. 31 1.10} 2.53 6.47 | 14.41 bye
Camp Whipple, Ariz -. 3427] 11220] 5,700} 3.88| 807] 215) 5.18] 1928) 7 5
Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex....-.....------- 36 26 | 105 30 | 7,900 1.57 2. 92 2.42 1.74 8. 65 DB .9)|
Drum Barracks, Cal... 33 47 | 118 17 32 2. 26 0. 26 0.35 5. 87 8.74 5 5
Menwer\Golocsses=peaseos w= s oe eee eee ee case ee 39 45 | 105 01 | 5,250 5. 02 3.69] 3.16 1.90 | 13.77 5 1
Morb Bayard sNMex =— see sace ce asce ote seen 32 46 | 108 30 | 4,450 1. 54 7.22 2. 28 3.28 | 14.32 7 6)
Fort Benton, Mont 47 50 | 110 39 | 2,730 5. 34 4.48 1. 65 1.79 | 18.26 Wl
MortiBidwells|Calis se cosesc ca. cote ecco tee | 4150 |} 12010) 4,680 4.95 1, 54 3.03 | 10.71 | 20.23 8 3
Fort Bliss (FE) Paso); Tex: 2... 22025. .252... 31 47 | 106 30 | 3,830 0. 43 3.49 | 3.38 1.23 8.53) 14 3
Fort Boisé, Idaho ..--.. 43 40 | 116 00 | 1,998 5.16 abil 2.50 6.67 | 15.48 OF5)
Fort Bridger, Wyo 41 20 | 110 23 | 6, 656 2. 99 2.05 1. 68 1.71 8. 43 12 10
Mort bafordDalces o-2o-caneae ce ee eee aces 48 01 | 103 58 | 1,900 3.76 4.06 2.01 2.01 11. 84 7 10
Fort Colville, Wash -.| 48 42 | 118 02 | 1,963 3. 63 3. 04 2. 56 4.83 | 14.06] 11 0
Worti Craig iNy Mex. s-tos.cosa~ same: Aes ees 33 38 | 107 00 | 4, 619 0. 70 5. 87 3.43 TAGs | eld OGs i Tome,
Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo peeled LOU eee 4.76 4.56 3. 27 1.50; 14.09} 5 1
Fort Davis, Tex ..| 8040 | 104 07 | 4,700 1. 84 8.76 4.72 1.80 | 17.12 8 11
MortiDehancevAtizmece= ceo eee eases cent 35 43 | 109 10 6,500 2. 03 5. 91 3. 72 2.55 | 14.21 | Sab.
Fort) Fetterman; Wy0:-.2--<.<cccs-00ss-cecces 42 50 | 105 29) 4,973 4.48 4.12 2.99 3. 51 15. 10 | 5 7
Fort Fillmore, N. Mex .- ..| 3214] 106 42] 3,937 0. 48 4.16 3.02 0.76 8. 42 8 3|
Mort! Steele; WryOr=2-6-< Jc-<2 scat oc secee 41 47 | 106 57 | 6,841 4.57 3. 48 3.05 4.28] 15.38] 5 5
Hort: Garland, |\Cololesss-csacc. co cacsee ecco 37 25 | 105 40 7, 864 3. 28 6.70 | 2.37 251 14.86 | 13 1
Morteuapwal, Lddho etc sseeoc.sseee eee cre cess 4618 116 54) 2,000 4.11 2.41 3. 38 4.99 | 14.89 9 8
Morielaramie, Wry Ore paseo ese==2- a. cone .-.| 42:12] 104 31 | 4,472 5. 35 4.40 2.738 1.97 | 14.45] 17 8
Ronny OnstColosne sas sce eee cen= cece c= See 38 08 | 102 50 | 4,000 4.33 5. 44 2.30 0.49 | 12.56 Vim)
Fort Massachusetts, Colo ..........--... eaasos 37 32 | 105 23 | 8, 365 3.12 5. 56 6.28 2.27 | 17.23 tue
MorpiicPhenrson Nebr wane se seoeeeeseo eee oee 41 00 | 100 30 3, 726 6. 90 7.56 BPs 125) 18. 96 619,
Fort McIntosh, Tex. 27 35 99 48 806 3. 22 6. 56 5. 38 2.35 | 17.51 14 7
Mort McRae IN. Mexcesece sosac cece rs ceteris a! 33 18 | 107 03 | 4,500 2. 43 6.15 2. 32 0.69 | 11.59 5 0
Fort Randall, Dak 43 01) 9837) 1,245 4.72 6. 22 3.40 118} 15.52!) 15" 6
Fort Rice, Dak..----:... 46°32'| 100°33 }.....-.. 3. 63 4. 87 1. 54 1.35) 11.39) 6 1
Fort Sanders, Wyo 4117 | 105 36 | 7,161 3. 55 4.15 2. 33 1.43) 11.46 | 610
MortiSeldens Ns MOx <1. caveceaeoawcesstace ee 32°23) 106°557|.-.---.. 0. 58 4. 83 1. 86 1.22) 8.49 8 5]
Wort:Shaw- Monte: 2.0... os cseeee cceeccccsned 47 30 | 111 42) 6,000 2.18 2. 30 1.34 1.13 6.95 ara)
Fort Stanton, N. Mex .....2-....00.-ss00-00--- 3329] 105 38| 5,000] 3.03] 10.61| 486] 244] 20.91) 7 9
Fort Stevenson, Dak. - 47360) 101910) |eeeee =e 3.41 4. 97 2.15 1.31} 11.84 6 2
WORT SLOG GON LOX te ene aasee = ees eee eee 30 20 | 102 30 | 4,950 1.24 5. 66 3.31 1.29] 11.50] 5 8
ROME SUL yy Wake ce-tie atest Sates ceca ae 44 50 | 100 35 | 1,672 6. 52 7.18 1.70 114] 1658!) 78}
Fort Union, N. Mex. 35 54 | 104 57 | 6, 670 2.12 11.92 3.79 1.32] 1915] 17 5
Fort Walla Walla, Wash 46 03 | 118 20 800 4. 69 2.07 4.98 7.62°| 19.36 8 8
| Wort WinratewN Mexia cs so.sse-cceesnee ce. 35 29 | 107 45 | 6,982 1. 96 6.50 3. 42 5.44 | 17.32 | 9°41
TPA AONE OR any noon nome eee pose | 3244] 11436] 200] 0.27] 1.30] 1.36] 0.98] 3!o1 | 16 6

RAINFALL OF WESTERN PORTION OF UNITED STATES. 49

TaBLe II.—Precipitation of the Arid Region—Continued.

| Mean precipitation, in inches. 5

= — = — 3

Station. s | = Fe € ; J

° = 2 =) $b = 5 ist 2

= | ce cp a =I s = ra a

8 3s 3 5 5 a $s %

| A =| ise] n n < E | al |
or | 0% | Feet. | Y. i.
[pRinecold Barrackan Tex: 2.2240 .ccet-s+sas-2ce= 26 23 | 99 00 521 3.71 | 7.00 6-31 2.58 | 19.60] 14 2
Salt Lake City, Utah... 40 46 | 111 54) 4,534 6, 25 | 6. 28 4.71 7. 5! 24, 81 9 2
San Diego; Calves ss jesjee eels oseesst serene 32 42 117 14 150 1.89 0.36 1.89 5. 17 9.31] 24 2
HANGANO AN sp MLOKG = ea naceele sscsemcso ence 35 41 106 02| 6,846) 2.17 | 6.82 3.45 2.47 | 14.91 19 10

{ |

TABLE III.—Precipitation of the San I

rancisco Region.

| =
& | Mean precipitation, in inches. :
Station. Ss = “ - g i Bs
as | 8 || é 3S 0 ae eae
Sa aM Feet | | ¥. M.
PAN CRUTAZ ASIAN. sees cucet ss ticle t sice sce oes BY 49) 122°25)|2222..-. 2.59 0. 01 1.85 | 12.04 16,49 9 5
PACH OIE BIGNG a wee sata sae = = ome ules aici Sa[ale w= an | 8751} 122 26 30 3.52 0. 02 2.75 | 12.29 18.58 511
Benicia Barracks . 38 03 | 122 09 64 4.10 0.13 2.28; 839) 14.90] 18 3
DOS AN OUD (cy ah Sa nh OB eee eee 37 00 | 119 40 402 7.25 0. 00 - 2. 94 8. 81 19. 00 Lijeas!)
INGrie EON hema scies soe rs sees cise ae ses 5-8 noses ¢ 37 48 | 122 29 27 3. 66 0.03 2,28.) 11:39)) 47.86) 14001
Monterey ..-...--.--------- Seca cues eee 36 37 | 121 52 40 4.43 0 26 9594) “S78: | etd. 7ik) oles
SACIAMONUOE a= 5- 45s coce see eneeee <aadess. 88 34 | 121 26 81 5:55 0.09 2.76] 10.84 | 19.24) 18 3]
San Francisco; Presidio .---.-...---+.-.--.--- 37 47 | 122 28) | 150 4, 80 0.49 2.68 | 12.32) 20:29 |} 20 2
AMMAN CISCO. cose ccesceseetiodesncsccceas ss 37 48 | 122 25 130 5. 03 0. 22 3.05 | 13.19 | 21.49 | 24 4
TABLE 1V.—Precipitation of the Region of the Lower Columbia.
. | =
Mean precipitation, in inches. z
: = = 2
Station. ¢ 2 | 2 res | B 2 | g s
2 Sp Sb ze] 5 = s 5 3
= Se iy) et ee res s | #
) oA 4 a 7) n bal eS ‘al a
| erkcaee o | Feet, Y. M.
PA:SLOTIOMOLOP oe <meta ee sees cic c tae sa micce | 4611 | 123 48 52, 18.90 5.72 | 18.19 22 4
Cape Disappointment, Wash - --+| 46 17 | 124 03 30 14. 97 5.97 | 20.46 5.9
RoniiDalles Orepirssanacjoo=s enews =sacsasesas | 45 33 | 120 50 350 | 3.91 1,16 5.78 | 12 8
CampiGaston Cal’. 222.6 lee ost sass2cs2- sce 41 01 | 123 34 |.--...-. 14.76 1.15 9.92 | 12 0
Gampawaieht; Callesessceet se. c2ce see. 2222 [39,48 | Osten ee | 826] 0.27| 817 9 8
OL O LOO KV OAlenees a. coset asco Bean fa ccee: 41 07 | 121 29, 3,390 | 6.37 0. 4.55 9 0
Fort Hoskins, Oreg ....---.-----++-:2s0--+2--- 45,06'|, 123.26)! ..2<<2 | 14.69] 2 14. 88 6 9
Horst um DOLE Calunc-seetncacirs sco si<csh= sas 40 45 124 10 50 | 9. 36 0.7; 49 11 2
Hort Ones: (Caligese2 = 2 sass aoe toe Se oat wisce ee | 41 36 | 12252) 2,570 | 5.23 0.91 4.19 5 0
Fort Steilacoom, Wash. - - 47 11 | 122 34 300 | 8. 98 2:81) 10.12 12 9
Fort Stevens, Oreg......-..--2222-200-2e-0eee- | 4612112957 eae oe | 17.67| 7.88] 1821 6 5
Hort Umpqua OLveriess <a 226 ooo esss- << aces | 43 42 | 124 10 16.83 | 2.86) 15.64 5 10
Fort Vancouver, Wash | 45 40 | 122 30 50 | 8.70 3.78 9.17 16 11
PRONG pee ELL Lek OTOP erete eres oe = isimriats aJo.0's Sele ASA I23LON| came e ne | 13.10 2.39 | 13.20 9 3
Portland, Oreg ..---...---- oe SES OSS EEE CES 45 30 | 122 36 45 18.75 2.50 | 11.31 a)
Port LOWUSODG WWASMe see -- aie cca ae sce sas 48 07 | 122 45 8 5.45 4, 22 2.31 5.6
SanwW ua dsland) Wash:os-.---.c-.--------->= 48 28 | 123 01 150 5.01 4. 60 7.89 9 4
TAG R:

'

50 LANDS UF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN THROUGH THE YEAR.

In a general way the limit of agriculture without irrigation, or ‘dry
farming”, is indicated by the curve of 20 inches rainfall, and where the
rainfall is equally distributed through the year this limitation is without
exception. But in certain districts the rainfall is concentrated in certain
months so as to produce a “rainy season”, and wherever the temperature
of the rainy season is adapted to the raising of crops it is found that “dry
farming” can be carried on with less than 20 inches of annual rain. There
are two such districts upon the borders of the Arid Region, and within its
limits there may be a third. ks

First District—Along the eastern border of the Arid Region a contrast
has been observed between the results obtained at the north and at the
south. In Texas 20 inches of rain are not sufficient for agriculture, while
in Dakota and Minnesota a less amount is sufficient. The explanation is
clearly developed by a comparison-of the tables of rainfall with reference
to the distribution of rain in different seasons.

TaBLE V.—Precipitation of Texas.

b =S |
| - | Mean precipitation, in inches. 5
- | © aioe a = ce
Station. ates = a3 . FA FI 2 =
a z iS a 2 = a 5 ¥
4 a | DR | A 4 E A cs
—— — — —— - —— ————— —|
| I, On sea SOL ekaet. | |
| Austin Stig SSeS So RE OE oonosceescaapnacss 3017 | 97 44 650 8. 61 7.94 | 10.74 6. 23
| Camp Verde 30 00, 99 10 1, 400 6.11 9. 81 8.30) 5.05
| Fort Relknap eres saat see cee ee ae ees eee eas | 33 08] 98 46 1, 600 6. 41 9. 44 8. 34 3. 86
| Fort Bliss (El Paso) .........----------+--+--- | 3147] 106 30 | 3,830| 0.43] 3.49] 3.38] 1.23 |
| Fort Brown --| 255 97 37 50 3.18 7. 64 13, 02 4, 04
RoniG@hadbournotea ss: sees aaa ene anaes | 31 58 | 100 15 | 2,020 5.77 | 6.53 7. 06 3. 52
Worti@larichsaewceceee ase se aes tee voce cease secs 29 17 | 100 25 1, 000 4.14 7.57 6.55 4. 35 |
Fort; Davis.----.---.. 30 40 | 104 07 4, 700 1. 84 8. 76 4.72; 1.80 |
Hort: Duncans -=-.== 28 39 | 100 30 1, 460 3.56| 8.60 6. 54 2. 63 |
Hort Grifiin =-------2-- | 3254] 9914 |........ 4.95 | 6. 25 6.14 4.17
|) INQ rE GVH season sen Roo ee SSoaSbor rota. Bosh bSodce 2910 | 99 50 845 5. 38 9. 67 6. 88 3.53 |
PG CbPM AR OMe eee ee eee eee - | 8040) 9915 | 1,200 6. 36 10. 44 8. 22 3. 96
Fort MeIntosh......-.-. | 2735] 9948 | g06| 3.22] 656] 5.38| 295] 17.5 |
RorteMiCkavevte seprisn ster merterioa = esa 30 48 | 100 08 2, 060 5. 21 6.71 7.81 4,22 23. 95 9 7 |
Helorhis too kbomeeceerer =o ae se 30 20 | 102 30 | 4, 950 1. 24 5. 66 3.31 | 1.29 11.50 5 8 |
(Galveston=--->t6. -\-~.--|- 29 18 94 47 30 13.15 14. 90 16.83 | 12.19 57. 07 (iy) a
| Gilmer (near) | 32 40| 94 59 950 | 13.36) 9.93] 11.77] 10.93] 45.99] 7 9|
IMG AON Cee aaa seas seaseac Re anabebr oct 2942) 9815 720 7. 60 6. 90 8. 83 4.25 27. 58 5 1 |
Ringgold Barracks | 2623] 99 00 521 3.71 | 7. 00 6. 34 2.58 | 19.60} 14 2
SaneAnN Oni mee sec meas ae ne me cere } 2925] 98 25 600 6.77 8.91 9. 30 | 6.32} 31.30 | 10 2]
Means tsaenacoeee: sees ose vives hacus a. Bee seeee coe seeeeeereeee 4. 62 | Bh78 || eis! 369) aia) ae ee

RAINFALL OF WESTERN PORTION OF UNITED STATES. 51

TABLE VI.—Precipitation of Dakota.

Mean precipitation, in inches. A

oS

Station. = ; a : | S

2 = 2 S 3

= AB) © = =) a

= | = a ra = a

Stal n 4 S HK <a]
ONG ee | Y. Bf.
Homea DeLcroln iG? <-scseeecce na csceeeeee sess = 46 27 96 21 4. 80 8. 67 3.46 1, 85 18.78 136
| Fort Buford. ...--. 2-222 ++--0+--2220- 22-22 eee 48 01 | 103 58 3.76 4.06 2.01 2. 01 11. 84 7 10
| Fort Randall -. ---| 4301] 9837) 1,245 pe) 6. 22 3.40 118 15.52) 15 6
| Fort Rice ..... ---| 46 32 | 100 eso eee 3, 63 4.87 1.54 1,35 11.39 61
Fort Stevenson .. Se reees| UAT Sty || MODAN orca. 3.41 4.97 2.15 1.81} 11.84 6 2
MOM isullye = sean ss secs Fe nencS cc caieeete tas 4450 | 100 35) 1, 672 6.52 7.18 1.70 1.14 | 16.54 7 8
Fort Totten 3| 9916) 1,480 5.18 a UF 2.50 1.59 16.44 Bi (5
Fort Wadsworth | 9710] 1,650) 7.00] 10.25| 3.98| 292/ 2415) 6 5
LEI. 6). Sect script S> Suc a CeeEaoe Spe TerLan 8 57 | 97 03 768 4.02} 7.24 2.71 1:53") 115/50 4 8
TIGR SAGE ASS AAO R Sea Aen ae eee Oe eer ae 4.78 | 6.74 2. 61 1.65} 15.78 | eae

|

Table V includes every station in Texas that has a record of five years
or more, in all twenty stations. If the means of rainfall for the state be
compared with the means for single stations, it will be seen that there is a
general correspondence in the ratios pertaining to the different seasons, so
that the former can fairly be considered to represent for the state the distri-
bution through the year. Table VI presents the data for Dakota in the
same way, and the correspondence between the general mean and the
station mean is here exceedingly close. At each of the nine stations, the
ereatest rainfall is recorded in summer, the next greatest in spring, and the
least in winter. Placing the two series of results in the form of percentages,

they show a decided contrast :

Winter. | Year.

Spring. Summer. | Autumn. |
| ROE eocleieane Woes ee ee eee eee eee 30 | 43 | 7 | 10 100
|
TRERE Cacia ects selec ea eee ee 21 31 31 17 100 |

In Dakota a rainy season is well marked, and 73 per cent. of the rain
falls in spring and summer, or at the time when it is most needed by the
farmer. In Texas only 52 per cent. of the rain falls in the season of
agriculture. The availability of rain in the two regions is therefore in the
ratio of 73 to 52, and for agricultural, purposes 20 inches of rainfall in
Texas is equivalent to about 15 inches in Dakota.

For the further exhibition of the subject, Table VII has been prepared,

52 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

comprising stations in the Region of the Plains all the way from our

northern to our southern boundary. By way of restricting attention to the

practical problem of the limit of “dry farming”

, only those stations are
admitted which exhibit a mean annual rainfall of more than 15 and less
than 25 inches. The order of arrangement is by latitudes, and in the
columns at the right the seasonal rainfalls are expressed in percentages of
the yearly. The column at the extreme right gives the sum of the spring

and summer quotas, and is taken to express the availability of the rain-

fall.

TABLE VII.—Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains.

| 3 a Percentages of annual rainfall. |
| S12. | E
Station. | iS 4 E rc | 3 | 5 F ies a |
es + ye bob) ee 8) 8 |}wa
4 ag |a ala |4]-E |e)
° Y.M. | Inches. |
TECHN Ob TOW ee eines Sask bam RHSe eer aaaob and case pes arcs esses 48 57 4 8) 15.50 26 ay aly 10| 73
| Fort Totten, Dak 4756| 5 5| 16.44] 31] 44] 15| 10] 75
| Fort Abercrombie, Dak 27| 13 6| 18.78| 26| 46] 18| 10] 72|
Fort Wadsworth, Dak -.- 6 5| 24.15| 29) 42] 17| 12| w
It Ste IDA 6 ps peat sees se See SOarOSe mice Debacou so -cceneaSsooe 7 8| 16.54 39| 44) 10 7 83 |
Salus GMURN S425 toe shoes Sonos senda tocoset sess gescscossensgacs gf bil 24, 74 21 40 | 29 10 61 |
MontpbandalliMalcqees osceee se eae scenes es coke ee ue ean 15 6| 15.52] 30| 40] 22| 8| 70|
THOT EVUCIS ODS OM NG DT ete ee ate ete ale fe eel eee otter 6 18.96 | 36 40) 17 7 | 76 |
| = ———- = = - > ] i > ae a lees Se
Fort Riley, Kans. ..-.--.. oaDANE Ee And ROU SabBULSSE SHS Seeacapne SR ouESe 2010) 24.52 22 43 24 11 65
Fort Hays, Kans--....-.. 6 11 22. 70 31 27 25 17 58
iy rd BE rarGG VEN cin aS aor en sas bao Sea mSaod Seber a Ace SseasmecasasoS | 10 9) 21.42 24 45 23 8 69
if
= ia ee ee = ae
Fort Griffin, Tex... --- f 5 3] 2151) 23 29 29 19 | 2
Fort Chadbourne, Tex - F 8 | 8 7 | 22.88 | 25 29 31 15 54 |
IUCN E Hit ALES Sahoo cos aeeseno sss Svea e soccer mSccgo eon ces 30 48 9 7] 23.95 22 28 32 18 50
WAMon Oats, IU cscs ascsSoss ain cOapee oS aoSads Sones Soon ---.--| 30 40 8 11 yeah 3b 51 28 10} 62
Fort Clark, Tex.-...:---.- 29 17 12 5 22. 61 | 18 34 29 19 | 52 |
Fort Duncan, Tex...-.. 28 39) 11 7 | 21.33 7 40} 31) 12 | 57
Fort McIntosh, Tex.....- 2735 || 14.7 17. 51 | 18 88) — 31 13 56
Ringgold Barracks) Lex.---- co. aniscae eee ocean cisely 26 23; 14 2) 19.60 19 36 32 13 55 |
\ 2 |

The graduation of the ratios from north to south is apparent to inspec-

tion, but is somewhat irregular.

The irregularity, however, is not greater

han should be anticipated from the shortness of the terms of observation

at the several stations, and it disappears when the stations are combined in

natural groups.

Dividine the whole series into three groups, as indicated
as] ?

RAINFALL OF WESTERN PORTION OF UNITED STATES. 53

by the cross lines in Table VII, and computing weighted means of the
seasonal ratios, we have—

TABLE VII (a).*

| Candi lath | Rotel Percentages of annual rainfall.
Groups of stations. tude of | years of ] a hs iad : |
group. record. Spring. |Summer. Autumn. | Winter. | Sasi
summer.
ee |

Eight stations in Dakota, Minnesota, and |
INGDIOSKdicereeae ee asaceaassasewen sce os semis 45 20 | 67 29 43 19 9 | 72,
‘Three: stations in Kansas: s2- 22 scesecee ss 38 45 38 24 41 a4 | 11 65
Right stationsin Texas ... .<:..-...200---.--| 29 45 85 19 36 31 14 | DO.

*In computing the several means of Table VII (a) from the seasonal means of Table VIT, the
latter were weighted according to the lengths of the records by which they had been obtained,

A moment’s inspection will show that the middle group is intermediate
between the northern and southern in all its characters. ‘The spring quota
of rainfall progressively diminishes from north to south, and so does the
summer, while the fall and winter quotas increase. What is lost in summer
_is gained in winter, and thereby the inequality of rainfall from season to
season is diminished, so that a rainy season is not so well defined in Texas
as in Dakota. What is lost in spring is gained in autumn, and thereby the
place of the rainy season in the year is shifted In Dakota the maximum
of rain is earlier than in Texas, and corresponds more nearly with the

maximum of temperature.

TaBLE VIII.—Sceasonal precipitation in the San Francisco Region.

| | Percentages of annual rainfall.

.| Mean an- |
Station. Extent of | jualrain- - a a ae - |
| record. fall. 14. " - Winter and |
| Spring. | Summer. | Autumn.) Winter. spring, |
|
Y. M. | Inches. | |
Alcatraz Island ........-2-2266s-2+seese-see- 9 5 16. 49 16 0 11 73 89
Ari geliislandtr2s-ssn-c2 se stcessa5s sSe0s2s 511 | 1858 19 0 15 66 85 |
Benicia Barracks ..-. 18 3 14. 90 28 af 15 56 84 |
Nort Millersc.--- 02. 69 | 19. 00 38 0 16 46 84
Fort Point ........-- 14 11 17. 36 21 0 13 66 87
HVOMtere ya. --- Seon ew ann cee -Heceesececcs ssee | 12 3 15. 71 28 2 14 56 St
SacraMmen tO seeeen ee ett secceseess|) | 18.78 | 49.24 29 1 | 14 56 85
San Francisco; Pre 20 2 20. 29 24 2 13 61 85 |
San Francisco ....-.--2-- 24.4 | 2149 | 24 1 4 61 85 |
Weighted means .<-.--.--....-.2,--. | eee Pe OE eee | 25 1 14 60 85

Total extent of record = 130 years. Mean of yearly rainfalls = 15. 90

54 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Second District—In the San Francisco Region a rainy season is still
more definitely marked, but occurs at a different time of year. It will be
seen by Tables III and VIII that no rain falls in summer, while the winter
months receive 60 per cent. of the annual precipitation, and the spring 25
per cent. The general yearly rainfalt of the district is only about 16
inches, but by this remarkable concentration a period of five months is
made to receive 13 inches. The winter temperature of the district is no less
remarkable, and supplies the remaining condition essential to agriculture.
Frosts are rare, and in the valleys all the precipitation has the form of rain.
The nine stations which afford the rainfall records given above show a
mean spring temperature of 57° (see Table IX). Thirteen inches of rain
coming in a frostless winter and spring have been found sufficient for

remunerative agriculture

TABLE IX.—Mean temperatures, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region.

Mean temperatures, in degrees Fahr. |
Sika Extent of | |
record. | |
Spring. | Summer.| Autumn.) Winter. Year. |
|
- ie —- =
Y. i. | | |
AGE VA EI EG Shssocosnen dan toonesridon Sonnac sn sneer, 8 6 55 57 | 60 54 57 |
PAmpal alan datas seen eee seul cece Ss ee MO meee Gail 58 GE aaa 52 58
| Benicia Barracks.......- 15 7 58 67 62 49 59.
ortiMiller=:=>-22------- 7 6 64 86 67 49 67
SMomt SONG anor iene 10 11 55 59 58 52 56 |
\Monterey:=c2o05- -es-e-o- meee Ssce ss 12 5 55 | 60 | 57 50 55 I
Shoramentorsnameote cine ae 14 0 BO eee vdke ay 9262 48 60 |
San Francisco; Presidio 19 0 54 | 57 57 50 55
|| (eth eR en 5s eGeor nine soe rasnccic eaomanosssoesossscoce 11 2 55 58 58 50 55 |
| INT eects Se en tons IR SEED | RE aS sv | Ga 60 50 58

The same winter maximum of rainfall is characteristic of the whole
Pacific coast. The Region of the Lower Columbia, with an average rain-
fall of 46 inches, receives 47 per cent. of it in winter and 24 per cent. in
spring. Southward on the coast, Drum Barracks (near Los Angeles) and
San Diego receive more than half their rain in winter, but as the whole
amount is only 9 inches agriculture is not benefited. The eastern bases
of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range exhibit the winter maximum of

rainfall, and this feature can be traced eastward in Idaho and Nevada, but

RAINFALL OF WESTERN PORTION OF UNITED STATES. 5D

in these districts it is accompanied by no amelioration of winter tempera-
ture. (See Table X.)

TABLE X.—Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast, ete.

Mean an- Percentages of rainfall: Mean temperature.
Station. | nual rain- | |
fall. | Spring. |Summer. Autumn. Winter. Spring. | Winter. |
|
Inches. | |
man*Franciscd; Region, +. 2- cen - 2s esac cesceer eee 15.90 | 25 1 14 60 57 50
Region of Lower Columbia. .- 46.45 24 6 | Ze 47 | 51 40 |
Drum Barracks, Cal.......--- 8.74 | 26 | 3 4 67 60 56
| San Diego, Cal .......-2----.+ 9.31 20 4 20 56 60 54 |
Camp independence) Call oc: 2.2 2s ss02e.ces- 6.60 | 17 5 9 69 57 39 |
Rorigbidwall Galles se ec. tere sn seencs oct 20.23 | 24 8 15 53 48 20)
Camp Warner Ores sces.2cos.cces ccs we nusac 14.41 30 8 wy |) 45 42 29 =|
MOA DALLALN Oy OTCl ess as oe aaceoecc es ws coals. 8. 76 26 13 18 43 | 47 20
Fort Colville, Wash .--....... Eeaeateee «ane 14. 06 26 22 18 34 45 24
Fort Walla Walla, Wash ....-...----..--s0cse- 19.36 | 24 11 26 39 | 52 84
|| Camp! MeDermitt,-Nevi.<=...-2.2.-.ss<sceeese2 8.53 35 9 13 43 | 46 29
| Camp Halleck, Nev 10. 98 33 17 21 35 45 28
OLGA RD Wal WIdEhOrecso2.cccesa ee sieas- cs Cases 14.89 | 28 16 23 | 03 33
WOLtuBOIS6; LdGhOlt.. .2a cv dem cnstee cosas poe 15. 48 33 8 16 43 | 52 30

Third District—In Arizona and New Mexico there is a general maxi-
mum of rainfall in summer, and a restricted maximum in winter. The
principal minimum is in spring. In Table XI the stations are arranged
according to longitudes, a disposition well suited to exhibit their relations.
In eastern New Mexico the distribution of rainfall has the same character
as in adjacent Texas, but with a more decided maximum. Half of the
total rainfall is in summer and half of the remainder in autumn. Westward
the maximum diminishes slightly, but it appears in every station of the two
territories. In western Arizona the winter maximum .of the Pacific coast
asserts itself, and it can be traced eastward as far as Fort Wingate, New
Mexico Except at Camp Mohave, on the western border of Arizona, it is

inferior in amount to the summer maximum.

56 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

TABLE XI.—Seasonal precipitation in Arizona and New Mexico.

| | Mean an- Percentages of annual rainfall.
Station. Longitude. | nual rain-
| fall. Spring. | Summer. | Autumn.| Winter.
aa = | | a es

| On | Inches. |
WUGER EN TURF OS) sos coconeecessceeenoos Sosecstsaseasc eR SSoapa2ac | Be SSE ScOSS2 19 36 31 14

i]
Wort Wmniony N. Mex -e=72-)-s-2se2-./: catvncs.beeceee se | 104 57 19. 15 | ll 62 20 7
Cantonment Burgwin, N. Mex ...--..---..---------.--- 105 30 8. 65 18 34 28 20
Ronis tantomeN= VW OXxse- ease acc eee nme seer. ceeeee 105 38 20.94 | 14 51 23 12
Sarigas lh 6a Ne MOx ao oso oe ae oe lems Santee eer eee eet 106 02 14.91 14 46 23 17
JN AG ERIN WG pecons sopecne denees HAanoosceons Szee 106 38 8.11 10 54 25 11
Fort Fillmore, N. Mes 106 42 | 8.42 | 5 50 36 9
‘Wort(SoldentiNa Maw see taee te senace Sete cane ee teee 10655 | 8.49 7 57 22 4
Forti Craigy N: Mex. st¢ae-25-0 -eeoe oes -s- essen oa | W700 | 11.06 6 53 31 10
HorteMoRace Nas Oxqsesemees soaiiseeee ol SaDaQdAteases 107 03 11. 59 21 53 20 6
Fort Wingate, N. Mex | 107 45 17. 32 11 38 20 31
Fort Bayard, N. Mex... | 108 30 14.32 | 1 50 16 23
Fort: Defiance, Aviz,.<csc.---5-0s¢92-s5-25-s5se—%* Seca) EO |S arep iS | ar 2 26 18
Campi BowlerstiZyeseaenaee= sn aoe nee ean ase | 109 30 | 15.26 | 9 48 13 30
WarpGrant, Avi7e. ease. sane ose aaer ones ees | 110 40 15.08 | 14 41 22 23
Camp McDowell, Ariz .......--.--:-- WERE RE Sone Sse asec 111 36 | 11. 45 10 42 15 33
Camp Verde, Ariz ...........------ pee ary seat mantles 10.85 | 12 43 92 23
GampiWhipple, Atiz’ -.<<2:0:.2>- se.e2- ceece ares | 112 20 19.28 | 20 Die ool 27
(CRA IW ROL eh Jul ceca pees Joc cnceSenecoSeecsaso 114 36. | 4.65. | 18 27 20 35

—— = = | = =e

Sarrsicran CISCOpe pilose se ee oes eee trials selene ee ete ea ree eee | 25 i 14 60

In all this region the daily range of temperature is great, and frosts
occur so early in autumn that no use can be made of the autumnal rainfall.
The yearly precipitation is very small, and the summer quota rarely
exceeds seven or eight inches. Nevertheless the Pueblo Indians have
succeeded, in a few localities, and by-a unique method, in raising maize
without irrigation. The yield is too meagre to tempt the white man to
follow their example, and for his use the region is agricultural only where it

can be watered artificially.

CHAPTER IV.

WATER SUPPLY.
By G. K. GILBerr.

The following discussion is based upon a special study of the drainage-
basin of Great Salt Lake.

INCREASE OF STREAMS.

The residents of Utah who practice irrigation have observed that many
of the streams have increased in volume since the settlement of the country.
Of the actuality of this increase there can be no question. A popular
impression in regard to the fluctuations of an unmeasured element of climate
may be very erroneneous, as, for example, the impression that the rainfall of
the timbered states has been diminished by the clearing of the land, but in
the case of these streams relative measurements have practically been made.
Some of them were so fully in use twenty years ago that all of their water
was diverted from its-channels at the “critical period”, and yet the depend-
ent fields suffered from drought in the drier years. Afterward, it was
found that in all years there was enough water and to spare, and opera-
tions were extended. Additional canals were dug and new lands were
added to the fields ; and this was repeated from time to time, until in many
places the service of a stream was doubled, and in a few it was increased
tenfold, or even fiftyfold. It is a matter of great importance to the agricul-
tural interests, not only of Utah but of the whole district dependent on irri-
gation, that the cause or causes of this change shall be understood. Until
they are known we cannot tell whether the present gain is an omen of
future gain or of future loss, nor whether the future changes are within or
beyond our control. I shall therefore take the liberty to examine somewhat
at length the considerations which are supposed by myself or others to bear
upon the problem.

Fortunately we are not compelled to depend on the incidental observa-

57

SAR

58 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

tions of the farming community for the amount of the increase of the
streams, but merely for the fact of their increase. The amount is recorded
in an independent and most thorough manner, by the accumulation of the

water in Great Salt Lake.
RISE OF GREAT SALT LAKE.

A lake with an outlet has its level determined by the height of the
outlet Great Salt Lake, having no outlet, has its level determined by the
relation of evaporation to inflow. On one hand the drainage of a great
basin pours into it a continuous though variable tribute; on the other, there
is a continuous absorption of its water by the atmosphere above it. The
inflow is greatest in the spring time, while the snows are melting in the
mountains, and least in the autumn after the melting has ceased, but before
the cooling of the air has greatly checked evaporation on the uplands. The
lake evaporation is greatest in summer, while the air is warm, and least in
winter. Through the winter and spring the inflow exceeds the evaporation,
and the lake rises. In the latter part of the summer and in autumn the
loss is greater than the gain, and the lake falls. The maximum occurs in
June or July, and the minimum probably in November. The difference
between the two, or the height of the annual tide, is about 20 inches.

But it rarely happens that the annual evaporation is precisely equal to
the annual inflow, and each year the lake gains or loses an amount which
depends upon the climate of the year. If the air which crosses the drainage
basin of the lake in any year is unusually moist, there is a twofold tendency
to raise the mean level. On one hand there is a greater precipitation,
whereby the inflow is increased, and on the other hand there is a less
evaporation. So, too, if the air is unusually dry, the inflow is correspond-
ingly small, the loss by evaporation is correspondingly great, and the
contents of the lake diminish. This annual gain or loss is an expression,
and a very delicate expression, of the mean annual humidity of a large
district of country, and as such is more trustworthy than any result which
might be derived from local observations with psychrometer and rain gauge.
A succession of relatively dry years causes a progressive fall of the lake,

and a succession of moist years a progressive rise. As the water falls it

WATER SUPPLY. 59

retires from its shore, and the slopes being exceedingly gentle the area of
the lake is rapidly contracted. The surface for evaporation diminishes and
its ratio to the inflow becomes less. As the water rises the surface of the lake
rapidly increases, and the ratio of evaporation to inflow becomes greater.
In this way a limit is set to the oscillation of the lake as dependent on the
ordinary fluctuations of climate, and the cumulation of results is prevented.
Whenever the variation of the water level from its mean position becomes
ereat, the resistance to its further advance in that direction becomes pro-
portionally great. For the convenience of a name, I shall speak of this
oscillation of the lake as the limited oscillation. It depends on an oscillation
of climate which is universally experienced, but which has not been found
to exhibit either periodicity, or synchrony over large areas, or other features
of regularity.

Beside the annual tide and the limited oscillation, the lake has been
found to exhibit a third change, and this third or abnormal change seems
to be connected with the increase of the tributary streams. In order to
exhibit it, it will be necessary to discuss somewhat fully the history of the
rise and fall of the lake, and I shall take occasion at the same time to call
attention to the preparations that have recently been made for future
observations.

Previous to the year 1875 no definite record was made. In 1874
Prof. Joseph Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, began a
correspondence with Dr. John R. Park, of Salt Lake City, in regard to the
fluctuations and other peculiarities of the lake, and as a chief result a
systematic record was begun. With the codperation of Mr. J. L. Bartoot
and other citizens of Utah, Dr. Park erected a graduated pillar at Black
Rock, a point on the southern shore which was then a popular summer
resort. It consisted of a granite block cut in the form of an obelisk and
engraved on one side with a scale of feet and inches. It was set in gravel
beneath shallow water, with the zero of its scale near the surface. ‘The
water level was read on the pillar by Mr. John T. Mitchell at frequent
intervals from September 14, 1875, to October 9, 1876, when the locality
ceased to be used as a watering place, and the systematic record was
discontinued. Two observations were made by the writer in 1877, and it

60 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

was found in making the second that the shifting gravel of the beach had
buried the column so deeply as to conceal half the graduation.

Dr. Park has kindly furnished me a copy of Mr. Mitchell’s record.
The observer was instructed to choose such times of observation that the
influence of wind storms upon the level of the lake would be eliminated,
and the work appears to have been faithfully performed.

Record of the height of Great Salt Lake above the zero of the granite pillar at Black Rock.

Date. | Reading. Wind. | Date. Reading. Wind.
HP al ae aia ; =
a pI 5 | nD Be] s
Year. | Month. | 3 eS 3 8 Year. Month. | # & 3 8
| eet ce mae as 2.) ScleewlGe aes
1875.------ September..|14, 0] 6 | N. | Gentle. | 1876......... Revvilccesd (abel) WN A Wee Calm
22 | 0 5k | N. E.| Quiet. 25 1 3 |N.E.| Quiet. |
= 23| Oo} 5 |N.E.| Quiet. | May ...-.--. 2 1] 4 |N.E.| Quiet
October..-.- 6 0 44) N. | Quiet. 22 1 N. | Quiet
| | o| 4 |N.E.| Quiet. dune ee. see 2| 1] 1 | W. | Quiet
18 0] 3% /N.E.| Quiet. || 8 WO WNesesos Calm.
| 26 0 3 | N. E.| Quiet. 13 2| .2 |N.E.} Quiet.
November ..| 9 > 0 2 W. | Quiet. 23 2 4 |N.E.} Quiet.
16} Oo} 1! N. | Quiet. || 30 2} 6 | S. | Quiet.
23| o| 4 |N.E.| Quiet. Tulyaes.s2e 18 2| 3 |N.E.| Quiet.
29 0 54 | E. Quiet. 25 2 4 |N.E.| Quiet.
December ..| 7 | 0 5 | E. | Quiet. || August .--. 2 3 |N.E.} Quiet.
| 14 | | 5t| E. | Quiet. || 10 2| 2 |N.E.} Quiet.
21 0 6 |N.E.| Quiet. | 22 1 9 |N.E.| Quiet.
1g 76 see | January...) 5| 0] 8 |N-E.| Quiet. | 29/ 1] 8 |S.E.| Strong.
11 0| 8 |N.E.| Quiet. 30 1| 8 | N. | Quiet.
| loe9| o| 9 | = | Qniet. | September: |i14i aia |i aren eee Calm.
| February...| 1) 0] 9 |S.E.| Quiet. | : 19 1| Gt] N. | Quiet.
| 5} 0) Oop Pepe Calm. | 26 a VG: | eocees Calm.
| 22 0 93 | N.E.| Quiet. || October. -.-- 9 1 54 | N. E.| Quiet
| Mareh ...... 15 0| 11 |N.E.| Quiet. HILO 77 eee iy seas 12 2 (Ye hoes Calm.
| 22| 1] oO |N.E.| Quiet. | October. .... TE) OP AO. aces Calm
| 28) 1 4|N.E.| Quiet. ||

|
|
|
|
}

Comparing the October observations for three years, it appears that the
lake rose 13 inches from 1875 to 1876, and fell in the next year 64 inches.

The Black Rock pillar has not the permanence that is desirable.
Although it has thus far been only the more firmly established by the
action of the waves, it is still true that the lake is encroaching on the land
in this part of the coast, and a storm may at any time undermine and
overthrow the pillar. To provide for such a contingency it was deter-
mined to establish a bench mark out of reach of the waves, and connect
it with the pillar by leveling, so that if the existing standard should be

Corral

Corral

prleoonnncnnne wan

rN

n
WANS

AW

1(188
WSF
IW \

RRStatio

Scale of feet.

100 4

SKETCH OF BLACK ROCK AND VICINITY,
UTAH TERRITORY.

Prepared to show the position of the graduated pillar erected by Dr. John Park for observations on the water-level of
Great Salt Lake, and the position of the granite bench-mark.

q Rod Ty de sig
iV x : ; nal ee a
: ' _ g : 8 my
) a ; t . oy
i ws
* ey
' ; i
4
, 1
; i i ee
i F f a
S ib
v - th +
1 2 i 4
s .
: :
‘ie > : T i
, teat ,
s
f
>
Mt ; aa a a
. ' 7
x -
rh
v i
7 7
s ’ :
ios;
& ‘
=
‘ti
a
— As Pe ee
io j : i : f
eta ava) at mos!
; Ra ae (se aa ; : i
: —_T oe eae en i td eu ~~? pe : pe ;
- hie oT i '
© i pit a eS ‘
: rama bens v6 : Le. io Ga 0
: ;
‘ a * ly tus
1 aa ( :
% ; . : # ary
f : 7 =
i i i
: i a f ' ‘
7 ; : ll
5 \
: ‘ av J :
- # e udp tes
f f i
M i
‘. 7 i
, j
7 i
F ;

WATER SUPPLY. 61

destroyed its record would still have a definite meaning, and the relative
height of a new standard could be ascertained with precision. In this
undertaking I was joined by Mr. Jesse W. Fox, a gentleman who has
long held. the office of territorial surveyor of Utah. A suitable stone
was furnished by the Hon. Brigham Young, and was carried to Black
Rock without charge through the courtesy of Mr. Heber P. Kimball,
superintendent of the Utah Western Railroad. The block is of granite,
and is three feet in length. It was sunk in the earth, all but a few inches,
on the northern slope of a small limestone knoll just south of the railroad
track at Black Rock. Its top is dressed square, about 10 LO inches, and is
marked with a+. It will be convenient to speak of the top of this monu-
ment as the Black Rock bench. On the 11th of July, 1877, the surface of
the lake was 34.5 feet below the bench, and it then marked 2.0 feet on the
pillar erected by Dr. Park. The zero of the observation pillar is therefore
36.5 feet below the bench.

The accompanying topographic sketch will serve at any time to identify
the position of the bench.

After consultation with Dr. Park, I concluded that it would be better
not to depend on the Black Rock station for observations in the future—at
least in the immediate future—and other points were discussed. Eventually
it was determined to establish a new station near Farmington, on the eastern
shore of the lake. The point selected is in an inlet so sheltered that a
heavy swell in the lake will not interfere with accurate observation. At
the present stage of water the spot is well adapted to the purpose, and it
can be used with the water 2 feet lower or 5 feet higher. I was not able
to attend personally to the erection of the pillar, but left the matter in the
hands of Mr. Jacob Miller, of Farmington, who writes me that it was placed
in position and the record begun on the 24th of November, 1877. The
pillar is of wood, and is graduated to inches for 9 feet of its length.

On the day of its establishment the reading of the water surface was 2
feet 1 inch. On the 21st of January, 1878, the reading was 2 feet 13 inches.

The Farmington and Black Rock pillars are 23 miles apart. The
relative height of their zeros will be ascertained as soon as practicable by

making coincident readings, during still weather, of the water surface at

6

62 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

the two stations. It is already known that the Farmington zero is approw-
mately 16 inches lower than the Black Rock.

A stone ‘‘bench” or monument for permanent reference has also been
placed on rising ground near the observation pillar, and the two will be
connected by spirit level. The Farmington bench is of gneiss, and is
marked with a + in the same manner as the Black Rock. The stone was
contributed by Mr. Abbott, of Farmington, and was gratuitously shaped
and placed by Mr. Miller.

Mr. Miller has also voluntarily assumed charge of the record, and will
make or superintend the observations. It will not be practicable to visit
the pillar daily, nor even at regular intervals, but it is expected that the
record will be as full as the one tabulated above. The following items are
to be noted:

—

Time of observation, including year, month, day, and hour.
) tomy ? 5]

bo

Reading of water surface in feet and inches.
3. Direction and force of wind.
4. Account of wind for the preceding 24 hours.
5. Name of observer.
These observations will not only determine the annual gain or loss of the
lake, but willin a few years give data to construct the curve of the annual tide.
The history of past changes not having been the subject of record, it
became necessary to compile it from such collateral data as were attainable.
The enquiries inaugurated by Professor Henry have been prosecuted, and
have resulted in a tolerably definite determination of the principal changes
since 1847, together with the indication of a superior limit to earlier oscillations.
Ever since the settlement of Salt Lake City, in 1847, the islands of
the lake have been used as herd grounds. Fremont and Carrington islands
have been reached by boat, and Antelope and Stansbury islands partly by
boat, partly by fording, and partly by land communication. A large share
of the navigation has been performed by citizens of Farmington, and the
shore is in that neighborhood so flat that the changes of water level have
necessitated frequent changes of landing place. The pursuits of the
boatmen have been so greatly affected that all of the more important

fluctuations were impressed upon their memories, and most of the changes

WATER SUPPLY. 63

were so associated with features of the topography that some estimate of
their quantitative values could be made. The data which became thus
available were collated for Professor Henry by Mr. Miller, a gentleman
who himself took part in the navigation, and of whom I have already had
occasion to speak. His results agree very closely with those derived from
an independent investigation of my own, to which I will now proceed. —

Antelope Island is connected with the delta of the Jordan River by a
broad, flat sand bar that has been usually submerged but occasionally
exposed. It slopes very gently toward the island, and just where it joins
it is interrupted by a narrow channel a few inches in depth. For a num-
ber of years this bar afforded the means of access to the island, and many
persons traversed it. By combining the evidence of such persons it has
been practicable to learn the condition of the ford up to the time of its final
abandonment. From 1847 to 1850 the bar was dry during the low stage
of each winter, and in summer covered by not more than 20 inches
of water. Then began a rise which continued until 1855 or 1856. At
that time a horseman could with difficulty ford in the winter, but all com-
munication was by boat in summer. Then the water fell for a series of
years until in 1860 and 1861 the bar was again dry in winter. The
spring of 1862 was marked by an unusual fall of rain and snow, whereby
the streams were greatly flooded and the lake surface was raised several
feet. In subsequent years the rise continued, until in 1865 the ford became
impassable. According to Mr. Miller the present height was attained in
about 1868, and there have since occurred only minor fluctuations.

For the purpose of connecting the traditional history as derived from
the ford with the systematic record that has now been inaugurated, I visited
the bar in company with Mr. Miller on the 19th of October, 1877, and made
careful soundings. The features of the ford had been minutely described,
and there was no uncertainty as to the identification of the locality. We
found 9 feet of water on the sand flat, and 9 feet 6 inches in the little channel
at its edge. The examination was completed at 11 a. m.; at 5 p. m. the
water stood at 0 feet 10 inches on the Black Rock pillar; and on the follow-
ing day at 8 a. m. we marked its level at the place where the Farmington

pillar now stands, our mark being 2 feet 2 inches above the zero of the pillar.

64 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The Antelope Island bar thus affords a tolerably complete record from
1847 to 1865, but fails to give any later details. It happens, however, that
the hiatus is filled at another locality. Stansbury Island is joined to the
mainland by a similar bar, which was entirely above water at the time of
Captain Stansbury’s survey, and so continued for many years. In 1866,
the year following that in which the Antelope bar became unfordable, the
water for the first time covered the Stansbury bar, and its subsequent
advance and recession have so aftected the pursuits of the citizens of Grants-
ville, who used the island for a winter herd ground, that it will not be
difficult to obtain a full record by compiling their forced observations.
Since undertaking the inquiry I have had no opportunity to visit that town,
but the following facts have been elicited by correspondence. Since the
first flooding of the bar the depth of water has never been less than 1 foot,
and it has never been so great as to prevent fording in winter. But in the
summers of 1872, 1873, and 1874, during the flood stage of the annual tide,
there was no access except by boat, and in those years the lake level
attained its greatest height. In the spring of 1869 the depth was 44 feet,
and in the autumn of 1877, 24 feet.

The last item shows that the Stansbury bar is 7 feet higher than the
Antelope, and serves to connect the two series of observations.

Further inquiries will probably render the record more complete and

5
1860
870

Diagram showing the rise and fall of Great Salt Lake from 1847 to 1877.

N. 8.= Level of new storm line.

O. 8S. = Level of old storm line.

8. B. = Level of Stansbury Island bar.
A. B. = Level of Antelope Island bar.

WATER SUPPLY. 69

exact, but, as it now stands, all the general features of the fluctuations are
clearly indicated. In the accompanying diagram the horizontal spaces rep-
resent years, and the vertical, feet. The irregular curve shows the height
of the lake in different years. Where it is drawn as a full line the data are
definite; the dotted portions are interpolated.

Upon the same diagram are indicated the levels of two storm lines.
The upper is the limit of wave action at the present time, and is 3 feet
above the winter stage (October, 1877). It is everywhere marked by drift
wood, and in many places by a ridge of sand. Above it there is a growth,
on all steep shores, of sage and other bushes, but those in immediate prox-
imity are dead, having evidently been killed by the salt spray. Below the
line are still standing the stumps of similar bushes, and the same can be
found 2 or 3 feet below the surface of the water.

The lower storm line was observed by Captain Stansbury in 1850,
and has been described to me by a number of citizens of Utah to whom it
was familiar at that time and subsequently. Like the line now visible, it
was marked by drift wood, and a growth of bushes, including the sage,
extended down to it; but below it there were seen no stumps. Its position
is now several feet under water, and it is probable that the advancing
waves destroyed most of its features, but the vestiges of the bushy growth
above it remain.

The peculiarities of the two storm lines have an important bearing on
the history of the lake. The fact that the belt of land between them sup-
ported sage bushes shows that previous to its present submergence the lake
had not covered it for many years. Lands washed by the brine of the
lake become saturated with salt to such extent that even salt-loving
plants cannot live upon them, and it is a familiar fact that the sage
(Artemisia sempervirens) never grows in Utah upon soil so saline as to be
unfavorable for grain. The rains of many years, and perhaps even of
centuries, would be needed to clense land abandoned by the lake so that
it could sustain the salt-hating bushes, and we cannot avoid the conclusion
that the ancient storm line had been for a long period the superior limit of
the fluctuations of the lake surface.

To avoid misapprehension, it should be stated that the storm lines
DAR

66 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

have been described as they appear on the eastern shore of Antelope
Island, a locality where the slope of the ground amounts to three or four
degrees. The circumstances are different at the margin of the mainland,
and especially where the slopes are very gentle. The lake is so shallow
that its equilibrium is greatly disturbed by strong winds. Its waves are
small, but in storms the water is pushed high up on the land toward which
the wind blows, the extreme effects being produced where the inclination is
most gentle. The islands, however, are little flooded; the water does not
accumulate against them, but is driven past; and the easterly gales that
produced the present storm line on the east shore of Antelope Island may
have driven so much water to the westward as even to have depressed the
level in that locality. Moreover, where the land surface is nearly level, the
cleansing by rain of portions once submerged is indefinitely retarded. On
all the flatter shores the lake is bordered by tracts too saline for reclamation
by the farmer, and either bare of vegetation or scantily covered by salt-
loving shrubs. These tracts are above the modern storm line, and they
acquired their salt during some flood too remote to be considered in this
conneetion. The largest of them is called the Great Salt Lake Desert, and
has a greater area than the lake itself. :

Thus it appears that in recent times the lake has overstepped a bound
to which it had long been subject. Previous to the year 1865, and for a
period of indefinite duration, it rose and fell with the limited oscillation
and with the annual tide, but was never carried above a certain limiting

3)

yet returned. ‘The annual tide and the limited oscillation are continued
as before, but the lowest stage of the new regime is higher than the highest

line. In that year, or the one following, it passed the line, and it has not

stage of the old. The mean stage of the new regime is 7 or 8 feet higher
than the mean stage of the old. The mean area of the water surface is:a
sixth part greater under the new regime than under the old.

The last statement is based on the United States surveys of Captain
Stansbury and Mr. King. The former gathered the material for his map in
1850, when the water was at its lowest stage, and the latter in the spring
of 1869, when the water was near its highest stage. The one map shows
an area of 1,750 and the other of 2,166 square miles. From these I

;
sentir
raat

1

Explanation
“Ny Shere line in 1850
. (Stansbury)

hy Th

ty rit,

iit wn

MU tl ree of lake tn 1850

>

——s
SSS ie Submerged by the rise
of the lake between
TSS 1850 and 1869

Scale of miles

(one |

QT a

"
Wn
utile
yet
Waa

nn it

rit

mt
ity
AT

1 mre
Hee at
»

EN

COMPARATIVE MAP

GREAT SALT LAKE,UTAH

COMPI

LED TO SHOW ITS INCREASE OF AREA

The topography and later shore-line are
taken from t Survey of Mr Clurence King.
U.S Geologist; the earlier shore-line from the
Survey of Capt. Howard Stansbury, USA

= octet es

= Ole Wantage ve

UAT di Ae |,
(NN or, crak,

WATER SUPPLY. 67

estimate the old mean area at 1,820 miles, the new at 2,125 miles, and the
increase at 305 miles, or 17 per cent.

The “abnormal change” of the lake may then be described as an
infilling or rise of the water whereby its ordinary level has been raised 7
or 8 feet and its ordinary area has been increased a sixth part; and this
appears to be distinct from the limited oscillation and annual tide, which
may be regarded as comparatively normal. ‘To account for it a number of
theories have been proposed, and three of them seem worthy of considera-
tion. They appeal respectively to volcanic, climatic, and human agencies.

VOLCANIC THEORY.

It has been surmised that upheavals of the land, such as sometimes
accompany earthquakes, might have changed the form of the lake bed and
displaced from some region the water that has overflowed others. This
hypothesis acquires a certain plausibility from the fact that the series of
uplifts and downthrows by which the mountains of the region were formed
have been traced down to a very recent date, but it is negatived by such an
array of facts that it cannot be regarded as tenable. In the first place, the
water has risen against all the shores and about every island of which we
have account. The farmers of the eastern and southern margins have lost
pastures and meadows by submergence. At the north, Bear River Bay has
advanced several miles upon the land. At the west, a boat has recently
sailed a number of miles across tracts that were traversed by Captain
Stansbury’s land parties. That officer has described and mapped Strong's
Knob and Stansbury Island as peninsulas, but they have since become
islands. Antelope Island is no longer accessible by ford, and Egg Island,
the nesting ground of the gulls and pelicans, has become a reef. Springs
that supplied Captain Stansbury with fresh water near Promontory Point
are now submerged and inaccessible ; and other springs have been covered
on the shores of Antelope, Stansbury, and Fremont islands. ;

In the second place, the rise of the lake is correlated in time with the
increase of the inflowing streams, which has been everywhere observed by
irrigators, and it is logical to refer the two phenomena to the same cause.

And, finally, if upheaval could account for the enlargement of the

lake, it would still be inadequate to account for the maintenance of its

68 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

increased size, in the face of an evaporation that yearly removes a layer
several feet in depth. The same compensatory principle that restricts the
“limited oscillation” would quickly restore the equilibrium between inflow
and evaporation, in whatever manner in was disturbed.

CLIMATIC THEORY.

It is generally supposed that the change is a phenomenon of cli-
mate, and this hypothesis includes harmoniously the increase of streams
with the increase of lake surface. By some it is thought that the climate
of the district is undergoing, or has undergone, a permanent change; and
by others that the series of oscillations about a mean condition which char-
acterizes every climate has in this case developed a moist phase of excep-
tional degree and duration. The latter view was my own before I became
aware of the features of the ancient storm line, but it now appears to me
untenable. That a variable surface of evaporation, which had for a long
period recognized a limit to its expansion, should not merely exceed that
limit, but should maintain an abnormal extent for more than a decade, is in
a high degree improbable.

It is far more probable that one of those gradual climatic changes, of
which geology has shown the magnitude and meteorology has illustrated
the slowness, here finds a manifestation. ‘The observed change is apparently
abrupt, and even saltatory ; but of this we cannot be certain, since it is
impossible from a record of only thirty years to eliminate the limited oscil-
lation. It is quite conceivable that were such elimination effected, the
residual change would appear as a continuous and equable increase of the
lake. However that may be, a certain degree of rapidity of change is
necessarily involved, for the climatic change which is able in a decade
to augment by a sixth part the mean area of evaporation cannot be of
exceeding slowness. If we can ascertain how great a change would be
demanded, it will be well to compare it with such changes as have been
observed in other parts of the country, and see whether its magnitude is
such as to interfere with its assumption.

The prevailing winds of Utah are westerly, and it may be said in a
general way that the atmosphere of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake

WATER SUPPLY. 69

is part of an air current moving from west to east. The basin having no
outlet, the precipitation of rain and snow within its limits must be counter-
balanced by the evaporation. The air current must on the average absorb
the same quantity of moisture that it discharges. Part of the absorption is
from land surfaces and part from water, the latter being the more rapid.

If, now, the equilibrium be disturbed by an augmented humidity of
the inflowing air, two results ensue. On the one hand the precipitation is
increased, and on the other, the absorbent power of the air being less, the
rate of evaporation is diminished. In so dry a climate the precipitation is
increased in greater ratio than the humidity, and the rate of evaporation is
diminished in less ratio; while of the increased precipitation an increased
percentage gathers in streams and finds its way to the lake. That reservoir,
having its inflow augmented and its rate of evaporation decreased, gains in
volume and grows in breadth until the evaporation from the added expanse
is sufficient to restore the equilibrium. Giving attention to the fact that the
lake receives a greater percentage of the total downfall than before, and
to the fact that its rate of evaporation is at the same time diminished it is
evident that the resultant augmentation of the lake surface is more than
proportional to the augmentation of the precipitation.

We are therefore warranted in assuming that an increase of humidity
sufficient to account for the observed increase of 17 per cent. in the size of
the lake would modify the rainfall by less than 17 per cent. The actual
change of rainfall cannot be estimated with any degree of precision, but
from a review of such data as are at my command I am led to the opinion
that an allowance of 10 per cent. would be as likely to exceed as to fall
short, while an allowance of 7 per cent. would be at the verge of possibility.

The rainfall of some other portions of the continent has been recorded
with such a degree of thoroughness and for such a period that a term of
comparison is afforded. In his discussion of the precipitation of the United
States, Mr. Schott has grouped the stations by climatic districts, and
deduced the annual means for the several districts. Making use of his
table on page 154 (Smithsonian Contributions, No. 222), and restricting
my attention to the results derived from five or more stations, I select the

following extreme cases of variation between the mean annual rainfalls of

7O LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

consecutive decades. District I comprises the sea coast from Maine to
Virginia, and the record includes five or more stations from 1827 to 1867.
From the decade 183140 to the decade 184150 the rainfall increased
6 per cent. District II comprises the state of New York and adjacent
regions, and includes five or more stations from 1830 to 1866. Irom the
decade 184756 to the decade 185766 the rainfall increased 9 per cent.
District IV comprises the Ohio Valley and adjacent regions, and includes
five or more stations from 1837 to 1866. From decade 1841—50 to decade
1851-60 the rainfall diminished 8 per cent.

The case, then, stands that the best comparable districts and epochs
exhibit extreme fluctuations from decade to decade of from 6 to 9 per cent,
while the rise of Great Salt Lake implies a fluctuation of about 10 per
cent. But before deciding that the hypothetical fluctuation in Utah is
extraordinary, consideration should be given to the fact that in the dry
climate of that region a given change in humidity will produce a relatively
great change in rainfall, while an identical change of rainfall, measured in
inches, acquires an exaggerated importance when expressed as the percent-
age of a small total rainfall. Giving due weight to these considerations,
I am led to conclude that the assumed increase of rainfall in Utah is not
of incredible magnitude, and consequently that the hypothesis which
ascribes the rise of the lake to a change of climate should be regarded as
tenable. It by no means follows that it is proven, and so long as it depends
on an assumption the truth of which is merely possible, but not established,
it can claim no more than a provisional acceptance.

It is proper to add that, so far as I entertain the idea of a change of
climate, I do so without referring the change to any local cause. It is
frequently asserted that the cultivated lands of Utah ‘draw the rain”; or
that the prayers of the religious community inhabiting the territory have
brought water to their growing crops; or that the telegraph wires and
iron rails which gird the country have in some way caused electricity to
induce precipitation; but none of these agencies seem to be competent.
The weather of the globe is a complex whole, each part of which reacts on
every other, and each part of which depends on every other. The weather
of Utah is an interdependent part of the whole, and cannot be referred to its

WATER SUPPLY. 71

causes until the entire subject is mastered. The simpler and more imme-
diate meteoric reactions have been so far analyzed that their results are
daily predicted ; but the remote sources of our daily changes, as well as the
causes of the greater cycles of change, are still beyond our reach. Although
withdrawn from the domain of the unknowable, they remain within that of
the unknown.

THEORY OF HUMAN AGENCIES.

The only remaining theory of value is the one advocated by Pro-
fessor Powell: that the phenomena are to be ascribed to the modifica-
tion of the surface of the earth by the agency of man. The rise of the
lake and the increase of streams have been observed since the settlement of
the country by the white man, and the sage brush on the old storm line
shows that they had not been carried to the same extent at any previous
period in the century. They have coincided in time with the extension of
the operations of civilization; and the settlers attach this idea to the facts
in detail as well as in general. They have frequently told me that
wherever and whenever a settlement was established, there followed in a
few years an increase of the water supply, and these statements have been
supported by such enumerations of details that they seem worthy of consid-
eration. If they are well founded, the secret of the change will surely be
found among the modifications incident to the operations of the settler.

Similar testimony was gathered by Prof. Cyrus Thomas in 1869 in
regard to the increase of water supply at the western edge of the plains,
and the following conclusion appears in his report to Dr. Hayden (page
237 of the reprint of Dr. Hayden’s reports for 1867, 1868, and 1869):

All this, it seems to me, must lead to the conclusion that since the territory [Colorado] has begun
to be settled, towns and cities built up, farms cultivated, mines opened, and roads made and travelled,
there has been a gradual increase of moisture. Be the cause what it may, unless it is assumed that
there is a cycle of years through which there is an increase, and that there will be a corresponding
decrease, the fact must be admitted upon this accumulated testimony. I therefore give it as my firm
conviction that this increase is of a permanent nature, and not periodical, and that it has commenced
within eight years past, and that it is in some way connected with the settlement of the country, and
that as the population increases the moisture will increase.

Notwithstanding the confidence of Professor Thomas’s conclusions, he

appears to have reached them by a leap, for he makes no attempt to analyze
the influence of civilized man on nature to which he appeals. Before we

ae LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

accept his results, it will be necessary to inquire in what way the white man
has modified the conditions by which the water supply is controlled.

To facilitate this inquiry, an attempt will be made to give a new and
more convenient form to our expression of the amount of change for which
it is necessary to account in the basin of Great Salt Lake.

The inflow of the lake is derived chiefly from three rivers, and is
susceptible of very exact determination. Thorough measurement has not
yet been made, but there has been a single determination of each river and
minor stream, and a rough estimate can be based on them. The Bear and
the Weber were measured in October, 1877, and I am led by the analogy
of other streams and by the characters of the river channels to judge that
the mean volume of the Bear for the year was twice its volume at the date
of measurement, and that of the Weber four times. The mean flow of the
Jordan can be estimated with more confidence, for reasons which will appear
in a following chapter. The ‘supply from other sources” mentioned in the
table includes all the creeks that flow from the Wasatch Mountains, between
Draper and Hampden, together with the Malade River, Blue Creek, the creeks

of Skull and Tooele Valleys, and the line of springs that encircles the lake.

mean

Rivers, ete.

Estimated

Bear River, measured October 4, 1877, at Hampden Bridge.....-.---.-.....----.----+---2-+-------2---- 2, 600 5, 200 |
\ieber River measured: October Li meariOrcdenee.--- one. Sea jak ole fe eee aerate mieereieieeeisiee 500 2,000 |
POLGCANERUKON Mn eCASULEM diy tS eT Sane Np Cuma stelet =r etetetniclofetalate tase =taiaeteials wie tare a) atalsixtada}atal<falaiel=iatat=tstetetate 1,275 1, 000
l:Shpplyatrom’other sources. sco ee sane e as acess: tee ceca: Fasonee eects yee aie me EER eee | 1, 800 |
BOY bn aos nb hain Rad ante a SOD EO TOON Oe pb kc AO EO OBOOR CHSC SD ISDS asneSaanb a Sagnessasacoadad hoascoeds } 10, 000 |
| Deduct the water used|inirrigation - == - 2 - oo eon nie a cln enn nw een nnn o| ona anna ss | 600

Ie gui Cs Ae aches oe eee ee ee Seco as ae hab eet i one so sce eee ae eee ec | 9, 400

Temainder

The result expresses the mean inflow to the lake in 1877, and is prob-
ably not more than 25 per cent. in error. The total inflow for the year
would suffice to cover the lake to a depth of 60 inches. In the same year
(or from October, 1876, to October, 1877) the lake fell 65 inches, showing
that the loss by evaporation was by so much greater than the gain by
inflow. The total annual evaporation of inflowing water may therefore be
placed provisionally at 664 inches. If we add to this the rain and snow

WATER SUPPLY. 73

which fall on the lake, we deduce a total annual evaporation of about 80
inches of water; but for the present purpose it will be more convenient to
consider the former figure.

The extent of the Salt Lake basin is about 28,500 square miles. The
western portion, amounting to 12,500 miles, sends no water to the lake,
yielding all its rainfall to evaporation within its own limits. The remain-
ing 16,000 miles includes both plains and mountains, and its tribute is
unequal. To supply 664 inches annually to the whole area of the lake,
2,125 miles, it must yield a sheet of water with an average thickness of
8.83 inches. In former times, when the lake had an area of only 1,820
miles, the yield of the same area was 7.43 inches. The advance from 7.43
to 8.83, or the addition of 1 inch and 4 tenths to the mean outflow of the
district, is the phenomenon to be accounted for.

All the water that is precipitated within the district as rain or snow
returns eventually to the air, but different portions are returned in different
ways. -Of the snow, a portion is melted and a portion is evaporated with-
out melting. Of the melted snow and the rain, a part is absorbed by vege-
tation and soil, and is afterward reabsorbed by the air; another part runs
from the surface in rills, and a third part sinks into the underlying forma-
tions and afterward emerges in springs. The streams which arise from
springs and rills are again divided. Part of the water is evaporated from
the surfaces of the streams and of fresh water lakes interrupting their
courses. Another part enters the adjacent perous soils, and either meets in
them the air by which it is slowly absorbed, or else so saturates them as to
produce marshes from which evaporation progresses rapidly at the surface.
The remainder flows to Great Salt Lake, and is in time evaporated from its
surface. The lesser portion of the precipitation enters the lake; the greater
is intercepted on the way and turned back to the air. Whatever man has
done to clear the way for the flowing water has diminished local evapora-
tion and helped to fill the lake. Whatever he has done to increase local
evaporation has tended to empty the lake.

The white man has modified the conditions of drainage, first, by the
cultivation of the soil; second, by the raising of herds; and, third, by the

cutting of trees.
IO AR

74 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. By plowing the earth the farmer has rendered it more porous and
absorbent, so that a smaller percentage of the passing shower runs off. He
has destroyed the native vegetation, and replaced it by another that may
or may not increase the local evaporation; but this is of little moment,
because his operations have been conducted on gentle slopes which in their
natural condition contributed very little to the streams. It is of greater
import that he has diverted water already accumulated in streams, and for
the purposes of irrigation has spread it broadly upon the land, whence it is
absorbed by the air. In this way he has diminished the inflow of the lake.

Incidental to the work of irrigation has been what is known as the
“opening out” of springs. Small springs are apt to produce bogs from
which much water is evaporated, and it has been found that by running
ditches through them the water-can be gathered into streams instead. The
streams of water thus rescued from local dissipation are consumed in irriga-
tion during a few months of the year, but for the remainder go to swell
the rivers, and the general tendency of the work is to increase the inflow
of the lake. A similar and probably greater result has been achieved by
the cutting of beaver dams. In its natural condition every stream not sub-
ject to violent floods was ponded from end to end by the beaver. Its water
surface was greatly expanded, and its flood plains were converted into
marshes. The irrigator has destroyed the dams and drained the marshes.

There are a few localities where drainage has been resorted to for the
reclamation of wet hay lands, and that work has the same influence on the
discharge to the lake.

2. The area affected by grazing is far greater than that affected by
farming. Cattle, horses, and sheep have ranged through all the valleys
and upon all the mountains. Over large areas they have destroyed the
native grasses, and they have everywhere reduced them. Where once the
water from rain was entangled in a mesh of vegetation and restrained from
gathering into rills, there is now only an open growth of bushes that offer
no obstruction. Where once the snows of autumn were spread on a non-
conducting mat of hay, and wasted by evaporation until the sunshine
came to melt them, they now fall upon naked earth and are melted at once

by its warmth.

WATER SUPPLY. Es)

The treading of many feet at the bogey springs compacts the spongy
mold and renders it impervious. The water is no longer able to percolate,
and runs away in streams. The porous beds of brooklets are in the same
way tramped and puddled by the feet of cattle, and much water that
formerly sank by the way is now carried forward.

In all these ways the herds tend to increase the inflow of the lake, and
there is perhaps no way in which they have lessened it.

3. The cutting of trees for lumber and fence material and fuel has
further increased the streams. By the removal of foliage, that share of the
rain and snow which was formerly caught by it and thence evaporated, is
now permitted to reach the ground, and some part of it is contributed to
the streams. Snow beds that were once shaded are now exposed to the
sun, and their melting is so accelerated that a comparatively small prapor-
tion of their contents is wasted by the wind. Moreover, that which is
melted is melted more rapidly, and a larger share of it is formed into rills.

On the whole, it appears that the white man causes a greater per-
centage of the precipitation in snow fo be melted and a less percentage to
be evaporated directly. This follows from the destruction of trees and of
grass. By reducing the amount of vegetation he gives a freer flow to the
water from rain and melting snow and carries a greater percentage of it to
streams, while a smaller percentage reaches the air by evaporation from the
soil. By the treading of his cattle he diminishes the leakage of the smaller
water channels, and conserves the streams gathered there. By the same
means and by the digging of drains he dries the marshes and thereby
enlarges the streams. In all these ways he increases the outflow of the
land and the inflow of the lake. He diminishes the inflow in a notable
degree only by irrigation.

The direct influence of irrigation upon the inflow is susceptible of
quantitative statement. Four hundred square miles of land in Utah and
Idaho are fertilized by water that would otherwise flow to the lake, and
they dissipate annually a layer of about 20 inches. To supply these 20
inches the drainage district of 16,0060 miles yields an average layer of 0.5
inch, and this yield is in addition to the 1.4 inches_required to maintain
the increase of lake surface. The total augmentation of the annual water

76 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

supply is therefore represented by a sheet 1.9 inches in depth covering
the entire district.

The indirect influence of ‘irrigation, and the influences exerted by the
grazier and the woodman, cannot be estimated from any existing data, but
of their tendencies there can be no question. To some extent they diminish
local evaporation, and induce a larger share of the rainfall to gather in the
streams; and to one who has contrasted the district in question with
similar districts in their virgin condition, there seems no extravagance in
ascribing to them the whole of the observed change.

In the valley of the Mississippi and on the Atlantic coast, it has been
observed that the floods of rivers are higher than formerly, and that the low
stages are lower, and the change has been ascribed by Ellet and others to
the .destruction of the native vegetation. The removal -of forests and of
prairie grasses is believed to facilitate the rapid discharge from the land of
the water from rain and melted snow, and to diminish the amount stored
in the soil to maintain springs. In an arid country like Utah, where
the thirst of the air is not satisfied by the entire rainfall, any influence
that will increase the rapidity of the discharge must also increase the
amount of the discharge. The moisture that lingers on the surface is
lost.

On the whole, it may be most wise to hold the question an open one
whether the water supply of the lake has been increased by a climatic
change or by human agency. So far as we now know, neither theory is
inconsistent with the facts, and it is possible that the truth includes both.
The former appeals to a cause that may perhaps be adequate, but is not
independently known to exist. The latter appeals to causes known to
exist but quantitatively undetermined. 2

It is gratifying to tun to the economic bearings of the question, for
the theories best sustained by facts are those most flattering to the agricul-
tural future of the Arid Region. If the filling of the streams and the rise
of the lake were due to a transient extreme of climate, that extreme would
be followed by a return to a mean condition, or perhaps by an oscillation
in the opposite direction, and a large share of the fields now productive
would be stricken by drought and returned to the desert.

WATER SUPPLY. 77

If the increase of water supply is due to a progressive change of
climate forming part of a long cycle, it is practically permanent, and
future changes are more likely to be in the same advantageous direction
than in the opposite. The lands now reclaimed are assured for years to
come, and there is every encouragement for the work of utilizing the exist-
ing streams to the utmost.

And finally, if the increase of water supply is due to the changes
wrought by the industries of the white man, the prospect is even better.
Not only is every gain of the present assured for the future, but future
gain may be predicted. Not alone are the agricultural facilities of this
district improving, but the facilities in the whole Rocky Mountain Region
are improving and will improve. Not only does the settler incidentally
and unconsciously enhance his natural privilege, but it is possible, by the
aid of a careful study of the subject, to devise such systematic methods as

shall render his work still more effectual.
FARMING WITHOUT IRRIGATION.

The general rule that agriculture in Utah is dependent on artificial
irrigation finds exception in two ways. First, there are some localities
naturally irrigated; and, second, there is at least one locality of which the
local climate permits dry farming.

Along the low banks of many streams there are fertile strips of land,
The soil is in every such case of a porous nature, and water from the
stream percolates laterally and rises to the roots of the plants. Nearly all
such lands are flooded in spring time, and they are usually devoted to hay
as an exclusive crop; but some of them are above ordinary floods and are
suited for other uses. It rarely happens, however, that they are farmed
without some irrigation, for the reason that the use of the convenient water
render the harvest more secure and abundant.

The same fertility is sometimes induced by subterranean waters which
have no connection with surface streams. In such cases there is usually,
and perhaps always, an impervious subsoil which retains percolating water
near the surface. A remarkable instance of this sort is known at the western
base of the Wasatch Mountains. A strip of land from 20 to 40 rods broad,

78 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

and marking the junction of the mountain slope with the plain, has been
found productive from Hampton’s Bridge to Brigham City, a distance of
18 miles. In some parts it has been irrigated, with the result of doubling
or trebling the yield, but where water has not been obtained, the farmer
has nevertheless succeeded in extracting a living. A similar but narrower
belt of land lies at the eastern base of the Promontory range, and a few
others have been found. In each locality the proximity of subterranean
water to the surface is shown by the success of shallow wells, and there is
evidently a natural irrigation.

There is one region, however, where natural irrigation is out of the
question, but where crops have nevertheless been secured. Bear River
“City” was founded by a company of Danes, who brought the water of
the Malade River to irrigate their fields. After repeated experiment they
became satisfied that the water was so brackish as to be injurious instead
of beneficial, and ceased to use it; and for a number of years they have
obtained a meagre subsistence by dry farming. A district lying south of
Ogden and east of Great Salt Lake, and known as “the Sand Ridge”, has
recently been brought in use, and in 1876 and 1877 winter wheat was
harvested with a yield variously reported as from 10 to 15 bushels per
acre. ‘This success is regarded by some of the older Settlers as temporary
and delusive, for it is said to have depended on exceptional spring rains ;
but the majority of the community have faith in its permanence, and the
experiment is being pushed in many valleys. In Bear River City and on
the Sand Ridge water is not found by shallow wells, and the land is naturally
dry. In these localities, and, so far as I am aware, in all others where dry
land has been successfully farmed, the soil is sandy, and this appears to be
an essential condition. Success has moreover been restricted to the line of
valleys which lie at the western base of the Wasatch Mountains and near
Great Salt Lake.

This last feature depends, as I conceive, on a local peculiarity of
climate. The general movement of the atmosphere is from west to east,
and the air which crosses the lake is immediately lifted from its level to
the crest of the Wasatch. Having acquired from the lake an addition to
its quota of moisture, it has less power of absorption and a greater tendency

WATER SUPPLY. 79

to precipitation than the atmosphere in general, and it confers on the eastern
shore of the lake a climate of exceptional humidity.

The character of this climate is clearly indicated by the assemblage of
the observed facts in regard to precipitation. Through the kindness of
Prof. Joseph Henry I have been permitted to examine the rain records
accumulated by the Smithsonian Institution, including not only those which
have been embodied in the published “Tables,” but the more recent data
to be included in the forthcoming second edition. The following table
shows the mean annual precipitation for all stations in Utah, Nevada,
Wyoming, and Colorado, which have a record two years or more in extent,
together with certain other facts for comparison. The temperature means
are taken from the Smithsonian Temperature Tables and the United States

Signal Service Reports.

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i}
|
|
|
|
|
|

& | Mean temperature. g Z
et | ease ea earme | a S
Station. AE E 3 6 | 3
2 &b z Pe en are
Inches. | Deg. F. | Deg. F. Feet. | © ¢ | Yrs. Mos.
Salt Lake City, Utah 24. 81 50 74 4, 354 40 46 | 9 2
Camp Douglas, Utah 18. 82 49 73 5, 024 40 46 10 3
Colorado Sprin es, COlO. . -hcecceciscocecteccccccsccescuecccoss 17.59 44 68 5, 970 38 49 | 3 0
Campi winheld Scott, Nevi.-2-<-,c--<<0cc2secoctstcacecsscss: | 17238 47 (| Pe ee | 41 34 2 8 |
Fort Massachusetts, Colo .. “8 Eero | ere ee etter eke 8, 365 37 82 | 66lhUd
Golden City, Colo........ est ea ITAOL 72 5,240 | 39 44 2 3 |
Fort Sedgwick. Colo ... ase wae Waele sos |iy word 74 3,600 40 58 2 1 |
Wortilred iSteealo aWiyousscsseeesess<s2.cs se besc.to sewenens | 15.38 41 66 6,845 | 41 47 55
Fort! Fetterman: (\Wiy0 =. -2-s.cesesestecescsscosscatscsecesees 15,10 41 67 5, 012 42 50 Daeg
Fort Garland, Colo 14. 86 43 of =| 7,864 | 37 25 | 13 1 |
| Fort Laramie, Wyo ........----.------ 14. 45 47 73 4,472 | 42 12 | 17 8 |
Fort D. A. Russell, Wyo 14. 09 36 64 | 6,000 41 12 iyi |
ENV OT | COLO eeesins nce cescae ssetesss cae vccetacccaces Sates 13.77 46 69 5,250 | 39 45 5 1
Harrisbure Utah ac cececeesdenoesiesccsusctemes sieves esacuies TOA TL Mees cstalecaiscerss | 3,275 | 387 10 ue
| Fort Reynolds, Colo -.-.. 13. 26 52 75 | 4,300 38° 12 2 8
MortiuyvonNCGl0iscc=caccsenteansescoos = --| 12.56 SL 77 4, 000 38° 08 7 9
Fort Sanders, Wyo...-.-.-.---.....- --| 11.46 38 62 7,161 | 41 17 6 10
Saint George, Utah .. 11,39) || seeecocstes dais aces 2, 800 37 18 2 11
Camp Halleck, Nev. . 10. 98 45 68 5, 790 40 49 | 5 8
| Cheyenne, Wyo...... -| 10.14 40 66 | 6,075 41 08 3 9
GCampimeDermittaNOVce.cscness + otes-<cleccucecececscccces 8.53 46 70 | 4,700 41 58 6 4 |
MortiBrid Per mwWey Oates senias cas seniors saws tSevdeercandece 8. 43 39 63 6, 656 41 20 12. 10 |
| Fort Churchill, Nev .. 7. 52 75 4, 284 39 17 3 9
| Camp Floyd, Utah ... 49 74 4,867 | Q
Meansineceecsscsraereciwsscinn- 0s see sese tins one 45 70 5, 300

80 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Two of the stations, Salt Lake City and Camp Douglas, lie within the
zone of climate modified by Great Salt Lake, and a brief inspection of the
table will show how greatly their climate is influenced. As a general rule,
the localities of greatest precipitation in the Rocky Mountain Region have
so great altitude that their summer temperature does not permit agriculture,
but Salt Lake City, with an altitude 1,000 feet below the average of the 24
stations, and a temperature 4° above the average, has a rainfall 11 inches
greater than the average; and Camp Douglas, 3° warmer than the average
and 250 feet lower, has a rainfall 5 inches greater. If the two stations are
compared with those which lie nearest them, the contrast is still more
striking. Camp Halleck, 130 miles west of the lake, and 600 feet higher
than Camp Douglas, has a rainfall of 11 inches only. Fort Bridger, 90
miles east of the lake and 1,600 feet higher than Camp Douglas, has a rain-
fall of 8 inches. Camp Floyd, 380 miles south of the lake and sheltered
from its influence by mountains, receives only 74 inches. But Salt Lake
City and Camp Douglas, lying between the lake and the Wasatch Range,
record respectively 24.8 and 18.8 inches.

In fine, it appears that the climate of the eastern shore of Great Salt
Lake is decidedly exceptional and approximates in humidity to that of
Central Kansas. The fact that it admits of dry farming gives no warrant
for the belief that large areas in the Arid Region can be cultivated without
irrigation, but serves rather to confirm the conclusion that the limit to
remunerative dry farming is practically drawn by the isohyetal line of 22
inches. Even in this most favored district the yield is so small that it can
be doubled by irrigation, and eventually water ditches will be carried to
nearly all the land that has yet been plowed.

Cad APE BLE OV is

CERTAIN IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING
TO IRRIGABLE LANDS.

THE UNIT OF WATER USED IN IRRIGATION.

The unit of water employed in mining as well as manufacturing enter-
prises in the west is usually the inch, meaning thereby the amount of water
which will flow through an orifice one inch square. But in practice this
quantity is very indefinite, due to the “head” or amount of pressure from
above. In some districts this latter is taken at six inches. Another source
of uncertainty exists in the fact that increase in the size of the orifice and
increase in the amount of flow do not progress in the same ratio. An ori-
fice of one square inch will not admit of a discharge one-tenth as great as
an orifice of ten square inches. An inch of water, therefore, is variable
with the size of the stream as well as with the head or pressure. For these
reasons it seemed better to take a more definite quantity of water, and for
this purpose the second-foot has been adopted. By its use the volume of a
stream will be given by stating the number of cubic feet which the stream

will deliver per second.
THE QUANTITATIVE VALUE OF WATER IN IRRIGATION.

In general, throughout the Arid Region the extent of the irrigable
land is limited by the water supply; the arable lands are much greater
than the irrigable. Hence it becomes necessary, in determining the amount
of irrigable lands with reasonably approximate accuracy, to determine the

8h
LAR

82 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

value of water in irrigation; that is, the amount of land which a given
amount ot water will serve.

All questions of concrete or applied science are more or less complex
by reason of the multifarious conditions found in nature, and this is
eminently true of the problem we are now to solve, namely, how much
water must an acre of land receive by irrigation to render agriculture
thereon most successful; or, how much land will a giyen amount of water
adequately supply. This will be affected by the following general condi-
tions, namely, the amount of water that will be furnished by rainfall, for
if there is rainfall in the season of growing crops, irrigation is necessary
only to supply the deficiency ; second, the character of the soil and subsoil.
If the conditions of soil are unfavorable, the water supply may be speedily
evaporated on the one hand, or quickly lost by subterranean drainage on
the other; but if there be a soil permitting the proper permeation of water
downward and upward, and an impervious subsoil, the amount furnished
by artificial irrigation will be held in such a manner as to serve the soil
bearing crops to the greatest extent; and, lastly, there is a great difference
in the amount of water needed for different crops, some requiring less,
others more.

Under these heads come the general complicating conditions. In the
mountainous country the areal distribution of rainfall is preéminently
variable, as the currents of air which carry the water are deflected in
various ways by diverse topographic inequalities, The rainfall is also
exceedingly irregular, varying from year to year, and again from season
to season.

But in all these varying conditions of time and space there is one fact
which must control our conclusions in considering most of the lands of the
Arid Region, namely: any district of country which we may be studying is
liable for many seasons in a long series*to be without rainfall, when the
whole supply must be received from irrigation. Safety in agricultural opera-
tions will be secured by neglecting the rainfall and considering only the
supply of water to be furnished by artificial methods; the less favorable
seasons must be considered ; in the more favorable there will be a surplus.
In general, this statement applies throughout the Arid Region, but there

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. 83

are some limited localities where a small amount of rainfall in the season
of growing crops seems to be constant from year to year. In such districts
irrigation will only be used to supply deficiencies.

The complicating conditions arising from soil and ‘subsoil are many.
Experience has already shown that there are occasional conditions of soil
and subsoil so favorable that the water may be supplied before the growing
season, and the subsoil will hold it for weeks, or even months, and gradually
yield the moisture to the overlying soil by slow upward percolation or
capillary attraction during the season when growing crops require its fer-
tilizing effect. When such conditions of soil and subsoil obtain, the con-
struction of reservoirs is unnecessary, and the whole annual supply of the
streams may be utilized. On the other hand, there are extremely pervious
soils underlaid by sands and gravels, which speedily carry away the water
by a natural under drainage. Here a maximum supply by irrigation is
necessary, as the soils must be kept moist by frequent flowing. Under
such conditions the amount of water to be supplied is many fold greater
than under the conditions previously mentioned, and between these
extremes almost infinite variety prevails.

Practical agriculture by irrigation has also demonstrated the fact that
the wants of different crops are exceedingly variable, some requiring many
fold the amount of others. This is due in part to the length of time
necessary to the maturing of the crops, in part to the amount of constant
moisture necessary to their successful growth. But by excluding the varia-
bility due to rainfall, and considering only that due to differences of soils
and crops, and by taking advantage of a wide experience, a general
average may be obtained of sufticient accuracy for the purposes here in
view.

In examining the literature of this subject it was found that the
experience in other countries could not be used as a guide in considering
our problems. In general, irrigation in Europe and Asia is practiced only
to supply deficiencies, and the crops there raised are only in part the
same as with us, and the variation on account of the crops is very great.
Certain statements of Marsh in his ‘“Man and Nature” have been copied
into the journals and reports published in the United States, and made to

84 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

do duty on many occasions; but these statements are rather misleading, as
the experience of farmers in the Arid Region has abundantly demonstrated.
- The writers who have used them have in general overestimated the quanti-
tative value of water in irrigation. The facts in Italy, in Spain, in Gren-
ada, and India are valuable severally for discussion in the countries named,
but must be used in a discussion of the arid lands of the United States with
much care. It seemed better, under these circumstances, to determine the
quantitative value of water in irrigation in Utah from the experience of the
farmers of Utah. Irrigation has there been practiced for about thirty
years, and gradually during that time the area of land thus redeemed has
been increased, until at present about 325,000 acres of land are under
cultivation. A great variety of crops have been cultivated—corn, wheat,
oats, rye, garden vegetables, orchard trees, fruits, vines, etc., etc.; and even
the fig tree and sugar cane are there raised.

During the past six or seven years I have from time to time, as occasion
was afforded, directed my attention to this problem, but being exceedingly
complex, a very wide range of facts must be considered in order to obtain
a reasonably approximate average. During the past year the task of more
thoroughly investigating this subject was delegated to Mr. Gilbert. The
results of his studies appear in a foregoing chapter, written by him; but
it may be stated here that he has reached the conclusion that a continuous
flow of one cubic foot of water per second, 7. e., a second-foot of water, will,
in most of the lands of Utah, serve about 100 acres for the general average
of crops cultivated in that country; but to secure that amount of service
from the water very careful and economic methods of irrigation must
be practiced. At present, there are -few instances where such economic
methods are used. In general, there is a great wastage, due to badly con-
structed canals, from which the water either percolates away or breaks away
from time to time; due, also, to too rapid flow, and also to an excessive use
of the water, as there is a tendency among the farmers to irrigate too
frequently and too copiously, errors corrected only by long experience.

The studies of Mr. Gilbert, under the circumstances, were quite
thorough, and his conclusions accord with my own, derived from a more
desultory but longer study of the subject.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. 85

AREA OF IRRIGABLE LAND SOMETIMES NOT LIMITED BY WATER SUPPLY.

While, as a general fact, the area of arable land is greater than the area
of irrigable land, by reason of the insufficient supply of water, yet in con-
sidering limited tracts it may often be found that the supply of water is so
great that only a part of it can be used thereon. In such cases the area of
irrigable land is limited by the extent to which the water can be used by
proper engineering skill. This is true in considering some portions of Utah,
where the waters of the Green and Colorado cannot all be used within that
territory. Eventually these surplus waters will be used in southern Cali-
fornia.

METHOD OF DETERMINING THE SUPPLY OF WATER.

To determine the amount of irrigable land in Utah, it was necessary
to consider the supply; that is, to determine the amount of water flowing
in the several streams. Again, this quantity is variable in each stream from
season to season and from year to year. The irrigable season is but a
small portion of the year. To utilize the entire annual discharge of the
water, it would be necessary to hold the surplus flowing in the non-growing
season in reservoirs, and even by this method the whole amount could not
be utilized, as a great quantity would be lost by evaporation. As the utili-
zation of the water by reservoirs will be to a great extent postponed for
many years, the question of immediate practical importance is resolved
into a consideration of the amount of water that the streams will afford
during the irrigating season. But in the earlier part of the season the flow
in most of the streams in this western region is great, and it steadily
diminishes to the end of the summer. Earlier in the season there is more
water, while for the average of crops the greater amount is needed later.

The practical capacity of a stream will then be determined by its flow
at the time when that is least in comparison with the demands of the grow-
ing crops. This will be called the critical period, and the volume of water
of the critical period will determine the capacity of the stream. The criti-
eal period will vary in different parts of the region from the latter part of
June until the first part of August. For the purposes of this discussion it
was only necessary to determine the flow of the water during the critical

86 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

period. This has been done by very simple methods. Usually in each
case a section of the stream has been selected having the least possible
variation of outline and flow. <A cross-section of the stream has been
measured, and the velocity of flow determined. With these factors the
capacity of the streams has been obtained. In some cases single measure-
ments have been made; in others several at different seasons, rarely in
different years. The determination of the available volume of the several
streams by such methods is necessarily uncertain, especially from the fact
that it has not always been possible to gauge the streams exactly at the
critical period; and, again, the flow in one season may differ materially from
that in another. But as the capacity of a stream should never be rated by
its volume in seasons of abundant flow, we have endeavored as far as pos-
sible to determine the capacity of the streams in low water years. Alto-
gether the amount of water in the several streams has been determined
crudely, and at best the data given must be considered tolerable approxi-
mations. In considering the several streams experience may hereafter
discover many errors, but as the number of determinations is great, the

average may be considered good.

METHODS OF DETERMINING THE EXTENT OF IRRIGABLE LAND UNLIMITED BY
WATER SUPPLY.

In the few cases where the water supply is more than sufficient to serve
the arable lands, the character of the problem is entirely changed, and it
becomes necessary then to determine the area to which the waters can be
carried. These problems are hypsometric; relative altitudes are the goy-
erning conditions. The hypsometric methods were barometric and angular;
that is, from the barometric stations vertical angles were taken and recorded
to all the principal points in the topography of the country; mercurial and
aneroid barometers were used, chiefly the former; the latter to a limited
extent, for subsidiary work. Angular measurements were made with gra-
dientors to a slight extent, but chiefly with the orograph, an instrument by
which a great multiplicity of angles are observed and recorded by mechan-
ical methods. his instrument was devised by Professor Thompson for the

use of the survey, and has been fully described in the reports on the

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. 87

geographical operations. To run hypsometric lines with spirit levels would
have involved a great amount of labor and been exceedingly expensive,
and such a method was entirely impracticable with the means at command,
but the methods used give fairly approximate results, and perhaps all that

is necessary for the purposes to be subserved.
THE SELECTION OF IRRIGABLE LANDS.

From the fact that the area of arable lands greatly exceeds the
irrigable, or the amount which the waters of the streams will serve, a wide
choice in the selection of the latter is permitted. The considerations affect-
ing the choice are diverse, but fall readily into two classes, viz: physical
conditions and artificial conditions. The mountains and high plateaus are
the great aqueous condensers; the mountains and high plateaus are also
the reservoirs that hold the water fed to the streams in the irrigating season,
for the fountains from which the rivers flow are the snow fields of the
highlands. After the streams leave the highlands they steadily diminish in
volume, the loss being due in part to direct evaporation, and in part to
percolation in the sands from which the waters are eventually evaporated.
In like manner irrigating canals starting near the mountains and running
far out into the valleys and plains rapidly diminish in the volume of flowing
water. Looking to the conservation of water, it is best to select lands as
high along the streams as possible. But this consideration is directly
opposed by considerations relating to temperature; the higher the land the
colder the climate. Where the great majority of streams have their sources,
agriculture is impossible on account of prevailing summer frosts; the lower
the altitude the more genial the temperature; the lower the land the greater
the variety of crops which can be cultivated; and to the extent that the
variety of crops is multiplied the irrigating season is lengthened, until the
maximum is reached in low altitudes and low latitudes where two crops
can be raised annually on the same land. In the selection of lands, as
governed by these conditions, the higher lands will be avoided on the one
hand because of the rigor of the climate; if these conditions alone governed,
no settlement should be made in Utah above 6,500 feet above the level of
the sea, and in general still lower lands should be used; on the other hand

88 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

the irrigable lands should not be selected at such a distance from the source
of the stream as to be the occasion of a great loss of water by direct and
indirect evaporation. For general climatic reasons, the lands should be
selected as low as possible; for economy of water as high as possible; and
these conditions in the main will cause the selections to be made along the
middle courses of the streams. But this general rule will be modified by
minor physical conditions relating to soil and slope—soils that will best
conserve the water will be selected, and land with the gentlest slopes will
be taken.

In general, the descent of the streams in the arid land is very great; for
this reason the flood plains are small, that is, the extent of the lands adjacent
to the streams which are subject to overflow at high water is limited. In
general, these flood-plain lands should not be chosen for irrigation, from the
fact that the irrigating canals are liable to be destroyed during flood seasons.
Where the plan of irrigation includes the storage of the water of the non-
growing season, by which all the waters of the year are held under control,
the flood-plain lands can be used to advantage, from the fact that they lie in
such a way as to be easily irrigated and their soils possess elements and
conditions of great fertility.

Other locally controlling conditions are found in selecting the most
advantageous sites for the necessary water works.

These are the chief physical factors which enter into the problem, and
in general it will be solved by considering these factors only; but occasion-
ally artificial conditions will control.

The mining industries of the Arid Region are proportionately greater
than in the more humid country. Where valuable mines are discovered
towns spring up in their immediate vicinity, and they must be served with
water for domestic purposes and for garden culture. When possible, agri-
culture will be practiced in the immediate vicinity for the purpose of taking
advantage of the local market. In like manner towns spring up along the
railroads, and agriculture will be carried on in their vicinity. For this and
like reasons the streams of the Arid Region will often be used on lands
where they cannot be made the most available under physical conditions,
and yet under such circumstances artificial conditions must prevail.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATING TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. 89

In the indication of specific areas as irrigable on the accompanying
map of Utah, it must be considered that the selections made are but ten-
tative; the areas chosen are supposed to be, under all the circumstances,
the most available; but each community will settle this problem for itself,
and the circumstances whieh will control any particular selection cannot
be foretold. It is believed that the selections made will be advantageous
to the settler, by giving him the opinions of men who have made the sub-
ject a study, and will save many mistakes.

The history of this subject in Utah is very instructive. The greater
number of people in the territory who engage in agriculture are organized
into ecclesiastical bodies, trying the experiment of communal institutions.
In this way the communal towns are mobile. This mobility is increased
by the fact that the towns are usually laid out on Government lands, and
for a long time titles to the land in severalty are not obtained by the people.
It has been the custom of the church to send a number of people, organized
as a community, to a town site on some stream to be used in the cultivation
of the lands, and rarely has the first selection made been final. Luxuriant
vegetation has often tempted the settlers to select lands at too great an
altitude, and many towns have been moved down stream. Sometimes
selections have been made too far away from the sources of the streams,
and to increase the supply of water, towns have been moved up stream.
Sometimes lands of too great slope have been chosen, and here the waters
have rapidly cut deep channels and destroyed the fields. Sometimes alka-
line lands are selected and abandoned, and sometimes excessively sandy
lands have caused a change to be made; but the question of the best sites
for the construction of works for controlling and distributing the water has
usually determined the selection of lands within restricted limits.

To a very slight extent indeed have artificial conditions controlled in
Utah; the several problems have generally been solved by the considera-
tion of physical facts.

INCREASE IN THE WATER SUPPLY.

Irrigation has been practiced in different portions of the Arid Region
for the last twenty-five or thirty years, and the area cultivated by this
12AR

90 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

means has been steadily increasing during that time. In California and
New Mexico irrigation has been practiced to a limited extent for a much
longer time at the several Catholic missions under the old Spanish regime.
In the history of the settlement of the several districts an important fact has
been uniformly observed—in the first years of settlement the streams have
steadily increased in volume. This fact has been observed alike in Cali-
fornia, Utah, Colorado, and wherever irrigation has been practiced. As
the chief development of this industry has been within the last fifteen years,
it has been a fact especially observed during that time. An increase in the
water supply, so universal of late years, has led to many conjectures and
hypotheses as to its origin. It has generaliy been supposed to result from
increased rainfall, and this increased rainfall now from this, now from that,
condition of affairs. Many have attributed the change to the laying of
railroad tracks and construction of telegraph lines; others to the cultivation
of the soil, and not a few to the interposition of Divine Providence in
behalf of the Latter Day Saints.

If each physical cause was indeed a vera causa, their inability to pro-
duce the results is quite manifest. A single railroad line has been built
across the Arid Region from east to west, and a short north and south line
has been constructed in Colorado, another in Utah, and several in California.
But an exceedingly small portion of the country. where increase of water
supply has been noticed has been reached by the railroads, and but a small
fraction of one per cent. of the lands of the Arid Region have been
redeemed by irrigation. This fully demonstrates their inadequacy. In
what manner rainfall could be affected through the cultivation of the land,
building of railroads, telegraph lines, ete., has not been shown. Of course
such hypotheses obtain credence because of a lack of information relating
to the laws which govern aqueous precipitation. The motions of the earth
on its axis and about the sun; the unequal heating of the atmosphere, which
decreases steadily from equator to poles; the great ocean currents and air
currents; the distribution of land and water over the earth; the mountain
systems—these are all grand conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall.
Many minor conditions also prevail in topographic reliefs, and surfaces
favorable to the absorption or reflection of the sun’s heat, etc., etc., affecting

oe

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS RELATIVE TO IRRIGABLE LANDS. 91

in a slight degree the general results. But the operations of man on the
surface of the earth are so trivial that the conditions which they produce
are of minute effect, and in presence of the grand effects of nature escape
discernment. Thus the alleged causes for the increase of rainfall fail., The
rain gauge records of the country have been made but for a brief period,
and the stations have been widely scattered, so that no very definite con-
clusions can be drawn from them, but so far as they are of value they fail
to show any increase. But if it be true that increase of the water supply
is due to increase in precipitation, as many have supposed, the faet is not
cheering to the agriculturist of the Arid Region. The permanent changes
of nature are secular; any great sudden change is ephemeral, and usually
such changes go in cycles, and the opposite or compensating conditions
may reasonably be anticipated.

For the reasons so briefly stated, the question of the origin and perma-
nence of the increase of the water supply is one of prime importance to
the people of the country. If it is due to a temporary increase of rainfall,
or any briefly cyclic cause, we shall have to expect a speedy return to
extreme aridity, in which case a large portion of the agricultural industries
of the country now growing up would be destroyed.

The increase is abundantly proved; it is a matter of universal expe-
rience. ‘The observations of the writer thereon have been widely extended.
Having examined as far as possible all the facts seeming to bear on the
subject, the theory of the increase of rainfall was rejected, and another
explanation more flattering to the future of agriculture accepted.

The amount of water flowing in the streams is but a very small part
of that which falls from the heavens. The greater part of the rainfall
evaporates from the surfaces which immediately receive it. The exceed-
ingly dry atmosphere quickly reabsorbs the moisture occasionally thrown
down by a conjunction of favoring conditions. Any changes in the sur-
faces which receive the precipitation favorable to the rapid gathering of the
rain into rills and brooks and creeks, while taking to the streams but a
small amount of that precipitated, will greatly increase the volume of the
streams themselves, because the water in the streams bears so small a pro-

portion to the amount discharged from the clouds. The artificial changes

92 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

wrought by man on the surface of the earth appear to be adequate to the
production of the observed effects. The destruction of forests, which has
been immense in this country for the past fifteen years; the cropping of the
grasses, and the treading of the soil by cattle; the destruction of the beaver
dams, causing a drainage of the ponds; the clearing of drift wood from
stream channels; the draining of upland meadows, and many other slight
modifications, all conspire to increase the accumulation of water in the
streams, and all this is added to the supply of water to be used in irrigation.

Students of geology and physical geography have long been aware
of these facts. It is well known that, under the modifying influences of
man, the streams of any region redeemed from the wilderness are changed
in many important characteristics. In flood times their volumes are excess-
ively increased and their powers of destruction multiplied. In seasons of
drought, some streams that were perennial before man modified the surface
of the country become entirely dry; the smaller navigable streams have
their periods of navigation shortened, and the great rivers run so low at
times that navigation becomes more and more difficult during dry seasons;
in multiplied ways these effects are demonstrated. While in the main the
artificial changes wrought by man on the surface are productive of bad
results in humid regions, the changes are chiefly advantageous to man in
arid regions where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, for here the
result is to increase the supply of water. Mr. Gilbert, while engaged dur-
ing the past season in studying the lands of Utah, paid especial attention
to this subject, and in his chapter has more thoroughly discussed the diverse
special methods by which inerease in the flow of the streams is caused by
the changes wrought by man upon the surface of the earth. His state-
ment of facts is clear, and his conclusions are deemed valid.

CH A PD EER. VE.

TEE LANDS OF “UTA
PHYSICAL FEATURES.

A zone of mountains and high plateaus extends from the northern
nearly to the southern boundary of Utah Territory. The Wasatch Moun-
tains constitute the northern portion of this zone, the High Plateaus the
southern. This central zone has a general altitude above the sea of from
nine to eleven thousand feet. Many peaks are higher, a few reaching an
altitude of about twelve thousand feet. On the other hand many canons
and valleys have been excavated by the running waters far below the
general level thus indicated.

The Uinta Mountains stretch eastward from the midst of the Wasatch.
This region is a lofty table land carrying many elevated peaks whose sum-
nits are from twelve to nearly fourteen thousand feet above the level of
the sea. This is the highest portion of Utah, and among its peaks are
the culminating points.

South from the Uinta Region, and from the southern extremity of the
Wasatch Mountains, another elevated district extends east-southeast beyond
the borders of Utah. This table land is cut in twain by two great gorges
of the Green River—the Cation of Desolation and Gray Cafion. The
eastern portion is called East Tavaputs Plateau, the western West Tava-
puts Plateau.

Between the Uinta Mountains and the Tavaputs table land is the Uinta-
White Basin, a low synclinal valley, drained by the Uinta and its ramifica-
tions on the west, and the lower portion of the White River on the east.

The district of country lying south of the Tavaputs table land, and

east and south of the High Plateaus, is traversed by many deep canons.
93

94. LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

This is the Canon Land of Utah. In its midst the Green and Grand unite

‘to form the Colorado. The Price and San Rafael are tributary to the
Green. The Fremont, Escalante, Paria, Kanab, and Virgin are directly
tributary to the Colorado from the north and west. From the east the San
Juan flows to the Colorado, but its drainage area is not included in our
present discussion.

West of the lofty zone lie low, arid valleys, interrupted by short and
abrupt ranges of mountains whose naked cliffs and desolate peaks overlook
the still more desolate valleys. These short longitudinal ranges are but a
part of the Basin Ranges, a mountain system extending through Nevada
and northward into Idaho and Oregon. That portion of the Basin Range
System which lies in Utah, and which we now have under consideration, is
naturally divided into two parts, the northern embracing the drainage area
of Great Salt Lake, the southern embracing the drainage area of Sevier
Lake, giving the Great Salt Lake District and the Sevier Lake District.

To recapitulate, the grand districts into which Utah is naturally
divided are as follows: The Wasatch Mountains and the High Plateaus,
constituting the lofty zone above mentioned; the Uinta Mountains, the
Tavaputs table lands, the Uinta-White Basin, the Canon Lands, the Sevier
Lake Basin, and the Great Salt Lake Basin, the two latter being fragments
of the great Basin Range Province.

The eastern portion of the Territory of Utah is drained by the Colo-
rado River by the aid of a number of important tributaries. The western
portion is drained by streams that, heading in the mountains and high
plateaus of the central portion, find their way by many meanderings into
the salt lakes and desert sands to the westward.

Considered with reference to its drainage, Utah may thus be divided
into two parts—the Colorado drainage area and the Desert drainage area;
the former is about two-fifths, the latter three-fifths of the area of the
territory.

All of the Wasatch Mountains lie west of the drainage crest; apart of
the High Plateaus are drained to the Colorado, a part to the deserts. This

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 95

great water divide, commencing north of the Pine Valley Mountains in the
southwest corner of the territory, runs north of the Colob Plateau and
enters the district of the High Plateaus. It first runs eastward along the
crest or brink of the Pink Cliffs that bound the Markagunt and Paunsagunt
Plateaus, and then north and east in many meandering ways, now throwing
a plateau into the western drainage, and now another into the eastern, until
it reaches the western extremity of the Tavaputs table lands. Thence it
runs around the western end of the Uinta Valley, throwing the Tavaputs
table lands, the Uinta Valley, and Uinta Mountains into the Colorado
drainage, and the Wasatch Mountains into the Desert drainage.

These two regions are highly differentiated in orographic structure
and other geological characteristics. The sedimentary formations of the
eastern region are in large part of Cenozoic and Mesozoic age, though
Paleozoic rocks appear in some localities. The Cenozoic and Mesozoic
formations are largely composed of incoherent sands and shales with inter-
calated beds of indurated sandstone and limestone. The great geological
displacements are chiefly by faults and monoclinal flexures, by which the
whole country, has been broken up into many broad blocks, so that the
strata are horizontal or but slightly inclined, except alone the zones of
displacement by which the several blocks are bounded. Tere the strata,
when not faulted, are abruptly flexed, and the rocks dip at high angles.

The Uinta Mountains are storm carved from an immense uplifted
block. The mountains of the Canon Lands are isolated and volcanic. In
the High Plateaus sedimentary beds are covered by vast sheets of lava.
The sedimentary beds exposed in the mountains of the Desert region are
of Paleozoic age, and many crystalline schists appear, while the sedimentary
beds exposed in the valleys are Post-Tertiary. The crystalline schists and
ancient sedimentaries of the mountains are often extensive masses of extra-
rasated rocks. The prevailing type of orographic structure is that of
monoclinal ridges of displacement. Blocks of strata have been turned up
so as to incline at various angles, and from their upturned edges the mount-
ains have been carved. But these monoclinal ridges are much complicated
by mountain masses having an eruptive origin.

In the eastern districts the materials denuded from the mountains and

96 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

plateaus have been carried to the sea, but in the western districts the
materials carried from the mountains are deposited in the adjacent valleys,
so that while the mountains are composed of rocks of great age, the rocks
of the valleys are of recent origin. In that geological era known as the
Glacial epoch the waters of a great lake spread over these valleys, and the
mountains stood as islands in the midst of a fresh-water sea. For the history
of this lake we are indebted to the researches of Mr. Gilbert. It had its
outlet to the north by way of the Shoshoni River and the Columbia to
the North Pacific. These later beds of the valleys are in part the sedi-
ments of Lake Bonneville, the great lake above mentioned, and in part
they are subaérial gravels and sands.

The Wasatch system of mountains is composed of abrupt ranges
crowned with sharp peaks. The several minor ranges and groups of
peaks into which it is broken are separated only in part by structural
differences, since ridges with homogeneous structure are severed by trans-
verse valleys. The drainage of the whole area occupied by the Wasatch
Mountains is westward to the Great Salt Lake. The streams that head in
the western end of the Uinta Mountains and West Tavaputs Plateau cut
through the Wasatch Mountains.

Great Salt Lake and its upper tributary, Utah Lake, exist by virtue
of the presence of the Wasatch Mountains, for the mountains wring from
the clouds the waters with which the lakes are supplied.

Walled by high ridges and peaks, many elevated valleys are found.
In the midsummer months these valleys are favored with a pleasant,
invigorating climate. Occasionally showers of rain fall. Vegetation is
vigorous. The distant mountain slopes bear forests of spruce, pine, and
fir; the broken foot hills are often covered by low, ragged pinon pines
and cedars; and the flood plains of the streams are natural meadows.
About the springs and streamlets groves of aspen stand, and the streams
are bordered with willows, box elders, and cottonwoods. Now and then
a midsummer storm comes, bringing hail, and even snow. When the
short summer ends, the aspen and box elder foliage turns to gold flecked

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 97

with scarlet; the willows to crimson and russet; the meadows are
quickly sered, and soon the autumn verdure presents only the somber
tints of the evergreens; early snows fall, and the whole land is soon
covered with a white mantle, except that here and there bleak hills and
rugged peaks are swept bare by the winds. The brief, beautiful summer
is followed by a long, dreary winter, and during this winter of snowfall
are accumulated the waters that are to be used in fertilizing the valleys
away below in the border region between the mountains and the desert
basins.

From the Wasatch on the north to the Colob on the south are elevated
tables, in general bounded by bold, precipitous escarpments. The lands
above are highly and sharply differentiated from the lands below in climate,
vegetation, soil, and other physical characters. These high plateaus are
covered with sheets and beds of lava, and over the lava sheets are scat-
tered many volcanic cinder cones. ‘The higher plateaus bear heavy forests
of evergreens, and scattered through the forests are many little valleys or
meadow glades. The gnarled, somber forests are often beset with fallen
timber and a vigorous second growth, forming together a dead and living
tangle difficult to penetrate. But often the forest aisles are open from
glade to glade, or from border cliff to border cliff. In the midst of the
glades are many beautiful lakelets, and from the cliffs that bound the
plateaus on every hand the waters break out in innumerable springs.

Here, also, a brief summer is followed by a long winter, and through
its dreary days the snow is gathered which fills the lakelets above and
feeds the springs along the bordering cliffs. The springs of the cliffs are
the fountains of the rivers that are to fertilize the valleys lying to the
east, south, and west.

The Uinta Mountains constitute an east and westrange. From a single
great uplift, nearly 200 miles long and from 40 to 50 miles wide, valleys
and caions have been carved by rains and rivers, and table lands and
peaks have been lett embossed on the surface. Along its middle belt from
east to west the peaks are scattered in great confusion, but in general the
highest peaks are near the center of the range. The general elevation
descends abruptly both on the north and south margins of the uplift, and

IS AR

98 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

at the crest of each abrupt descent there are many limestone ridges and
crags. Between these ridges and crags that stand along the bordering
crests, and the peaks that stand alone the meandering watershed, there are
broad tables, some times covered with forests, sometimes only with grass.

This is a third region of short summers and long winters, where the
waters are collected to fertilize the valleys to the north and south.

Away to the southward are the twin plateaus, Kast and West Tavaputs,
severed by the Green River. These plateaus culminate at the Brown
Cliffs, where bold escarpments are presented southward.

Outlying the Brown Cliffs are the Book Cliffs. These, also, are
escarpments of naked rock, with many salient and reéntrant angles and
outlying buttes. .The beds of which they are composed are shales and
sandstones of many shades of blue, gray, and buff. In the distance, and
softly blended by atmospheric haze, the towering walls have an azure hue.
Everywhere they are elaborately water carved, and the bold battlements
above are buttressed with sculptured hills. In 1869, when the writer first
saw this great escarpment, he gave it the name of the Azure Cliffs, but
an earlier traveler, passing by another route across the country, had seen
them in the distance, and, seizing another characteristic feature, had called
them the Book Mountains. Gunnison saw, however, not a range of mount-
ains, but the escarped edge of a plateau, and this escarpment we now call
the Book Cliffs. Irom the Brown Cliffs northward these plateaus dip
gently north to the Uinta-White Basin. From the very crest of the Brown
Cliffs the drainage is northward.

This is a fourth region of short summers and long winters, where the
moisture is collected to fertilize adjacent lands ; but the altitude is not great
enough nor the area large enough to accumulate a large supply of water,
and the amount furnished by the Tavaputs Plateaus is comparatively small.

Such are the lofty regions of Utah that furnish water to irrigate the
lowlands.

TIMBER.

In these elevated districts is found all the timber of commercial value.

This is well shown on the map. ‘The map also exhibits the fact that many

portions of the elevated districts are devoid of timber, it having been

THE LANDS OF UTAH.

de)

S,

destroyed by fire, as explained in a former chapter. Doubtless, if fires
could be prevented, the treeless areas would in due time be again covered
with forests, but in such a climate forest growth is slow. At present, the
treeless areas will afford valuable summer pasturage for cattle, and doubtless
such pasturage would be advantageous to the growth of new forests, by
keeping down the grasses in which in part the fires spread. It has already
been shown that, to a great extent, the fires which destroy the forests are set
by Indians while on their hunting excursions. The removal of the Indians
from the country will further protect the forests Eventually, the better
class of timber lands will fall into the hands of individual owners, who
will be interested in protecting their property from devastation by this
fierce element. By all of these means the standing timber will be preserved
for economic uses; but it will be a long time before complete immunity
from fires will be secured.

The demand for lumber will never be very great. A variety of causes
conspire to this end. The adjacent country will sustain but a small agri-
cultural population, because the irrigable lands are of limited extent. The
people of the lowlands will eventually supply themselves with fuel by culti-
vating timber along the water courses and by using the coal so abundant in
some portions of Utah. The lumber will never be carried to a foreign
market because of the expense of transportation: first, it will be expensive
to get it down from the highlands to the lowlands, and, second, there are
no navigable streams by which lumber may be cheaply transported from
the country. In general, the lumber is of inferior quality, and cannot suc-
cessfully compete for a permanent place in the markets of the world. But
there will be a demand for lumber for building and feneing purposes in the
valleys, and for mining purposes in the mountains.

If the timber region can be protected from fire, the supply of timber
will equal the demand.

From the brief description given aboye, it will be seen that the timber
region will never support agriculture. Much of it is mountainous and
inhospitable, and the climate is cold. The timber region is ever to be such;
mining industries will slightly encroach on it on the one hand, and

pasturage industries on the other, but Iumbermen will control the country.

100 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The forests of these upper regions are monotonous, as the variety of
tree life is very small. All of the timber trees proper are coniferous, and
belong to the pine, fir, and juniper families. The pine of chief value is
Pinus ponderosa, locally distinguished as the ‘Long leaved pine”; the
wood is very heavy and coarse grained, but is suitable for the ruder
building and mining purposes. It is usually found on the slopes between
eight and nine thousand feet above the level of the sea. It attains a large
size, and is a stately tree, contrasting grandly with the darker and smaller
firs that usually keep it company.

Pinus aristata is of no commercial value, as it is much branched and
spreading with limbs near the base; it grows on the crags at an altitude
of from nine to eleven thousand feet.

Pinus flevilis grows at the same altitude as the last mentioned, and
often shows a similar habit of growth. On the southern plateaus it is less
branched and has a tolerably straight trunk, but it is too small and scarce
to be important as timber. It is highly resinous, and is called “ Piteh
pine.”

Pinus monticola, or Sugar pine, is found on the southern plateaus, but
is not abundant, and rarely attains milling size.

Pinus edulis is the well known “Pinon pine”. It covers the foot hills
and less elevated slopes adjacent to the river valleys. The tree is low,
diffusely branched and scrubby, and is of no use for lumber; but the wood
is well supplied with resin and makes an excellent fuel, for which purpose
it is extensively used in consequence of its accessibility.

There are three valuable species of Abies, namely: A. Douglasii, A.
concolor, and A. Engelmanni. Abies Douglasii, or Douglas’ spruce, bears
some resemblance to the eastern spruce, A. Canadensis, but it is a finer tree,
and the wood is much superior. Though rather light, it is tough and
exceedingly durable. The heart wood is red, from which circumstance
lumbermen distinguish it as the ‘Red pine”. In building it is used for all
the heavier parts, as frames, joists, rafters, ete., and it makes excellent
flooring. Its value is still further enhanced from the fact that it occupies a
belt of from seven to nine thousand feet altitude, and thus is easily

obtained. It may readily be distinguished by its cones, the bracts of

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 101

which are trifureate, sharp, pointed, and conspicuously exserted, and they
are unlike those of any other species.

Abies concolor, known in Utah as the “Black balsam”, grows at about
the same altitude as the last mentioned species, and though rather cross-
grained makes good lumber, being quite durable and strong. From its
silvery foliage, the leaves being glaucous on both sides, this tree is known
to tourists as the “White silver fir’. Lumbermen sometimes call it the
“Black gum”, the wood being very dark colored.

Abies Engelmanni, or Engelmann’s spruce, occupies the highest eleva-

2
tions, and constitutes the only timber above 11,000 feet in altitude. Above
11,500 feet it is reduced to a dwarf. On the terraces of the high plateaus,
at about 10,000 feet altitude, it appears to flourish best, and here it becomes
a large, beautiful tree. The leaves are needle shaped, and thus differ from
both the preceding species. The trunks are straight and free from limbs
or knots, making fine saw logs. The wood is white and soft, but fine
grained and durable, and being easily worked is held in high esteem for all
the lighter uses, such as sash, doors, ete. Its place in the lumber industries
of Utah is about the same as that of the ‘White pine” (Pinus Strobus) in
the east. Lumbermen usually call it ‘‘White pine”. Because. of the
altitude of its habitat it is difficult to obtain, yet it is systematically sought,
and large amounts are yearly manufactured into lumber; it also makes
good shingles.

Abies Menzies, or Meuzies’s spruce, usually called “Spruce” by
lumbermen of the country, is botanically very similar to the species last
described, but the cones are larger and the leaves sharper pointed. — It
bears a large quantity of cones, which are generally aggregated near the
top, obscuring the foliage, and giving the trees a peculiar tawny appear-
ance. ‘The wood is light, white, and fine grained, and would rival that of
the last named species but for the fact that the trunk has a number of
slight curves, so that it is impossible to obtain good saw logs of sufficient
length from it. Its habitat is along the canons from seven to nine thou-
sand feet altitude, and seems to end about where A. Engelmanni begins.

“It is, however, a smaller tree, and less abundant.

Abies subalpina is of little value as a timber tree; the wood is

102 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

soft and spongy, from which circumstance it is locally known as
“Pumpkin pine”, but the more appropriate name of “ White balsam” is
also applied to distinguish it from A. concolor, which is called ‘Black
balsam”. This species grows high up on the mountains and_ plateaus,
generally from nine to eleven thousand feet. It is very tall, often attain-
ing a height of 80 or 90 feet. Its trunk is straight and limbless for a great
distance. This species has been but little known to botanists heretofore,
from the fact that it has been confounded with 4. grandis, but Mr. Engel-
mann decides, from specimens collected by Mr. L. F. Ward, that it must be
considered as a new species.

Abies amabilis and Abies grandis, spruces resembling the ‘‘ White balsam”
in their general appearance, occur in the Wasatch Mountains, but are not
abundant.

Juniperus Californicus, var. Utahensis, or White cedar, is very abun-
dant over the foot hills and lower mountain slopes, and, like the pinon pine,
is much used for fire wood. It has also the characteristic durability of the
junipers, and makes excellent fence posts. It grows low, is diffusely
branched, and is valueless for milling purposes.

Juniperus Virginiana, or Red cedar, is also found in this region. — Its
habitat is near the streams and at moderate altitudes. It is said to lack
the durable qualities for which it is noted at the east, and which seem to be
transferred to the other species.

Populus angustifolia, or Cottonwood, is the chief representative of the
poplar family in this region. The people of the country distinguish two
varieties or species, the Black cottonwood and Yellow cottonwood. The
former is said to be useless for lumber, while the latter has some slight
value. It forms no part of the forest proper, but fringes the lower reaches
of the streams, rarely occurring higher in altitude than 6,000 feet. Its rapid
growth and its proximity to the irrigable lands make it valuable for fuel,
although it is not of superior quality.

Populus monilifera, the Cottonwood of the Mississippi Valley, grows with
the above in the southern part of the Territory, and has about the same
value.

Populus tremuloides, or Aspen, is found about the moist places on the

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 103

mountain sides, and often borders the glades of the plateaus. The long
poles which it furnishes are sometimes used for fencing purposes; it makes
a fair fuel; the quantity found is small.

Acer grandidentata, a species of Maple, abounds at the north as a bush,
and rare individuals attain the rank of small trees. Its wood is highly prized
for the repair of machinery, but is too scarce to be of great service.

Negundo aceroides, or Box elder, is found along the water courses in
many places. Sometimes along the larger streams it attains a height of 25
or 30 feet. It makes a good fuel, but is found in such small quantities as
to be scarcely worthy of mention.

Quercus undulata, or White oak, is very abundant as a bush, and some-
times attains a diameter of six or eight inches It is too rare as a tree to
deserve more than mere mention.

Betula occidentalis, a species of Birch, grows about the upland springs
and creeks. Its habit is bushlike, but it often has a height of 20 feet, and
it makes a tolerable fuel

The Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) and two species of Ash (drarinus
coriacea and FF’. anomala) grow as small trees, but are exceedingly rare.

The above is a nearly complete list of the forest trees of Utah. The
number of species is very small; aridity on the one hand, and cold on the
other, successfully repel the deciduous trees. The oak, hickory, ash, ete.,
necessary to such a variety of industries, especially the manufacture of
agricultural machinery, must all be imported from more humid regions.
The coniferous trees, growing high among the rocks of the upper regions
and beaten by the cold storms of along winter, are ragged and gnarled, and
the lunber they afford is not of the finest quality ; and the finishing lumber
for architectural purposes and furniture must also be imported from more

humid regions.

IRRIGABLE AND PASTURE LANDS.
UINTA-WHITE BASIN.

The Uinta-White Valley is a deep basin inclosed by the Uinta Moun-
tains on the north and the Tavaputs highlands on the south. Eastward the

basin extends beyond the limits of Utah ; westward the Uinta Mountains

104 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

and West Tavaputs Plateau nearly inclose the head of the Uinta Valley,
but the space between is filled with a section of the Wasatch Mountains.
From the north, west, and south the Uinta Valley inclines gently toward
the Duchesne River. Many streams come down from the north and from
the south. In the midst of the valley there are some small stretches of
bad lands.

Along the lower part of the Uinta and the Duchesne, and the lower
courses of nearly all the minor streams, large tracts of arable land are found,
and from these good selections can be made, suflicient to occupy in their
service all the water of the Uinta and its numerous branches. The agri-
cultural portion of the valley is sufficiently low to have a genial climate,
and all the crops of the northern States can be cultivated successfully.

Stretching back on every hand from the irrigable districts, the little
hills, valleys, and slopes are covered with grasses, which are found more and
more luxuriant in ascending the plateaus and mountains, until the peaks are
reached, and these are naked.

On the north of the Uinta, and still west of the Green, the basin is
drained by some small streams, the chief of which is Ashley Fork. Except
near the lower course of Ashley Fork, this section of country is exceedingly
broken; the bad lands and hogbacks are severed by deep, precipitous
canons.

From the east the White River enters the Green. Some miles up the
White, a canon is reached, and the country on either hand, stretching back
for a long distance, is composed of rugged barren lands. But between the
highlands and the Green, selections of good land can be made, and the
waters of the White can be used to serve them. From the White, south to
the East Tavaputs Plateau, the grass lands steadily increase in value to the
summit of the Brown Cliffs. Many good springs are found in this region,
and eventually this will be a favorite district for pasturage farms.

Fine pasturage farms may be made on the southern slope of the
Yampa Plateau, with summer pasturage above and winter pasturage below.
Altogether, the Uinta-White Basin is one of the favored districts of the
west, with great numbers of cool springs issuing from the mountains and

hills; many beautiful streams of clear, cold water; a large amount of

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 105

arable land from which irrigable tracts may be selected; an abundance of
fuel in the pimon pines and cedars of the foot hills; and building timber
farther back on the mountains and plateaus.

Oe

The whole amount of irrigable land is estimated at 280,320 acres.
THE CANON LANDS.

South of the Tavaputs highlands, and east and south of the High
Plateaus, the Canon Lands of Utah are found. The lower course of the
Grand, the lower course of the Green, and a large section of the Colorado
cuts through them, and the streams that head in the High Plateaus run
across them. All the rivers, all the creeks, all the brooks, run in deep
gorges—narrow, winding canons, with their floors far below the general
surface of the country. Many long lines of cliffs are found separating
higher from lower districts. The hills are bad lands and alcove lands.

The Sierra la Sal and Henry Mountains are great masses of lava,
wrapped in sedimentary beds, which are cut with many dikes. South of
the High Plateaus great numbers of cinder cones are found.

On the Grand River there are some patches of land which can be
served by the waters of that river. On the Green, in what is known as
Gunnison Valley, patches of good land can be selected and redeemed by
the waters of that river.

Castle Valley is abruptly walled on the west, north, and northeast by
towering cliffs. Kast of its southern portion a region of towers, buttes,
crags, and rocklands is found, known as the San Rafael Swell. In this
valley there is a large amount of good land, and the numerous streams
which run across it can all be used in irrigation. Farther south, on the
Fremont, Escalante, and Paria, some small tracts of irrigable land are
found, and on the Kanab and Virgin there are limited areas which can be
used for agricultural purposes. But all that portion of the canon country
south of Castle Valley and westward to the Beaver Dam Mountains is
exceedingly desolate; naked rocks are found, refusing footmg even to
dwarfed cedars and pinon pines; the springs are infrequent and yield no
bountiful supply of water; its patches of grass land are widely scattered, and
it has but little value for agricultural purposes.

14 AR

106 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

A broad belt of coal land extends along the base of the cliffs from the
Tavaputs Plateau on the northeast to the Colob Plateau on the southwest.
At the foot of the cliffs which separate the lowlands from the highlands,
many pasturage farms may be made; the grass of the lowlands can be
used in the winter, and that of the highlands in summer, and everywhere
good springs of water may be found.

The extent of the irrigable lands in this district is estimated at 213,440
acres.

THE SEVIER LAKE DISTRICT.

This district embraces all the country drained by the waters which
flow into the Sevier Lake, and the areas drained by many small streams
which are quickly lost in the desert. The greater part of the irrigable
land lies in the long, narrow valleys walled by the plateaus, especially
along the Sevier, Otter Creek, and the San Pete. The arable lands greatly
exceed the irrigable, and good selections may be made. Most of the
irrigable lands are already occupied by farmers, and the waters are used

in their service. In the valleys among the high plateaus, and along their

oa
oD
western border, the grasses are good, and many pasturage farms may be
selected, and the springs and little streams that come from the plateau cliffs
will afford an abundant supply of water. The summits of the plateaus
will afford an abundant summer pasturage.

Westward among the Basin Ranges feeble and infrequent springs are
found; there is little timber ef value, but the lower mountains and foot
hills have cedars and pinon pines that would be valuable for fuel if nearer
to habitations. The cedar and pinon hills bear scant grasses. The valleys
are sometimes covered with sage, sometimes with grease wood, sometimes
quite naked.

The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 101,700
acres.

THE GREAT SALT LAKE DISTRICT.

This district has already become famous in the history of western
acriculture, for here the Latter Day Saints first made ‘‘a home in the
g , y
valleys among the mountains”.

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 107

The rivers and creeks bring the waters down from the Wasatch
Mountains on the east. The high valleys among the mountains have to
some extent been cultivated, and will hereafter be used more than at present
for meadow purposes. In general the people have selected their lands low
down, in order to obtain a more genial climate. Yet the irrigable lands are
not very far from the mountains, as a glance at the map will reveal. Utah
Lake constitutes a fine natural reservoir and discharges its waters into Salt
Lake by the Jordan, and from its channel the waters may be conducted
over a large area of country. The waters of the Weber and Bear Rivers,
now flowing idly into the lake, will soon be spread over extensive valleys,
and the area of agricultural lands be greatly increased. Westward the
influence of the mountains in the precipitation of moisture is soon lost, and
beyond the lake an irreclaimable desert is found.

Near to the mountains the grass lands are fair but they have been
overpastured and greatly injured. Out among the Basin Ranges little grass
land of value is found.

The amount of irrigable land in this district is estimated at 837,660
acres.

The lofty zone of mountains and table lands with arms stretching
eastward, with its culminating points among summer frosts and winter
storms, is the central region about which the human interests of the country
gather. The timber, the water, the agricultural lands, the pasturage lands,
to a large extent the coal and iron mines, and to some extent the silver

mines, are all found in these higher regions or clinging closely to them.
GRASSES.

While the forests present but a few species of trees, the pasturage lands
present a great variety of grasses. Between fifty and sixty species have
been collected by parties connected with the survey under the direction of
the writer, and these are distributed among twenty-six or twenty-seven
genera. Most of them belong to the mountains or highlands, and are rich
and sweet. Nearly all of them are bunch grasses. The spaces by which
the bunches are separated are bare or occupied with weeds and shrubs.
This is often the case on the mountains and high plateaus. A continuous

108 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

turf is never seen. Where a sward is seen in moist places, about springs
and in glades, the verdure consists in chief part of other plants, sedges and
reeds.

Of the bunch grasses the Poas are by far the most abundant. Of this
genus nine species were obtained, but this gives an inadequate idea of the
variety. Of one species alone Dr. Vasey has enumerated nine varieties, and
advances the opinion that several will be eventually considered as species.
They are found at all altitudes, mostly on the slopes. Perhaps the most
important single species in that region is the Bouteloua oligostachya, the
so called “Circle grass”. It has a peculiar habit of forming partial or
complete circles on the ground, with areas of bare ground in the center.
These turfy rings are comparatively narrow, often not more than three or
four inches in width, while the circles are from two to four feet in diameter.
The form is not always circular, but often assumes irregular shapes.
The grass is sweet and nutritious, but its chief value consists in its power
to resist inclement seasons, as it cures standing, like the “ Buffalo grass” of
the Great Plains.

Another very valuable grass is the Hriocoma cuspidata, which is
known by the name of “Sand grass”. It grows at much lower altitudes,
and is properly a valley grass. It has a solitary, scattering habit, or at
least the bunches are small and turfless. Horses and cattle select it with
care from among other species, and it seems especially nutritious. It has
a large black grain, which is often collected by the Indians for food.

A remarkable lowland grass is the Vilfa (Sporobolis atroides). It
has something of the appearance of ‘‘ Hair grass”, with a widely spreading
purple panicle and large perennial roots. The old culms persist at the base,
and with the new ones form thick and almost woody tufts. These tufts are
scattered about in the strongly akaline soils of the river bottoms, and
are extensively pastured by large-herds of cattle. A marked characteristic
of this grass, common, however, to several others, is its power to take up
saline matter, which gives to the whole plant a salty taste. The effect of
this upon the stock feeding upon it is doubtful, judging from the conflicting
reports of the inhabitants; but it seems that when cattle are first pastured
upon it they are injured by the excess of salt, but that after a time they

THE LANDS OF UTAH. 109

cease to be injured by it. All of the so called “Salt grasses” are cropped
to a greater or less extent by stock,

The chief grasses of the elevated timber tracts belong to the genus
Bromus. When young they are good, but they become stale and valueless
with age. The only grass that can compare with those of the eastern mead-
ows, and which forms a continuous sod and covers the gre vind with a uniform
growth, is a variety of Aira cwspitosa, a red topped grass, which was found
surrounding the small lakes of the mountains and plateaus, at elevations of
11,000 feet and over. This is an exceedingly beautiful grass as it waves
in the gentle breezes that fan the lakelets of the upper regions.

Phragmites communis, the so called “Cane”, is common in the glades
and sloughs; and, though large and rather dry, it furnishes the only verdure
obtainable for months in severe seasons.

Much of the hay and pasturage of the country, which is there called
grass, consists of plants of different families. Notable among these are
several species of Carex (sedges), particularly Carex Jamesii, which springs
up wherever artificial meadows are made by the system of flooding com-
monly practiced. The plants have large, strong, subterranean root-
stocks, forming a tangled mass which, when once established, cannot
easily be eradicated. The leaves are broad and gerasslike, and, though

coarse and comparatively insipid, form a good sward which can be

mowed—a rare condition in that country; and hence such meadows are
highly prized.

Juncus Balticus, var. montanus, which has a blue color, terete
culms, and tough fiber, and which the settlers call ‘“ Wire grass”, is
very abundant. It is cut for hay, and is said to serve a good purpose as
such.

There are some shrubs that furnish excellent browsing, among which,
perhaps, the grease wood takes the first rank. The sage brush, Artemisia,
on the contrary, is seldom resorted to. There is one shrub to which great
virtues are ascribed which may be mentioned in this comection. This
is the Cercocarpus parvifolius, which occupies the mountain sides for a
wide zone of altitude. The foliage, though not strictly evergreen, remains
most of the winter, and is said to afford the only food for horses and cattle

110 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

that can be obtained during some seasons of deep snows. This shrub is a
congener of the well known mountain mahogany, C-. ledifolius, which grows
at higher altitudes, and has truly evergreen foliage.

The small perennial plant Hwrotia lanata, or ‘ White sage”, found
growing in the valleys and plains, is held in high esteem as winter food for
stock.

The growth of grass, even on the plateaus, is often scant; on the foot
hills it becomes less, and farther away from the highlands it still dimin-
ishes in quantity until absolute deserts are found. Most of the grasses
seem to protect themselves from the great aridity by growing in bunches.
They appear to produce proportionately a greater amount of seeds than the
grasses of the Humid Region, and their nutritive qualities, especially in
winter, seems to be due thereto. In general, the grasses seem to have large,
strong stems, and are not so easily broken down as those of the Humid
Region, and the rains and snows by which they would be so broken down
are infrequent. Again, for these reasons, the grasses, standing long after

they are cut by frosts, cure themselves, forming thereby a winter pasturage.

The irrigable lands of Utah will be discussed more thoroughly and in
detail in subsequent chapters by Mr. G. K. Gilbert, who has made the Great
Salt Lake District his study; by Capt. C. E. Dutton, who has prepared the
chapter on the irrigable lands of the Sevier Lake Drainage, and by Prof.
A. H. Thompson, who has written the chapter on the irrigable lands of the
Colorado Drainage.

The following is a table of the irrigable lands, arranged by districts,
as discussed in the present chapter. The table is compiled from those
presented in subsequent chapters.

THE LANDS OF UTAH. afauit

Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory.
Cultivated in 1877.

| Square miles. Acres. ———— Same
| |

| oe |

| Sali Lake drainage system.

| Base of Uinta Mountains ............-----0+---- eee eee ee ceteee 2.5?| 1, 600 1.6 1, 024
| Yellow Creek and Duck Creek .....--..---.-----++--- s 2.0 1, 280 |.-2--- +. -- eee ele eee ee eee ees
| Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek | 69.0 44, 160 9.6 6, 344
lShovres'Op Beat Lakes < 2-5 -cs.cec oeeeecssscdsecere-sseueness +5 sae | 9.0 | 5, 760 | 5.0 | 3, 200
Cache Valley sc. s- 222-25 swssesecteres-as Re aon Settee ae 250.0 — 160, 000 — 50.05 32, 000
| Bear River Delta, Malade Valley, and Connor's Spring Valley ... 218. 0 139, 520 22.0 | 14, 080
| Box Elder Valley (Mantua) ... .---.----------++20e eee eee sere ee 1.5 960 1 | 704
| Weber Valley from Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive...--..----------+ 9.0 5, 760 8.5 5, 440
| Parley’s Park 3.2 2, 048 3.2 2, 048
Wiptowi. ctia=.ssasenensec-«-citescenecaenes tess : 2.0 1, 280 5 | 320
| Heho Creek....-.---2...-f-seeeeeesceccneeceeeeeterecesces eee: 0.9 576 3 | 192 |
GroydOn ateces ne. Sosastewecmersenssaesseseeccraesenms nee orn 0.5 320 4 | 256
Round Valley -- 0.5 320 5 320
Morgan Valley. .....--.-------seee1 sees sere et ecee ee tee reece eseee 6.9 4, 416 6.0 3, 840
Ogden Valley -..:.-----.-.2-+--.seeeeeenenecees 8.0 5, 120 4.1 2, 624
Weber Delta Plain. .....-..---------- 219. 0 140, 160 | 91,0 58, 240 |
|aamas Praivieicccccca. so.acesccscs- iaassterweaeese o22227255 13.0 8, 320 | 4.7 3, 008
| Hailstone Ranche and vicinity... ......--.--.---..4ee eee eee eee 2.0 1, 280 2.0 | 1, 280
Provo VAlloy <n. ccc ce cein nie sniesie nanan gceies sete vescticesess teens 16.0 10, 240 6.0 3, 840
Waldsburg 2.0 1, 280 2.0 1, 280
Utah Valley 190.0 121, 600 | 59.0 37, 760
Salt Creek 16,0 | 10, 240 | 14.0) 8, 960
| Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful and Centerville) ..-.-..--- | 192. 0 | 2, 880 | 89. 8 57, 412
| Tooele Valley 45.0 800 5.4 | 3, 456
Cedar Morse. 2... 52- 5220s : 1.5 1, 000 1.2 800 |
WAITHEM:. 5 sate o2ccee ssh wn'a a eGemeeenn wes esses 1.5 900 1,2 800 |
Vernon Cree 2.0 1, 200 1.5 | 900
Saint Johns... Ld 700 4.1) | 700 |
East Canon Creek (Rush Valley) oe 900 — 8 500 |
SHOCKLON ecesteats sano oa .3 500 | 73 | 200
SheMale science tsi ace nas aciecac nee tan cnn asec sasena sic See 4.0 |. 2,500 — 1.6 1, 000
Government Creok....-.--.---..-.:+++--+0--+ 5 300 A) 300
Willow Spring, T.105., R.17 W ------ : ~4° 250. a4 250,
Redding Springs s< cc sclcen'sinna se cciscees -: = esc en voces isicitrmnmaiie al (jd ope ee ee 20 |
| Dodoquibe Spring ----.-.-..-. .-.----++sssrer reeset ctssce nes | el 50 Nip emis Se | eae |
| Deep Creek, T.95., R.19 WwW: : 1.6 1,000 | 8 500
Pilot Peak. - eR oe Ae ain Darsies io as Bene we oi sinwsieciamiase le Ps 200 ie Nal be Sete
Grouse Valley ....2- 2-202-266-2202 2e ees cree ene eee rereceeeses 2.4 1,500 .8 | 500
QwliSpringy << 2~2..c<- conse 2 seen snes sess cee sinee tas sase scenes apt 10
Rosebud @repliass2-c esses - .deec nce smecee ts Sete nens oan sie ecce==a } 8 | 400 |
Muddy Creek, T.10 N., R.15 W...--------++-+++-25+-- “eaeeesses | 5.| 300
| Bark Valloy 2-2. cs.-2cecrecece ween os esas seo nsecness ateeneseress 3.5 | 2, 300 |
| Widow Spring vette cpl 20
. | Indian Creek, T.13 N., R.12 W ..---- peiden sss aSeccseteunend "aces a21 100 .
East base Clear Creek Mountains. .--.-..-----.---------++--+--- Bp} 1500) eee 5.|
Cazure Creek -| 7, 200 | RAN AA BA on | eae Mentone ears
Clear Creek, T.15 N., R.12 W B3 200 | | 80
| Junction Creek......------2+eeeeeecececeeeeeeeceeceeeeee testes: i BOY eee eect. eae ee ute ae |
Goose Creek .3 | ey eee ee ROIS Loci Le
, Pilot Spring ail] |
. 5

Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek) ...-------------+----+--+---2200> ro,

112 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Table of irrigable lands in Utah Territory—Continued.

7
| Cultivated in 1877.
|

Square miles. Acres. ea tea aa
|Square miles. —_ Acres.
— = es _ — ——=
Salt Lake drainage system—Coutinued.
Crystal Springs, T. 14 N., R. 7 W 2 | 100 = 1l| 60
Antelope Springs, T. 9 N., 1 BOD a eects creases 30)
TeE MUGS ates aos Seon co csaade coco so poe Roe See bsarocgocoDaSeEecn 1 ILD A ete the raleis ator 15 |
Promontory, east base an 9 600 | 5 300 |
TICS eG) ern perscocassaase 23 1, 500 | Neh aks MERI) Sone ee Re aoe |
Brackish Springs, near Blue Creek .....--.-----.--.-------+---- 5 | 1, 000 | .3 200 |
Aitelopeyls | etn) ges =a le se ee eee ee eee ae ee eee i) D0.||eseemesee- ses) seaeeeeetar a= |
The valley of the Sevier River.
San Pete Valléy-<ss2- <seecece<ecs<- a2 <2525 socaceceeneee-ee eae 31.2 | 20. 000 17.0 10, 880
Gummnisonee-see eae 6.2 | 4, 000 44.4 2, 800
Sevier Valley, above Gunnison ......------- SASSSHS sbcosSsnscns 54. 7 35, 000 16.5 10, 500
Ginglen Walle ya resem sem see ete eee eae 6.3 4, 000 iil 750
Panguitch and above ......--.-------.------- 52 = +--+ = 222-2 nee ee 10.9 7, 000 2.8 1, 800
Trrigable lands of the desert drainage of southwestern Utah.
Cherry) Creek n- -a accra je ctein wie eieie win of aa laa ei salami | 72] IY) aeeemoaeecccas jscsionoss bases
lranddt Oreeka secs oa eee aacee een eee eer. ean eee ee oe | .2 | HAD Re SoSacs con5o |Senosaaans se
3.1 | PAU ess tnaos dear [sesosovosssese
2.6 | T7006) Sec eeme es. | Semen yer
1.6 | IAWUN ssdensaceeosse| osocesetc: sa
5 | DT OOO ne teense cise soll aerate
1.9) 1, 200

| Ehule| 2, 000

Kan OS Deere eae 3 |
| Beaver Creek and tributaries .....-.....-.----2---+ a cals Sera ele 21.9 | 14, 000
Tempra Soaneosas poop nd no aeUneuo os sone eoboonesgsesssssonases 1.6 | 1, 000
Parowan 1.6) 1, 000
Uti hea so SSS ennoe su Gcueods sosedo be SEC Sean EneSGemcpee 76 400
Cedar City, Iron City, and Fort Hamilton..............--..-.... 3.6 2, 300
Mountain WMead ows: a---2 s-rseceaee so) tee ele see sie ioiee ale .3 | 200
Pinto .. ‘ 2333] 200
Hebron 1.6 | 1, 000
Trrigable lands of the Colorado drainage. |
VAITSEN DUN) Sco oe nons colon See aeesaranSe seonenesSasasoe 30 | 19, 200
NET YONA fe Bee ep epcheeauess Goose geesreneceooastsescsssene | 2.5 1, 600
Paria IRiy 60S seco e nonce teers Tasgluseete bus se es cerseeeed 6 | 3, 840
Escalante River ....--.-..---- MS eelemialncslnreloin fel nesattiete sete feloe eters 6 | 3, 840
POM AM pee cmasoG. Coos CoDO SS RICLe cae anoooEeassSacace 38 24, 320
San Rafael River - = | 175 112, 000
PriceyRivelscse-e eee = Joc aasbitence anlar eeSeeeeneeae 11 7, 040
Minnie :Maud! Greek 22s on sace nme ictieniniee neo see a ise eee 3 1, 920 | RCO ee \Asmeissaee sect
| Uinta Rivers... .2c--s-Jeece eres eee a eee ee eee 285 182, 400 5 | 300
Ashley Fork 25 16, 000 | ail 50
Henrys Fork 10 6, 400 [sb aa. Aa | Eo eee
White River 3 75 48, 000 | Steaosenosoed eemcosoasshsse
IDLO WIS an eee eee seein aioe fl 10 6, 400 | BOOS SAB Obe4 [aes Essar
Below Split Mountain Canton. --. ‘i Green River. =-.---: <<... 50 32;1000)|-=.--~ ecesee epee es So
Gunnison Valley .--...-......... } | 25 TGS UO! | Sees eee | Rema eet
Grandshiverecesceehcceescs cet eaten taaere cr Belek aoe ostSe aaa be 40 | eB 1OU0Nscaes aiicee ee i {Sees wee
Notalite ss ow eeesvccessaselss bos foae see teens cet eee 2, 262. 4 1e4477'990))| 202-2 ee nee SS

CEA PE Er yar:

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE
DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

by G. K. GILBERT.

The field of my work in 1877 included so large a portion of the
drainage basin of Great Salt Lake and so little else that it has proved most
convenient to report on all of that basin, or rather on that part of it which
lies within the Territory of Utah. In so doing, I have depended, for nearly
all the lands draining to Utah Lake, upon the data gathered by Mr. Ren-
shawe, of this survey, in connection with his topographic work. The
remainder of the district, with very slight exception, I have myself visited.

The officials and citizens of the Territory have all freely contributed
such information as I have sought, and have aided me in many ways;
but I have been especially indebted to Mr. Martineau and Mr. Barton, the
surveyors of Cache and Davis Counties; to Mr. Fox, the territorial sur-
veyor; and to the Hon. A P. Rockwood, the statistician of the Deseret
Agricultural Society. Mr. Rockwood prepared a statistical report on the
Territory in 1875, which has been of great service to me, and he has
kindly placed at my disposal the manuscript det ails of his work as well as

the published summary.
METHOD AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION.

Where agriculture is dependent upon irrigation, the extent of land that

can be put to agricultural use is determined by the relation of the quantity
of available water to the quantity of available land. There is a certain
amount of water needed by a unit of land, and wherever the land suscep-
tible of cultivation requires more water than is obtainable, only a portion

113
To AS Be

114 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

of the land can be utilized. But there is also a limit to the amount of
water that can be profitably employed on a unit of land, and where the
supply of water is in excess of the quantity required by such lands as are
properly disposed to receive and use it, only a portion of the water can be
utilized. In order to ascertain, therefore, the extent of agricultural land in
a given district, it is necessary to make a measurement of land, or a
measurement of water, or perhaps both, and it is necessary to know the
amount of water demanded by a unit area of the land under consideration.

The proper quota of water for irrigation depends on climate and soil
and subsoil, as well as on the nature of the crop, and varies indefinitely
under diverse conditions. Asa rule, the best soils require least water; those
which demand most are light sands on one hand and adhesive clays on the
other. Where the subsoil is open and dry, nore water is needed than where
it is moist or impervious. Wherever there is an impervious substratum, the
subsoil accumulates moisture and the demand for water diminishes from
year to year. ‘These and other considerations so complicate the subject
that it is difficult to generalize, and I have found it more practicable to use
in my investigations certain limiting quantities than to attempt in every
case a diagnosis of the local conditions. By comparing the volumes of
certain streams in Utah, that are now used in irrigation to their full capacity,
with the quantities of land that they serve, I have found that one hundred
acres of dry bench land (7. ¢., land with a deep, dry, open subsoil) will not
yield a full crop of grain with less than one cubic foot of water per second,
and this under the most favorable climate of the Territory. Where the
climate is drier, a greater quantity is required. Where there is a moist
subsoil, a less may suffice.

In the drier districts, where the streams are small, they are usually
employed upon the dry benches, because these are most convenient to their
sources; and it is very rarely the case that their utility is increased by the
presence of a moist subsoil. But it is also in the drier districts that the
extent of agricultural land is ascertained by the measurement of streams ;
and hence there is little danger of error if we use in all cases the criterion
that applies to dry bench land In the discussion of the lands of northern

Utah, I have therefore assigned to each cubie foot per second of perennial

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 115

flow the reclamation of one hundred acres of land, with the belief that the
consequent estimates would never underrate, though they might sometimes
exaggerate, the agricultural resources of the districts examined.

In the measurement of streams the following method was employed :
A place was sought where the channel was straight for a distance equal to
several times the width of the stream, and where for some distance there was
little change in the dimensions of the cross section. Measurement was
then made of the width (in feet), of the mean depth (in feet), and of the
maximum surface current (in feet per second). The mean current was
assumed to be four-fifths of the maximum current; and four-fifths of the
product of the three measured elements was taken to give the flow in cubic
feet per second. ‘This method of measurement is confessedly erude, and is
liable to considerable error, but with the time at my disposal no better was
practicable, and its shortcomings are less to be regretted on account of the
variability of the streams themselves.

All of the streams of Utah that flow from mountain slopes are subject
to great fluctuations. They derive a large share of their water from the
melting of snow, and not only does the melting vary as to its rapidity and
season, but the quantity of snow to be melted varies greatly from year to
year. A single measurement standing alone is quite inadequate to
determine the capacity of a stream for irrigation, and as it was rarely
practicable to visit a stream more than once, an endeavor was made to
supplement the single determination by collating the judgments of residents
as to the relative flow of the several creeks and rivers at other seasons and
in other years. In districts where the water is nearly all used and its
division and distribution are supervised by ‘ watermasters ”, those function-
aries are able to afford information of a tolerably definite character, but in
other districts it was necessary to make great allowance for errors of
judgment. Certainly, that element of my estimates which is based on
inquiries cannot claim so small a probability of error as the element based
on measurements.

Streams that are formed in high mountains reach their highest stage
in June, and their lowest in September or October. Streams from low

mountains attain their maxima in April or May, and reach their low stages

L16 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

by August or September. In the low valleys the irrigation of wheat and
other small grains begins about the first of June, and continues until the
latter part of July. The irrigation of corn and potatoes begins in the
early part of July, and continues until the middle of August. In the
middle of July all of the land ealls for water, and if the supply is sufti-
cient at that time, it is sure to meet all demands at other times. It will be
convenient to call that time the critical season. In the higher agricultural
valleys corn and potatoes are not grown, but the irrigation of small grains
and hay is carried on from the middle of June to the middle or latter part
of August. Through all this time the volume of the streams is diminishing,
and if they fail at all it is at the end of the season. The critical season
for the higher valleys is about the middle of August.

In order to estimate properly the agricultural capability of a stream,
it is necessary to ascertain its volume at its critical season. In the investi-
gations of the past summer, this was accomplished by direct measurement
in but a limited district. For the remainder of my field of operations I
was compelled to depend on the estimates of others as to the relation
between the volumes of streams at the time of measurement and at the
critical season.

As will appear in the sequel, the uncertainty attaching to these
determinations of volumes affects the grand total in but small degree.
The utility of the large streams is not timited by their volumes so much as
by the available land suitable for overflow, a quantity susceptible of more
accurate determination, and the extent of land irrigable by the large
streams is many times greater than that irrigable by the small.

No streams are used throughout the year, and few can be fully utilized
during the spring flood. Wherever it is practicable to store up the surplus
water until the time of need, the irrigable area is correspondingly increased.
Enough has been accomplished in a few localities to demonstrate the
feasibility of reclaiming thousands of acres by the aid of reservoirs, and
eventually this will be done; but except in a small way it is not a work of
the immediate future. For many years to come capital will find greater
remuneration in taking possession of the large rivers.

In estimating the agricultural resources, it was, of course, necessary to

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 117

take account of all future increase, and wherever storage by reservoirs
seemed practicable a rough estimate was made of the extent of land that
could be thus reclaimed.

There are a few restricted areas in Utah that yield remunerative crops
to the farmer without the artificial application of water. Their productive-
ness is doubled or trebled by the use of water, and so far as they are sus-
ceptible of irrigation they need not be distinguished from the irrigable
lands. When the greater rivers shall have been diverted to the work of
irrigation, nearly all such areas will be supplied with water, but a few will
not. The endeavor has been to include the latter as well as the former
in the estimate of the agricultural land.

The term ‘agricultural land” is construed to include that which is
used or may be used for the production of hay as well as that cultivated
by the plow. Most irrigable lands may be utilized in either way, but there
are some tracts which, on account of the severity of the climate or the
impurity of the water, are adapted to the growth of grass only.

| have sought in the foregoing remarks to set forth as briefly as
possible the methods and scope of my investigations, and to indicate the
degree of accuracy to be anticipated in the resulting estimates. To. these

estimates we will now proceed.
IRRIGATION BY THE LARGE STREAMS.

Three rivers enter Great Salt Lake—the Bear, the Weber, and the
Jordan, and upon their water will ultimately depend the major part of the
agriculture of Utah. By a curious coincidence, the principal heads of the
three rivers lie close together in the western end of the Uinta range of

mountains.

The Bear River runs northward at first, and a little beyond the foot of
the mountains enters the Territory of Wyoming. Swerving to the left, it
passes again into Utah, and swerving again to the right returns to Wyo-
ming. From Wyoming it runs northward into Idaho, and after making
a great detour to the north returns on a more westerly line to Utah. It
reénters in Cache Valley, and passes thence by a short canon to its delta

plain on the northwestern border of Great Salt Lake. Its principal tribu-

118 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

taries are received in Idaho and in Cache Valley. Bordering upon the
upper reaches of the river, there is little land available for cultivation, and
the climate forbids any crop but hay. I am informed that the meadow
land there somewhat exceeds two square miles in area. Where the river
next enters Utah it runs for 30 miles through an open valley, the valley
that contains the towns of Woodruff and Randolph. At the head it passes
through a short defile, and can readily be thrown into two canals at such a
level as to command the greater part of the valley, bringing about 90
square miles of land ‘under ditch”. For the irrigation of this amount the
river is sufficient, but if the necessary water were thus appropriated, too
little would remain for the use of the lands which border the contiguous
portions of the river in Wyoming. ‘These have equal claim to the use of
the river, and a proper distribution of the water would assign it to the
reclamation of the best selection of land in the two ‘Territories. I estimate
that such an adjustment would permit the Utah valley to irrigate 45 square
miles with the water of the river. The minor streams of the valley will
serve, in addition, 24 square miles. The climate is untavorable to grain
and the chief crop must be of hay.

Where the river next enters Utah it has acquired so great a volume
that it is impracticable to make use of its entire amount. ‘The portion ot
Cache Valley which lies in Utah can nearly all be irrigated. What is on
the left bank of Bear River can be served by Logan River and other trib-
utaries without calling on the main stream. The right bank will have to
be served in connection with an adjacent tract in Idaho, and by a canal
lying entirely in that Territory. The expense will be great, but not greater
than the benefit will warrant. I estimate that the Utah division of Cache
Valley will ultimately contain 250 square miles of irrigated land. The
climate admits of the growth of wheat, oats, and corn, and such fruits as
the apple, pear, and the apricot.

In leaving Cache Valley the river tumbles through a short, narrow
canon, and then enters the plain that borders the lake. The limestone
walls of the canon offer a secure foundation for the head works to a
system of canals to supply the plain. Here, again, a large outlay is

necessary, but the benefits will be more than commensurate. Not only

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 119

will the entire alluvial plain of the Bear be served, but the valley of the
Malade, as far as Oregon Springs, and the valley which extends from Little
Mountain to Connor's Spring. After deducting from these areas the land
along the margin of the lake that is too saline to afford hope of reclamation,
there remains a tract of 214 square miles. One-tenth of this is now in use,
being in part watered by Box Elder Creek and other small creeks, and in
part cultivated without irrigation.

In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of that

portion of the Bear River drainage basin which lies in Utah:

Square miles—

Tracts a
Cultivated P
bs as Cultivable,
in 187

Base of Uinta Mountains...... 0 .. oh SRS ern pcan oe 1.6 2,5
Mellow, Creskand DuckiCireck ce. 205 ssi vccece cedsceeeccsnzsesceseescss en oe re eee 00 2.0
Randolph Valley and Saleratus Creek ..-. a Peer tds reer eer artes 9.6 69.0
Shores of Bear, Ake: 2 2.ccecseessstscsee 5 saseomes poe meeeee 5 aaa 5.0 9.0
Cache Valley...... wactecmmis Sys ee ease betie eee aot sie cs cee arate s{a'a: ato claratale cata aya cis mete ere w nats Sean 50.0 250.0
Delta Plain, Malade Valley, and Connor's Spring Valley .............------+----+- : Copacmees 22.0 218.0
Roxb deravallay (MEAN UNA), fais cccite ccewia's cosas Sacisweninases Pe res ats er eer a ep 55
10) fil lees Se ee A BS Ia er ae ce eee : toe Beaver sien ese eee 89.3 552.0

The entire area of the Bear River District is about 3,620 square miles,
24 per cent. being now under cultivation, and over 15 per cent. susceptible
of cultivation.

The Weber River runs with a general northwesterly course from the
Uinta Mountains to Great Salt Lake, entering the latter at the middle of its
eastern shore. "The Ogden is its only important tributary. At the foot of
the mountains it enters Kamas Prairie, in which it can be made to irrigate
a few square miles. Thence to Hennefer, a distance of 30 miles, it is
continuously bordered by a strip of farming land about one-third of a mile
broad. Then it passes a series of three close canons—in the intervals of
which are Round Valley, with a few acres of land, and Morgan Valley,
with 7 square miles—and emerges upon its delta plain. Within this
plain are no less than 219 square miles of farming land, of which about
two-fifths are now in use. A part is unwatered, a part is watered by the
Ogden River and by a number of creeks, and the remainder is watered by
the Weber. ‘To serve the higher portions of the plain a great outlay would

be required, and 1 am of opinion that the highest levels cannot profitably

120 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

be supplied. Still, a great extension of the irrigated area is inevitable,
and I anticipate that when the water of the Weber has been carried as far
as is economically practicable, not more than 15 miles of the plain will
remain unsupplied. Deducting this amount, as well as the area served by
the minor streams and springs of the plain, there remain 185 square miles
dependent on the Weber and Ogden Rivers. The Ogden River has also to
water 8 square miles in its upper course, and the Weber 84, making a
total of 227 square miles dependent on the two streams. Whether they are
competent to serve so great an area may well be questioned. On the 8th
of October I found in the Ogden River, at the mouth of its canon, a flow of
115 feet per second, and three days later the Weber showed 886 feet.
There was almost no irrigation in progress at that time, and the total of 501
feet included practically all the water of the streams. To irrigate 227
square miles, the rivers need to furnish at the critical season (in this case
about the 10th of July) 1,450 feet, or nearly three times their October
volume. Of the ratio between their July and October volumes I have no
direct means of judging, and the problem is too nice a one to be trusted
to the estimates of residents unaided by measurements; but indirectly a
partial judgment may be reached by comparing the rivers with certain
tributaries of the Jordan which were twice observed. City Creek was
measured on the 5th of July, and again on Ist of September, and Emi-
gration and Parley creeks were measured July 5th, and again September
3rd. These streams rise in mountains that are about as high as those which
furnish. the Weber and its branches, and their conditions are generally

parallel. Their measured volumes were as follows :

a Ba ° 1
“a oe 2 J
ot rakes H
a & HH 4 jee
Ens my TS 3 |
a loa = pS
Streams. PoR eh | eof >|
> oO a 7c 3
re eu | ol a
B+. mos
em cle
[ 2 4 3 2 =
KH BR =|
ity Creek: 3-F 2.04.2) 5 ee cesta She csr Ee oe Seen ee oe eee 119 |, 32 3.7
Lia fae) NW ONGEd see emode pages oS e sess oor ea Ab Edcom ep meartiocbens so aceacosoredoosreeeeee 24 | 8 3.0
) LEE TSG) so se Gna sanos cer deStnncemes cess Jocncon Asa sucpansSegqecooasucacnasoaneeted 72 29 2.5

The comparison is not decisive, but it seems to show that the problem

demands for its solution a careful examination at the ‘critical season.” If

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 121

the Ogden and Weber had been measured in September, as were the other
streams, their volumes would probably have been found less than in
October; and this consideration appears to throw the balance of evidence
against the competence of the rivers to water the contiguous lands.

But if their incompetence shall be proved, it does not follow that the
lands must go dry. The Bear at the north and the Jordan at the south
have each a great volume of surplus water, and either supply can be led
without serious engineering difficulty to the lower levels of the delta of the
Weber.

In the following table are summed the agricultural resources of the
Weber drainage basin :

| Square miles—
Tracts. a A = =
ultivated .
| in 1877. Cultivable.
amasgvbrairre (OLUDOL GOLO)ic asa acice and oe cnancccane cascecndsccoaucanctsniscescsinenosstecsewcuee aif 3.0
Peoa to Hennefer, inclusive Bat ba 8.5 9.0
22Y wd Ee VL a ee ee a ACS AGT ORE OOOO fan reece OS CISer eer ee | 3.2 3. 2
|
PRU Th G0 Veiner Sea a octal p orec aaa a Raa ars eer ote aera eng n ae oete o etnn ata eas = rarerne ee ee | eae 2. 0
Echo Creek 3 mat
Croydonyencss see ceesecn as « 4 25
PRVOLLD Gua ViHLLO Vice pinesi st oa clot ieishne cee futclnre tet) e aiarniemre in. anrainstatsiais geranin eteg ae sana inisioles a eer taatme cy 5 5
| Morgan Valley | 6.0 6.9
Ogden ay alloy. >= cccccecen> =o Pee eds ois Thebes athe sack seeds eee ores oees eee seeaceeeeee ees) 4.1 8.0
[PD Glta Plain tse os ete-cc sts oka seesicad ss aoc Peele Saar ac cseaNs ceeds caseesnasascasuosterseeciewcees | - 91.0 219.0
jee
Ota les ae see oes EAC anno COR OCELE BOE a CLERIC See er eee rine SO conor eerie | 115.2 253. 0

The estimate of 219 miles of cultivable land on the Delta Plain
includes 15 miles that will probably never be irrigated, but may neverthe-
less be farmed.

The total area of the Weber basin (including the whole plain from
Bonneville to Centerville, and excluding the main body of Kamas Prairie)
is 2,450 square miles; 4} per cent. of the area is now under cultivation,

and 104 per cent. is susceptible of cultivation.

The Jordan River is the outlet of Utah Lake, and runs northward,
entering Great Salt Lake at its southeastern angle. On the right it receives
a number of large tributaries from the Wasatch Range. The largest trib-
utary of Utah Lake is the Provo River, which rises in the Uinta Mountains
close to the heads of the Weber and Bear.

From the mouth of its mountain canon the Provo enters Kamas

Prairie, and it hugs the south margin of the plain just as the Weber hugs
16AR

122 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

the north margin, passing out by a narrow defile at the southwest corner.
At one time in the history of the prairie the Provo flowed northward
through it and joined itself to the Weber. The surface of the prairie was
then lower than now, and the sand and gravel which the river brought
from the mountains accumulated upon it. Eventually the Provo built its
alluvium so high that its water found a new passage over the wall of the
valley. The new channel, affording a more rapid descent than the old,
quickened the current through the valley, and caused it to reverse its action
and begin the excavation of the material it had deposited. So long as the
river built up its bed, its channel was inconstant, shifting from place to
place over the whole plain;. but so soon as it began to cut away the bed,
its position became fixed and the plain was abandoned. The river now
flows in a narrow valley of its own making, 150 feet below the surface of
the plain. As a result of this mode of origin, Kamas Prairie slopes uni-
formly from the Provo to the Weber, and it would be an immense under-
taking to irrigate it with the water of the Weber. But the Provo River
can be returned to its ancient duty with comparative ease. A few miles
of canal will suffice to carry its water to the upper edge of the plain, and
thence it can be led to every part. Already a small canal has been con-
structed, and its enlargement may convert the whole prairie into a meadow.
Thus the prairie, although part of the drainage basin of the Weber, belongs
to the irrigation district of the Provo.

The Provo next follows a narrow rock bound valley for 7 miles, being
skirted by bottom lands that admit of some farming. It then enters Provo
Valley, an opening about as large as the last, and favored by a warm
climate that permits the growth of breadstuffs. Thence to Utah Valley
it follows a deep, close canon. j

The volume of the Provo is sufficient to water about 100 square miles.
If it be permitted to serve 28 miles in Kamas Prairie and 40 miles in Provo
Valley and its adjuncts, there will remain for Utah Valley the quota for 32
miles. The minor streams of the valley, American Fork, Spanish Fork,
Hobble Creek, Payson Creek, ete., will irrigate 120 miles, making a total
of 152 square miles supplied with water. The total land of the valley
which might be irrigated if the water were sufficient amounts to no less
than 225 miles.

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 123

Thus it appears that if all available lands on the upper Provo are
reclaimed, one-third of Utah Valley must go unwatered, while if none of
them are irrigated, nearly the whole of the valley will be supplied. A
middle course would appear most wise, and will undoubtedly be followed.
A eradual extension of the canals, as the demands and means of the com-
munities dictate and permit, will bring lands successively into use in the
order of their value and convenience, and when the limit is reached and
title has been acquired to all the water, the most available lands in each of
the three valleys traversed by the Provo will have been reclaimed. The
residents of Kamas Prairie will probably have increased their meadows so
as to furnish winter hay for herds sufticient to stock the summer pastures
of the vicinity; Provo Valley, having a less favorable climate than Utah
Valley, will have irrigated only its choicest soils; and the major part of the
river will belong to Utah Valley. The apportionment may be roughly
estimated as—Kamas Prairie, 10 miles; Provo Valley and Waldsburg, 20
miles, and Utah Valley, 70 miles.

Below Utah Lake there is little inequality of volume dependent on
season. The lake is a natural reservoir 127 square miles in extent, and so far
equalizes the outflow through the Jordan that the volume of that stream is
less affected by the mean level of the lake than by the influence of north-
erly and southerly winds. With suitable head works its volume can be
completely controlled, and, if desirable, the entire discharge of the lake
can be concentrated in the season of irrigation.

The highest stage of the lake is in July, and the lowest in March or
April; and the natural volume of its outlet has of course a corresponding
change. In July 1 found that volume to be 1,275 feet per second, and I
am informed by residents that the stream carried more than one-half as
much water in its low stage; 1,000 feet is perhaps not far from the mean
volume. When all possible use is made of Provo River and other tribu-
taries the annual inflow of the lake will be diminished by about one-eighth,
and the outflow by a greater fraction, which we will assume to be one-
quarter. (This postulates that the evaporation is at the rate of 90 inches
per year for the whole lake surface.) The remaining perennial outflow of
750 feet per second, if concentrated into four months, would irrigate for

124 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

that period 350 square miles. It will be practicable to include under canals
from the Jordan only about 160 square miles of farming land, and I think
it safe to assume that the supply of water will be greatly in excess of the
demand.

At the present time the Jordan is little used, the chief irrigation of
Salt Lake Valley being performed by the large creeks that flow from the
mountains at the east. It will not be long, however, before large canals
are constructed to carry the Jordan water to all parts of the valley that lie
below the level of Utah Lake. They will include 120 square miles of
farming land.

The mountain streams, being no longer needed in the lower parts of
the valley, will be carried to higher land and made to serve the benches at
the base of the mountains. By these means the total agricultural area of
the valley will be increased to 192 square miles. Eventually, the western
canal will be carried about the north end of the Oquirrh range and made
to irrigate the northern third of Tooele Valley. It will pass above the
farming lands of E. T. City and Grantsville, and enable the streams which
irrigate the latter town to be used upon the higher slopes. The service of
the Jordan will amount to no less than 40 miles and the agricultural area
of the valley will be increased to about 45 square miles.

Including Tooele Valley and Kamas Prairie with the drainage basin
of the Jordan, its agricultural resources sum up as follows:
ie as E Square miles—

Tracts. |
Cultivated

in 1877. Cultivable.
| Kamas brainiot-t ee ss oes scene nh tS) set ee Cee See ieeee See eee ree eee 4.0 10.0
| Hailstone Ranche and RENN [= S555. SR Se coc seniS SD Sne os Sn eh Sasa Se geS ago SEE mISO EME ECDONDN 2.0 2.0
IPTOV OAV al OY gee nee mene enn eee mere so nieieieleimin = = alsian aim wenn ene eine oe main miialainimeie mm mmm mwa mim 6.0 16. 0
AVG En i eee Se ae sce Santeoenacrinntr SeeCs url oanmace a= sya HRS SA CKOs oo ceo net doee orice nee seeders 2.0 2.0
LORRAINE Oc apo Sorba cea HU S de IaReeO SASS Sond SoeneSte Seno case mesos ss dessdoddoooseanAResbeescE 59. 0 190.0
Goshen....---. |
Mona nies-- oan Salt Creek soscce donne sae scchn ale ae owe aoe ee nee ces sneer eee ease mana ee 14.0 | 16.0
Nephieseeriera if
Salt Lake Valley (including Bountiful and Centerville) ---.-..-.-...----..-------.---------------- 89. 8 | 192.0
ERODE Ge Vall Oyseee aes sea anism ale e(n te eee eee oi Nefa ace Strata cee ee ele oe eT MER acre Bia barat 5.4 | 45.0
Motel’ 2c cpceeaceccesitss «act ecce caress MASRSE Soe aa2 ee ech See tee tra SAaee 182. 2 473.0

The drainage district has an area of 4,010 miles; 44 per cent. are culti-
vated, and 113 per cent. may be cultivated.

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 125

It will be observed that in these estimates the available water above
Utah Lake is regarded as insufticient for the available land, while below the
lake there is a superabundance of water, and yet the lower stream is only a
continuation of the upper streams. The difference arises from the function
of the lake as a reservoir. Below the reservoir the whole of the annual
supply can be controlled, but above it I have assumed that irrigation will
merely make use for the irrigating season of the quantity which flows at
the critical period. If artificial reservoirs can be constructed so as to
store water for use in Utah Valley, a greater area can be cultivated. With
adequate storage facilities the streams tributary to the lake can irrigate in
Kamas Prairie 28 miles; in Provo Valley and vicinity 40 miles; in Thistle
Valley 6 miles; on Salt Creek 16 miles, and in Utah Valley 225 miles,
making a total of 815 miles; and there will still escape to the Jordan enough
water to serve all the land assigned to that stream. IH such storage is
practicable, the estimate tabulated above should show 542 instead of 473
miles of cultivable land. ‘The region most likely to afford storage facilities
lies in the mountains where the waters rise. I did not visit it, and until it

has been examined I shall not venture to increase the estimate.

The following table gives a summary for the Great Salt Lake river

system :
Areas, in square miles.

Districts.

Whole district. | SPeUL SP CUGRE® ee be reclaimed] Total cultiva-
| tionin1877. in the future. | ble.
Rear Riverssac=so-6~ 2 2.)0 522 taco ee vk Gewetac sewennwe 3, 620 | 89.3 462.7
Weber River 2, 450 1Hbs2 137.8
Jordan River 4,010 192. 2 } 280. 8
Totals sec eee ttose ceases ae Piiyesavanedinesce tet: 10, 080 | 396.7 881.3 1, 278.0 |
Ota ON meinen aan senate nineess sicomueieaacam sec eke 1, 000 | - 039 | - 088 . 127

This region includes an eighth part of the land area of the Territory,
and more than one-half the agricultural land. It is the richest section of
Utah. Nearly one-third of its available land is already in use. The cost
of the canals by which its cultivated lands have been furnished with water
has been about 52,000,000. To complete its system of irrigation will
probably cost $5,000,000 more.

126

IRRIGATION

LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

BY SMALL STREAMS.

Through the remainder of the drainage basin of Great Salt Lake there

are no large bodies of farming land. At wide intervals are small tracts,

dependent on springs and sinall creeks, and the available land is in nearly

every case greatly in excess of the available water.

A few exceptional

spots are cultivated without irrigation, but so far as they have been discoy-

ered they are so situated as to be moistened from beneath.

been raised on dry bench lands.

The principal facts are gathered in

No crops have

the following table:

|

|

Localities.

| Cedar Fort
| Fairfield
Vernon Creek
Saint Johns
East Caton Creek, Rush Valley
Stockton
Skull Valley

Government Creek
Willow Spring, township 10 south, range 17 west.|
Redding Spring........-.....----------- Bran nese
Dodoquibe Spring ......---..---------+----------
Deep Creek, township 9 south, range 19 west. -.
DI ede A ane eee sauestecio aa neo ces Sssnce sass |
Grouse Valley .

Owl Spring
Rosebud Creek
Muddy Creek, township 10 north, range 15 west.)
Park Valley |
Widow Spring
Indian Creek, township 13 north, range 12 west.
East base Clear Creek Mountains. .-...---------
Cazure Creek
Clear Creek, township 15 north, range 12 west--

Junction Creek

Goose Creek ..-
(Pilot Spriun Pees oe eect etiaree =e slaersta ee
Deseret Creek (or Deep Creek)
Crystal Springs, township 14 north, range 7 west.
Antelope Spring, township 9 north, range 6 west-

iHanZelies PrN Geese ease cecil menee ae ece Eee

Promontory, east base
Blue Creek
Brackish Springs near Blue Creek

Antelope Island

Total

Total in square miles . -........-..---.---

2 . 5 | om |
= + Sie 5 = 3 n a wien
« § ca = L 5 | 2 & = temarks.
. £2 PA siesta oe
S (47 |pa [688
1 800 IBC | Ss5ace5 50 With aid of reservoirs.
1 800 900i): =2--22 |
1 900 1, 200 Lect me ie With aid of reservoirs.
1 700 | 700 |
1 500 GY) | eossecsas
1 200 | iN) ISeoadsecce
11 1, 000 | 2,500 @ | With aid of reservoirs; visited in
| part only. |
1 300 | S00) eee seer Not visited. |
1 250 | PAN sete ces Do.
of 20 | eM Seciodecene |
Liiseeestee: 50) |eeceecem Not visited.
1 500 000) eee seees With aid of reservoirs.
1 Baceooocee 200 200 Not visited.
6 500 | IRM!) | apacsao se With aid of reservoirs.
ab easscharns 10 | 10
1 150 BOON Seeeeete = With aid of reservoirs.
1 300 | 300 300
6 700 DECI bSsoccceen With aid of reservoirs.
I |i | 20 20 | Not visited.
1 See 100 100 With aid of reservoirs.
6 5 150 100 | Do.
Th ue ls oa | 200 200 | Not visited.
1 80, 200 200 |
1 500 500 | Not visited.
2 200 200 | Do.
Ali Ssctoe eae 15.) Seerccecie.
1 300 8: 000 | sxe seecn a2 | With aid of reservoirs.
1 60 100 100 Do.
ul 30 30 30 , Not visited.
1 15 15 15
al 300 | 600 600 |The greater part is not irrigated.
S| ee ee P5001 | Meee |
1 200 TNOOOs|epeceeees|
| Seren | 50 50 Not visited.
60 8, 610 | 21, 740 1, 625
Sasees 13.5 33.9 2.5

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE SALT LAKE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 127

Nineteen tracts have not yet been surveyed by the land office.

The total area of the district is 13,370 square miles, of which one-
tenth of one per cent. is cultivated, and one-fourth of one per cent. may be
cultivated.

The contrast between the districts east and west of Great Salt Lake
illustrates the combination of physical conditions essential to agriculture in
our arid territories. An atmosphere endowed with but a small share of
moisture precipitates freely only when it is reduced to a low temperature.
Agriculture is dependent on the precipitation of moisture, but cannot endure
the associated cold climate. It can flourish only where mountain masses
turn over the aqueous product of their cold climates to low valleys endowed
with genial climates. The Wasatch and Uinta crests stand from 6,000 to
9,000 feet higher than the valleys bordermg Great Salt Lake. Their
climate has a temperature from 20° to 30° lower. The snows that accu-
mulate upon them in winter are not melted by the first warmth of spring,
but yield slowly to the advancing sun, and all through the season of
erowing crops feed the streams that water the valleys. The Bear, the
Weber, and the Jordan carry the moisture of the mountains to the warmth
of the valleys, and fertility is the result.

To the north and west of the lake there are many mountains, but
they are too low and small to store up snow banks until the time of need.
Their streams are spent before the summer comes; and only a few springs

are perennial. The result is a general desert, dotted by a few oases.

CAEL ASP ISECEES av eek eal

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE
SEVIER RIVER.

By CAPTAIN C. BE. DUTTON.

As an agricultural region, the valley of the Sevier River and of its
tributaries is one of the most important in Utah. The amount of arable
land which may be reached by the waters of the stream is very much
larger than the stream can water advantageously, and the time is probably
not far distant when all the water that can be obtained will be utilized
in producing cereals, and there is probably no other region in Utah where
the various problems relating to the most economic use of water will be
solved so speedily. It is, therefore, a region of unusual interest, regarded
in the light of the new industrial problems which the irrigation of these
western lands is now bringing forward. Fortunately, there is a smaller
prospect of difficulty and obstruction in the settlement of the legal contro-
versies which must inevitably arise elsewhere out of disputes about water
rights than will be encountered in other regions, for the Mormon Church is
an institution which quietly, yet resistlessly, assumes the power to settle
such disputes, and the Mormon people in these outlying settlements yield
to its assumptions an unhesitating obedience. Whatever the church deems
best for the general welfare of its dependencies it dictates, and what it
dictates is invariably done with promptitude, and none have yet been
found to resist. This communal arrangement has been attended with great

success so far as the development of the water resources are concerned,
128

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 129

and the system of management has ordinarily been so conducted that the
general welfare has been immensely benefited; and if individuals have
suffered, it has not been made manifest by any apparent symptoms of
general discontent or of individual resistance. The system is by no
means perfect as yet, but its imperfections may be found in details which
produce no present serious inconvenience, and they will no doubt be
remedied as rapidly as they attain the magnitude of great evils.

The Sevier River has its course along the southeastern border of the
Great Basin of the west, and its upper streams head in the lofty divide
which separates the drainage system of the Colorado River on the south
and east trom the drainage system of the Great Basin on the north and
west. ‘The general course of the upper portion of the stream is from
south to north, though its tributaries flow in many directions. The lower
portion of the stream, within 60 miles of its end, suddenly breaks through
one of the Basin Ranges on the west—the Pavant—and then turns south-
westward and empties into Sevier Lake, one of the salinas of the Great
Basin.

The main valley of the Sevier River has a N.S. trend, and begins
on the divide referred to, about 270 miles almost due south of Great Salt
Lake, and continues northward a distance of about 170 miles. There are
three principal forks of this stream. The lowest fork is at Gunnison, 140
niles south of Salt Lake City, and called the San Pete, which waters a fine
valley about 45 miles in length, and which is at present the most important
agricultural district in Utah. About 80 miles farther up the stream, at
Cirele Valley, the river divides into two very nearly equal branches; one
coming from the south, the other breaking through a great plateau on the
east. These are called, respectively, the South and East Fork of the
Sevier. The South Fork has its principal fountains far up on the surface
of a great platean—the Panguitch Plateaun—whose broad expanse it drains
by three considerable streams, which finally unite in the valley at the foot
of its eastern slope.

The East Fork of the Sevier receives the waters of a beautiful valley
lying to the eastward of and parallel to the main valley of the Sevier,
and separated from it by a lofty plateau 90 miles in length from north to

17 AR

150 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

south, and from 10 to 20 miles in breadth, called the Sevier Plateau.
Through this great barrier the stream has cut a wide gorge 4,000 feet in
depth and 10 miles long, called East Fork Canon, and right at its lower
end it joins the South Fork of the Sevier.

The physical geography of the region drained by the waters of the
river is highly interesting, and has an important relation to the subject. The
area in question consists of a series of tabular blocks, of vast proportions,
cut out of the general platform of the country by great faults, and lifted
above it from 2,000 to nearly 6,000 feet, so that the absolute altitudes
(above sea level) of the tables range from #,000 to 11,500 feet. Where
the valleys are lowest the tables are highest, and vice versa. ‘The valleys
or lowlands stand from 5,000 to 7,500 feet above the sea. The plateaus
have areas ranging from 400 to 1,800 square miles, and collectively with
the included lowlands within the drainage system of the Sevier have an
area of about 5,400 square miles. The tables front the valleys with barriers
which are more continuous and which more closely resemble long lines of
cliffs than the mountain chains and sierras of other portions of the Rocky
Mountain Region, and there are stretches of unbroken walls, crowned with
vast precipices, 10, 20, and even 40 miles in Iength, which look down from
snowy altitudes upon the broad and almost torrid expanses below. If the
palisades of the Hudson had ten times their present altitude and five or
six times their present length, and if they had been battered, notched, and
crumbled by an unequal erosion, they would offer much the same appearance
as that presented by the wall of the Sevier Plateau which fronts the main
valley of the Sevier. If they were from six to eight times multiplied, and
extended from Hoboken to West Point, and were similarly shattered, they
would present the appearance of the eastern wall of Grass Valley. If they
were eight to ten times multiplied, and imagined to extend around three-
fourths of the periphery of an area 40 miles by 20, and but little damaged
by erosion, they would represent the solemn battlements of the Aquarius
Plateau. These great plateaus are masses of volcanic rock overlying
sedimentaries, the latter so deeply buried that they are seldom seen even
in the deepest chasms, while superposed floods of volcanic outflows are
shown in sections, reaching sometimes a thickness of 5,000 feet. The dark

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 131

colors of these rocks give a somber aspect to the scenery, and the gloomy
fronts of the towering precipices are rendered peculiarly grand and
imposing.

The prevailing winds of this region are from the west, northwest, and
southwest, and are a portion of the more general movement of the atmos-
pherie ocean which moves bodily from the Pacific to the heart of the
continent. In crossing the Sierra Nevada a large portion of its moisture is
wrung from the air, which blows hot and arid across the Great Basin.

Notwithstanding the aridity of the basin area, the air gains about as much

moisture as it loses in crossing it, until it strikes the great barriers on the
east side of the basin—the Wasatch and the chain of high plateaus which
are mapped as its southerly continuation. Here the winds are projected by
the bold fronts several thousands of feet upward. The consequent cooling
and rarefaction condense from them an amount of moisture which, relatively
to that arid country, may be called large, though far less than that of more
favored regions. In the valleys the rainfall is exceedingly small ; almost
the whole of the precipitation is in the high altitudes. It is no uncommon
thing to see the heavy masses of the cumulus clouds enveloping the summits
of all the plateaus while the valleys lie under a sky but little obscured.
The plateaus, then, are the reservoirs where the waters accumulate, and
from which they descend in many rivulets and rills, while around their
bases are copious springs fed by the waters which fall above. The rainfall
in the valleys is very small, as compared with that upon the plateaus, and
it is also highly variable. No record has been kept of the precipitation
within the drainage system of the Sevier, and the nearest point where such
a record has been kept is at Fort Cameron, near Beaver, at the western
base of the Tushar Mountains These observations cover but a_ brief
period, and no doubt represent a much larger precipitation than that
which occurs in the valleys and plains generally, because the situation of
the point of observation is just at the base of the loftiest range in southern
Utah, where the air currents from the west first strike it. Moreover, these
observations are not yet published, and are not at present available. In
the narrow valleys between closely approximated and lofty mountain walls,

like the valley of the Sevier at Marys vale, the rainfall is greater than where

132 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

the valley is wider, with lower walls, as at Panguitch, Richfield, and Gun-
nison. An estimate of the amount would be very hazardous; but, judging
from what is known of similar localities, the amount in the wider valleys
may be as low as 7 or 8 inches, or as high as 10 or 11. In the narrower
and deeper valleys it may be between 10 and 12 inches. Upon the plateaus
it may be as large as 30 to 35 inches. ‘The principal fall is in the winter
and spring months, from the middle of November to the first of June; and
in this period at least seven-eighths of the precipitation must be accom-
plished in the valleys and three-fourths upon the plateaus. There is, how-
ever, a large amount of variation in the distribution of the monthly falls
from year to year. No two consecutive years correspond in this respect.
In 1876 a heavy storm, with great rainfall and snow, occurred in the
month of October, but in 1875 and 1877 no such storm occurred. In 1875
many drenching showers occurred in the months of July and August, but
none occurred at the same months of 1877. In general, however, no sum-
mer rainfall has ever been known of such extent as to dispense with the
necessity of irrigation, or even to materially reduce the necessary amount.
Great variability in the distribution of the fall over different months of the
year is one of the characteristics of the climate. But whatever the distri-
bution, it is never such as to affect this one conspicuous feature—that the
season in which crops must have their chief growth and reach their maturity
is the dry season.

Connected with the irrigation of the Sevier Valley is a limiting condi-
tion, which rarely has to be considered in connection with the lands watered
by the Bear and Weber Rivers, and which does not enter at all into the
lands lying about Great Salt Lake. It is the dependence of climate upon
altitude. There are lands along the upper portions of the forks of the
Sevier which can be irrigated easily enough, but which are not cultivable
for grain on account of the shortness of the summer and of the danger of
frosts during the growth and ripening of the grain. This in turn is directly
connected with the altitude. At the point where the Sevier leaves its main
valley and enters the Pavant range, its altitude is 5,050 feet above sea-

level, At Gunnison it is 5,150 feet.

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 133

The altitudes of the San Pete Valley are approximately as follows :

Feet,
NT erie et ee ate ed See Pre Sasa pacioas ao ou ieeeinebsec sem spe deieleiaa= Sociale Say Semis mae clin ae 5, 850
Espiner sete ete ere cate weiner Saree eee bc aialsjalae'sle Sea niview ne eeiainie sista) Commi niacin Sia 5, 450
IM Fay ea tise ose ge Se SRS Se tee Re Is ES TSS PS area ah ier aa 5, 500
SOMO TOW ees asta = so steerage nee cea yecine si sasinn bo aalen elem tamslencisereeesan =a saeeets So 5, 550
WMoaniieleasantie it ockece acco ae SoScad ascs le Sees 226 Se Geass Beale ae feleeis Mes cise nwentemcaain cies 5, 600
Weer Tree oy Mette mete eal carci ee ee Sec, showers Sots ers cemaeiee ewe Melensemeenis es a's seeeiciein nels sane 5, 725
TMOG A ICOM be ee acta oe on colelec ees a aii Sere S cfds'e smart stem sete mine iaieisiatenera main salem viele = Siete mein a 5, 650

Beeinning at Gunnison and ascending the Sevier along its mail Course,

the altitudes are as follows :

Feet
Gali Se ee ere ee cs oS SiS a co wreclei ciate) aratat ee emy eee asels Stata Sateen ee bela ia ate teitas 5, 100
RO TIT ae eA ee Penne wien ule cnisie Ue. «esi Sas sacle meme eMbaisteamis as. Jaa ccame(aiieceise 5,175
Rachie) dines ete ec crete, aye isin wise © viws.a.n.c) Solo yet a g's ole aisle elimi! wiggle aleiel= iain cacle te neko in 5, 300
MDT OG ee eee ee eee bic edntedaveiee 6 Gude ceemass 8a% asiemmeteece normals sis etme soem acismetsci 5, 850
ROSGDHN@IU yee tosh as at soe emiee a Sec en cme new cein seein site 'a Sect eel eeeieee re tee oe 5, 375
MARYSV3 Oost aese ss aioe Se ae ence Gace ctscwercce aceeseescens vem meseaee! sewn aesec me commana os 5, 600

Circle Valley 6, 000

Taking the East Fork in Grass Valley :

Feet.

Heid ofemastork Cano. acccoss<-dc0c5d0,06 cecsjce soee0Sanse boas s ceepeeeaseuscerie tes tema sinwes 6, 800
TTI TTS ee et ac oe awa je hc, Sw ieee Sa 5 cre els Sian elem eielclete ema) eat sina aie emioel7 = Wriciesai. 6, 700
WanielSemanli ks ten .c eee css sal waie cee ceed Sere cae esters eomie Ss mene “erie ise = tein talwe (ele (emininiz a) 7, QUO

Taking the South Fork :

‘i Feet.

Hendtom Panpnitchs@an0n. <<<. --cse0 ooo vs~ oss ean sweeet eine rae eaie we ne Seine memati sm ice 6, 250
PaO uticlies ee teense esa e< accu =a - = 2-s~ sets onie eee gem tase se mseince = sree Sar ge 6, 400
CaiL Sch ail ete operat we Sie atcha wna Se Soa ae se wee metiema manne nites amie mac 6, 550
Junction of Mammoth Creelk......--- 2-2. ee nce cane teense eens case enieie eeeld Mane ese scln venice 6, 900

In the San Pete Valley, which has been cultivated as far up as Mount
Pleasant for twenty years, I cannot learn that any crop has ever been injured
by frosts, and we may therefore conelude that this valley is safe from such
an attack, unless a most abnormal one. ‘The same may be said of the main
Sevier Valley from Joseph City downward. From Joseph City to Circle
Valley there is a relatively small proportion of irigable land, but such as
there is may, I think, be regarded as safe from frost. Cirele Valley, where
the two forks unite, has been cultivated for cereals for four years, and has
not yet suffered from frost, and it is fair to assume that such a calamity will
be very infrequent there, though it may not be possible to say there is no
danger. In Panguitch Valley, a severe frost in August, 1874, inflicted
great injury upon the crops, and only a small quantity of very inferior

erain was harvested. But in 1875, 1876, and 1877, excellent crops were

>

134 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

secured. Above Panguitch the amount of arable land is not great, and the
danger to crops is increased. In Grass Valley there is a magnificent
expanse of fertile arable land, but there can be no question that a large
portion of it is so liable to killing frosts in August, or even in July, that the
cereals cannot flourish there. The lower portion of the valley, near the
head of East Fork Canon, is more hopeful, and it is probable that a large
majority of crops planted there will mature, though occasional damage may
be reasonably looked for. The general result may be summarized as
follows: Below 6,000 feet crops may be considered as safe from serious
damage by frosts. From 6,000 to 7,000 feet crops are liable to damage in
a degree proportional to the excess of altitude above 6,°00 feet. Above
7,000 feet the danger is probably such as to render agriculture of little
value to those who may pursue it.

The climate has shown in past times a longer period of variation than
the annual one. Panguitch was settled once in 1860, but was abandoned
on account of the destruction of crops by the frosts. The settlement was
renewed in 1867, and again abandoned, in consequence of the attacks
of Indians: It was settled a third time in 1870, and, though crops have
occasionally been injured, the agriculture has on the whole proved remn-
nerative.

Let us now look at the irrigable lands of the Sevier and its tributaries.
Above the town of Panguitch, on the South Fork, there is a considerable
area of arable land, which could be easily reached by canals from the main
stream and below 7,000 feet altitude, but for want of a detailed survey it
is impossible to do more than guess at the area. I think, however, that
8,000 acres would be the maximum limit. This portion of the valley is
liable to killing frosts, though during the last three years it has not suffered
from this cause. In the long run, I believe agriculture will not prove
remunerative here. From Panguitch northward to the head of the Pan-
guitch Canon, a distance of 18 miles, is a broad valley, averaging 5 miles in
width, a very large portion of which is irrigable, provided the water supply
is adequate. At least 24,000 acres may be cultivated without resort to
anything more than the usual methods of distributing the water; but not

the whole of this area is fertile. The greater part of the area of Panguitch

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 135

Valley is composed of alluvial slopes; or, as they have been termed by
geologists, alluvial cones. Although these surface features are presented in
a somewhat more typical and striking manner in Grass Valley, yet they
are well enough exhibited here; and as they have an important relation to
the subject, I will briefly discuss them.

In a mountainous country like this, where the melting of the snows in
spring or heavy rainfalls at other seasons create sudden and great torrents,
large quantities of detritus are carried down trom the mountains into the
valleys. These mountain streams, which in summer, autumn, and early
winter are ordinarily either very small or wholly dried up, may upon certain
oceasions become devastating floods. The bottoms of the ravines are steep
water courses, down which the angry torrents rush with a power which is
seldom comprehended by those who dwell in less rugged regions. Huge

» several tons, great trees, with smaller débris of rocks,

boulders weighing o
eravel, sand, and clay, are swept alone with resistless force, until the
decreasing slope diminishes the energy sufficiently to permit the greater
boulders to come to rest, while the smaller ones are still swept onward.
The decrease of slope is continuous, so that smaller and smaller fragments
reach a stable position, and only cobblestones, grayel, or sand reach the
junctions of the streams with the main rivers. Around the openings of
the greater gorges and ravines the deposits of coarser detritus build up in
the lapse of time the alluvial cones. As it accumulates, each torrent builds
up its bed and constantly changes the position of its channel, and with the
mouth of the ravine for a center it sweeps around from right to left and left
to right like a radius, adding continually, year after year, to the aceumula-
tions of detritus. Thus a portion of a flat cone is formed, having its apex
at the mouth of the ravine. At the foot of mountain ranges these alluvial
cones are formed at the mouth of every ravine, and are sometimes so near
together that they intersect each other, or become confluent. They are
composed of rudely stratified materials, ranging in size or grain from fine
silt and sand to rounded stones of several hundredweight, and occasionally
a block of a ton or more may be seen near the apex of the cone. In

regions where the rocks are soft and readily disintegrated the stones are

156 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

more worn, less in number, and smaller in size, and this is the case generally
with unaltered sedimentary rocks. But in valleys running among voleanic
ranges, the much greater hardness and durability of the materials preserve
them from disintegration, and the stones are more numerous, larger, and
less worn by attrition, composing indeed a very large proportion of the
bulk of the alluvial cones. A large portion of the valley of the Sevier lies
in the midst of a voleanic region, and its sides are everywhere flanked with
these alluvial cones, which are very stony and gravelly. The lower portion
of the Sevier is in a country made of sedimentary beds, and though the
alluvial cones are equally common, they consist of finer material, and are
less burdened with stones.

The Panguitch Valley is between volcanic plateaus, and most of its
area consists of alluvial cone land, which is no doubt fertile wherever the
stones and rubble are not sufficient to prevent plowing and planting, but
this difficulty must render it at least very undesirable. There is, however,
a large area of land of another description in Panguitch Valley, composed
of the finest silt brought down by the gentler current of the river itself,
and deposited within its own basin. This is good bottom land, and the
amount of it I estimate at not less than 7,000 acres. It has already been
remarked that Panguitch Valley stands at an altitude above 6,000 feet,
and is not free from danger of summer frosts. These have been known to
destroy or seriously injure the grain, though in a majority of years crops
will no doubt be safely harvested. Whether the danger is such as to
make agriculture unremunerative in the long run experience can alone
demonstrate.

Following the South Fork of the Sevier downward through the
Panguitch canons, the next important agricultural area is Circle Valley.
This is a broad, nearly circular area, situated in the midst of scenery of the
most magnificent description. Upon the east and west sides rise those
gigantic cliffs which are the peculiar feature of the scenery of this elevated
region, looking down upon the valley below from altitudes of 4,000 to
5,000 feet. This valley also has upon its sides long sloping areas of
stony alluvial cones, full of blocks of trachyte and basalt washed down

from the cliffs above. It has also a large area of arable land. There is

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. es 4

in addition, a certain area of sandy land of an inferior degree of excellence.
The area of best bottom land will probably reach as high as 6,000 acres.
In this area there is probably very little danger from early frosts, as the
6,000 feet contour passes through the middle of the valley, and, as already
stated, the areas which lie within this limit are reasonably safe from this
occurrence. At the north end of Cirele Valley we find the junction of the
two main forks of the Sevier River. From the junction the main stream
runs northward for nearly 20 miles, and throughout this entire stretch
there is but little arable land. Upon both sides of the river there are long
alluvial slopes, made up of stony materials and coarse gravels, through
which a plow could scarcely be driven. A portion of the way the river
runs between rocks and low cliffs and in abrupt canons, cutting through
old trachyte and basaltic outflows. Reaching Marysvale, we find a sufti-
cient area for three or four good sized farms, consisting of bottom land of
the finest quality, which can be watered either from the Sevier River itself
or from two considerable aftluents which come roaring down out of the
Beaver Mountains. North of Marysvale is a barrier thrown across the
valley, consisting of rugged hills of rhyolitic rocks, through which the river
has cut a deep canon; but agriculture in any portion of this barrier is out
of the question. The river emerges from it at the head of what may be
vulled its main or lower valley, near the Mormon settlement called Joseph
City. From this point northward we find what must undoubtedly become
the great agricultural area of southern Utah. It is a magnificent valley,
nowhere less than 5 miles in width, and at least 60 miles in length, with
abrupt mountain walls on either side, and almost the whole of its soil
consisting of alluvial cones, and susceptible of a high degree of cultivation.
The limit of the amount of land in this valley which can be irrigated is
measured by the quantity of water which can be found to turn upon it.
The western side of the valley is flanked by abrupt walls of sedimentary
rocks. As I have before stated, the alluvial cones which find their origin
in the degradation of these sedimentary walls are invariably composed of
finer materials than those which come from the breaking up of voleanic
rocks. The soil, therefore, is much more readily plowed and planted than

the corresponding cones farther up the river. The surface of these cones,
18 aRk

13 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

moreover, is coated with a thick layer of fine loam, and it is not until
penetrated to a considerable depth that we come upon a coarser material.
This portion of the valley of the Sevier has been under cultivation for more
than eight years. he art of irrigation has also reached a certain stage of
advancement, at which it can be studied with some interest. A canal of
sufficient magnitude to carry the entire body of the water of the Sevier
during the dry season has been run for a distance of 8 miles, and is
used for irrigating the large grain fields which lie around Richfield ; and, as
irrigation is now conducted, the entire flow of the stream is turned through
this canal after having. been employed for irrigating the various fields,
which extend for the distance of nearly 7 miles. The total amount of
irrigable land which may be found between Joseph City on the south and
the point where the Sevier leaves its proper valley, 65 miles to the north-

yard, cannot be much less than 90,000 acres. The limit of irrigation
throughout this entire valley is the limit of the water supply.

There is one other valley to which we must advert, namely, the valley
of the San Pete. his is fully equal in fertility and in the convenience of
every element connected with irrigation to the best part of the main valley
of the Sevier. The San Pete is a stream of considerable magnitude, and
experience has shown that it is probably capable, under a more improved
system of irrigation than that now in use, of watering the greater portion
of its valley. The cultivable acreage of the San Pete Valley is about
55,000 acres, provided the whole could be watered.

The quantity of water carried by the Sevier will now be considered,
This, of course, is highly variable from month to month. The time for
measurement, if the true irrigating capacity of the stream is to be con-
sidered, should be that time at which the ratio of water in the stream to
the amount required is smallest. At different stages of growth of the crops
the amount of water required differs considerably. The largest amount is
needed about the time the seeds of the grain begin to fill out. Ordinarily
this is in the latter part of July and early in August throughout the lower
and most extensive portion of the valley, and a week later in the upper
portions. At this season the water is not at its minimum. ‘There is a
gradual diminution of the flow during July, but the great shrinkage of the

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. ibys)

stream oceurs during the middle of August, just after, or sometimes even
during, those irrigations in which the greatest amount is required. ‘The
critical period of the crops occurs, therefore, just before, and sometimes
dangerously near, the period of rapid decline in the water supply. It will
therefore be evident that it is not a very easy matter to determine the exact
stage of water which can serve as a criterion of the irrigating capacity. My
own measurements, however, were hardly a matter of choice, but were
made at the most advantageous period which could be selected without
interfering with the primary objects of the expedition.

The Sevier was measured at the junction of the two main forks, at the
north end of Circle Valley, on the 6th and 7th of July. The method adopted
was first to find a section of the water at a given point by soundings and
by actual measurement of the width of the water surfaces, and measuring
the surface velocity by means of floats. ‘The most probable mean result
of several measurements was found to be 410 cubic feet per second for the
East Fork, and 450 feet per second for the South Fork, or a total of 860 feet.

While this measurement was made the South Fork was being drawn
upon above for the watering of about 1,100 acres near Panguitch, 35 miles
farther up the stream, and also for watering about 600 acres in Cirele Val-
ley, about 3 to 4 miles above. The amount of water used in Circle Valley
was probably greater than that at Panguiteh, since the method employed
was much more wasteful, and no provision made for returning the tail
water to the stream. On the other hand, a large proportion of the tail water
from both places finds its way back to the channel in spite of waste, but
how much it is impossible to conjecture. I think, however, that 75 cubic
feet per second would cover the loss from these sources.

Below the point of measurement the Sevier receives the following
affuents: At Van Buren’s ranch is a cluster of very large springs, fur-
nishing about 55 cubic feet per second. Between Van Buren’s and Marys-
vale are three streams, yielding together about 30 feet, and Bullion Creek
at Marysvale carries about 40 feet. There is still another affluent at
Marysvale with about 30 feet. Finally, Clear Creek, north of Marysvale
Canon, gives about 45 feet, making the total contributions between the

junction of the forks and Joseph City about 200 feet.

140 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

At Monroe a stream issues from the Sevier table, and is used for the
irrigation of the field cultivated by that settlement. Its flow is estimated
at 40 feet in the middle of July. At Richfield, on the other side of the
valley, is a stream coming from the Pavant, with a flow of about 20 feet,
and at Glencove a stream of 25 feet. At Salina is a large tributary issuing
from a great canon through the north end of the Sevier Plateau, and its
measurement indicated a flow of 165 feet. The total between Monroe and
Salina, inclusive, would thus reach 250 feet, to which might be added
some smnaller tributaries, not specifically mentioned, amounting perhaps to
10 feet, giving a total of 260 feet. Adding this to the tributaries between
the upper forks and Joseph City, and to the main river itself, we have, as
the total above Gunnison, 1,320 feet. This estimate being for the early
part of July, and obviously largely in excess of the amount which is
available at the critical period, in the last week of that month and the first
week in August, what allowance should be made for the diminution of
supply during the month of July it is difficult to determine. The smaller
tributaries, as a rule, shrink much more than the larger. Those which enter
the stream lower down decline more during July than those which join it
farther up. ‘Taken altogether, I am satisfied that it would be unsafe to
estimate the irrigating capacity in the first week of August at more than
60 per cent. of that found in the first week of July, and I regard 50 per
cent. as a much more probable estimate. For want of a better one, | adopt
it, and this gives the estimated irrigating capacity of the Sevier and its
tributaries above the junction of the San Pete at 660 cubic feet per second
during the critical period.

The water supply in the San Pete Valley was measured by Mr.
Renshawe during the latter part of July, and found by him to be as

follows:
Volume of flowing water, in cubic feet per second, of streams in San Pete Valley.

Feet
1A GY phi Oe) esse sels Seco Se Sass EO OS5U06 5OG0 0nSnSa Sk aad. docoss doaSac SSctes sdacad Ssoasesashanes 28
IDp Any OCC ae on mean ocod Sana CAO DSn OD So5 Scieood Sosene oseG0Tbn00 SSHceu sre peSeonscercscs 28
Mam ti @reeks sa no ooo a iayeia & 2 oie anise cian ate Sse ine Selo ee ele sae eee eee eaa= sae eee ae sees ssenee 28
Sy HaanthON gel Cell oe a ee cobs aoc padoce soodueembos aceccndoog Sebeeonse Hentdesoce uses oreese cosses 14
BWalEVIL@ Ws CLEC oo ae) anita gas ote aa imin itso mle annie ee eefate eee aie eee oe eee ie te oe la eters 10
Wiales! Creeknerrsseeesacsset eet se nee eee ee aieeeeee walkin Harceciefesienisinde S csicsyesic wines eee 6

Fountain! Green.ss Vote sites ae ace nae ser baa cate neces ee a eeeenne Meets ores Sialslniciovtersioteleteletemte 10

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 141

Feet

IMORONU 2c oe eo ncceioas cee sens neces oeaeies ee b Sea nboatatiecictnct nae Ser acne aera 10
Creek between Ephraim and Manti....-........----- Been Dacomeps once Saeed ane aearmer cce 5
Gresksueumeeny Marit ana: GunNISOM 2 cece: strccsier ceeniseice sinipiomais'Sls aainiewis'el/aia n'a c\a'ss aG/ars'so:welon a 5
Creeks a Over ai nviews acces acta mae oi cistotalslete sleiicro sic eels: sajcisisaite siaici cowl kmisiaaste oar eelsiwic cinike~ ociew cle 'Se 24
WEL C-BORGIOT Obese o ccc's cieata cs Shin = a a1 taidatalajs staleemielsisiteiotes 40 cote Ste smslere nels cies ee dees abicc es 28
SanMBeteratiGoanmnisonys aaarcers cyare.c re wsys «a.arare teil aletore ka rice tarelevele Sieus cs oce a a fo cerigelalateie sleeves s s1atiee elesjes 60

SO Lou lbeatee eee os eae eens a Oo oes aitiee ate en aoe ame een es cdl ee cea cteni ee ancswoet one rm asee ay ae

This estimate is also liable to reduction, being undoubtedly a little in
excess of the amount available at the critical period. This reduction may
be as great as 15 per cent., which would leave very closely 200 cubic feet
as the water supply of the San Pete Valley, which, added to the total of
the Sevier above Gunnison, gives for the whole drainage system of the
Sevier River a water supply of 860 feet per second at the time when the
greatest amount is required.

The next factor to be inquired into is the amount of land which a cubic
foot per second of water can irrigate. This is, of course, highly variable,
depending upon the nature of the soil, and the economy with which the
water is applied, and the frequency of the irrigations. New lands freshly
broken require much more water than the older ones which have been
planted and watered for several years; and in fact the quantity diminishes
with each season for a long term of years. In the San Pete Valley, which
has been longest cultivated, the decrease in the amount of water applied to
the oldest lands has not yet ceased, though some fields have been cultivated
with regularity since 1857. The fresh soils are highly porous and absorp-
tive, requiring a large quantity of water for their irrigation, and not retain-
ing this moisture well under the great evaporative power of a dry and hot
atmosphere. With successive irrigations, the pores of the soil are gradually
closed and the earth is slowly compacted by the infiltration of impalpable
silt brought by the irrigating waters. It absorbs water much more slowly,
and retains it a much longer time. There is, however, a check to this
increased irrigating power, arising from a wasteful mode of agriculture. — It
has not been the practice to employ fertilizers, nor any other conservative
means of keeping up the fertility of the soil, and the yield of the crops
growing smaller, the old lands are frequently abandoned, and fresh adjoin-

ing lands are broken, planted, and watered. It has been the practice to

142 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

cut the straw, which is never returned as mulch; and, as there is but little
rotation in crops, the result can be easily comprehended. So long as new
land costs nothing but the labor to clear of the Artemisia or sage brush,
there is always the tendency to invade it as rapidly as the old lands show
signs of fatigue. Thus the waters are constantly irrigating every year a
large proportion of new land, and the consumption of water is correspond-
ingly great.

A serious loss of water and fertility is produced by any method of
irrigation which employs more water than is just sufficient to saturate the
soil. Whatever water runs off from a field carries with it great quantities
of mud and fine silt, together with the most precious elements of fertility.
These elements are the soluble alkaline salts and organic manner which are
readily taken up by the water, and once removed are not speedily restored.
A field which is so irrigated that a large surplus of water is continually
running from the tail ditches during the flow will rapidly deteriorate in
fertility. But a field which receives water which is allowed to stand until
it has soaked into the earth, without any surplus passing into the tail
ditches, will increase in fertility. These irrigating waters bring with them
a sufficiency of plant food to compensate, and more too, for the drain upon
the soil caused by the harvest ; but they will carry off more than they bring
if they are permitted to run over the field and escape from it, instead of
being caught and held until they are absorbed. It is not always prac-
ticable to attain this exact distribution of water, and many cases occur
where great expense and labor might be required to arrange the ditches
and fields in this manner. Ordinarily, it is cheaper to throw away old land
and take up new than to improve the system of irrigation, and there are
many fields in the valley of the Sevier which have been abandoned because
the fertility of the soil has been washed out by a reckless method of irriga-
tion. Connected with this is another source of waste, arising from very
unequal requirements of contiguous areas, in consequence of which many
lands, especially old ones, are liable to be excessively watered. When a
community farms a large number of small fields, using water from the same
canals, it is usually impossible so to regulate the distribution of the privilege

that each field will receive the exact amount it needs. Some fields can

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 143

remain unwatered much longer than others, and the tendency always is to

get as much water as possible—each farmer fearing a deficiency of water
and wasting its surplus. Experience on the part of the watermasters and
a more and more settled habit in the lands themselves gradually diminish
this source of loss and create economy. Far better results, therefore, may
ordinarily be anticipated in old lands than in new. Better results, also, are
found where circumstances render difficult or impracticable the abandon-
ment of old fields for new, and this is ordinarily in those portions where
the water is nearly or quite sufticient for all the irrigable land, and where
all the irrigable land is taken up.

Recurring, then, to the inquiry as to the amount of land which a cubic
foot per second of running water will irrigate, this area is in many of the
new lands as low as 40 acres, and it seldom exceeds 80 acres with the old
lands. Probably there are very few regions in the world where the demand
of the soil for water is so great as here where the supply is so small. In
California a cubic foot of water is said to be capable of irrigating more than
a hundred acres, in India 200, and in Spain and Italy a much larger area.
The reason is obvious. It is the direct consequence of the extreme aridity
of the climate of Utah. The irrigating capacity of the unit of water is
even less in the southern counties of Utah than in those around Great Salt
Lake. Mr. Gilbert’s estimate of 100 acres for this last locality being
accepted as the best that can be hoped for, it will not be rating the factor
too low to say that 80 acres is the best that can be hoped for in the valley
of the Sevier. The present factor will not, I am convinced, have a higher
average value than 50 acres.

The total acreage, therefore, which can be irrigated in the drainage
system of the Sevier by the present system of watering and of agriculture
may be estimated at about 43,000 acres, and the greatest improvements and
economies in the system of farming and watering cannot, with the present

water supply, be expected to raise the irrigable area above 70,000 acres.

144 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Square miles | Acres cultiva- | ae
eee 1 - . Square milesof Acres irrigable
Districts cultivated ted during...
: nae Be irrigable land. land.
during 1877. 1877.

||, Sank etouviQll 6 yess ee ate sere me eae eee ee eee tere 17 11, 000 31.2 20, 000
Gumnisont 2s 2226.22 2 .cseteccs nts ese aaeee teen aeeee ese 4.4 2, 800 6.2 4, 000
Sevier Valley above Gunnison ...-....-..--..-.-..+----- 16.5 10, 500 54.7 35, 000
CircleVialle ya nces= seer ace eee nee eee re 1,2 750 6.3 4, 000
| Panenitchand above +2. =n s2ses tenance a= tae eee 2.8 1, 800 11 7, 000

| | , |
HRT lamin anor eng aaOO Re 0 OSR ODAC AnICOn ecm eeEsa= | 41.9 26, 850 109. 4 | 70, 000

| |

Nevertheless, I am persuaded that it will be practicable to extend the
possibility of irrigation by an increase of water supply to a degree sufficient
to irrigate every acre of the main valley of the Sevier which can be
reached by canals, and which is also fit for cultivation. It is by the
method of artificial reservoirs. There is probably no region in the world
more admirably suited to the easy, cheap, and efficient application of this
method than this very region drained by the Sevier River. The sources
of this river are found at high altitudes, but these high places are not
mountains in the ordinary sense, but great plateaus with broad summits.
These table tops have vast numbers of large basins broad enough for great
ponds, which are now drained by narrow gorges cut through volcanic
sheets and leading down to lower levels. These gorges are in most cases
narrow canons, which, being once barred across, will dam the waters above
them. I could not select a better example than the following: About 15
miles southwest of the town of Panguitch is a broad basin, the central part
of which is occupied by a shallow lake, about 14 miles long and nearly a
mile wide, called Panguitch Lake. Its altitude is about 8,200 feet. It is
completely surrounded with barriers, nowhere less than 100 feet in height,
and finds its drainage through a narrow cleft on the northeast side. It
receives the influx of two fine streams, which in May and June must carry
heavy floods of water from the lofty rim and broad watershed of the
Panguitch Plateau lying to the westward. Even in August their united
flow must reach 50 feet per second. By throwing a dam 30 feet high and
50 or 60 feet long across the outlet between its walls of solid trachyte, a
lake would be formed with an area of 6 or 7 square miles. There are
many such basins upon the Panguitch Plateau, and it would be a low
estimate to say that it would be possible, at comparatively small expense,

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 145

to create 30 or 40 square miles of lake surface, with an average depth of
20 feet, upon that plateau alone The precipitation upon its surface would
be more than sufficient to fill these lakes every year. A dam across the
upper part of East Fork Canon would create a lake behind it which might
have an area of 12 to 15 square miles. Numerous reservoirs could be
created at small expense in Grass Valley, upon the Fish Lake Plateau, and
upon the Sevier Plateau, and in those valleys which are drained by Salina

Creek and its tributaries. The Sevier River itself can be cheaply dammed

at several gorges and made to overflow swampy flats above—notably at
the head of Marysvale Canon, and again just north of Van Buren’s ranch.
Other things equal, it would be better, as well as cheaper, to build dams at
higher levels, since the evaporation is much less there than in the valleys,
and the natural facilities for creating lakes are also greater.

In this way, I believe it to be practicable to reserve a store of water
sufficient to irrigate every acre of ground in the Sevier Valley, which is
by the nature of its soil and its situation suitable for irrigation. It may be
noted, too, that the ‘tank system” thus suggested would not interfere
with or take the place of the present system, but would be supplementary
to it. ‘The streams would in June and early July run through the lakes
and over the dams, yielding about as much water as they now yield in
those months, and the reservoirs would not have to be drawn upon before
the middle of July.

A very interesting subject connected with the peculiar conditions of
agriculture in the west is the origin and distribution of alkaline salts in the
soil. In moist regions such occurrences are rare. They are peculiar to
arid regions, and, in truth, very few arid regions fail to exhibit them. The
cause in a general way is well known. The small amount of rain which
falls during the wet season penetrates deeply into the earth, where it
gradually takes up such soluble salts as it encounters there. During the
dry season which follows, there is always going on an evaporation from
the surface, however dry it may appear to the senses. It is a mistake to
suppose that because the saline soil is as dry as ashes no evaporation is
in progress. In many cases this may be true; but often in the most arid
regions there are many localities where the water collects far below the

1S) NTR,

146 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

immediate surface. By capillary action, this water always tends to diffuse
itself throughout the loose materials which make up the overlying soils.
As fast as it is evaporated at the surface, more water from below rises by
capillary action to take its place. When the air is exceedingly dry, as it
jnvariably is in summer throughout the whole Rocky Mountain Region at
moderate altitudes, the evaporative power becomes so great and extends
to such a depth below the immediate surface, that we are unable to recog-
nize the slightest traces of moisture indicating that evaporation is going on
The water which may have accumulated beneath has gradually risen by
percolation through the interstices of the unconsolidated materials of the
soil, bringing with it whatever soluble salts it may have taken into solution
during its sojourn beneath the surface. These soluble salts are left at the
surface by the final evaporation of the water, and, as the process is contin-
uous until the reservoir beneath is exhausted, the salts accumulate. Contrast
this now with the action going on ina moist country. Here the copious
waters wash the soils as rapidly as the salts come up from below, and carry
them in solution into the drainage channels. During the greater part of
the year the movement of the waters is partly from the surface downward
into the subterranean water courses, from which they emerge in springs ;
partly by surface drainages into rills, and thence into living streams. By
both movements, any tendency to accumulate soluble salts at the surface
during the relatively brief periods of dryness is prevented. In a dry
country the periods of dryness are very much longer, and the rainfall is
seldom sufficient to wash the accumulated salts from the soil. There is,
however, usually a limit to this accumulation, since at long intervals rains
occur sufficient to remove a large portion of the salts. The difference
between a dry and wet country in this respect is therefore one of degree
rather than of kind. In a dry country the periods of accumulation of
salts at the surface are long and continuous, while the washings of the soil
are rare and imperfect. In a wet country the periods of accumulation are
short and rare, while the washings are frequent, copious, and thorough.
The saline materials vary widely in character and constitution. They
are, however, chiefly salts of soda, lime, potash, and magnesia. Sometimes

they exist in the condition of chlorides, sometimes of carbonates, and

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 147

sometimes of sulphates. The reactions from which they are derived are
many, and it will be proper here to give only a few illustrations. A portion
of the salts of magnesia and soda are derived from the decomposition, by
atmospheric influences, of volcanic, granitic, and other crystalline rocks.
Where these materials exist in the form of felspar, hornblende, and pyroxene,
the great decomposing agent is water charged with the carbonic acid of
the atmosphere, by the action of which soda, magnesia, and lime are, with
inconceivable slowness, dissolved out of the constituents of these rocks.
There is no stream, however pure it may apparently be, which does not
carry more or less of chlorides and carbonates in solution. The sulphates
are derived mainly from subterranean sources. In the Rocky Mountain
Region, one of the most common forms of sulphate is found very abun-
dantly in the rocks of the Carboniferous, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary
Ages, in the forms of gypsum and selenite, which are sulphates of lime
Whenever waters containing carbonate of soda are filtered through strata.
containing these sulphates, a double decomposition takes place, by which
rarbonate of lime and sulphate of soda are formed. The carbonate of
lime is very slightly soluble in water, while the sulphate of soda is highly
so, and it is well known that waters emanating from the sedimentary rocks
just spoken of are very frequently highly charged with it. Such, doubtless,
is the origin of this mineral in the so called alkaline waters of the west,
and of all the soluble minerals which pass under the name of alkali it is
one of the most common. Carbonate of soda is also abundant in the
soils. It is frequently found in the summer time, coating the surface of
bottom lands which earlier in the season have been submerged by the
augmented streams. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is even more
abundant than the sulphate. It is well known, however, that many of the
sedimentary rocks, particularly those of the Triassic and Jurassic Age,
contain an abundance of it, and there are many localities in the west
where a very fair article of common salt is obtained by the lixiviation
of the detritus of the red Triassic rocks. Incrustations of these soluble
saline materials occur most abundantly in the vicinity of the rivers and
in the bottom lands. This may at first seem somewhat strange, but it is
susceptible of a ready explanation. In order that these salts may accumu-

148 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

late at the surface, there must be going on continually a slow transmission
of moisture from under ground upward, and since a continuous supply
of water is more frequently found in the bottom lands than elsewhere, it
follows that the conditions of these accumulations are here more frequently
fulfilled. They may, however, and do oceur at localities which probably
contain subterranean reservoirs of water, which are annually filled during
the wet season. Sometimes these salts are so abundant that the land
requires a thorough washing before it is fit for agriculture, and the Mor-
mons have on several occasions, when founding settlements, been obliged to
allow the waters from their ditches to leach the land for many months, and
in one or two cases for two, and even three, years, before a good crop could
be raised. There is no difficulty, however, in removing any quantity of
these readily soluble salts from the soil, provided. this leaching process be
continued long enough; and it is usually found that lands which were
originally highly akaline become, when reclaimed from their alkalinity,

among the most fertile.

There yet remains for mention a number of small areas served by
some minor streams in southwestern Utah. These little creeks head in
the mountains, but are soon lost in the deserts of that arid and torrid region,
none of their waters finding their way to the ocean. The greater number
of them belong to the drainage basin of Sevier Lake. In each case the
water supply is small, and inadequate to supply the available land. In

nearly every case the competence of the supply has been determined in-

the most practical way—by the operations of settlers; but some allowance
has been made for an increase of the irrigable land by the more economic
use of the water. This can be accomplished by the construction of better
waterways, and by more carefully flowing the water over the lands.

a

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE VALLEY OF THE SEVIER. 149

The following table exhibits the extent of these areas:

Districts. | eee Acres.
@henmva © neg kermstect atta cve st otear ian eect ec een ema eae Ness La yeaa es eum oe EOF e NL een ROR ee ae 2 100
UCM OleOle eens tcc fa cbace scene secsa oe saces noc oe ve cee Soap eeeeaue secure sae Sate eneel Tene Se Sen eeeeeens «2 100
Levan : | 3.1 2, 000
Sorpio Meee eee acceler too ot ten Ne Oe des NT KEES Oe Beeere ee See | 2.6] 1,700
Holden 1.6 1, 000
Fillmore and Oak Creek 5.5)| 8,500:

Meadow Creels..:...--+----2---- 1.9} 1,200
Kanosh Bil 2, 000
Beaver Creek and tributaries 21.9 14, 000
PaTArOUNalie seeps nos See Sn cee sas ca acle Feo ee pie ace Oe ee ee ie ee en ee Ae eee oe 1.5) 1,000

HSE ELEC Wy Sel oer ee ee) Se PO oe armen IRS = Se Na aa ee che RO ae te as ee a 1D. 1, 000
SOI Gee seca le tae tee ete oe re AA RS ce oS e Gato den eee meer ee sacs esicce seat eee de eee 6 | 400
CadamGity erro ivy an eOrt Pl emiGOW, testers ale crm sic cieieee cre ape alts aie Beier a eee ne aie eco eialens eee tenes sees 3.6 | 2,300
Moun CainiMeadOwss. cece -a cee ies cae eae ea sae sess ok es ilae cess aaa ce Memes Deere ee me ems See a ew oe tee 3 200
LOT ED) on pc bOO ECE OHOUE TASS SECS COERIGH COREE tI CICERO AAO oer Sig hor ance ao ae a adore eerd .3 200
Hebron... 1.6 1,000

LO Ublmeceice tates. caret wcseteecc seis SEAS eek els sisieds a hee eae ieeta cena le eaten tee es poms Se ects 49. 5 | 81, 700°

CEVA? We Lax?

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THAT PORTION OF UTAH
DRAINED BY THE COLORADO RIVER AND ITS
TRIBUTARIES.

By A. H. THOMPSON.

That portion of Utah drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries
belongs to -a great basin limited on the north by the Uinta Mountains and
on the west by the high plateaus that separate the drainage of the Colorado
from that of the salt lakes of the interior, and extending beyond the limits
of the Territory on the east and south. ‘The floor of this basin is extremely
rough, being broken by isolated groups of rugged mountains, by plateaus
encircled with cliffs of almost vertical rock, by mesas and amphitheaters,
and huge monumental and castellated buttes. Everywhere the surface is
cut and carved with a network of canons, hundreds and often thousands of
feet in depth.

The main channel through which its drainage passes to the sea is the
Jolorado, and its proper upper continuation, the Green River.

The principal tributaries to these streams from the east are the White,
the Grand, and the San Juan Rivers—all rising in the high mountains east
of the Territory and flowing in a general westerly course—the White enter-
ing the Green River, the Grand uniting with the Green to form the Colorado,
and the San Juan entering the latter about 125 miles below the junction
of the Grand and the Green. The Virgin, the Kanab, the Paria, the
Escalante, the Fremont, the San Rafael, the Price, the Minnie Maud, the
Uinta, and Ashley Fork are the principal tributaries from the west.

This portion of Utah is but sparsely settled by white people, the only
150

TRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. ail

permanent locations being in the southwestern part, and in the Uinta Valley
at the north. Information concerning its agricultural resources is limited,
being confined, except in relation to the localities before mentioned, to data
collected by the geographical and geological parties of this survey. Many
of the streams have been visited but a single time, and different streams at
widely different dates, during a field season. Often the exigencies of the
survey prevented as close an examination into the flow of water, and the loca-
tion and character of the soil of the arable tracts, as was desirable ; yet, on
the whole, it is thought that the data collected can be relied upon as a very
close approximation.

The climate of the basin is one of extreme aridity. The prevailing
wind is westerly. The high plateaus and mountains forming the western
rim of the basin force these winds up to an altitude above the sea of over
10,000 feet, and thus act as great condensers to deprive them of their
moisture. Flowing down from the higher lands into the warmer regions
below, their capacity for absorption is increased, and during the greater
portion of the year the winds abstract from rather than add to the humidity

o the actual amount

of precipitation of moisture within the basin. Below an altitude of 7,000

of the lower altitudes. But little is known concernin

feet it is very small, probably not over an average of 5 inches yearly. At

greater, probably reaching 24 inches, but this is

higher altitudes it is much
mostly during the winter months and in the form of snow.

The elevation of the region under consideration is from 2,500 feet to
11,500 feet above the sea, thus giving great range in temperature. In the
valleys of the extreme southwestern portion an almost subtropical warmth is
experienced, and the different valleys containing arable lands we pass from
these by insensible gradations to those where frosts occur during every
month in the year. Generally, the limit of successful cultivation of the soil
is below 7,000 feet. .

In this portion of Utah irrigation is essential to agriculture. If all
the single acres it is possible to cultivate without artificial irrigation were
ageregated, I do not believe the sum would reach one-fourth of one square
mile, and every foot of this meager amount is irrigated naturally. Springs

are of infrequent occurrence. The great source of the water supply is the

152 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

streams fed by the rains and snows of the high table lands and mountains.
All these streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses, and are here often
of considerable size; but upon reaching the lower and more level country
their waters are rapidly absorbed by the porous soil and evaporated by
the higher temperature. So great is the loss from these causes that some
streams fail to reach the main drainage channel during the warmer months,
and all are greatly shrunken in volume. All the arable lands—or lands
where altitude, slope of surface, and quality of soil permit successful culti-
vation, if a supply of water can be obtained, and from which lands to
irrigate, or irrigable lands, may be selected—are in the valleys adjacent to
the streams. Usually this area in many valleys is in excess of that which
the water in the streams can irrigate, and choice in the location of lands to
cultivate is often practicable. In this report I have considered irrigable
lands to be such only as possess all the necessary qualifications of altitude,
slope of surface, and fertility of soil, and have, in addition, an available
supply of one cubic foot of water per second for each hundred acres. The
great dissimilarity between the valleys makes it desirable to consider the
drainage basin of each separately, in respect to arable lands, irrigable lands,
volume of water, and practicability of increasing this supply during the

irrigating season.
THE VIRGIN RIVER.

This stream is in the extreme southwest corner of the area under con-
sideration. Its branches rise in the Colob Plateau, at altitudes varying
from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above the sea. It flows in a southwesterly course,
and joins the Colorado beyond the boundaries of Utah. The smaller
creeks draining the eastern portion of the plateau unite, after descend-
ing to an altitude of 5,500 feet above the sea, and form what is called
the Pa-ru-nu-weap Fork of the Virgin. At and below the junction of
these creeks, the canon valley in which they flow widens into what. is
known as Long Valley. There a considerable area of available land is
found. The soil is excellent, and wherever cultivated yields abundant
crops. Below Long Valley the stream enters Pa-ru-nu-weap Canon, and is
simply a series of cascades for 15 miles, descending in this distance from

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. 153

5,000 to 3,500 feet above the sea level. Emerging, it enters the valley of
the Virgin. This valley is 44 miles in length. Its upper portion is only
an enlargement of the canon, in which small areas of available land are
found. Its lower portion is a broader valley, much broken by low, basalt
covered mesas, and sharp ridges of tilted sedimentary rocks. In the upper
portion of the valley the river receives several accessions, the principal ones
being Little Zion, North Fork, “La Verkin, and Ash Creeks. With the
exception of the Ash, but very little cultivable land is found along these
creeks. Midway in the valley two streams enter, coming from the Pine
Valley Mountains and having small areas of irrigable land along their courses,
and near the foot the Santa Clara River adds its water. The united streams
leave the valley by a deep canon cut through the Beaver Dam Mountains.
The valley of the Virgin has a lower altitude than any other portion of Utah,
and a warmer climate. The soil of the arable lands is usually good, and
wherever it is possible to irrigate produces abundant crops. Some little
difficulty is occasionally experienced in the first years of cultivation from
an excess of alkaline constituents in the soil, but plentiful applications of
water soon remove this difficulty, and these lands often become the most
productive. No reliable data concerning the amount of arable land in the
drainage basin, or the volume of water carried by the Virgin River and its
tributaries, have been collected. From the best information attainable, the
amount of land actually irrigated in 1875, is placed at eleven square miles
This conclusion is based in the main upon returns made in 1875 to the
Deseret Agricultural and Manufacturing Society, the amount under culti-
vation in Long Valley having been ascertained by Mr. J. H. Renshawe, of
this survey. To irrigate this, all the water in most of the tributary streams
is used, but a large surplus remains in the main river. The amount of arable
land is far in excess of the water supply, but some considerable expense
for dams and canals would be necessary to utilize the whole amount.

It is probable that a portion of the Virgin River can be used to
advantage below the Beaver Dam Mountains in Nevada, and that a
sufficient amount to irrigate 25 square miles can be used to good advantage

in Utah.
20 AR

154 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The time when the volume of available water furnished by any stream
bears the least ratio to the demands of the growing crops is the most critical
period in the cultivation of the soil where artificial irrigation is a necessity.
This time, depending as it does upon the crops cultivated, the character of
the soil, and the source of the water supply, whether from springs or from
melting snows, differs in different localities. In the valley of the Virgin it
occurs in June.

At this time the river, though not at flood height, which occurs in April,
carries a large volume of water, and, by reason of the source of this supply
being in the rapidly melting snows of the Colob Plateau, is decreasing but
slowly, and thus the amount available at this critical period bears a greater
ratio to the flood of the stream than is usual in Utah. But little information
has been obtained concerning the amount of water necessary to irrigate an
acre. It is thought, however, to be much greater than in any other portion
of Utah.

KANAB CREEK.

Kanab Creek rises in springs bursting from underneath the cliffs
forming the southern boundary of the Pauns-a-gunt Plateau, and flows
southward until it joins the Colorado River in Arizona. Small areas of
arable land are found along its course after it has descended to an altitude
of 7,500 feet, and thence until it passes beyond the boundaries of Utah.
The largest area in one body is in Kanab Valley, at the foot of the
Vermilion Cliffs. It is greatly in excess of the water supply, is at an
altitude of about 5,000 feet, has a fertile soil, and requires but compara-
tively a small amount of irrigation, The amount actually under cul-
tivation in 1877 is placed by the best information attainable at 700 acres.
The critical period in the cultivation of this area occurs in June. At
that time the stream is falling rapidly, and crops have sometimes been
seriously damaged. Estimates of the volume of water in the stream,
made at different seasons and in different years, give 15 cubie feet per
second as the flow in June. Some desultory attempts have been made to

increase the supply by ponding, the canon through the Vermilion Cliffs

TRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. 155

above the arable lands affording many opportunities. When this improve-
ment is made on some well considered and well executed plan, and the
waterways flumed through some bad sandy ground that now absorbs much
water, the amount available at the critical period can be at least doubled.
Some years ago a settlement was established at the foot of the Pink
Cliffs, on the headwaters of the Kanab, but the town site was eventually

abandoned because of the deep snows of winter and the frosts of summer.
THE PARIA RIVER.

The Paria River rises under the eastern escarpment of the Pauns-a-
gunt Plateau, at about the same altitude as Kanab Creek, and flows ina
southwesterly course for 100 miles, joining the Colorado in Arizona.
Through the greater part of its course the river flows in a deep cafion, but
near its head, and at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the canon expands into a
valley. Lower in its course, and at an altitude of 4,500 feet, the canon
again widens into a smaller valley. These are the only areas of arable
lands within its drainage basin in Utah. ‘The larger contains 15 and the
smaller 10 square miles. In August, 1874, this stream flowed 30 cubic feet
per second in the upper valley. The flow in the lower would be one-third
greater. High water oceurs in April or early in May. At this time the
volume is three times greater than in August. Settlements have been made
in both valleys, and quite a large area is under cultivation. The soil is
excellent. :

The critical period in irrigation is the latter part of June or early in
July. At this time the stream probably carries 40 feet per second. ‘The
land in the lower valley is much subject to flooding from heavy showers
that, falling on the table lands and mesas in the upper portion of the drainage
basin, pour a torrent often beyond the capacity of the channel to convey
through the lower valley. So great was the damage done by these floods
in sweeping away dams, breaking through ditches, and inundating the
growing crops at the site first selected for settlement, that it was abandoned
after three years’ occupation, and other parts, where these sudden rushes
could be controlled, selected. Considerable difficulty has been experienced
in the lower valley from the vast amount of argillaceous sediment deposited

156 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

on it. So great during the floods is this deposit from the water used in
irrigation that the ground becomes completely coated with an impervious
layer, and growing crops, especially of small grains, suffer from the inability
of the soil to absorb the water conducted on it. The irrigating capacity
of this stream during the critical period could be greatly increased by the
construction of reservoirs in which to store the great surplus of water that
flows earlier in the season. The canons above the valleys offer very

favorable opportunities for building the necessary dams and embankments.
THE ESCALANTE RIVER.

This stream enters the Colorado next north of the Paria. It rises
under the wall forming the eastern face of the Aquarius Plateau; flows first
northeast, then east, and finally southeast, before reaching the Colorado.
Its length is 90 miles, the lower three-fourths being in a narrow canon
having vertical walls ranging from 900 to 1,200 feet in height. Through
this gorge the river sweeps, sometimes filling the whole space from wall to
wall; sometimes winding from side to side in a flood plain of sand, and
always shifting its bed more or less with every freshet. Not an acre of
accessible arable land is known in the whole length of the canon, and its
depth precludes the possibility of using the waters of the river on the lands
above. Near the head of the southern branch of the Escalante, in what is
known as Potato Valley, and at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, is an area
of about 6 square miles of available land. The flow of water in this branch
was 90 cubic feet per second in July, 1875. A portion of this area is now
under cultivation, and is said to produce good crops. A portion of the east
flank of the Aquarius Plateau is drained by a number of creeks that join
the Escalante in the deep gorge below Potato Valley; but they all enter
close canons, in which no areas of arable land are known at an altitude
low enough for successful cultivation. Part of the waters of these creeks
might be used to irrigate grass lands at an altitude of about 8,000 feet;
but the conditions of pasturage are such in this region that the amount
practically available is small.

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. 157

THE FREMONT RIVER.

The largest branch of this stream rises in the Un-ca-pa-ga Mountains,
and after flowing in an easterly direction for 125 miles enters the Colo-
‘ado about 40 miles below the junction of the Grand and Green. It is
joined by one considerable tributary, Curtis Creek, from the north, and
another smaller, Tantalus Creek, from the south. The lower half of its
course is through two deep canons, separated by an intervening valley called
Graves Valley, in which is an area of 10 square miles of arable land,
with an altitude of 4,500 feet above sea level. On the upper waters of
the main river, in what is known as Rabbit Valley, and at an altitude of
nearly 7,000 feet, are 25 square miles of arable land of good quality. This
area, from its altitude, should be subject to late and early frosts, but the
warm sandy soil and southeastern slope of the whole valley will probably
prevent much damage from this cause. The valley is now used as a herd
ground for cattle belonging to the settlements in Sevier Valley, and the few
experiments made by the herdsmen in cultivating the soil also indicate that
the danger to be apprehended is slight. The volume of water flowing
through Rabbit Valley in July, 1875, was 175 cubic feet per second.

Tantalus Creek drains the northern portion of the eastern slope of the
Aquarius Plateau. It enters a close canon at 8,000 feet altitude, and
continues in canons until it has passed through Water Pocket Fold. It
then flows along a desolate valley at the foot of the fold until it joins the
Fremont River. During the warmer months the water in this creek is
usually absorbed and evaporated before reaching its mouth. In the valley
at the foot of Water Pocket Fold are about 10 square miles of arable land ;
but the almost inaccessible situation of the valley and the desolation and
ruggedness of the surrounding country may present insurmountable obsta-
cles to its settlement.

Curtis Creek, the northern tributary of Fremont River, is formed by
the union of several smaller streams that rise in the Wasatch Plateau.
Debouching from the plateau, these branches flow across what is known
as Castle Valley, and here, at an altitude of 6,000 feet, are 25 square
miles of good arable land. They were measured in September, 1876, and

158 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

gave an aggregated flow of 47 cubic feet per second. As they derive a
greater part of their waters from the melting snows on the plateau, double
this amount, or 94 cubic feet, would not be an overestimate of the volume
during the irrigating season. After the union of these branches, the united
stream flows in a deep canon until near its junction with the Fremont
River in Graves Valley. Both Curtis Creek and the Fremont receive
some accessions to their volume from springs in the canons through which
they flow above this valley. If all the water in their upper courses should
be used to irrigate lands in Castle and Rabbit Valleys, a sufficient amount
would be returned to their channels by percolation to irrigate, with the
addition of the accessions in the canons, all the arable land in Graves
Valley.
THE SAN RAFAEL RIVER.

This stream flows in an easterly course, and enters the Green 32
miles above the junction of that stream with the Grand. It has three
principal branches—Ferron, Cottonwood, and Huntington Creeks—all
rising in the Wasatch Plateau at an altitude of about 10,000 feet. These
streams have a rapid fall in their upper courses, and leave the plateau
through almost impassable canons cut in its eastern wall overlooking Castle
Valley. They flow across that at intervals of a few miles apart, and, then
uniting, cut a deep, narrow canon through the San Rafael Swell. Emerg-
ing from the swell, the river flows across a low, broken country until its
junction with the Green. The largest body of arable land within the
drainage basin of the San Rafael is in Castle Valley, a long, narrow
depression lying between the eastern escarpment of the Wasatch Plateau
and the San Rafael Swell. It is nearly 60 miles in length from north to
south, and has an average elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea. Its
southern end, as has been before mentioned, is drained by the tributaries
of Curtis Creek, the central portion by the three streams forming the San
Rafael, and the northern by Price River. No permanent settlements have
been made in the valley, but it is much used as a winter herding ground
for stock owned by the settlers in other portions of Utah. Lying near the
branches of the San Rafael that cross it, and in such position that the water
can be easily conducted over it, are 200 square miles of arable land,

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. 159

generally of good quality. East of the San Rafael Swell, and lying on
both sides of the river, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, are 20 square miles of
arable land, which could be easily irrigated. The river was carefully
measured in July, 1876, and the volume of flow found to be 1,676 cubic
feet per second. The three branches in Castle Valley were also measured,
with results closely approximating the measurement of the united streams.
These measurements were made at high water, though not when the
streams were at their flood. As most of this volume is derived from the
melting snow, which rarely disappears from the high plateau before the
middle of July, the flow would be maintained with considerable steadiness
during a large part of what would be the critical period in the irrigation
of this valley. After the middle of July the decrease would be very rapid
until September, and the lowest stage of water reached about the first of

October, when the river would not flow probably more than 400 cubic feet.
THE PRICE RIVER.

This river rises in the angle formed by the intersection of the Wasatch
and Western Tayaputs Plateaus, receiving tributaries from both these table
lands, and has a general easterly course for 100 miles. It crosses the
northern end of Castle Valley, and then flows through a broken country
near the foot of the escarpment called the Book Cliffs, forming the southern
boundary of the Tavaputs Plateau, till within 20 miles of the Green
River, when it cuts through this escarpment into the plateau and joins the
Green a few miles above the foot of Gray Canon. The arable lands along
its course are mostly found in Castle Valley, where there are at least 50
square miles—a quantity considerably in excess of the irrigating capacity
of the stream. The volume of water was measured in July, 1877, a few
miles below where it debouches into Castle Valley, and found to be 189
cubic feet per second. It must suffer great loss from absorption, as the
volume when leaving the cliffs is much greater, and the aggregated flow of
the branches on the plateaus is at least twice as great.

MINNIE MAUD CREEK.

This stream rises in the broken country, where the Western Tavaputs
and Wasatch Plateaus break into the Uinta Mountains. It has a general
co)

160 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

easterly course, and joins the Green midway in the Canon of Desolation.
For the greater part of its course it flows in a canon that widens enough
occasionally to give a small area of arable land. One such area, containing
6 square miles, occurs at an altitude of 5,500 feet. Here the volume of

ater was measured in July, 1877, and found to be 16 cubic feet per

second.

THE UINTA RIVER.

This is the largest tributary emptying into the main drainage channel
from the west. It rises in the Uinta Mountains, and has a southerly course
for 65 miles. ‘The Duchesne River, its western branch, rises in the same
mountains, and the two streams unite only a few miles before the Uinta
joins the Green. The drainage basin of the Uinta has an area of 1,300
square miles, lying between the altitudes of 4,500 and 7,000 feet above the
sea. It has, generally speaking, a regular slope from the foot of the Uinta
Mountains to the mouth of the streams, or in a direction toward the southeast.
The surface of the basin is greatly diversified, consisting of broad reaches
of bottom lands along the rivers; elevated, level, or gently sloping benches,
sometimes partially arable, but oftener gravelly barrens; broken, rock-
faced terraces; and low cliffs and ridges. It is difficult to estimate the
amount of arable land. All the bottom lands are such, and can be easily
irrigated. ‘The streams have a rapid fall, but flow near the surface, and no
deep canons are found anywhere in the basin. This renders it possible to
conduct the water over considerable areas of bench land, and wherever the
soil of these is sufficiently fertile, selections of good farming land can be
made. Above the limit in altitude for successful cultivation, large tracts
of meadow lands can be irrigated. Those best acquainted with the extent
of these classes of land place the arable, including irrigable natural
meadow lands, at 40 per cent. of the whole basin. This would give an
area of 520 square miles, and I do not think it is an overestimate. The
volume of water flowing in the Duchesne River above its junction with
Lake Fork was measured in August, 1877, and found to be 1,011 cubic
feet per second. The Uinta was measured above its junction with the
Duchesne in October, 1877, and then flowed 214 cubic feet per second.

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE 161

These streams all rise in high mountains, from whose summits the snow is
never completely melted. The line of highest water is usually in June,
but the flow is well sustained through July. After that the volume
rapidly decreases, and lowest water occurs in October. The critical period
in the irrigation of this basin would occur in August. I think it may
safely be assumed that the measurements of the Duchesne and the Uinta
represent the flow at the critical period, but that Lake Fork should be
doubled. This would give 1,825 cubic feet per second, or enough to irri-
gate, at the assumed standard, 285 square miles, or 22 per cent. of the
whole area of the basin, and indicates the Uinta drainage as one of the best,

if not the best, agricultural valley in Utah.
ASHLEY FORK. .

This stream is the most northern tributary of the Green River south
of the Uinta Mountains. It rises in that range, but at a lower altitude
than the branches of the Uinta, and has a southeasterly course 48 miles in
leneth. On its lower course, at an altitude of 5,500 feet, are 75 square
miles of arable land of excellent quality, a few acres of which are now
cultivated. There is sufficient water in the stream during the critical
season to irrigate 25 square miles.

HENRYS FORK.

But a small portion of the valley of Henrys Fork lies within the
Territory of Utah, but this portion includes its best lands. A beautiful
natural meadow is here found, affording a large quantity of hay to the
ranchmen of that country. The altitude is great, the valley being 6,000
feet above the level of the sea, and hence lable to late and early
frosts.

About 10 square miles can be redeemed by irrigation. ‘The volume
of the stream is sufficient to irrigate a much larger tract, but a part is needed
for other lands which lie farther up the river, within the Territory of
Wyoming.

THE WHITE RIVER.
The White River enters the Green from the east, about two miles

below the mouth of the Uinta. This stream rises in Colorado, and has only
21 ARB

162 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

a small portion of its course in Utah, but lying within the boundaries of
the Territory are 75 square miles of arable land which may be irrigated
with its water. The river was measured in October, 1877, near its mouth,
and flowed 734 cubic feet per second. High water usually occurs in
June, and the critical period in the irrigation of the land is probably in
August, when the stream should flow at least double the volume of
October, or, 1,468 cubic feet per second. ‘This would be greatly m excess
of the amount needed to irrigate the available land in Utah, and, from the
best information attainable, it seems doubtful if it could be used higher
up on the course of the stream.

THE GREEN RIVER.

Brown’s Park—Brown’s Park is a valley through which the Green
River meanders. Three or four small streams head in the mountains to
the north and a like number in the moutains to the south and find their
way into the river in the midst of the park. But a small portion of the
park lies within Utah and the small streams will be used for irrigation
in the portion which falls in Colorado. The flood plain lands of the
Green are extensive, and here many natural meadow lands are found,
interspersed with fine groves of cottonwood. Some of the bench lands are
well adapted to irrigation, but a portion of them and the foot hills back
of them are naked, valueless bad-lands.

When the general industries of the country shall warrant the great
expenditure necessary, the Green will be taken out to irrigate the bench
lands on either side. About 10 square miles of these bench lands will fall
within Utah.

Below Split Mountain Canon.—Lying along the Green, and between the
foot of Split Mountain Canon and the mouth of the Uinta, are 50 square
miles of arable land. Some portions of this may be subject to inundations
at times of extraordinary floods, but the greater part is above high water
mark, Green River here carries sufficient water to irrigate many times this
amount of land, and while the cost for the construction of suitable dams
and canals would be greater than on smaller streams, neither this nor the

IRRIGABLE LANDS OF THE COLORADO DRAINAGE. 163

engineering skill required would be beyond the resources of any ordinary
settlement.

Gunnison Valley—In Gunnison Valley, below the foot of Gray Canon,
are 25 square miles of arable land. The cost of constructing the necessary
irrigation works at this point would be greater than above the mouth of the
Uinta, but still not beyond the ability of a colony. Green River flowed in
Gunnison Valley in September, 1877, 4,400 cubic feet of water per second,
enough to irrigate at the standard adopted 860 square miles. There seems
to be no arable land to which it is possible to take this great surplus, and
probably for many years to come it will be suffered to flow ‘‘unvexed to
the sea”

The area colored on the map is much greater than above indicated.
The selections of irrigable lands will be made on either side of the river,

in patches, within the colored district.
THE GRAND RIVER.

The Grand River has but a small amount of arable land along its
course in Utah, and flows for most of the distance in a close canon. The
volume of the stream, about 40 miles above its junction with the Green,
was measured in September, 1877, and found to be 4,860 feet per second.
It is probable that selections can be made to the extent of 40 square miles
from the areas colored on the map.

THE SAN JUAN RIVER.

But little is known concerning the arable lands or volume of water in
the valley of the San Juan. It flows for the most of its course through
Utah in a cafion, and all the arable land is thought to be so much subject

to overflow that cultivation is impracticable.
OTHER STREAMS.

A few smaller streams are also tributary to the Colorado and Green
within the Territory of Utah, but they mostly flow in deep canons, are often
dry in some portion of their course during every year, have at best only
a few acres of arable land anywhere along their courses, and have been

omitted in this report.

164 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The following table gives a summary of the facts relating to the flow
of the several streams and the amount of arable and irrigable lands in the
districts described above :

Sie) Hee vail ee
fe ee ss 2
oueat ‘e
Name of stream. aes 2 g = 3 i |
[3383) & mn |
ae 2 € Z
|
Wired Rivetict onsite cs ects tee oe rae ae oe a Re eee 30 19,200 |
Kanab Creek..-...--<s2s<-++ : 2a 1, 600
Paria iRivenesc=e c= ee== 6 3, 840
Escalante River 6 3, 840
KremontuRivers.---ssse.serse—e5 | 268 38 24, 320
Rom eas | Sih esses 55 ae sonscneso Sodseascdusc ¢ ssescnosas0 nob soe beanesescticccoeseacossccas 1,118 175 112, 000
TRUCE ge) Seema a secic peri Cias a Ee IDO ID OCOHING AOOSSp Sone rs stotce Saas SSsssssss ees sseess 189 11 7, 040
WoT Gy WE One Ne = eee socemns coo nao gcc g asec na saces soon acbor sudssoss Sscosh ase sce goscse 16 3 1, 920
iWamtayhivetcnes sae ts cece ce eels alee eee ele Saale eeine = ae ete tee Sepa etme eta a teiaiers 1, 825 285 182, 400
AGF Gs gs OTs ge he ae i i eee |.2--- 222-2 25 16, 000
1 Gh 008 ese er oec eerie BESS OE SRCOS CECE OAR Tae Rano Cron baat O ODAC OLB SODEOCE OOO IOaK |-- Pe basaetes 10 6, 400
NYA rd Sg epee naming Seba aa CEnCISe dae BBE HOn ne oSEao conNCaD Sub te bseenoNsoos ses sondEsesos | 1, 468 | 75 48, 000
IBLOWUISPEAT Kewece tesa ete aia | f hi pre ete ce fe 10 6, 400
Below Split Mountain Cafion.-- + Green River-.--.-----.5-. + .seers encnnene cone eeo === 4 4, 400 50 32, 000
Gunnison Valley...........---- i l aSasqrcenccs «25 16, 000
Goran di Riv Orseeacics soe ct amraae cee ee metal eae ate tela la fateestocoletate int opetetalelaleteteta miei wtebe etter siik afer als ae 4, 860 40 25, 600
WON sso, Esdeonoslachsooborécc|azgrecesscaS 7914 | 506, 560

CH AP 1 Bex:

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVE-
MENTS.
3y WILLIS DRUMMOND, JR.

The land grant system in favor of internal improvements has become
a well settled policy of this Government, and has attained not only a social
but a political importance.

Like other American institutions its growth has been rapid, and dona-
tions of that character now cover millions of acres of the public domain.
Of grants for railroads, wagon roads, and canals alone, however, will this
chapter treat, and no reference other than necessary to a proper examina-
tion of the question will be made to con cessions whose terms place the lands
under specific disposal by the States, such as those for the establishment of
schools, reclamation of swamp lands, ete.

The majority of grants, therefore, coming within our notice will be
those in aid of railroads, though many have been made in favor of wagon
roads and canals. The latter have, however, almost become things of
the past, and are rapidly being superseded by the railway. More than
‘one canal has given way to the more popular and general means of trans-
portation, and it is safe to say that no further donations for canal purposes
will be made, unless the circumstances should be such as to absolutely
demand that means of conveyance. At any rate, they will not be made
for purposes of general improvement.

The object of this chapter is to point out the origin, growth, character,
and extent of these concessions. It is therefore necessary to inquire into

the early donations for various purposes.
165

166 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The first act making a donation in favor of internal improvements
was approved on the 30th of April, 1802, and was entitled “An act to
enable the people of the eastern division of the territory northwest of the
river Ohio to form a constitution and State government, and for the admis-
sion of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the original
States, and for other purposes.”

By the third proviso to the seventh section of that statute, ‘‘one-
twentieth part of the net proceeds of the lands lying within the said State
sold by Congress, from and after the thirtieth day of June next, after
deducting all expenses incident to the same”, was granted and given to the
said State (Ohio), and was to be applied to the laying out and making of
public roads leading to the Ohio River, to the said State, and through the
same, from the navigable waters emptying into the Atlantic. Such roads
were to be laid out under the authority of Congress, with the consent of
the several States through which they passed.

By an act approved March 3, 1803, the Secretary of the Treasury was
directed to pay, to such persons as the legislature of the State of Ohio
should designate, 3 per cent. of the net proceeds, as above, which sums
were to be applied to laying out, opening, and making roads within said
State.

These acts, I believe, are the first two touching public improvements
through congressional aid. Of course there had previously been many
donations of land in favor of various persons, but they were for services
rendered the Government, or special preémption privileges.

Legislation similar to the acts above referred to, was enacted until the
year 1824, varying only in the extent of the proceeds granted.

By an act approved May 26, 1824, the State of Indiana was author-
ized to open and build a canal, and the right of way with 90 feet of land
on each side thereof, was granted, subject to use and occupancy for the
purposes specified. Nothing, however, was done under that act by the
State; and on the 2d of March, 1827, it was superseded by an act of greater
extent. On that day two acts were passed giving to Indiana and Illinois,
respectively, certain lands in aid of the construction of canals, the first to
connect the navigation of the Wabash River with the waters of Lake Erie,

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 167

and the second to connect the waters of the Illinois River with those of
Lake Michigan. A quantity of land, equal to one-half of five sections in
width on each side of said canals, was granted, reserving to the United
States each alternate section. The canals were to remain public highways
for the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge whatever;
were to be commenced in five years, and completed in twenty years, or the
States were bound to pay to the United States “the amount of any lands
previously sold”, and the titles of the purchasers under the States were to
be valid.

As soon as the lines of the canals were fixed and the selections of land
were made, the States had power to sell, and give fee simple title to the
whole or any part of the lands.

These may, properly, be considered the initiatory concessions of lands
in favor of internal improvements.

As stated, a grant for right of way had been made, but that right was
solely one of use and occupancy. In this case the right of the States to
sell became absolute. upon the selection of the lands. To be sure, they
were liable to repay the Government the price received by the sale of any
of the lands, but the titles of their purchasers were to be in “fee”; and by
such right of disposal they were enabled to realize at once on their grant,
and thereby secure a speedier construction of the canals.

On the same day (March 2) there was also granted to Indiana a
certain strip of land formerly held by the Pottawatamie Indians, or the
proceeds from the sale thereof, to be applied in building a road from Lake
Michigan, via Indianapolis, to some convenient point on the Ohio River.

On the next day (March 3) an act was approved granting to Ohio
one-half of two sections along the entire line of a road to be constructed
from Sandusky to Columbus.

By an act approved May 23, 1828, a grant of 400,000 acres of “the
relinquished lands” in certain counties in Alabama was made in aid of the
improvement of the Tennessee and other rivers in that State; and in case
that amount of “said relinquished lands” could not be found unappro-
priated, the necessary quantity could be selected from another section of
the State. Provision was made for the sale of the lands, at the minimum

168 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

price, but in case said lands or the proceeds thereof were applied to any
purposes other than that for which they were granted, the grant was to
become null and void.

In this grant we find the first provisions for indemnity if the grant was
not full by reason of prior sales or disposals by the Government. There,
if the lands were not to be found ‘in place”, selections “in lieu” could be
made from another county.

Grants like the one just referred to were made from time to time,
differing but little in their character and extent.

By an act approved March 2, 1833, the State of Illinois was authorized
to apply the lands granted by the act of March 2, 1827, for canal
purposes, to the construction of a railroad instead; and the same restrictive
impositions were continued.

This is the first act looking to the construction of a railroad through
the assistance of land donations. =

The railroad system was then but in its infancy, and the few miles
built had been constructed by private means.

It is proper to add, however, that the State did not avail itself of the
privilege granted, for it subsequently built a canal.

An act approved March 3, 1835, granted, for the purpose of aiding
in the construction of a railroad by a corporation organized in Florida,
the right of way through the public lands over which it might pass,
thirty feet of land on each side of its line, and the right to take and use
the timber for “one hundred yards” on each side for the construction
and repair of said road; it was also granted ‘ten acres of land at the junc-
tion of the St. Mark’s and Waculla Rivers”, the point where said road _ter-
minated. This was the first right of way grant in favor of railroads, the
previous grant having been for a canal.

Following this came an act approved July 2, 1836, granting the right
of way “through such portion of the public lands as remain unsold”, not
to exceed 80 feet in width, to the New Orleans and Nashville Railroad
Company. ‘The first section of that statute required that a description
of the route and surveys should be filed in the General Land Office
within sixty days after the survey. The second section granted for depots,

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 169

watering-places, and workshops, essential to the convenient use of the
road, certain plats of land, not exceeding five acres in any one spot, nor
nearer than fifteen miles to each other.

The third section gave the company the right to take from the public
lands earth, stone, or timber necessary for the construction of the road;
and provided that unless the work was commenced within two years after
the approval of the act, and completed within eight years thereafter, the
grant should “cease and determine”. It provided, moreover, that if the
road should be abandoned or discontinued, even after its completion, the
grant was to ‘‘cease and determine”.

So far as can be learned, this road was never completed. It is inserted
so fully for the purpose of showing the gradual growth of the system.

Next to’this came a grant to the East Florida and other railroads,
similar in general terms to those previously referred to. It required, how-
ever, the companies to file, with the Commissioner of the General Land
Office, maps showing the location of their roads. This was to be done
within six months after such locations. Iam unable to find that any of
those roads were ever constructed. Certainly, no evidence thereof was ever
furnished the General Land Office.

A grant similar to the one to the New Orleans and Nashville company
was made by act of March 3, 1837, to the Atchafalaya Railroad and Bank-
ing Company in Louisiana.

Many grants of like character and extent were made from time to
time, as also donations in favor of various other internal improvements.
The greatest of these latter, however, were the grants in aid of improving
the navigation of the Des Moines River in Iowa, and the Fox and Wiscon-
sin Rivers in Wisconsin, which were approved August 8, 1846.

The first of these made a grant to the then Territory of Iowa, for the
purpose of improving “the navigation of the Des Moines River from its
mouth to the Raccoon Fork (so called), in said Territory”, of “one equal
moiety, in alternate sections, of the public lands (remaining unsold, and
not otherwise disposed of, encumbered, or appropriated), in a strip five
miles in width on each side of said river, to be selected within said Terri-

tory by an agent or agents to be appointed by the governor thereof, sub-
22 AR

170 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

ject to the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States”.
The second section provided that ‘the lands hereby granted shall not be
conveyed or disposed of by said Territory, nor by any State to be formed
out of the same, except as said improvements shall progress; that is, the
said Territory or State may sell so much of said lands as shall produce the
sum of thirty thousand dollars, and then the sales shall cease until the gov-
ernor of said Territory or State shall certify the fact to the President of
the United States that one-half of said sum has been expended upon said
improvement, when the said Territory or State may sell and convey a
quantity of the residue of said lands suflicient to replace the amount
expended, and thus the sales shall progress as the proceeds thereof shall be
expended, and the fact of such expenditure shall be certified as aforesaid.”

Section 8 declared that the river should forever remain a public
highway for the use of the Government, free from toll or other charge
whatever; and provided that the Territory or State should not dispose of
the lands at a price less than the minimum price of public lands.

The grant to Wisconsin for the improvement of the Fox and Wisconsin
Rivers, though approved the same day, was somewhat different from the
Des Moines grant. It provided that ‘there be, and hereby is, granted to
the State of Wisconsin”, upon the admission of Wisconsin as a State (which,
by the way, had been provided for by an act approved two days before),
“for the purpose of improving the navigation of the Fox and Wisconsin
Rivers in the Territory of Wisconsin, and of constructing the canal to
unite the said rivers, at or near the portage, a quantity of land, equal to one-
half of three sections in width on each side of said Fox River, and the °
lakes through which it passes from its mouth to the point where the portage
canal shall enter the same, and on each side of said canal from one stream
to the other, reserving the alternate sections to the United States, to be
selected under the direction of the governor of said State, and such selection
to be approved by the President of the United States”. The rivers, when
improved, were to remain forever public highways for the use of the
Government, free from toll; and the sections reserved to the United States
were not to be sold for less than $2.50 per acre.

By the second section, the legislature of the State was to accept the

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. iba

grant and fix the price at which the lands were to be sold (at not less than
$1.25 per acre), and adopt such kind and plan of improvement as was for
the best interests of the State.

The provisions for the sale of the lands were the same as in the Iowa
erant, except that the sum to be realized by such sales was fixed at $20,000.

Section 3 required the work to be commenced within three years after
the admission of the State, and to be completed within twenty years, or
the United States was to be entitled to receive the amount for which any
of the lands may have been sold; the titles in the purchasers from the State
were, however, to be valid.

The ee ige employed in this statute was more definite than that
need in the Des Moines grant, and in it is to be found the first provisions
respecting the increase in price of the reserved sections.

Probably no grant of this character has received such widespread
notoriety as the one for the improvement of the Des Moines River. It is
owing, no doubt, in a great degree to the numerous conflicting decisions by
the Executive Departments touching the extent of the grant. The Hon. R.
J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury (under whose supervision the Land
Office ae came), decided on the 2d of March, 1849, that the grant
extended above the tributary of the Des Moines River commonly known
as the Raccoon Fork. The Land Office soon thereafter passed from the
jurisdiction of the Treasury Department, and was placed as one of the
bureaus of the Home or Interior Department. The Secretary of this lately
established branch of the Government (Hon. Thomas Ewing) decided on
‘the 6th of April, 1850, that the grant did not extend above the Raccoon
Fork. From that decision the State of Iowa appealed to the President,
who laid the matter before the Attorney-General. That officer (Hon.
Reverdy Johnson), on July 19, 1850, expressed an opinion confirmatory of
the decision of Secretary Walker. The Secretary of the Interior, however,
being determined in his views, did not adopt the opinion of the Attorney-
General, and the Commissioner of the General Land Office wrote, under
date of 26th September, 1850, to the President, reviewing and objecting to
the opinion of Mr. Johnson. The President, having been again applied to

by the State of Iowa to determine the matter, referred the whole question

2 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

to the Attorney-General (then Hon. J. J. Crittenden). That officer,
without delivering an opinion on the merits of the case, expressed the
belief that the President ought not to interfere, but should leave such
questions to the proper officers. The then Secretary of the Interior (Hon.
A. H. H. Stuart) thereupon decided that the grant did not extend above
the fork, but subsequently decided to approve the selections for lands
above the fork. Attorney-General ‘Cushing, on the 29th of May, 1856,

expressed the belief that on the merits of the case the grant was limited to

@
the Raccoon Fork, but as Secretary Stuart had approved selections above
that point, such practical enforcement of the grant had better be con-
tinued. The view of Mr. Cushing was subsequently maintained by the
Supreme Court of the United States in Railroad Company vs. Litchfield
(23 Howard, page 66). By the act of Congress approved July 12, 1862,
the grant was extended to the northern boundary of the State, so as to
include the alternate odd numbered sections lying within five miles of said
river, upon the following conditions: The lands were to be held and applied
in accordance with the provisions of the original grant, except that the
consent of Congress was given to the application of a ‘a portion thereof”
to aid in the construction of the Keokuk, Fort Des Moines and Minnesota
Railroad, in accordance with the provisions of an act of the general
assembly of the State approved March 22, 1858.

It is well to state that the work of improving the river was abandoned,
and the railroad was constructed instead.

Without examining the numerous right of way and other lesser grants,
I desire to direct attention to what is generally considered the jirst railroad
grant. Reference is made to the donation by the act of September 20, 1850.

By that statute a grant was made to the State of Hlinois of “every
alternate section of land designated by even numbers, for six sections in
width on each side of” the road and branches therein provided for. The
road to be built was from the southern terminus of the Illinois and Michi-
gan Canal to a point at or near the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi
Rivers, with a branch of the same to Chicago, and another via the town of
Galena, in Illinois, to the town of Dubuque, in Iowa.

The second section provided that should it appear that the United

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS, LW

States had, when the lines of said road and branches were definitely fixed,
sold any part of any section thereby granted, or that the right of preémp-
tion had attached to the same, it should be lawful for any agent or agents
(to be appointed by the governor of the State) to select so much land
as would be equal to the tracts lost within the granted limits. This
“indemnity” was to be selected within fifteen miles of the road and
branches.

The third section provided that the sections and parts of sections
which by the operation of the grant remained to the United States within
six miles on each side of said road and branches, should not be sold for less
than the double minimum price when sold.

Section 4 provided for the disposal of the lands, and declared that
the road should remain a public highway for the use of the Government
free from toll or other charge.

The fifth section declared within what period the roads should be
completed, and provided that in the event of a failure on the part of the
State to comply with the conditions of the grant, it was ‘bound to pay to
the United States the amount which may be received upon the sale of any
part of said lands by said State”. The title of the purchasers was to be
valid, but the tracts not sold were to revert and revest in the United States.

Section 6 said that the mails were to be transported at all times at
such price as Congress might direct.

By the seventh section the grant was extended, on the same terms and
conditions, to the States of Alabama and Mississippi, for the purpose of
aiding in the construction of a road from Mobile to connect with the first
above named road.

While this was not the first concession of lands in favor of railroads,
it may properly be considered the initiatory measure of the present system.
It granted specific sections instead of one-half of a certain number of
sections; provided in positive terms for “indemnity” for lands lost to the
erant; designated the manner in which the lands should be disposed of;
increased the price of the reserved sections within the “granted” limits;
provided for reversion in case of default, and virtually established a form

of grant which was differed from but little in succeeding donations. It was

174 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

the first railroad grant that became effective, for of all previous ones none
appear to have been developed. The roads are now known as the Illinois
Central and branches, and the Mobile and Ohio.

For the following two years no grants of importance were made, until
by an act approved June 10, 1852, a donation was made to the State of
Missouri for the construction of certain roads therein, now known as the
Hannibal and Saint Joseph, and the Missouri Pacific, Southwest Branch.
This grant was similar in character and extent to that to Illinois, save
two sections—one providing for the disposal of the lands, and the other

‘directing the Secretary of the Interior to offer at public sale, from time to

time, at the increased price, the ‘‘reserved” or Government sections. The
section respecting the disposal of the lands is as follows: ‘That the lands
hereby granted to said State shall be disposed of by said State in manner
following, that is to say: that a quantity of land, not exceeding one hun-
dred and twenty sections on each road, and included within a continuous
length of twenty miles of said road, may be sold; and when the governor
of said State shall certify to the Secretary of the Interior that said twenty
miles of road is completed, then another like quantity of land, hereby
granted, may be sold; and so from time to time until said road is completed;
and if said road be not completed within ten years, no further sales shall
be made, and the lands unsold shall revert to the United States.”

With the exceptions stated, and the omission of the clause requiring the
State to reimburse the Government for lands sold, the grants are identical.

That act was followed by an act approved February 9, 1853, making,
under like conditions and impositions, a similar grant to Arkansas, in aid of
certain roads in that State. In this, however, the clause or section direct-
ing the Secretary to “offer” the lands was omitted.

For the next three years Congress seems to have been quite as liberal
in donations for other purposes, but no grants were made in aid of railroads,
unless note be made of a grant to Minnesota by act of June 29, 1854,
which was repealed in August following.

By that act there was granted to the Territory of Minnesota, for the
purpose of aiding in the construction of a railroad from the southern line
of said Territory, via Saint Paul, to the eastern line of the Territory in the

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. ito

direction of Lake Superior, ‘“‘every alternate section of land designated by
odd numbers for six sections in width on each side of said road within said
Territory”; but in case it should appear that the United States had, when
the line of the road was definitely fixed, sold any section or any part
thereof granted, or that the right of preémption had attached to the same,
then it should be lawful for any agent or agents to be appointed by the
governor of said Territory, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the
Interior, to select lands from alternate sections within fifteen miles of the
road to make up the deficiency. The lands granted were to be applied to
the construction of the road only. Section 2 increased the price of the
“reserved” tracts.

Section 3 provided that the lands should be disposed of by the legis-
lature for the purposes aforesaid and were not to inure to the benefit of any
company then constituted or organized. The road was to remain a high-
way, as in previous grants; and the lands could not be sold until they had
first been “offered” at the increased price.

3y section 4 no title was to vest in said Territory or patent issue for
any part of the lands until a continuous length of twenty miles of said road
had been completed; and when the Secretary of the Interior was satisfied
that any twenty continuous miles of said road had been completed, then
patent was to issue for a quantity not exceeding one hundred and twenty
sections of land; and so on from time to time until the road was completed.
If the road was not completed within ten years no further sales could be
made, and the lands remaining unsold were to revert.

By an act approved August 4, 1854, the act of June 29, 1854, was
repealed; and although four grants have been declared forfeited, for failure
of the grantees to perform the required conditions, this is the only one
which Congress has in terms repealed.

It is to be regretted that subsequent legislation was not as devoid of
ambiguity. Had it been, much embarrassment might have been saved the
Government. I refer particularly to that clause or section respecting the
vesting of title and the manner in which the State was to acquire rights
under the grant. By the terms thereof no patents were to issue except as
the work of building the road progresse d.

176 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

By the omission of such language from the grants subsequently made
from time to time to as late as 1862, the Department of the Interior
believed that the duty of “disposal” was properly in the States charged
with executing the trusts; and in all the earlier grants, immediately upon
the location of the roads and determination of the limits of the grants,
certified, in whole, the lands to which the companies would ultimately have
been entitled had the roads been completed as required. At that time there
was but little doubt that all of the roads would be rapidly constructed; but
the civil conflict very naturally put a stop to such extended improvements,
and to-day about twenty railroads remain uncompleted, and the lands
certified to the States for their use and benefit exceed by 1,058,295.86
acres the lands actually earned by the portions of the several roads con-
structed.

Out of the act of June 29, 1854, and the repealing statute a very
interesting question arose, which received, ultimately, the consideration of
the Supreme Court. A suit was brought in trespass by Edmund Rice
against the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company, for cutting
timber on a tract of land in Minnesota. The company, in its defense, set
up title under the granting act aforesaid; to which plaintiff replied, reciting
the repealing statute. On demurrer by the company, the question as to
whether an interest had vested under said grant was thus fairly presented
to the Supreme Court. That body decided, after elaborate review of the
whole case, that the act of August 4 was “a valid law”, and that no
interest, beneficiary or otherwise, had vested under the said grant.

In 1856, at different times, various grants were made to the States of
Iowa, Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Mississippi,
and on the 3d of March, 1857, to Minnesota.

An examination of these grants—say the one to Iowa, it being first of
the series—shows that, with the exception of the fact that the sections
granted were designated by odd instead of even numbers, they were similar
to the Missouri grant of 1852. The change there inaugurated was owing
to the fact that certain even sections in each township had been previously
given to the several States for school purposes, and in a grant embracing a
large territory the difference to the railroad grants caused thereby would be

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. IL 7h 7

considerable. From 1857 until 1862 Congress seems to have been otherwise
engaged, for I am unable to find that any acts were passed during that
period touching railroad grants.

By an act approved July 1, 1862, a new departure was taken. Certain
persons were created into a body corporate under the title and name of the
“Union Pacific Railroad Company”. The object thereof was the con-
struction and maintenance of a railroad and telegraph line from the Missouri
River to the Pacifie Ocean.

They were granted the right of way through the public lands to the
extent of two hundred feet in width on each side of the line of road,
together with the necessary grounds for stations, buildings, workshops, ete.
They were also granted in aid of the construction of the road “every
alternate section of public land”, designated by odd numbers, to the amount
of five alternate sections per mile, on each side of the road; and all lands
which had been disposed of or reserved, and mineral lands, were excepted.

Sections 5 and 11 of the act related to the issuance of bonds by the
United States. Section 7 required the company to file a map of its general
route, and directed the Secretary of the Interior to thereupon withdraw
the lands within fifteen miles of such line.

Various other roads were provided for upon the same conditions, now
known as the Central Pacific, Central Branch of the Union Pacific, Kansas
Pacific, and Sioux City and Pacific.

As it is not the purpose of this inquiry to look into any provisions
except such as relate to dand donations, I will not pursue the sections
respecting the issuance of bonds, payment of interest, etc. But, before
proceeding further, it is proper to notice the changes inaugurated by
that act.

In the first place, the grant was to a corporation direct, and not to a
State in trust for one.

Second. It was not confined to any particular State or section, but
was transcontinental in character, extending in this case more than half
across our country.

Third. It was a grant ten miles in width on each side, instead of six,

as in previous grants, and no provision was made for indemnity.
23 AR

178 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Fourth. It provided for the filing by the company of a map of its
general or designated route (before definite location of its line); and upon
the filing thereof the lands became legislatively reserved or withdrawn.

By an act approved July 2, 1864, this act was amended in several
particulars, and instead of “five” sections “ten” were granted, thereby
increasing the limits from ten to twenty miles on each side of the roads.
The term ‘mineral land” was construed not to include ‘coal and iron
land”.

By section 19 of this latter act a grant was made to the Burlington
and Missouri River Railroad Company, for the construction of a road from
the Missouri River to some point not farther west than the one hundredth
meridian of west longitude to connect with the Union Pacific road, of ten
alternate sections per mile on each side of its line of road. It has been
decided that this company was not confined to any limit, but could go far
enough to secure the quantity granted, and it is the only railroad whose
grant is not confined to lateral limits. By a proviso to the twentieth sec-
tion, however, the company received no bonds.

The rapidity with which the Union Pacific road was constructed was
surprising, and the whole progress of the work displayed a spirit of energy
seldom seen in an undertaking of that character. The most positive
achievements, however, were those of the Central Pacific Company. The
construction of that road over the Sierras is considered by professional
authorities as one of the greatest results of engineering. It crossed the
maximum summit, of 7,042 feet above the sea, within one hundred miles of
the Pacific tide waters, requiring a distribution of ascent really scientific to
render it practicable, and, by using a minimum radius of 573 feet, secured,
comparatively speaking, a direct alignment.

The two roads were completed and a junction effected May 10, 1869,
and the initial transcontinental line was thereby finished.

By an act approved March 3, 1863, there was a grant made to the
State of Kansas to aid in constructing certain railroads therein, now known
as the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé; Leavenworth, Lawrence and Gal-
veston, and Missouri, Kansas and Texas. It was of every alternate section
of land designated by odd numbers for ten sections in width on each side

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 179

of said roads. Indemnity was provided in ten additional miles and, except
as to extent, it was not unlike the Lowa grant.

On the 5th of May, 1864, similar grants were made to the States of Min-
nesota and Wisconsin, and on the 12th of May to the State of Iowa. Vari-
ous other grants followed of like character, differing only in few respects,
to Arkansas, Alabama, Missouri, lowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and Iansas ;
as also grants for wagon roads. The latter were similar in terms to the
railroad grants, save that three sections on either side of the roads were
given instead of six or ten. The Northern Pacific was created July 1, 1864,
and was very much like the Union Pacific grant, except in extent, being
double the quantity through the Territories, with provision for ‘indemnity ”.
The Atlantic and Pacific and Southern Pacific grants were made by act of
July 27, 1866; the Denver Pacific by act of March 3, 1869; the South-
ern Pacific (branch line) and Texas and Pacific by act of March 3,
eile

Many of the grants made in early years were enlarged, and the time
for their completion extended; but thus far only four grants have been
declared forfeited. At present, however, about twenty grants have “lapsed”
by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the granting acts, requiring
completion within prescribed periods, and recommendations have been
made urging proper legislation.

Neither time nor space permit an extended examination of every grant,
but sufficient has been considered to point out the origin and growth of
the system.

We have seen that the first donation was one-twentieth part of certain
proceeds derived from the sale of lands; then ninety feet of land, followed
soon by one-half of five sections per mile on each side; then by six sec-
tions; then by ten, and finally by twenty sections per mile on each side of
the road.

If the lands granted, or in other words embraced within the limits of
the grants, could be found available, the companies, not including those for
canals or wagon roads, would receive, provided each built its road and
complied with the laws, more than two hundred and fifteen million acres.

That quantity if embraced in one compact body, would form an area of

180 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

more than three hundred and thirty-five thousand square miles, or a tract
of land more than seven times as large as the State of Pennsylvania, and
only about six thousand miles less than the area of the thirteen original
States. But, in fact, the grants will not realize near that quantity, and the
estimate, as made by the Land Department, is only about one hundred and
eighty-seven million acres.

By the aid of those grants, however, about fifteen thousand miles of
road have been constructed. Those roads have been the means of devel-
oping vast fields of magnificent territory, and securing to the people many
lesser lines built by private capital.

The various grants have been the subject of much explanatory, amend-
atory, and confirmatory legislation, and have also received numerous inter-
pretations by the different courts. Of the latter, I deem it proper to refer
only to the more important rulings of the Supreme Court which bear upon
the fundamental principles underlying the whole system.

In nearly all grants, except the Pacific, provision has been made for
indemnity in ease it appeared, when the lines of the roads had been defi-
nitely fixed, that the United States had sold, disposed of, or reserved any of
the sections or parts of sections contained within the grants. The theory
has heretofore existed that “indemnity” was allowed for all tracts which
might not be found subject to the operation of the grant; and selections
have been permitted in lieu of such disposed of or reserved tracts.

A recent decision, however, casts some doubt upon the correctness of
this theory. The question came up in a case from Kansas, under the act
of March 3, 1863, and the court declared:

“We have before said that the grant itself was in presenti, and covered
all the odd sections which should appear, on the location of the road, to
have been within the grant when it was made. The right to them did not,
however, depend on such location, but attached at once on the making of
the grant. It is true they could not be identified until the line of the road was
marked out on the ground, but as soon as this was done it was easy to find
them. If the company did not obtain all of them within the original limit,
by reason of the power of sale or reservation retained by the United States,
it was to be compensated by an equal amount of substituted lands. The

LAND GRANTS IN AID OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 181

latter could not, on any contingency, be selected within that limit. * * *
It would be strange, indeed, if the [indemnity] clause had been intended to
perform the office of making a new grant within the ten mile limit, or
enlarging the one already made. Instead of this, the words employed
show clearly that its only purpose is to give sections beyond that limit for
those lost within it by the action of the government between the date of
the grant and the location of the road. This construction gives effect to
the whole statute, and makes each part consistent with the other.”

If it be thought, however, that such was not the intention of the legis-
lators who framed the statutes, consolation can be found in the construction
given to the clause inserted in every grant, substantially as follows: ‘And
the said road shall remain a public highway for the use of the Government,
free from toll or other charge upon the transportation of troops or other
property of the United States.”

It is declared by the Supreme Court that the purpose of that clause
was to allow the Government the right to place its locomotive engines and
cars upon the railroad tracks, and- to use such tracks as a public highway.
The court say: ‘We are of opinion that the reservation in question secures
to the Government only a free use of the railroads concerned; and that it
does not entitle the Government to have troops or property transported by
the companies over their respective roads free of charge for transporting
the same.”

The section providing for the disposal of the lands, recited in full in
the Missouri grant of 1852, has been construed as vesting in the State the
right to sell one hundred and twenty sections of land, contained within a
continuous length of twenty miles at any place along the grant, even though
the road contemplated was never built; and the title acquired by purchase
from the State is valid. And the clause with which the section referred to
ends, to the effect that if the road be not completed within a certain time
the lands shall revert to the United States, has been declared inoperative
without further action by the Government, either legislative or judicial,
looking to an enforcement of the reserved right.

Fears have been awakened as to the power to ultimately control
these corporations, on account of the enormous extent to which they have

182 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

expanded; but, as has been said by an able writer, “this evil, however, if
it be such, will probably work its own cure.”

Be that as it may, their influences have been felt by all, and their
benefits have extended to the remotest sections of our country. They have
proved a bond between the eastern and western States

anxiously sought
for by Washington when the lateral limits of the United States were less
than half what they are at this time. They have united the Pacifie with
the Atlantic, and the Rocky Mountains of the west with the Alleghanies of
the east. They have dispelled all ideas looking to the removal of the seat
of Government, for they have put in direct communication the people of
Oregon with the people of Maine. From ocean to ocean requires but
days, where only a few years ago it required weeks.

In the past, long lines of moving wagons groaned beneath their loads
of adventurous families, who at night, within the corral, seated themselves
around the blazing camp fire, fearful of the dangers to which they were
exposed. But the present has forgotten them. In their stead the ponderous

wheels of frequent trains, moving with a speed surpassing that of the deer,

0
to)
traversing the valley and mountain, carry forward their loads of living
freight; and, in place of dangerous encampments, provide means of sleep
and refreshment, and afford the comforts of luxurious homes. The railway
has brought to our doors the harvest of our fields; lianded to our mints the
vast resources of our mines, and opened to us direct communication with
the older worlds. Its arms have extended into a hundred vales and over
a hundred mountains, grasping in their embrace manifold evidences of

civilization and prosperity.

AD DOUI Wb eesee. cee ee aes ences: RENT eet Ree cei coon h wneavea wis eyet nls sa'acetew cea slamisieme
Aes CADIS as Jactn ce ciel cin tanta wieleiw SP es oat oe alesse nia eele alos erence ne ae Fe eemaats cee

Canadensis ...---

GONG teas alelecee weyaeine sola mms oop a= anc einle wie wa alm a (ainiri en mnie» sien nine olsiain'wal ns
Menziesii iS. «cee t sesnmaelsee -aeidseee t= sceeen a an nne's mocwce erase ncio—sa/ss'ese ena sn ama ae

subalpina ...----+

Acer grandidentata

Agricultural and timber industries differentiated. ...--..--+-+ +++ s+++ 22+ -- 22 errr eer ee eres
resources of the Bear River drainage basin....----- Roethke so oanse alee! eaielaslere maine °

Jordan River drainage basin ...--.---.-----------+---- aisiateleiaraisioce

Weber River drainage basin ..-...--.---------+---- +--+ +++ +--+

Agriculture, Amount of precipitation necessary for ..--------+-++-+ +--+ ++-++-- See AOe eee
Influence of temperature upon.... -.-.------ +--+ eee e ee eee ee eee Seek eee 2

in the Arid Region dependent upon irrigation .-...----------+------- ect celeemets

in Utah dependent upon irrigation...--.--.----------- +--+ ++ ----2e sere er terete

exceptions thereto

limited by several conditions .------..+----+----+----++---

Utilization of the small streams in

without irrigation...

Aira cospilosa.-..---------+- s--

Alabama, Land-erants to... ..-----.-- 2-2 222 223 = see one ene ere eee ren eens cen sieeee cnc cewe

Alkaline salts .-...--.------ ovied

Amount of land a unit of water will supply....------ ---- --- 22+ e222 eee cere eee eer eeee ee

Antelope Island ....-------+--------++- a Se eee saeco cba eceshcelts SaaS epcoe rn cos acep ioe
aie eee ewe clocieee per ae soeseeweinces mm clene nian oleniswin= =i feecee cote oman

Areal distribution of rainfall...- ---. .--. ---- 2-02-22 2 cone cone cnn cree cone cree rene eee ee cere ne

Area of irrigable land sometimes not limited by water BUDD Wiewemeatooesttae a= SoS Rood sosecuss
Areas of standing timber .--..------------

to which larger streams can be taken

Page.

62
102
100
101
100
101
102
101
101
103

18
119

63, 64
63, 67
Be

184 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

age.
ATId Reson, Minin ovindustiles Ofsthe pester esa. =nesee es eee see anise es =e ee SpaScassoase aes
Physical characteristics!of theo sles oeieeeeee aaa leo eee oe ee en eeeeioene 1
(ERAS OMAN ME WAS) GoSenc cations cetcon ooodes coaqas Bane Aaaacse cfosco saeessas0e 48
Rainfalliof the sso c nyse ses ec cece acccc close ce slec secs eee ss esccelachesesececeees 5
Arizona and New Mexico, Seasonal precipitation im ----2- 5. ---..scces scr eens ooo oes eee 56
Pid Chase pel BERGE fae ANUS 110) G3ooe moo ceesod Gae COO OSURHO COSaeagSn0us snotcepSonoEc dense Socom cnesne 174,179
Artemisia ..-- BG6S5555. 656650 SA 5604 GSS RSE SS SORE ES SECO SOSHIDA COGSOS SESH SoSSHE coSsse oseSsossndss 110
AshleysHork simnica bles and siotteasaenles——s eae aeel-= ae ere ee eee ee sana ene eee eae 161
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé Railroad Company, Land grants to the....-...---.----------- 178
Atlantic and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the ...-.....--...---....-.-----.---- 3 179
Atlantic coast: Flow ofthe riyerssof theca. ese cee cee ere es tee ee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee 76
Ratntalliony thee acecmie==saeieciemeltmeiace ste eta nels sateate ee ieee eee 69
Vebneo W be 6 Ips oeco coerced SSod pa6d CbOa Ob6d sHESsa DoOO Sone Seas asa eeenaSecsins seo naceneecoce 59
Te Roe NY Bee esse S000 OSS GIONS COE EOO HOSOEC, DAC GOOG OHaSO0 AE SBES Eo S40 SHO ncn easseondssascese 113
Basin, Colorado. (See Colorado Basin.)
Great Salt Lake. (See Great Salt Lake District.)
ISPRNEGY SH RUE. Soo cedooosse 5605 0006 SobSSe ndoSconDedhS HbSaciassn SHTonS olsnos caso Edeo See 94
Sevier Lake. (See Sevier Lake District.)
Uinta-White. (See Uinta-White Basin.)
Ijsehe LAN elt aeccos osge oe Coo eoe Seb Eor eS Seeo BESS pee seSsoSco Sromae Songs Seecco poeacoe cooeso cece 117
(Chin? asoscecnscesoscs ceeces Sabb oS DSU SSR NSS Sao Sashoe So shes oseocacagsecan caso coses 78
drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the...-.. ......---- s---2. ---02. 0-5 --- ee 119
AT OalOLmbh@ men o<sons cic cacios senate wer ateatscneioss sone ee soe eae 119
Mean flow of the ---....2---. .. 5. AIGBERCOODSOER Lend Sac voDbSg SaogesaSbeGsoecocese 72
BEEP GkaNsy INTE NOE CMI 55555 pope os cHSese Geese 2OSS50 Sosa 25 DETESe SSsIe6 eos ease a6 sone 74
IONE ORT asec os ceeece CooeBo koosad DSoE So pSboSssonosss bSSreo chds psesSnoes dé0ece Sth nccs 103
Bill to authorize the organization of irrigation districts....-...---- sete connbs copesbosoo ses 30
pasturage districts --. 25. occ ce seams conn e coos wns =o =~ 33
llkyale IMral Fe EWAN son poses Joss 5 bos Ses ceees a CS OSeS Censiad Saobed Ss eSonecec osbser ssesasce 61
TOWER Go Seeo paseioaco Sse bSsS60 beso DODUSO Sosc coda ss0an9 =SoseScneo Dope Besse CobesS 59, 60
Bonneville wbaken-. oo oem ae coc ne = inne ne aela= = emane eerie olen alae = mle <n nnle alee 96
Book Cliffs, Oropraphic/structure/of the------ —- << -s\eeoene one lne ae aes ae ene an aaa elma 98
UES AUECLO UNO VLG OBECCIUY Cie txts nner = ee ate ele eo ee 108
SBT O TUS ate ae ee ee 109
TRO pal OL soo cos. scise Ho asSo nese OSH asn SS cost cans asbecsHeSSedsesces a8 osdistweeeceswcccstieses 98
Brows Parks Wri ape Men Sy Ole sreerrmtereta tote ape ee tm lle et ell el dle nila 162
Burlington and Missouri Railroad Company, Land grants to the.----...----.------.----------- 178
Canals, Land grants in aid of --.--. --.- 2. 22. cone oon teens = ons nen s = 2 nw een wn wwe 166
Cafion Lands, Amount of irrigable land in the.... ......---. .----------- .-------------------- 106
Coal Mandsiofitheress poe aesiese eee oe eee eae eee a een aaa aeons 106
Description of the... 5 ---- si ca. cn. en cicomme cement ere inennas en ene sana enn 105
Oe LWRAN o ose a osG pss coo5 GesanS Sone Caco cosSne os Soss SoS seo SosSOS SeSscaso sSs5 94
(OL TR An HATE iGO Oe 1S CEO S55 COD SEO BACEDO S25O5 CUO CES0 9oSH SoS bSH Sec HedSsconoess GeeSeopedaccs 109
62

INDEX. 185

Page
Castle Valley. occ sinc cte-seeiss-- 2s PROCES BAB SSS OGEd DS SSEOlsaee pO SCOR a er 5 105
Central Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the ..........2--.----.-ecee-e--ee eee wes 177
Cencocammus paris /OUUs saaieto teas ce Soca she ee ee ee sae ee ck Se ows ceworescaa 110
Celtis occidentalis ....-. 2... Seine we ciasicwesive sameness thee coeseae oe aoe Soeen ee Mee oan 5 =ie'ae, 103
Circle Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the.........-.2-. 222 pene eeeene eoeeee ee cececcee ees 137
Climate of the Colorado Basin 2.2.2.2... BRS E OAR CSE COROTIC BR CACC Car MESSE CTO he ee 151
Coa ands seses Soot sce siere cet aves spseceeee See e See anes Beseeiteee es bee ee nate —ssets-cocstcece 45
DISPOSaMOfe thGyeee soe se oe Se ee es Se ee Seen eRe Seer LS 44
of the Cation Lands ......... c 106
of the Rocky Mountain Region 19
Colonwisystenieae ss saasere eee certs ees pon ete ea na as 2 Se en 28
Colorado Basin, Climate of the 151
Elevation of the 151
Lrrigable lands of the 150
Mean annual precipitation in the 7
Orographie structure of the 95
Source of the water supply of the 152
Table of irrigable lands of the 164
drainage area 94
River Principal uibutawes of the an Utaliccss.csescss. =42-- ee scs ceo ces saab ee 150
Conditions affecting the distribution of rainfall...... ..------c.+<---0ccee conc coco cece -c-- cee 90
Codéperative labor necessary to the development of irrigation.................-..-.----------. 11
Criticaliperntod esos eee oawahae en ee ee ate ee Se es sige setinauet stem cece ee saceaceos Lan. lod
SCASODG lee aamin ares catenins aie aire sneeenio Sele see re eee ce Maplette else Nemacies se estos sineials 116
Dakota, Precipitation Ofmsss-cie-- sea. ster sat ees esas ceo e oes se ces esse ee Lobe eee RStocrstd 51
Denver Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the ..--- Sete sek care cece a eEas Cosccsee 179
Weserudrainage; ALE dens secs ame eevee = ease es ane sae memes ee aa ee eel» See eee 94
Orocraphic structuretof theszJ2 s2oscaceonece sees ee ce eee eee 95
Des Moines River, Land grant in aid of the improvement of the............-.......----.----- 17
Distribuuon oferainsthroushouts ther yealy = 2.222 ssras/= sataaeetes ene ee aa. oeecnc sas yma cent oe 50
District, Great Salt Lake. (See Great Salt Lake District.)
Sevier Lake. (See Sevier Lake District.)
Division lines of pasturage farms -. 22, 28, 37
Ofmlan dab yeseuulercueemetrcm se soit esats oct Sees eee tee or eay eate me enema ee 38
Drainage area, Colorado .....--. 2-0. 22. .----- 94
HD) OSG Gpmemra tere ee cco etree ee ae gece aN a en < Be BOS eee 94
Moditicatonsotenherconditions; Of. ssas2s. soe ee eee sta eee iene eens a oen ee 73
OLgLnOE ay apULSPh abeau oe cissecestecee sate se cieseaa aster teres se ae ae ee ao eee 96
Uinta Mountains-..........---.-- BES aHicaaciaseto BES SaCeS Oks Cosa Se easO ue = 96
Wasatch: Mountains js sosocotcus oc seiscee nce ee nesoacess oe DeRaSS CaaS 96
WU esc cd 0nd HOSS BOeS CSI EIS LASS Sek See ta REG pS Sr en ee ne So 94
Drummond, Willis, jr., on land grants in aid of internal improvements........-...-----.-.----- 164
LDA LESTE. D6c6 occ Sci0c DOTA SEE COED BREE ES ba PARSE AE BRE Spe Eeen Peco Senecio) aL Nis}
Dachesneihiy erseVvolumer ot towiOl, thes ccsia- sccsisaelece aioe see sesise orion cc cess soba censccstas 160
Dutton ap us Cp ben ClUCOMementc tases cee se ccs -rccase setts seecieamernc <4 conajeane 110
on the irrigable land of the Sevier Basin.-...-.--.------ ----------00c--0 128

24 AR

186 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Bast Florida Railroad Company, Land grant to the ---- .-------- <2... a2 oe ones cone wo cininn en oo ne aoc
1 BING eee consis Soqe. deeb sobces nanseo nasSao been Se dSesoc eno eso Sreeenacessocsas ceeceor 7
Avid Nip Wb h 6 dines cerininoocbobcon Gano SROs Saco Occ s ROSS SS BSSCaS Case ARenOs nebEaccs Base esecnees 102
EN OCOMA CUSD LAG a= Same ce athena eee nnne nena eects encima cee os eiee Seana eee erate 108
Hscalante River, irricable landstof ther--==. ss s--) es esas eno ee eee aac eee esse == ee eeee 156
Volume of flow ofthese: <2. tien ess sna seceee cease nrmeeecoscecesecee- 156

TORO ER CODON eee bs BSS GOO =0O G6 4A65 be Sah oUSh no HESS SOHBGAbS AaSEtCQSEDe caso Skea caose Ati ceo 110
Evaporation by spreading of water ac. —sastsanas ea ee sem eae nian eae ae see ee eee eee 74
InGwarabney Kon HUE CR ees Sono coe SSS bS0nss SaccSs SacEes coos Ssor Saad cass scco aces cssece asedasas Se 61
Farming without irtigationc. ces s->s= 52222 -easss ok seen stan ealee ee ean Hemeteee ese ee eee 77
Lop me ta Tee sree E ME are UNE Ot 555 H5 5a5d55. co0S sc00 sae ass Sscbe so5SS50 codecs es gooSsebsseouSe 22
(rebar reve joy TAINS) WER) aes Sos coomeooesos casceU AChOd SoSSds dSco DeSeES Hoon oSsoEeSaSSCC 21, 28
Ikebe (Oe je NEE) [ETOCS oe boos Shoe posse bead ooo nose Ses 5 Ones Hoo Condes Soca Ss essmco cscs 23
IDE) hed 1H oe) beMNYe PINOY Gems pono esas oSSaee Sono Oneceo ones gseaee Cosadecose caseeosd sasHoseses 15, 99
WanlselOL ctcces sone sek eceteee nora ee chee eee Ree eee mae esemicea em acaee 17,99

Protection trome--e cease eee cee em ern eteee oes eee se sere eee eeceaecr 18, 99

IM eng ly Mleyin 1en0G Cepecan Sesciane Race Hoos Conn Soe o Scosd oases oc aSee Emap cooboo cece todo ccateoce case 88
Forests, Amount of rainfall necessary to the growth of:.--...-....---.---------2----+-------- 15

POX, Mr. .Je@sse0Wiessae sccccscs ccc cacsmccccsscbeasasocsiss capsecsieeaaismaecseecascs secceeeceae TOL Ids
PRADINUS NOMA ao ones Dac cn nee cos eae cl te meses oe Sesion s sec lecom cna eaiser een ieneeeetoseseteeneee 103
COMACED we ono as.tace dese Se eeeuece cus ecco Secimecescme crests oa sbe se sceaneeneeceeere 103

IMremont Islands saesocise ce se ccs cdatsaea caso Sake seat be oe Saco cauciseeeeensioe ce acne ee nen Sema tican uOcTOd,

River winrie ablegandsiof GhGysecsscacieaes+ cle aasi steer nein eee er eter career 157
ADHD OUENSES) OE TNE 5 5 pac5 Hoo Sou cas sob esas acns H5Sh650Sa0 Sone sccee cos pcssser 157
Volume of tows olathe ce. catelscscinecc cy eacatee Scie melee ete stele el eee enor 157, 158
Gilberts Ga Kerictbedtesaces\es= sea t= a eeaee ease a eeeia eae Sd Done OSHnES Doomog Coen saScacsE deanca 84, 110
on irrigable land of the Salt Lake drainage system..--....---...-.----..--.--- 113
QUIN UES NB Ano S5Sn.cec5 Gabe coop bandos oooode aeoeaSnSSecc coneoo oHesoORes oS 57
Government right) to use of subsidized railroads: 22-- 2. 22-6 2-22 s enon nm ene ens see ane eae ae aa 181
GrandsRiverlimmicabledlandsiofaihe)sses esse steae ees aa ae eee aera eee eaten ets ree 163
iVolumeyo fet owgo tthe ee emotes ote ae aie te ee eet ta ete ere 163
Grasses.of the pasturage lands. 5522-222 s2c2 cocese ec eec conse cece easecs enseanesccosseceeces 19
LOPE S56 6 Sbe5d Seed en cb eseo cmb SSO eee Ha AGS Sacn cont HoSSed Ben Iee ashe peoaces ears 107
Great Salt dake: Accumulationiof® the waberainesesosssece see eee sense ane ee eee eee eee 58
ATCA Olas oe ee cee Ae Te Seis Onan steam ninco ware oS oicie 6 creme Riot iete aoe 66,73
Basin. (See Great Salt Lake District.)
Causesiof abnormalichan geo fesesastese eee see eee ee eee eee aes eee eee aee 67
OES) qian e om HOn aaa oo Sas ioeco cboE SHOU O=c5 DOSE AGEC Se OdHeeSEOdSeanOedac saesoC 66
Diaoram showin e118 and taillllO faerie cies o ieee ete tele ere eee ete 64
1D Eng Lip SOS Ree eSd SE OREO ED CEDSRD acaSas Oa SOS BOS GAO SNINOSESS UESOMA SSCS 94
Amountiof imipable land in theess=-ssesssee—s ences se seee ease eee 107
Change in’ theiclimate of theese sesereereeenseses eee ae ese eeeeeee 68, 70
Deseription of the -22-- 22 --ee sees eee eatee eens senna ence eoeeee see 107
Innigable land stot ease eee sees eee eet ae tea tee 113

Pluctuations inthe raintallof thesessseensceses a-+e-=-se=- sec eeeeee 7

INDEX. 187

Pa
Great Salt Lake District, Irrigation by large streams in the ..---------- +--+: ----+----+++-++- “W
Bmalll streams; In The... 5. 2-225. coos coc n we sone coe csice 126
Evaporation of the water of ...- ---- ---- --2. s-2- =--- esecee cone concn score ee 58, 72
History of the past changes of... ..-- .2-- 2-2 e220 ---- 22 eo eee eens Sees cee eee 62
Increase and decrease of: the size of... .... ---- ------ woo cee e seen ooo en ee eee 58
TS] A110 fee ee re ee ea ett Cec mnse sc acee cescie nscale 62
Taimited oscillation Ofeas see ae ce mace eta eae o eee ole ae atceieecsacces = se see es 59
IGiMIiOleWwave ACULOM Olea scan see tase naaes aeesee ee ea eclecci ae sales Sama ws == 65
Record ofeheirhtwot esas scan saa cestisees Cosa codec cemie cite vicm=ai= a msino=s sein 60
PASO andi Ore eete ceite cee smle cee cece ceed cumieesatceescccicawanes weemacc sss 59
StormulinosOlses settee stances eciee temas Sa eae cence ce ncrewarea side asteeesisnce 65
Streams flowing into. oo. soc cca cceccwas coeeinee soe BE REO C EOL ADEE CAG AaSecoe 72
Green Rivers Irrigablovlandsiof thes 222-2. cen cacs cone soos cose cadeses eee escccecens Sncsesicnns 162
Volumeloretlows Of thOle-no = oseescece sectasons see cm ascnssce Same neaccsecweastcesals 162
TUDTHSONS Oaplaileeenaeme nace Sonn aoe ce cee aces Sense an ac eesmicess sacs cesses seo cniossese > 98
AV] ey Seen erie ine Oe ren ae A cee ne oe ase anls eee acm alow eemesRealcewawae=a/oee sees 105
TeripabloWands Of thé.-sc).ccacescesec cece se soccces sae cinssereancesicasssnss 163
Hayden. Dri ly Viecesicete cose esac oss cesidaseccontcsslececesiacette sca cS cacniss/oe'sescarivessems ‘ 71
Henry, Mountains’. ssccssc cose cose recs cone sos sau -aceccieciccseleeneinnsasera sors csaccaeseiaisswcns= 105
Profle. JOS pl acceesiosnatectccceecieseacceitsclseccicea ces es sees coc cine nainislscive’saaiannn'aaa 46, 59, 62,79
Henrys Fork, Irrigable lands of 2... <2 c-06 2222 cece ee cone ewes cons cen n ns cnc cce cnc c ee cane ne ee 161
Tlinois, Wand) erantsto. 222 see scecc sce essence cwesat cece cosensocceescsasssesseca=s\casicem= 168, 172
Increase in water supply in the Arid Region.---. BH Ge ee oeet asec abide $e se aieanas al sanidac OO 1OUs 0)
DP TAA Tal le ee = Oe oe oe een cee tt ae eee Bebe ee ac SakemereC Suaaae ses oeeinaiee 69,91
Indiana WAaAndeerante:tOeccceesccns 19 <--csiaccoosemeasiseaisiamieiace/sss==- scons none se aclemaa~e 166, 167
Internal improvements, Land grants in aid of -.-.....-.----++---- + +--+ --- + eee ee eee cree 165
Towa, Wand! prants t0.cse=son- ene sinct ass we ce ne anos were com cor ecieseeee anna seen ananasinces 169, 179
Trrigable and pasturage lands of Utah......--..------ -- +--+ see eee eee eee cee eee cece cee eee 104
areas, Increase of, by storage of water ..---..----- .-++ -2--2+ eee ee cee eee eee eee 12,13
land, Area of, sometimes not limited by water supply .-..-------.+--++----+ ---+--+- 85, 86
Extent of, increased by the use of springs ..---------.-----+------+-++-+------ 9
TAU Gh s AMOUNG OL. ccet<iseoeeco-ncinse = ceeda serine seselssesceiscn menos nes cece 9
land Seelam ceceeie ese tscoeseemcosencce< Pie Sate eens ae eee oon eee ates y= 23
Amount of water required for....-.-------. ---- ----20 2222 eee eee eee eee eee 84
Misposelmoteses settee sees ee neee eee nee ene escent ea eicna 27
highly productive ...--...----2--- -e- 220 -- eee eee teen eee renee cere ee ree cees 10
Important questions relating to --..--.. ---------- +++ +-++ eee e ee ere cere sents 81
Increase in the extent of the.-.- .--. -.---- ---n00 wee nee cee e ee cone ooo eee e eens 57
in Utah Territory, Table of ..-.-..--- ---------+ -- 2222 2222 cee e ce eee eee e cree 111
pfsouthwosternm! Utah ..<2es 2s-cecieccee--eceecsie== rie 5 -<lnwve orien scossarismsce 148
Of thew oloradO Baslies.c e--cee 2-2 0lesecine eee e asinine sen ~ sine wiewismcieia~ise 150
MablevOle cane ees cet eases ea oceeeaaniane + co eelescainastis ania 164
Breatinal take) DiStiiCherssccecsoe cee soeelocciclecnalnae a 26 san mele niei= 113
Neely bakOwistriCh sascscieecie- cee canieaee Selaas= a2 a ma~ecen—e= Sam niases 134

valley of the Sevier River ..-. ---------------+ +--+ +--+ 0-2-0 cee ree reece 128

188 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Iripable landsiofmhemVateim ven see stes sets em ae semaine sees ee elastase ete a ia ate ia lela eater ee,
of Utah}, Distribution of theses.css-cc-cose cieeeieioe etnies oe ni=< cena ereaseriemer 9
Selectioniofes-neasceiaseeeea= no dau Andode doocosones connSs HOSaodSU eS onbS S56 coon 87
Situation of thetceescsos seen ote seen cete ie eiiaesee cele scelosceicciemas ser eeice 6

lhpuier nba CRANE (CEO! cosa oso5 cans coooso Goce beso cceS Ob TOne SpSE Doed osop SeonSe dSAcao bécnea< 125

MEbHOdSs lM TOW ENO IGT ae eee ate aaltepet ate 8

EERO Gop cose co cnodas Shee SSase7 coeese cosetincnne oSoa boos Bosc csso SHS coe eote cesses 85

Ibe UKEP H AOA, ONG K PANES) O log ooen Se Seco cane Gseo Basse sans CSEO coCoSS Gee SteeenS SScese Saesecgcos 10
AMOUNT OL wraberm eed Cit OTe waste eee tare telnet a tol ate elie teat aa 114

WAY SSeS eae Geos Sdobecoccecs DeeEec cone asses tents osebnc 141

companies. --=--.---.. BA COES SeMERI sebedL Hocece cedasa Hoses Soocét Sho soteceeseorsss 40
Coéperative labor necessary to the development of ...--..--.------------+--------- 11

Direct influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake -......--..----.----------- 75)

Indirect influence of, upon the inflow of Great Salt Lake...--.-.-.-.---.---.------ 76

(ye jG UMeR ex AN) ose ee See eo5eas Boones S500S0 Jnodor Jasco asEaeoosmossanop nocese 21
Quantitative value of water used in <2 ~ oes ooo ee eerie a een on ne 81
Unitiotawaterusedinkes = ssseer ose soneere = see eeaeoee es cremate tae e Ree eet 81

Isohyetal line of twenty ANCHOR emo id ask, Petes See oe ae Ree re ee ee ces 2
AGG TRIE Ro So.5a5 cones 259 6960 ¢6eS00 BSeS5 Desde SA SSS SoS Sas Osco sasoso sso Sscssosessc ss0s 121
drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the.......-.--.------.----+ «----- +--+ 124

JAMGEN OLE THING) c= Samo aoe SoCo eU SOO CoO I> secotassoygsosssoesse0 ss05) 125

isthaltthige @? UNG pasnos baaseo cscSetiasecas cba5 noad GonSSU ono SsonsenSgasnsso saasse 72

BI Tikalhs JEU GTS opcemee Doo soo Ce Oo0 CODECOSHaSos CeSSSc Gseces copp-eess-6 sqcnce sadoos aoe aapooc 109
Juniperus Californicus - ..---0---- 2-2 22-2 eee eee ee ee ree cee ene cee nen cen ee eee ee eee 103
Virginiana..--- Hep age REO BboGeS DSSEas GSU sou REeooS Daudaocodd Sasa toons cone ddecco boca 103

Kanab Creek, Irrigable lands of...--. .----.------ --- +--+ = eo ene e teen ne = nen cee een eee nee 154
Tetse(ibheys (0)? Beno asco Gone Beso noes SosicoocSoeeS Deoaso enn oseece Sa aseecocndacsaD c= 154

Kansas, Land grants to...-.. ------ 222. -e00 -- 2+ -- 22 cone eon = ene nnn een one een eens ene 178,179

Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the..---...---. .--..----. - ------ -----+ ---- 177

Kamball Mr beberibia= eet nominee aa aoe lee iam eet 61

King, Mr. Clarence .... ..---. ---. = ------ - 220 22 cone cnn mene cone cen cen ene wens enn renee e nee 66

Wake Bonneyillemecerer cosmic ce sels oe etree els ee ansaid elena = fete le lote telat ole aaa oie 96

UtahsHunction 0 fvas8ia Tesely Olt meee a a aee alae eo eae areola ale welt lala tele 123
Land grants in aid of internal improvements .---- .------------- --------+++----+ eee 25 eee: 165
Lands, Classification of ....-. .--. ---+-----+ 2-222 eee ee eee cee cee cee eee cee eee tee 43

Irrigable. (See Inrigable Lands. )

Of! Utah\sc ses cises a oeae sass sacs ace afosice eeetelote ete oinleyaeini= orient eceielenennee 93
and Idaho fertilized by water .-.- ---- --.- --- 2s. - scene oe ee oon = 23 = = ~~ n= ~ == 75
Physical features of the...-...----.-~---- -----+ 22222 eens eee ee ee eee eee eee 93

Pasturage. (See Pasturage Lands.)

Land system needed for the Arid Region... -----------------++--++ ---++-222+ eee ee cere e eee eee 25

Leavenworth, Lawrence and Galveston Railroad Company, Land grants to the --.----.------- 178

Lower Columbia Region ..---. .----. -----2 --- 22+ oo 28 2 e 2 cee ee eee cee ree renee tenes 1

Precipitation of the ...-- as te Se ee See once ease sectwodeccastasees 49

INDEX. 189

Page.
Marshes) Tait at Ge tem mmesa pee etn cs aie ane malay coe teiniamieenis ais eye fiaisiereiaieteacis om n= = Ha. aln aad ale em — 74
Evaporation from.. .. 74
Martineau, Mr: J. H.......--.- 113
Mean temperature by seasons for the San Francisco Region ...-.. .... 2. -------- ----2+ eee ee : 54
Methodiofidetermiminoxthe supply Of Water <<< 2-5 2 ...sccs can nee ese eres ene neice sane we nienn 85, 86
INDYClaneg a, IDERNGL PAT sce pete Be CCUDTE eC eCEe NEES seu eNO emnSce co SceCeSesed se ee Seaae Hene 179
Ml Terpe hiner aCODme ene meee Nica chase nas wamecsine So cecdaccet own eter ene cece cece ee ceccteacse 61, 62
MIN GT As Uns eee tena eet se ae see = Saal eae seen dant as accesories saints ot eerie 44
Disposaliot. sean eesia acl ate are is Sic ase Newica aloo em eroe 44
not suited to agriculture 44
Minnie Maud Creek, Irrigable lands of 160
Volume of flow of 160
Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad Company 176

MiIssissippiE Valley lOwsOtmunerlVvers Oni Oremmasaesaanwatanse elena ces eaes oacse.cc/sese snes 76
Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad Company, Land grants to the.......----.----.----+.---- 178
handsorants Loser sacttes sects aae sere vecmcte cmccise cmiosier scans seciss seccce ears 179
Mitehel Pein (0 Wie latenseneete eee msteee say acta ete aia ce ome ate ies cea mcle tia lee cae wa oem nee 59
Mon opolyzo tap asburas Geran Svan a sete este eam cele ee fae canis = ee aisaainta win sis aay a aials ain] ccisiesiee =) 22
Mountaing Pllent yy esses testes ose ese hne ena eee see ane Baa a ates ens se an gescee 105
Uinta. (See Uinta Mountains.)
Wasatch. (See Wasatch Mountains. )
NEGUNAOMACENOULES == alors nln a etamvied a ci-lereioia[efe'aisiviclclisieveleielny sla.cisisisie!s[ajehu's wieta)sje(ae'eis\o 103
Nevada, Mean annual precipitation in 79
New Mexico and Arizona, Seasonal precipitation im -... 02. 12-6. 225. 122 -- cences copereeese-- 56
New Orleans and Nashville Railroad Company, Land grants to the ............-----.--------- 168

New York, Rainfall of the State of

Ohio, Land grants to....---- notes
Ohio Valley, Rainfall of the.----.......-.--.-.-
Orographic structure of the Book Cliffs .--.-.--------.--------------- ---------
Colonado drainage: area 22222. So scs occ csccce cess ceceesceccesice ees 95
Desertidrainaere area ts. 2socc.tascce nas seiesesclcawle- sce eaaeseicesie 95
(Chinas Mountainsisan snaccose sane Fe aoe se aoe seaeeneaas 97
Wasatch: Mountains) 22-1: socseseecestaas eecccercenccms cess scicct= 96
Pacific coast, Seasonal precipitation and temperature of the..-.- Bociioceiisccce eds Stvesee LAMA 55
PanguitchsVialley,.Amountiofurnipable land) in). ccjocceesenc sas sce anscaccceesecs sess sas sss 136
Paria River, Irrigable lands of the - 155
Wolimerotat ommoteth@ersc. saan clan sini =e eae eetaas 155
12h Died Kola i645 655505 HSOSS0 SHOORE CORO DDS EI mEEneS BodSoe Dascbo cera borne Boa weee esses A 59
Pasturage farms, Division lines of ..-...<--. .-ss<- --s-<0.c50 o-- dnbes ndcacdnauods Baeeetbe Sears 22, 28, 37
Irrigation) ofe 25s... < CHASH dodequbsugno sade cdeceebBeaudseea eR aesconeric 21
mecdismall tracts ofirrigable land 22 Seccses eo cce teens snscac ces secce sincere 21,28

190 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Page.

Pasturage lands, Boundaries of ...--..---- BEOSOSSSS05 8255 SONEISD Gono HONDO SHER Steaencccosecas 19
Disposaliof- cscs cenisce ome sscses Qs S SEBS SHO ROSbbCR SSaaec CONcad aso Saaenesade 28

xen Of: ssaasisess/sccece sais sine e oe acon ee ee Sere cee enon eee ee eee e ree nneee 19

Harm anit ifOr \Sscosaec-tervcosmccaiccsenesecahecsscsces ocOne oct eee 21, 28

MencingOf coo ess seas esemaseteseneciss saeeee esceesc —sn)seee nets nateeeeaemeee 23

(GrassesiOfethe i - o-ssee ese a ealsonelceee seine eete cr coeme eee OBS boas HoseesoS0gs 19

Monopoly olsthe =--seese cee seeeae een n ee aoe ee eee een eee eee eee eee Enero 22
partially/supplied by scattered Springs =---\-2-)2ss2 «see noes see ae cleeeeeseeeer 21

SIUMETOUIT OS UG! Gogeconododh pocdsecs soctocan stoncemescasnscsesease Saeogdesbe 6

EN AGINVULES! CONVNUMNIS a wialewie oat alee enisineaiseieatnnetie eral cecal ae tena eine eee eee eee eee 109
PUNUS OMISUGE oaloio aete nats a aletn lala alnte ws oe aaeia= aiale aisle ae eee a a See ese eee eee Sean eee eee Eee eens 100
COWS gemma nayoaeinslointse astra aaete em aeie sats nine hen seteceele See eciseee SCE O SEER Ee CADOHOTOEAG 100
PRN Sarees tees coe ae ee eee Te ama ee See Se ne ae oie eae Bee eee ee 100
MUOTUMNCOLG) atetars) ome wsinte 9 Faint alsin aelenms eae Veh ee ome se asta senie siete se cee Sane ceaie ee eee 100
FUELS ROU 06 Ba GODd CO EOI HEAD EE BODOS6 DDD BO> Hana cubSRb Sescda46e5 bese coe qoou dicen casein 100
Pioneers sn benprise;an dain Gus tcles|0 fee eeee eae see eee nee ate eee eee 41
TEI RHEEHTEE ANN) Jeb one cso. cbco SAREed C2550 0SSE00 COCO EHS eOH Db SSnn aSSenS DEBS SEB HiScasoSscodess 94
Plateau ehavalp UUs see meet esate a= setae alee = icleela) oaeanele ea aoe oie ante eee 93
MERE) o56525 soossn ca5se0cescce suns 5 OSS ODS BE56 5560 SE06 ASne soSaso caso osteo cdenca $4e0 105

TRUDE Boee 6ebocd Snob pooooS ShOnS6 SbaSEs caeneSShso BH Sse doSS HS ScSo Hoes Goad coSeeSascecsonsseos 108
IRD GINS oa60 SSocoGoDese eaSee Boone Gacdbep socn Boca Deda tases cose Saso car Sdcsd soos eoonSbuecds 12,13
LAGE, WENO INKL Wes) WEEE OT a5 ooo coe cco Scop aoed Sa SeSe Sane Gas bH6s Saoo casa odso sos 73
Populus angustifoud .- << == een one eens nen omen co nens aoecio sac Os aseSaS SoceenSseescosssscs0¢ 102
TEGO Soo G30 0eS Ba6s 5255 08a SaS0 OS Gens CS5E50 CSS Sed eae Sooses coos oeas eases soeoce 102

URDU Sepa ceo CO0s Sen 09] 30 6005 Bode DSA Necos0 cnnd abcd Sosod ors Boge seer cess ceseac 102
Preeipitation mithe Rerioniof the Plains 22- = o..-(-se ee em wee elee alan nem ele ele ole le eee 52
Meanvannnrall, in! olorad Olesescisemeales ae -iee EE eae ace ener asbecesone 79

INGWANG Bhs S6o5 coos 500 sHSes SaaS CoS ocos sadness cheoetotsconessse5 79

WIPO, ore bopSceconssumorS nob DSonoN aooSc0 Saesoe éSceroesondestes 79

WADERS 655 one coco cmbescoNSSacD Sans osceSo Sas SSdooSes9sese05 79

Talon Hal Ce (Haley OL hvien eA eth eye eo o cop ose oma SOOO CSInces Soon Sec so 0e55 SecoensecS os 1

Ot WUAIRG Re) osc oninsen heen ce boSeos Conoco case bosese Sosinss Hacc. capecooese ns oosace 51

ANE 555555 os sb eeSoSs oonSEd See 2 Se Aa eR SRR s SE Sea ate ea 50

las) ZATaG | Terr, cos oee eaoSes sone Seng Seren Ooceeasocecin Sso5 OnaSSSsSSao5 48

Repioniof the Lower Colum Dia. =o oe eee i nee aioe nine lenne 49

Spinel DOE REI (e0) INERT 655555 cooHse comets Sa cesenSrned pose Sen sesacsoscesce 49

Shillings TREY eas pase sooo eccOdoSos0 onema Sosccousecosomsssass0 47

Precipitation, Seasonal, of the Pacific Coast -.-----.-----------------------+----++----+------ ” 55
Price River, Irrigable lands of the ........---------- -----+ -----+ se-0-+ 2+ +--+ +--+ +--+ +--+ ---- 159
Volume of flow of the ..---- -- 2-5-2202 -pacmnn omen en nnn ane Cee nnn sane enews === 159

Provo River... -- .2c sce 2.2 ces ene commen conn n none nnn wns ones e n= wenn ens cane ser ase weness sesens 121
Public lands, How to acquire title to .......-..------ ------ o---2- ~~ one «2 os = = 0 oon 25
(QE ETE TTL Teese B00 GREG BEE BOO0GS E00 5o COSU BS bo nS S556 Scenes Ss ecese0 Sa SoeC mans ceeecs Sane 103
Railroads, Land grants in aid of .-..-. 22. ----20 cee nee .o-eee one nne = nne owe nnnne onnne 165, 168, 172
Rainfall; Areallidistribution Of. <--. <=) --- ccs =e so = alealen eine lane enews aad ee re 82
90

Conditions affecting the distribution of..-.........------- «---.----. ---- ------------

INDEX. 191

Page.
Rainfall, Distribution of, throughout the year ..---.----.--++------ + e-2eee cere eee ee nee 50
ImCraase Olen meee eee se slassaalenconusitccsienseacises===an-—msinsseinnea= Slscehiesec cannes 91
of the Arid Region .----. .0. 200 ---- 20 nnn nnn nnn ewan em neinneesecnn nan cane rete ccce 5,48
belt between Great Salt Lake and Wasatch Mountains .....----.-----+-------- 6,79
Sub-humid Region...-.- Pe asehencceesee eek rst aniecceesleasens ca cininniepecm sie sis 4,47
of the western portion of the United States...-...----.------- +--+ +--+ --++0erre oe MG
Rain gauge records ..-.-....--- .----- ---- eee sn- 22 oon 2 oon nan eens arenes ene e ee een ane anes 1,3, 91, 131
Meficlency: Olive see. <c ccs sea aan cecocees ones. aennnwinsnissanae sarees cereco =: il
“Rainy seasons” ......-2 cc on cane = aameceses ccoticcns semecsiseaacemawewcciaees 25, 50
RANGES; BASIN es cacisc ce else toe =ino sna -a ccc cenaam anna ns one en ss see ascisens == namneecnocnee cms 94
Recordss Raing@auvOcasse-s cscs --lseseen =~ 3-2 nlojw se sain merieresinandec= anna aac ceeene nance 1,.3,91, 131
Region of the Lower Columbia. (See Lower Columbia Region. )
of the Plains, Seasonal precipitation in the. -....---------.-- ---+---- +--+ sere ee eee eee 52
San Francisco. (See San Francisco Region. )
Sub-humid. (See Sub-humid Region. )
Renshaw Cadets aeee es ae clean cls coc esac cccsicccclewsesmnace = cieseieles==[niemne cies sinnia- == 113, 153
IROSELVOLLS ee Soe re ee lncaicl ecole cesicaecocies anc cvesinincmnic\'nwcs, sss 5s0/ss veins seice! sn 12, 13, 85, 144
River, Bear. (See Bear River. )
Colorado. (See Colorado River.)
Duchesne. (See Duchesne River. )
Escalante. (See Escalante River.)
Fremont. (See Fremont River.)
Grand. (See Grand River.)
Green. (See Green River.)
Gunnison. (See Gunnison River.)
Jordan. (See Jordan River.)
Ogden. (See Ogden River.)
Paria. (See Paria River.)
Price. (See Price River.)
Provo. (See Provo River.)
San Rafael. (See San Rafael River.)
Sevier. (See Sevier River. )
Uinta. (See Uinta River.)
Virgin. (See Virgin River.)
Weber. (See Weber River.)
White. (See White River.)
Rivers, Land grants in aid of improvement of ----.--. +--+ - .----+ +--+ e+ 2-5 tere ne ee ener eee 169
RockwoodsehHon. Au Beese ssp tan cc a= sacle com scsccsaciciencs sssecs casas aneiasiesinnicnemecine men~ mms 113
San Francisco Region, Mean temperature, by seasons, of the ..---------.------+----+ +--+ -+----- 54
Precipitation of the ...-.-..---. 1222 -- ---- 22-0 = ene none cee e ee ewes ones 49
Rainy season of the .... ---. --- 2-2 seen e cone cee en eee ee emcee nee sone 54
Seasonal precipitation in the .....--------+-- ++ +--+ --22---+ e222 eee ee: 53
San Pete Valley, Amount of irrigable land in the...-.------------- +--+ --2--+ 2-22 ee eee eee eee 138
Mlowsotathowstreams Of tDO.-- a. s\-ss seen eeeiees cert alee seas sla =— lec ~elenseee in 138
San Rafael River, Irrigable lands of the.----..----------. ------ e222 222 eee eee eee e eee reese 158, 159

Trbutaries of the ..--. Ree See Soe Selene eee ercces mblad e PP REL oS ac cere 158

192 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

: Page.
San Rafael River, Volume of flow of the..---.....--..------ ---- -- ---------- ---- ---- e----0--- 159
Schott; Mrs(@harles AV ooo sc oo. ccioete nee anls ana eeere iene nears isel= =o oe an) ae 46, 69
Seasonal precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast ......-.-------------+------+---- 55
Thi AoabAeyenoGl Nhs WES) 3555 Goaedecode cobscS Sa eocd cose eascdececad 56
Seasonal precipitation in the Region of the Plains .-..---.--..--.-.+---------- BA See abr caer 52
San Francisco Region -. ~~ -- 2. 02-5. 28 - en ween oe n= wn een nnn wae 53
Selectioniof imgableilands|=2sces wa eet- em il-cinlesee sem toe fae eel eee em mma ilo 87
Sevier lake sBasine-eecee eee tei eee oie ea oe ee wo eo io OE Beem = eerie) 94
VTS re 01h Se ee eet SS REAR ACCC ROOaD Oo SBAosoaLon accuoscoscnsdassccas 94
NRG ESN TG) Sooo neon bese cong oases 055000 Daeood Baeoboss cocaanosoSeasocs 133
Amount of irrigable land in the ..---..---- POSS Epes eHcetetG saaosae 106, 143
@limatetohathess..—. =. scss oman sae eee oe os nel ee eel amie ala = = alae) = eli 131
Description of the...--.---- .----- ------ -- 2220 2 - === een eee eee n eee 106
Trrigable lands of the.----.-.-- BaGk SALES SoU SMa Sas ae 1 epee nee een 134
Physical characteristics of the 130
anmfalto teh Gmencts=aeseeeee aes eei== = é asonSseese Speer 131
Rain gauge records of the .-.--..--- ---.------+----+ +--+ ----2+ ee -eee eee 131
Tener, (Cube OIE TING) S655 coon so osecce copSae coos cos cod obos Tegp TOSESsEBSSeScacssOSSoDNES 129
Volumerofitlowiohuthesec secre eck ceo en cen: See koe cece eeice cossjcccuecmece een moO sO
Inrigable lands of the valley of the. .....----------------+---------+++--2+ +--+ e--2 +--+ 128
Walleyioththe nese eeaeer weioe Ose 26 SSS EEB TS COU COBO REEE EA Se SS AIDBEOOCESRBEScanticss= 129
STG bpy ish 25 sees asoscoceeesbece conse 256 oS SOC OSS BEBE REO BOC ROSU Can Spee Rename abesscosos 105
Sioux City and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the..-.-.--------------------------- 1i7
Smithsonian Tables of Precipitation. ..-.-...----.--------------- -0-- ------------ eee nese eee 46, 69
Soil and subsoil, Complicating conditions of......-.-. --.-.----. ------------------ +e 2eeee ee eee 83
(ChpasbimONI ON! so 5qpodoopsoo sooo. coo Sco aed RSs -6 cOS6S6: 106 N60 canes CoGEeS ees seochoaconcaccs 82
RSI paenee oo noe BASR ad Geeedad Se5056 Haas Soaec bad eseecD Basa Saased Seno Neco aOmarmnrabcom.. cts 145
Southern Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the..--.-.--.----------------------------- 179
Springs, Opening out of...--.-.-. ---------+ -----+ e222 ee ene eee nen reer een eee eee 74
Use of, in irrigation... .----- 2-2. ------ ee -n- eon eens none cee eens ee ene eee eae 9
Stansbury, Captain Howard...-...--..----- -------------- ++ ++ +--+ 2+ 2002 cere rece rene cree ee -64, 65, 66
Te Us ee pee oeccinoomce cacncs sagnce sEacos Sapa SeemEaseQ rene so tass 67
Dal coseecics coeneccclee enon sects ae as cee ete een = mm in alee elie 64, 67
Streams, Descent of -... .----- --20 o= once oon a eee nn ne w= we nen nn enn omnes onan noma nn mana cnns 88
flowing into Great Salt Lake ......---.---.-----------------------++---+ ++ 2-222 ---e- 72
Flow of, at different periods .....--------- ---------- +--+ ---- ---+ e225 teers eee eee 13
Increase in the volume of ....-----.---- -----+ ---- ------ s-- 9-2 ---- - 2+ ------ 2-2 =e 57
Measurement Ofsn--eoeeneesieeeses oo. oe oe eee ee eee Op cm mie ccn oe since ccaceace sees 86, 115
of San Pete Valley, Volume of flow of the.....--.---------- -------------+----------- 140
of Utah, Fluetuations of the....--...--------- +--+ -----+ -----+ e+ 2 e222 terete cree eee 115
- Practical capacity of.----. -----2---- «<= 2-0 cee o- eens een ens cone eens cone enone ne 85
small, Employment of, in irrigation ....-...---.---------- +--+ ----++---+ +--+ -+-+---- 75 tale
Strong’s Knob -... 2... ---- ------ e222 ee ene eee cece ee cee ne cen eee neces renee teens cere eee ee 67
Sub-humid Region, Boundaries of the...--. .----. -----+ +--+ --- 2 e222 e222 eee rere eee ee 3
destitute of forests ..---. .--- -.-- ---- 00m cnn eneewae ene enna ence ene oe 4
Mean precipitation of the ....-------.---- ----+ -----+ --- 2 0-22 eee 2 eee - 47
Rainfall Of the 222 ---<--.cas2e-- naa nocemne eaamlontmieenl= an lane a ean onsen 4

ee

INDEX. 193

; Page.
Supply, ofiwateryMetodotedetermining the a2 mee nciemaaieesn ies welninnans cane seas -a-0-5=-5e5-c0 85, 86
Table I. Precipitation of the Sub-humid Region ...-.....-.- .----- .----0s2-ee- Nese sels 47
106 PATIOS ROP LO Weeistete eecleteehsietereciad= a5! aja oacisien niece </-- <0 48

Il. DS anpE ran ClacOwmenl O lige Sessa cae, so esice cs (n' 5 chai = slalemapec soe 49

TVic Region of the Lower Columbia...........----..2---. .--s00-- 49

V. Maxnmgeeete ces necessities pecan ceiews sseiencdeses -ocee ce < + =e 50

VI. Ml) KO betters tem tatectsiieete ete soet ce o/s ors sicjceNacietey.ce<ss.<5 5 65,<< 51

VII. Season of precipitation in the Region of the Plains.........-...---...-2.--2.---- 52

VILL. San Francisco Repion -2sc<2.-2525 22 cSesceccueceses 8)

IX. Mean temperature, by seasons, for the San Francisco Region ........------------- 54

X. Seasonable precipitation and temperatures on the Pacific coast ...--.........-.-- 55

XI. in Arizona and New Mexico ..........---.-------.------- 56
OfTMISay om ANAS mNs WA MWiee ame ciwewinwie ocieweels wees ewe on cloceslesSancsmc~ eecseeennscenn 111
OlesOUUun wy esbernt U Ualnemateceses eoceocmecece (sc cesscaanst a= s\iace se 149

OfetheUolonad opbas tere jommaine stenoses eins tele ealsisiestucosicescasss 164

Sevier Wake MistriGhisauwec st lewosetlscclate=dic'csisisivieciisice sb eeiusie 144

of mean annual precipitation in Colorado.............--------.---- 0. Seone en eno 79
NGViad ttecmstecestescice SCD SOL ESO Sica cseteetsiodesicesocccs 79

Witahipeen aateetereetaee ree cteeeteceeesmeicsanis waa na ae eee 79

WiVOMING oS ceeecamioe pole nite uceaccccscecisacmnewces 79

Tiavia UUs ea teal wencmeectas oceans <a eecate sas ancceslanaciowanicslone wat sina see ameelececccsisenses 93
DrainarerotetnOgee sence te casinc acetic eee sss aictee cess cess cass cceseceete ce 96
Temperature dependent upon altitude and latitude ..-- 02. 222... -0. ce ee cone eee cee nee ween 2
Memperatures; seasonal, on-thewPaciiic Coast -seseacoceiss a) -cc~ cans caccc ses sos secccss sacsescs 5a
Texas and Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the .........-..---- 2.2 -0-2-------- eee legs)
TROD ROTLOE 8 e ee 58 BESO COB CHEER SC CEET OSES BOOS A AR ee a ee ey 50

heye chaeia teaU sweetest eee as mene met tee seteriaca so aeeinetaianas cn cers sane. ce case aeons 4
Thomas werots CVlssaseae ects ey aacicce Bee ee nas ee ose ane lowe aac naee es joeaseaee 71
MHompPsON we LoL eAGP LM CILUCM eesetecoolteoete sata eon -/aco eon meametaslerecoocteceesceeeeseeecs (60; 110
on the irrigable land of the Colorado Basin...-.....--.---.---.-------- 150

ELUM b Clesnetatmemeclerteatncnestsatactestschicss cele clos sc icteia = .civicte Sole se drsictbie/s aiarele leisiula io sieislacreteiSeicciceras,

AT CASIOM RUAN OI Obeetem iene aaiteica mena seaiecdcncinweecsascancscccisassstaccereeccess: | LOI
Cultivation of

Destractlomoryelteecsee =< se-) ssa
growth dependent upon climatic conditions... ...-.-.--. 2-2 see c. ee wane ooo eos ce enes 14

PROUT ah CRO Mat DOMmeny Sateen a pclae an Nae alee neers cerane sa nmaseeeemes ce cetccee pr lad
Wisposalloteihees ees ---525<1--5 AeA SRE NCEA SES AcE o pac Beosass Sse cosarits
SliUallonOimulolesestsesc ates cece secs cfects names once ccectccsem arsenic se neeeeane 6,14

TEES ss cos os beso teSSHEGSIE COBDS ODOC IDOE DURE ESE nO RS SEO SEE Selo ec Semer Bae cee ois #15
IEFXPONUIOMELI GRMN te Sine cz asic ams Son cics cor cee eeteaies octets eeinict eeisc c= Se sore 16

NOSE LN OEE Seance Se csonice cork io bide joe welectecteeslsceriscscics wc w2es <2 15; 17,1899

Titles tompUD UCM ANd Seeeeeeteme nea ae circa clio Ss foseiccices a sclecisaewniee cle ceiscesewncsiscerssecne 25
Urntas Mountains eee renee meer cs tne s-coe ose 2acu meee eee cee cls see se eeioee cccclateect vccaese ae 93
Wraina cote Gus - slo. =< ascoee veneers eee eee foe oe inaseecooassseeke 96

@rographicistructurceiof the... <5 /o---- coo e coc wne enw ces--=- peewee nee 97
25 A R.

194 LANDS OF THE ARID REGION OF THE UNITED STATES.

Uinta River, Ivrigable lands of the...... .---.----------+ -----+ + =e soascc sce - Fe eee co

Mbravbibkqshete stag WG bee oer Ser ere © Soma Se Ae peo crocs ast

160

Volnmeof HOwiOl Ue tee etae eaten elo te Seema aicean ee See ones Aon ae ee -- 160,161

White Basin <.<2 54 pe cewerece eer ele ao a io) a artes oes cee enn eivte winehe eelsipies ein on ae Naira

Amount of irrigable lands in the.......----- ------ .----- ------ coon ne ene eee

3 Description of the .- ..---- 2222-22-22 cee re ene ee een cree ce ene cee eens

Physical features of the ..---. .----- ----0- --- 202 coer ne wen ee ones See ee

Union Pacific Railroad Company, Land grants to the ...--. ..---- .----- +----+ +-+-+-+--------- %

93
105
104
160

Unit of water supply -.--- .---- Rae Ser bec a pos caneseee— Rita sescrss- 2+ sb scsscesccc 8, 84, 115, 141

Method of determining’ the.-.2-. .2 2... cee cne oe eee e ce wees wo wo 2 nee ene =e

ised in iVigation ..- 22. 22.22. pene eo ee eee ee ne eee ee oe ce ene nn on coe ne cowen eae

Utah, Amount of cultivated land in...--. 222... 62 eee) ee ene pe eee cere cone cee es cee e ne ce eeee-
Church government in...-...-...- .----- «+--- Peseta ee ett a lor aetcint aiid eit el ote tel aero
Drainage Of .--- 2. ..220- ene cee eee ee ene ce ne eee cen cone cere een n ee cece ne cow nee cnne
Rorest trees Ols--2 22 soo aen chet <> mk ee ce ree eee emelneecnaienssin ahaa oan ee ae an ene
Grasses Of s.2 26's Sock os ec <p eee ws cece wales =< sae aes = amen aamnnn Rae ao soe sc
Irrigable and pasturage lands of... .-.----- 0----+ -- 2-22 eee ee een eee eee ee ee eee eee
Takes cen ae aS See SE ee nee ae ee a wre a ae eles ai mtnnipenteiate nmin a ieterte oa
Tends Of 2<cn ses aie ao pc eo or aetna ela mn nin’ a ein ee
Mean annual precipitation in .....----. +--+ -- 26 ee 222+ ee nee eee eee er eee eee eee eee
Pasturage lands of...--.------ -----+ ---- +--+ ee ence ene ee cece ee cree ee Pee
Prevailing winds of. ... .-.--. ---- ---+ 222 eee ne cee ene cee eee cee ne cent cee cee cree eee eees
Table of irrigable lands in ...-.----..----- ---- 22-2 ---+ +--+ 2-2 eee seers eee Sete ae eS
iM PeWOL ee ol = = see we eee oe write ale EE ne ESAS ae Saenee caeeeeee
Variety of crops cultivated in... .--. .--- ++ +--+ ---- e222 eee nee eee ee ene cree cee ee eens
Watershedcot <cac0 3.2. tenses Seen e ec cue eens een cleeet oe eens weber ques tua eer ewes

Valley, Castle 2.2... .--.0. c22- nee ne cone cane noe cree cen ne cere cen ene coe nee wore cnn ans sanmen ne
Cirele, Amount of irrigable land in the ....-. .--.---- -- ++ se --02 2+ e202 ee eee ee eee ee

Gui 8OT ee os eee Sea eee eee CR =e ee ean ane ene eeeecee eee
Irrigable lands of the... 22. 222-2 eens cece on ne on oe oe oon oe ence cece concen

of the Mississippi ..---. 22-2. 022-2. 22-2 ne ee ene cone ce ene cone teens nee eee eee eee e eee

Sevier River, Amount-of irrigable land in the...--. .--.---- +++ ----.---- -+----
Panguitch, Amount of irrigable land in the.....----- ---+------ +++ +--+ ++ 2-22-22 ee ee
San Pete, Amount of irrigable land in the ..---.--------- tee ese O oss ce ---

Flow of the streams of the ...-..-.--- Sree bo ch oe SOR ose Seek ot

Vasey, Dr. George... 22. s225 2c aee enon cane oo oe cone e cnn e came oe conn cons cece we canes oe nace wane
Vilfa (Sporobolis) airoides .. .. 2-00 222+ 2-22 een ee cn ene cone cee cee n en cee cae e ene cone nee nee cone
Virgin River, Irrigable lands of the ......---. ---- ---- ---- --- 2 oe eee e seen ee ce ene ee ee eee eee

Volume of water flowing in the streams, Determination of ......------------------ +--+ +--+ ee

Wagon roads, Land grants in aid of .... 2... 12-22. .-- 28 oe eee eens eee ee een ee eee eee eens
Wraxds eM (Ui eR) seam mean caer e oe oe on nn oe we omen oe ee eee slenenie= aise iesiss == o=>~eei=='== aren amine een
Wasatch Mountains ...-.. .-- 22... e202 cone oe ne ne ee ee ne ne ne ee ne ee ce ee ne ee ne ee ne ee ne ne ee ce ewes
TTA ASCO GO) me cca sae a mm et eee ee ee
Orographie structure of the ...--..----. .--- ---. --- doen eocoo sees ct ei

Wastage of water ...- ..2. 2200-22 once enon eo nee sicaeisae seen snemicecsisnosiccssineceisans seca sane

89, 128

166
103
93, 94
96

96

84

INDEX. 195

- Page.
Water, Pvaporationiits ao eee oe ewe oe occ ne cade eae eee acecues aes ane & ee 13

Trnigating. capacity: Of 2.0 cote. . 2c es comgee ec cees ---- n+ coe paws se eoee<niee=-O, 04, 115542

Geer, DOU AOA WON 2ooae nee aoe non Seen eee a as|---—-

a cw aPen sanfhe ach ose conwes -20- 8&7

Method of determining the supply of ...-....----....--..------ -2e8---+ + <eeneeaeer, LL, 139
RENN ros etn iia pain cw'n some Se eeiERe mo B> ~ 3 < Se § ome Sates 12

in tice ae ipsene eeate ai ae a rr i... Beef oe 40
should inhere in the lands to be irrigated
BLN le ee ei ei nah anere ow net enn oe Ome = : +57

affected by the cutting of timber..........---..----- - 75
i

farming ...-- eg AE Pees eee Soe

TRIN etn ete site cn ce cerean s/s Sones eae BRE RO oc. = 7A

Economic bearings of the... 52... .«-.--. ..-2 i, SES SS ee i 76
TRRBI STNG «tasted eae ote keniian =e ane ow Sy GE sn son nnens <a ence -nveredl 00s ou

PERT IE SE ar oe sc cakes abe wece dans cuss cs > smo «an ees aemre OE eee 116, 125, 144
used in irrigation, Quantitative value of ...--..----- Pe eee 61
LOD ene, 9 FE eee 81

. SR ee See S4, 42

ways rudely constructed ....-.- ..---+ .----+ -----2 6 BEG or cals mnye em wn oe seciews sscmas aa 8

WABtAR8 OU seo ewan ngs ceeeicee = ey oon enass-~- ----

WiSEOMINE WRI E ender Soot ace sasiesee cas taste a= ass oe eS ee oe 119
drainage basin, Agricultural resources of the ..-..+-+---+ +--+ -+-+ 2-- 2-222 seer ee: 121

Area/Of thG s.--<...--..- Be Be caeeeee a apenieee = oannnot xm 121

Mean flow of the <. -<<.<- nsec ccs co o> -- oe So abe asiae eee - a> mannan -oeb en 72

White River, Invigable lands of the ........ .... -- -- -- 22 bo - 222 ee ee ee en ee ce ce ee ee tree nese ceee 162
Volume of flow of the... 2... 2-2 2 - one cape -- eon cee ee = cece ne cece en coc ene ones 162

VOUS ON CMAN eta aais oerce en seen caw nse Pa 2 MR oo ee es eo OS 68
Wisconsin, Land grants to ......-.-.--2---------2--- EE OE eee nS Ber RE)
Wyoming, Mean annual precipitation in .-.-.- a pec acceheniies sacss> meses 79

Yampa Plateaw....... - 2) CE ed By Mee tee one us eee ona hace temns ae 105

Young, Hon. Brigham ...... RE Satan ES ar Sp MPacsceeeos e= == Poe asec SF Re See 105

x

|

°

*

2 smtp te 2

=: FE ois Ras lint Flier iain pays KoWiewe
: i +=3--7
44 ch ¥
p’ + amas at
; SEE BRO Pn a Sa dO
bain

ae
; a
F
w..
e3 ; Shes 2s ‘ : bs nee ¢
| ‘yyiet CHEE
pase ae :
1
as ;
J
re CY eaeae oe

WOMANI