Historic, archived document

Do not assume content reflects current
scientific knowledge, policies, or practices.

ae el a RF | SE ash SS

nee ae ad a be) SRA SST Ae bs “

Us PEP ARIMENT OF AGRICULTURE.

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.
BuLuLetTiIn No. 26.

Ker Oe teS

OF

OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS

IN

THE PRACTICAL WORK OF THE DIVISION,

MADE

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE ENTOMOLOGIST.

(PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE.)

WACS EGigN GO en:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.

OO.

CONTENTS.

Page

EEBEE RR ORME AING MEDTAT Got ot ore tac eel ee laine eee a Lee Cae eee 5
ENFBROD UW ORION peer ee one eee etl aoe ie a A re oe aia occ ek 2 ee Ie U
REPORT UPON INSECT DEPREDATIONS IN NEBRASKA...--.-- Lawrence Bruner .. 9
REPORT ON THE SCALE-INSECTS OF CALIFORNIA....-.------- D. W. Coquillett-- 13
ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES FOR THE SEASON OF 1891-.-...--- Mary E. Murtfeldt.-.- 36
REPORT OF PROGRESS IN THE INVESTIGATION OF THE COTTON BOLL

WOR Maes fire re ten secs eo EE neo ia nina wins oe ate Sas See F. W. Mally.. 45
ENSHOTS: OR FHESOHASONCEN LOWAG 2 fo s52 5 bos Seo ne Herbert Osborn -- 57
REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK OF THE SEASON OF 1891..F. M. Webster. 63
REPORT UPON THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS.....---- Samuel Henshaw - - 75
REPORT OF APICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS IN 1891........... DOH A. J. Cook.. 83

3

‘
ny eh wana

be dtae
i e

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,
Washington, D. C., January 3, 1892.
Str: I have the honor to submit for publication Bulletin No. 26 of
this Division. It comprises the reports of the field agents of the Divi-
Sion for the past year (1891), a summary of which has been included in
your annual report.
Respectfully,
C. V. RILEY,
Entomologist.

Hon. J. M. Rusk,
Secretary of Agriculture,

REPORTS OF OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS IN THE PRACTICAL
WORK OF THE DIVISION.

INTRODUCTION.

Mr. Albert Koebele, the agent of the Division at Alameda, Cal., was
sent to New Zealand and Australia early in August, and much of his
time for a month or so previous to his departure was taken up with
preparations for the journey. The course of experiments assigned to
him was therefore interrupted, and there is no formal report from him
the present season. The reports of the other agents are included in
this Bulletin, including a report of the season’s observations upon the
Boll Worm by Mr. Mally. These reports are little more than summaries
of the work performed by each of these agents. Special investigations
have, from time to time, been assigned to them and upon matters of
immediate importance reports have been received at different times
through the year and summarized in short articles in INSECT LIFE.

Mr. Bruner’s report includes only a brief account of the injurious in-
sects which have been most prominent during the year in Nebraska.
The greater portion of his time was devoted to the investigation of
destructive locusts, a full account of which will be published in Bulle-
tin No. 27.

Mr. Coquillett gives a full account of his work upon California scale-
insects, and includes many new facts and the results of a number of
important experiments. His report upon the work of the destructive
locusts of California during 1891 will also be published in Bulletin
No. 27.

Miss Mary EK. Murtfeldt gives in her report her usual summary of the
injurious insects of the season in Missouri and of experiments with in-
secticides.

Prof. Osborn, in addition to a report upon the destructive locusts of
Kansas, has submitted a report upon the insects of the season in Lowa,
and includes with this an account of some successful trials with a sin-

7

8

gle coal-oil pan against leaf-hoppers and young locusts, and other in-
sects injurious to pastures.

Mr. F. M. Webster reported last year upon the development of the
Hessian Fly, indicating the desirability of late sowing as a means of
lessening the fall attack. He has found the present season that where
this late sowing is practiced a procrastination in preparing the ground
for seeding leads to the development of other injurious insects, viz, the
larve of certain Crane-flies upon which he reports this year in full.
He recommends plowing in the latter part of August or the early part
of September, and refraining from seeding until later.

Prof. A. J. Cook, who was temporarily in charge of the experiments
in Apiculture, reports upon a series of investigations which he ear-
ried out during the season with the help of Mr. J. H. Larrabee.

Mr. Samuel Henshaw has been engaged chiefly in work on the bibli-
ography of economic entomology, but was requested to make some
observations on the Gypsy Moth, and the report on that insect and on
the work being done against it by the State of Massachusetts is also
included.

Cc. V. R.

siti

REPORT UPON INSECT DEPREDATIONS IN NEBRASKA
FOR 1891.

By LAWRENCE BRUNER, Special Agent.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

LINCOLN, NEBR., October 11, 1891.

Str: In accordance with past custom I submit herewith a report upon the results
of my labors as special field agent for Nebraska, engaged in the studies of life-his-
tories and habits of insects related to agriculture during the past summer. In pre-
senting this report I am pleased to be able to record a season of comparative free-
dom from the ravages of most of our common insect pests, but wish that it might
have been even better in this respect than it has, for during years when insect depre-
dations are comparatively light and scarcely noticeable it is safe to say that fully as
much as one-tenth to one-eighth of the entire production of a country is thus de-
stroyed.

While we have had comparative immunity from insect ravages here in Nebraska,
it has not been so in some other States. Even here we have been obliged to recog-
nize a few species as being more than ordinarily abundant and destructive. These
will be mentioned briefly in the following pages.

Very respectfully yours,

LAWRENCE BRUNER.
Civ. -RILby,
U. S. Entomologist.

The present summer has been an extraordinary one for Nebraska as
far as its agricultural interests are concerned. We have had abundant
crops of nearly every one of our staple products, and our climatic condi-
tions have been such as to indicate even better results for next year.
But few insect enemies appeared in destructive numbers, and these few
only in limited areas. Some of these are mentioned below, along with
a few notes on their occurrence and habits.

MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS.

The Corn-root Worm, Diabrotica longicornis, appears to be alarmin ely
on the increase over many of the eastern counties of the State. During
the past summer it has been reported from a number of new localities,
and has been noted as especially numerous in some of the counties

9

10

along the Elkhorn River. Everywhere that it has been reported as
uncommonly destructive investigations reveal the fact that rotation in
crops is not practiced, but that corn is planted year after year upon
the same grounds. This fact alone would account for its increase and
spread, aS has been demonstrated by repeated experiments by different
entomologists as well as by farmers themselves. It had been my inten-
tion during the past summer to make special efforts to ascertain whether
or not this insect had other food plants in this region, but my absence
from home for the greater part of the time when this would have been
under way made this investigation impossible, and it must be under-
taken next year.

The Green-striped Maple Worm.—This insect continues to strip our
silver maples of their leaves in the cities and towns of the State. Usu-
ally the spring brood does not appear in sufficient numbers to entirely
defoliate the trees; but, as a rule, the next brood is numerous enough
to do this. Thus far it has been my experience that it is next to impos-
sible to induce the owners of property to do anything toward protect-
ing their shade trees from the injuries of this and other insect enemies.
They will do everything but the right thing, even to bandaging them
with cotton (medicated) as a protection againt this and similar moths.
As matters appear at present we will have an abundant crop of Maple
Worms in this part of the country next year again; also a number of
bared trees along the streets to advertise the ignorance of our people
as to the life-history of this insect.

Iyda sp.—During the month of June specimens of the larve of some
species of sawfly, belonging to the genus Lyda, were received from a
number of correspondents residing in various portions of central Ne-
braska. These “slugs” were said to completely defoliate the wild plum
trees of the respective localities from which the reports and specimens
came. None of the mature insects were reared or received, hence I
can not say to which species they belonged.

The Gooseberry Span-worm.—This insect attracted especial attention
during the year. The larve of this moth appeared in great numbers
in portions of some of the newer settled regions to the north and west
of here, where in many cases they completely defoliated currant and
gooseberry bushes. Over the older settled portions of the State, how-
ever, they were not reported at all. This fact is probably due to the
presence of insectivorous birds and parasitic insects in greater num-
bers where the country has been settled for a longer time. Such is
evidently the reason for having most of my inquiries come from the
newer settled districts.

SUGAR BEET INSECTS.

A study of the insect enemies of the Sugar Beet has been continued
throughout the spring and summer, with the results of adding several
species to the list as published last year. Beyond these additions no

11

new facts of importance have come to light; nor do I find it neces-
sary to change my recommendations of the use of kerosene emulsion
and the arsenical sprays aS remedies against the attacks of insects
upon this plant.

Monoxia guttulata Lec.—This leaf-beetle has been sent to me from
the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station by Prof. F. L. Washburn,
who reports it as very injurious to the Sugar Beet in the State of Ore-
gon. He also stated that he had found three teaspoonfuls of Paris
green in 4 gallons of water, in which 4 ounces of whale oil and soft soap
had been dissolved, to be an effective remedy without injuring the foli-
age. He suggests that probably the poison would have been equally
effective without the whale oil and soap.

Prof. Washburn also reports that he has taken Hippodamia convergens
and Diabrotica vittata feeding on the leaves of the Sugar Beet in his
State. The latter insect has also been taken here in Nebraska during
the present year while feeding on leaves of both the ordinary and
the Sugar Beet. Diabrotica longicornis has also been collected upon
this plant two or three times here at Lincoln. Whether or not it feeds
upon the beet, I can not say at present, since the matter has not been
verified by actual observation. :

Cutworms.—In the early part of the season the larve of several of
these insects were very plentiful upon the experimental farm here at
Lincoln, where they almost destroyed the entire crop of Sugar Beets
erowing upon two of the plats. One noticeable fact in this connection
was that where there had been fall plowing and plowing again this year
but few of the worms were present and consequently little injury was
done to the beets growing on such portions of the field.

CABBAGE INSECTS.

Cabbage Butter flies.—These insects were not especially numerous over
the State during the year, but are referred to here simply because I
wish to eall attention to a reported ‘“‘new” remedy against them. To
say the least, it is unique as well as simple, if it proves as effectual
as is claimed for it. This remedy was brought to my notice about two
weeks ago (September 29) while at West Point, my old home, on busi-
ness connected with my work for the Division of Entomology. The
remedy is simply this: The cabbage plants are sprinkled with ordi-
nary corn meal while they are wet with dew or immediately after a rain
so the meal will cling to the leaves at all points. My informant cer-
tainly had nice cabbages that were free from worms, and all he had done
in the way of a preventive or remedy was to use this corn meal as above
directed or explained. He claimed that in a few days after sprinkling
on the meal all the worms would be found dead and turned black, cling-
ing to the leaves of the plants. Several cabbages that had purposely
been left untreated were rather full of the caterpillars of different sizes.
In order to test the corn-meal remedy for myself I treated these. On

12

the 10th of October I received the cabbages thus treated by express
just as they were when cut from the roots. The accompanying letter
reads as follows:

The worms seem to become torpid at first—at least inactive, and then seem to dry up.
How the meal acts on the worms I can not say. Can not say whether they eat it by
itself or whether it gets mixed up with the leaves they eat, or whether the meal that
gets on them, by adhering to them, acts like poison on them. The meal does not seem
to do any good unless there is a heavy dew on the cabbages and it will adhere well.
Perhaps they get killed by the meal getting on them while the dewisonthem. But
I think not.

When the cabbages were received by me the worms were dead and
partly dried up, just as they had been described to me. I do not know
what to think of the matter, and give the facts as they appear here.

Hleodes tricostata.—A cabbage pest in the shape of a rather active,
cylindrical, grayish-brown Coleopterous larva was noted for the first
time during the past spring here at Lincoln. In some of our market
gardens this larva did even more injury than was committed by the
various cutworms that were quite plentiful and against which we are
obliged to contend every spring. This larva not only attacked cab-
bages, but also showed a decided inclination to feed upon various other
products of the garden. It was also found to be a general feeder both
upon the prairies and in the fields where it even attacked the weeds.
By placing specimens of nearly full-grown larve into a breeding cage
it was a surprise to me when I found that from them developed the
common Hleodes tricostata. This insect appears to be greatly on the
increase here in Nebraska, and especially does it seem to be increasing
over the settled portions.

While speaking of this beetle, it might be well to record the fact that
I have very frequently observed attached to the elytra of tricostata and
opaca the eggs of some Tachina fly. In several instances as many as
three or four of such eggs were observed upon the back of a single
beetle. No effort has been made by me to rear these Tachinids, nor
even to ascertain whether or not the eggs had hatched, and, if so,
whether or not the young maggots had succeeded in entering the bodies
of the beetles.

|

REPORT ON THE SCALE-INSECTS OF CALIFORNIA.

By D. W. CoquiLLErtt.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

Los ANGELES, CaAL., October 17, 1891.

Sir: I herewith submit my annual report for the year 1891, consisting of notes on
the principal kinds of scale-insects found in this State, together with the remedies
employed for their destruction.

The Fluted or Cottony-cushion Scale (Icerya purchasi Mask.) has been kept in
subjection by the Australian Ladybird (Vedalia cardinalis Muls.) first imported into
southern California by this Division under your direction. The propagating houses
erected at San Gabriel by our State Board of Horticulture at the suggestion of its
president, and especially intended to preserve these Ladybirds from being destroyed
by the inclement weather of the winter season, were not stocked with the lady-
birds until nearly half of the winter season had passed by; from these houses a great
many colonies of these useful insects were distributed to various parts of the State
during the first half of the year, but none are in either of the houses at the present
time and I am informed that none will be on hand for distribution before next March.
Fortunately, however, Mr. A. F. Kercheval, of this city, formerly the President ot
our County Board of Horticulture, infested with the Iceryas a large patch of nettles
erowing in the hills, several miles from any cultivated orchard, and later, after the
Iceryas had become very numerous upon these nettles, he introduced a uumber of
the ladybirds among them, so that at the present time these ladybirds can be ob-
tained from this source in sufficent numbers to meet all local demands. In accord-
ance with your instructions I had a tent erected over an orange tree in this city for
the purpose of breeding a sufficient number of Iceryas to serve as food for the Lady-
birds intended to be sent to foreign countries, since I have heretofore found it quite
impossible to obtain sufficient of these for this purpose from other sources.

Respectfully yours,

D. W. COQUILLETT,
Prof. C. V. RILEY,

U. S. Entomologist.

NOTES ON SCALE INSECTS.

In this State there is no class of insects more destructive to fruit
trees than those commonly known as scale insects. Other insects may
occasionally strip the tree of its leaves or rob it of its fruit, but none
appear over such wide areas and cause such widespread destruction to
the trees themselves as do these insidious, highly destructive pests.
Up to the present time but little has been written upon the habits and

13

14

early stages of these insects. A few observations of this nature are
given in the Annual Report of this Department for the year 1880, fur-
nished by the former Entomologist, who spent afew weeks in this State
during the year above mentioned. The habits and natural history
of the Fluted or Cottony Scale (lcerya purchasi Mask.) have been
thoroughly studied out and a complete account has been published by
Prof. Riley in the former reports and bulletins of this Department. I
have nothing new to add to what has already been written and pub-
lished in regard to this pest.

The following notes upon various kinds of scale-insects occurring in
this State were taken by the writer during a residence of about eight
years in various parts of the State, and, although of a fragmentary
nature, will still throw some light upon the habits and early stages of
these pests. To these notes I have added my experience with various
remedies employed for the destruction of these insects.

THE RED SCALE.
(Aspidiotus aurantii Mask.)

This at the present time is the most injurious scale-insect that our
growers of citrus fruits have to contend with. As near as I have been
able to learn it was first introduced into this State in the year 1879,*
upon lemon trees brought from Australia and planted in one of the
orange groves of this city. Mr. Alexander Craw, who formerly had
charge of a large orange and lemon grove almost adjoining the one in
which these infested trees were planted, informed me that when he first
saw the Red Scales upon these imported trees he feared that they would
prove to be a great pest, and expressed his fears to the owner of the
trees, advising him to destroy the infested trees with fire. This he
promised to do, but shortly afterward was taken sick and died, and
the property passed into the hands of an administrator, who claimed
that he had no legal right to destroy any of the property placed in his
care, and therefore the infested trees were allowed to stand and the
scale spread from them to the adjoining groves until it was found im-
possible to eradicate them.

At about the same time that these infested trees were brought to
Los Angeles others from the same locality, and like them also infested
with the Red Scale, were taken to Orange and planted in one of the
groves there; and from these trees almost every citrus grove in that
locality became infested with these pests.

The number of broods that this species produces in one season is not
definitely known, and doubtless varies with the character of the sea-
son, hot weather accelerating their development, while cool weather
retards it. From observation which I have made it is quite evident
that in ordinary seasons at least four generations are produced in one

* Facts which we have not space to detail here make it tolerably certain that the
Red Scale was introduced at least several years prior to this date.—C. V. R.

ath

year. The adult female deposits eggs, but these are in such advanced
stage of development that they usually hatch out within twenty-four
hours after being deposited. I find by reference to my note book that
on the 28th of May, at 4 o’clock in the afternoon, I found beneath an
adult female of this species one recently hatched young scale-insect and
two eggs, all of them being of a pale yellow color; one of these eggs
hatched out a few hours after I found it and the other hatched out the
day following its discovery. The young seale-insect from the last-men-
tioned egg had formed a thin white scale over it by 8 o’clock the next
morning, the scale being regularly hemispherical in shape. This spe-
cies evidently breeds during every month of the year. I have found
adult males early in the month of March and as late as October. Early
in March I have seen the young scale-insects crawling about, and by
the latter part of July adult females may be found upon the green fruit,
which usually sets in February or March. The greatest increase, how-
ever, occurs during the three months of July, August, and September.

While the Red Scale prefers citrus trees to all others, and probably
could not maintain itself for a succession of years upon any other kind
of tree or plant, still I have frequently found adults of this species
upon the following plants growing in the immediate vicinity of infested
citrus trees:

English Walnut, Castor Bean,
Eucalyptus, Kennedya rubicunda,

~ Acacia, Passion Flower,
Pear, Fuchsia,
Rose, Solanum douglasii,
Camphor Tree, Bidens sp.,
Grape, Solidago californica,
California Palm, and various other weeds.

Date Palm,

On one occasion I saw a young English walnut tree the bark of which
was as thickly infested with Red Scales as any citrus tree could be; it
was growing only a few yards from several orange trees on which these
scales were extremely abundant.

Among the insect enemies of the Red Scale the Twice-stabbed Lady-
bird (Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls.) is perhaps the most common and
widespread; I have repeatedly seen the larva of this ladybird tear off
the upper scale and feed upon the scale-insect itself, and in some in-
stances fully one-half of the scales on several of the oranges and lem-
ons had been destroyed by these larve. For some reason, at present
unknown, this ladybird never becomes sufficiently numerous to keep
these scale-insects within due limits, even in restricted localities. About
one year ago Mr. A. Kercheval, of this city, at that time president of
the Los Angeles County Board of Horticulture, inclosed in a tent one
of his orange trees quite thickly infested with the Red Scale, and then
introduced into this tent a large number of these ladybirds, for the

16

purpose of ascertaining if they were capable of freeing this one tree of
the Red Scales; but after waiting several months he found that the
ladybirds had not made any appreciable headway against the Scales,
the latter being quite as numerous as they were at the time the BELL
birds were first confined in the tent with them.

In the early part of May, 1890, I found two of these ladybirds to
the underside of whose bodies was attached a fungus growth of a yel-
lowish color and very noticeable even to the naked eye. These speci-
mens were submitted to Dr. Roland Thaxter, the Mycologist of the
Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, who has made a special
study of these low forms of plant life, and he ascertained that this
yellowish fungus belonged to a new genus and species which he has
since characterized under the name of Hesperomyces virescens. It is not
probable that this fungus would ultimately have caused the death of
the Ladybirds, since Dr. Thaxter writes as follows concerning the
members of the group to which it belongs:

The Laboulbeniacez constitute a small group of very peculiar and minute forms
which have been placed by De Bary among the doubtful Ascomycetes. Their para-
sitism is an external one, which apparently results in little, if any, inconvenience
to the host, each individual being fixed by a pedicellate attachment to the legs,
thorax, or other portion of the affected insect. (Memoirs Boston Society Natural
History, Vol. 1v, p. 135.)

Another ladybird whose larva I have found feeding upon the Red
Scale is an undetermined species of Scymnus, closely related to Scym-
nus margimicolis Mann., but having a distinct metallic, somewhat
brassy tinge upon the wing cases. ‘This ladybird measures less than
an eighth of an inch in length; the head aud thorax are of a light red-
dish color, the wing cases black, with a slight brassy tinge and thickly
covered with rather short, light-colored hairs. Its larva has never
been described so far as Lam aware. It is of the same general form as
the other ladybird larve, being broadest at the middle and somewhat
tapering toward each end. The color varies from a brownish gray to
olive brown, and in the younger individuals even to a blackish brown.
In the middle of the back on segments from 4 to 7 is a lighter,
somewhat pinkish stripe, darkest in the middle, and on the front part
of segment 4 it is encroached upon by the dark ground color. There
is sometimes a whitish stripe on each side of segments 2 and 3.
Low down on each side of the body are two rows of black warts sit-
uated on whitish spots, each wart giving forth a cluster of several short
whitish bristles. On the back are tworows of similar but much smaller
warts, those on segments 4 to 7 being light-colored. The head is
brownish gray, with the sides more blackish. The full-grown larva
measures about one-seventh of an inch in length. When about to as-
sume the pupa form it attaches the posterior extremity of its body to
some convenient object and after a short time the skin splits open at
the front end and is gradually worked backwards until it covers only

17

the last one or two segments of the abdomen, where it is allowed to
remain. The pupa is of the usual form and of avery pale yellow color,
except that the back and under side of the abdomen is tinged with
orange yellow. The entire pupa is thinly covered with short light yel-
lowish hairs. It measures about one-ninth of an inch in length. One
of these larva assumed the pupa form on the 14th of July and was
changed to a beetle six days later.

I have seen numerous thickly infested oranges and lemons upon each
of which were from two to half a dozen of these larve, while the scales
were so torn up as to give the infested fruit a roughened appearance
very noticeable upon a slight inspection. I have also found this larva
upon apple trees infested with the Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera
Hausm.), and in such cases the larva frequently attaches to the bris-
tles on various parts of its body portions of the woolly substance taken
from the bodies of its victims.

Besides the larve of these two ladybirds, I have also seen the larva of
the California Lace-wing (Chrysopa californica Coq.) feeding upon the
Red Scale. Almost every fruit-grower in southern California is famil-
iar with the appearance of these active, pale gray larve which have
somewhat the appearance of miniature alligators, and provided with a
pair of long, slender, pincer-like jaws projecting some distance in front
of the head. In attacking a Red Seale this larva inserts its right man-
dible, or jaw, beneath the scale, then presses the tip of its other mandible
against the upper side of the scale, thus bringing the scale-insect be-
tween the tips of its mandibles; in this way it extracts the juices of the
scale through its right mandible which, being hollow, answers this pur-
pose admirably. These larve feed upon a great variety of insects and
their eggs, and even do not hesitate to attack each other, the stronger
attacking and devouring or rather extracting the juices of the weaker
ones, while the latter take this proceeding as a matter of course, never
so much as making the least show at resistance. It is doubtless largely
due to this cannibalistic propensity of theirs that these highly benefi-
cial insects do not become more numerous and render greater service to
the horticulturist by destroying the noxious insects that infest his trees
and plants. Their numbers are also still further decimated by the at-
tacks of internal parasites. From the larve and pupz of this Lace-
wing I have bred no less than four different kinds of these parasites,
only one of which, the Zsodromus icerye Howard, has as yet been de-
scribed. These parasites seldom issue until after the Lace-wing larva
has spun its cocoon. The parasitic larve spin no cocoons of their own,
but assume the pupa form within the cocoons of their hosts, and, after
being changed to the perfect or winged state, they gnaw irregular
holes usually in one end of the cocoon, out of which they escape. I
have bred two of the parasitic Isodromus from a single pupa of the
Lace-wing, while from another pupa issued sixteen specimens of an
nndetermined species of Tetrastichus, Of the other two kinds of para-

21382—No, 26——2

18

sites referred to above, one of which is a Pteromalus and the other a
Perilampus, only one specimen has thus far issued from a single pupa
of the Lace-wing.

Besides the losses in their ranks occasioned by the attacks of these
internal parasites, and the losses sustained through the cannibalistic
habits of their fellows, the Lace-wings suffer still further from the at-
tacks of spiders, which I have occasionally seen feeding upon the eggs
of this insect as well as upon the adult Lace-wing itself. Notwith-
standing the fact that the eggs of this insect are elevated on the tip
of a slender pedicel, an evident provision of nature to protect them
from the rapacious jaws of the Lace-wing larve, still many of them,
as just stated, fall a prey to spiders and doubtless also to various kinds
of predaceous insects, or even to the attacks of the Lace-wing larve
themselves, as if nature were unable to cope with the scheming and
cunning of her many children. With all of these drawbacks to con-
tend with, it is not to be wondered at that these Lace-wing larvee never
become more numerous than they have at any time in the past. At
the same time it is evidently not within our power to change the exist-
ing conditions to such an extent that these larvee would become so
numerous as to free our plants and trees of the noxious insects that
infest them.

Besides the above-mentioned enemies of the Red Scale there are also
other agencies not at present clearly understood, but which occasionally
very materially lessen the numbers of these pests. A few years ago
Mr. H. F. Gardner, of Orange, in the adjoining county of the same
name, drew my attention to the fact that a large percentage of the Red
Seales of all sizes upon his orange and lemon trees, as well as of the
Black Seales (Lecanium olee Bern.) upon his olive trees were dead,
although they had not been treated with any kind of insecticide. A
- close inspection of his trees revealed the fact that fully 80 per cent of
the Red Scales upon these particular trees were dead, while upon the
adjotning olive trees we found only a single colony of Black Scales still
alive. This latter colony was in a sheltered situation and contained
about a dozen individuals of all sizes. All of the other Black Seales
upon the trees that I examined were dead and dry. In neighboring
orange groves I also found several trees upon which fully 60 per cent
of the Red Scales of all sizes were dead. Thinking that perhaps these
might have been destroyed by some low form of fungus, I submitted
specimens of them to Mr. Galloway, the Mycologist of this Department,
with the request that they be examined for traces of such fungus, and
under date of October 11, 1889, Miss E. A. Southworth, the Assistant
Mycologist, wrote me as follows concerning them:

I have examined the scales on the lemons and find that the black ones are covered
with a fungus which also spreads over the fruit to some extent. Whether or not
this fungus is what kills the scales I can not say positively, but I find a little

of the fungus on some of the scales that seem to be living, which would indicate
that it does attack the living ones and destroys them.

19

Tn reply to an inquiry for further information upon this subject Miss
Southworth wrote me as follows, under date of November 2, 1889:

I think the fungus which I found on the orange scale is a Capnodium, although
there is an unusual absence of effused mycelium, the spores appearing to be borne
mainly on upright conidiophores. It is in the conidial stage and no pycnidia or
perithecia are present. It is accordingly impossible to be certain of the species,
although I incline to the belief that it is C. citrt. This species has now, however,
been changed to Meliola citri.

I do not think I stated positively that I found the fungus on living scales. I found
it sparingly on Red Scales, but I could not be sure they were living.

The fungus referred to as Capnodium citri is the same kind that
causes the “ black-smut ” on citrus and other kinds of trees, and is sup-
posed to draw its nourishment from the excretions of various kinds of
insects that feed upon the sap of these trees. It seems very probable,
therefore, that this fungus would also attack the living insects them-
selves, although, as Miss Southworth states, we can not say positively
that such is really the case. ,

But, notwithstanding the great number of these scale-insects that
annually fall a prey to their various insect enemies, and the thousands
that perish from some cause as yet not clearly understood, still these
pests manage to multiply at an astonishingly rapid rate, making it
necessary for owners of infested trees to employ artificial means in
order to save their trees from utter destruction.

One of the most successful remedies ever used for the destruction of
the Red Seale on citrus trees is the treatment with hydrocyanic acid
gas, first used by the writer in the autumn of 1886. AsI gave a full
account of this treatment in my annual report for the year 1890, pub-
lished in Bulletin No. 23, Division of Entomology of this Department,
(pp. 20 to 27) it will be needless to more than refer to it in this con-
nection.

Among the different kinds of washes that have been used for the de-
struction of these scales, the one giving the best results is known as the
resin wash, and is fully described in my annual report for the year 1889,
published in Bulletin No, 22 of this Division (pp. 10 to 17). This wash,
while it does not destroy as large a percentage of the Red Seale as the
gas treatment, stillis fatal to the Red Spider (Tetranychus sp.) and also
to the eggs of the Black Scale (Lecanium olee Bern.), both of which
are frequently found on the samé trees as the Red Scales, and neither
the Red Spider nor the eggs of the Black Scale are destroyed to any
great extent by the gas. For these reasons some of our fruit-growers
have adopted the method of using the gas treatment and the resin
wash alternately, first spraying the infested trees with the wash in July
or August, which destroys the greater portion of the Red Spiders and
Black Seales, as well as a large percentage of the Red Scales. Then in
November or December the trees are treated with the gas, which pretty
thoroughly completes the destruction of the noxious insects infesting

20

them. By this method the trees may be almost entirely freed of the ~

Red and the Black Scales, so that when the oranges and lemons are
gathered the following spring they will be practically free of these pests.

THE CONVEX SCALE.
(Aspidiotus convexus Comst.)

This scale appears to confine itself wholly to the bark of the trees it
attacks. I do not remember of a single instance where I have found it
infesting the leaves. Although usually attacking the Willow, on the
trunk of which it frequently occurs in immense numbers, still I have
also found it upon the Lombardy Poplar, Cottonwood, Walnut, and even
upon orange trees. By reference to my note book I find it stated that
on the 24th of April, 1890, I found a branch of an orange tree very
thickly infested with these scales. The branch at its thickest part
measured about 24 inches in diameter and was covered with these scales
to a distance of about 4 feet on its basal or thickest part.

This scale-insect is quite subject to the attacks of internal parasites,
although up to the present time I have known of only one species thus
to attack it. This is a small Chalcid fly known as Aphelinus fuscipennis
Howard. Ihave bred these parasites in June and July from scales col-
lected in the preceding April.

If it is desired to destroy these scales this can doubtless be most read-
ily accomplished by the use of the resin wash referred to in the preced-
ing article. |

THE OLEANDER SCALE.

(Aspidiotus nerti Bouché.)

This species, which appears to be pretty generally distributed all
over the known world, infests a great variety of plants. I have found
full-grown specimens on the following-named plants and trees:

Lilac (Syringa vulgaris). Oak (Quercus agrifolia).
Arbor Vite (Thwa occidentalis), on | Madrone (Arbutus menziesit).

the cones. Nightshade (Solanwm douglasii).
Century Plant, or Aloe (Agave | China Tree (Melia azedarach).

americana). Lemon.
Magnolia grandiflora.

I do not find by my notes that I ever found these scales on citrus
trees of any kind, but I distinctly remember having found them upon
green lemons still hanging upon the trees, and my impression is that I
also found them upon the leaves of these trees. In the Annual Report
of this Department for the year 1880, the Entomologist also resords havy-
ing found these scales on lemons received from various sources (p. 302).

In the above-mentioned report it is stated that the eggs of this spe-
cies are very light yellow in color, but I find by reference to my note
book that on the 14th of June, 1883, while examining an adult female

SSS SS

21

of this species under a compound microscope I saw her produce a living
young. It would be interesting to ascertain if the same species can
be both oviparous and viviparous, but my subsequent notes on this
species are silent on this subject.

Although I have repeatedly inclos*d specimens of this species in
boxes I have never succeeded in obtaining any internal parasites from
them, nor can I find any published reference to parasites having been
bred from scales of this kind.

THE SAN JOSE SCALE.
(Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.)

This is by far the most destructive scale-insect with which growers
of deciduous fruit trees have to contend. Its origin is uncertain, but
the fact of its being so frequently found upon plants imported from
Japan would seem to point to that country as the home of this pest.
The name of San José Scale was first applied to this species by the late
Matthew Cooke, from having first received specimens of it from the
neighborhood of the city by that name in Santa Clara County. Itis
to be regretted that any locality should be thus stigmatized by having
its name applied to a pestiferous scale-insect, and it would have been
far better had the later name of Pernicious Scale, first applied to this
species by the former entomologist of this Department, been adopted.
However, with the late Asa Gray, I do not consider it advisable to
change old names.

This scale insect never attacks citrus nor coniferous trees so far as I
am aware. I have examined full-grown specimens upon the following
trees:

Pear, Prune,

Peach, English Walnut,

Almond, HKuonymus,

Apple, | And other ornamental shrubs.

The specimens from English walnut were received from Mr. Henry H.
Wheeler, a prominent fruit-grower of Pomona, who writes me that he
has also found specimens of this species on almond trees.

This is the only scale-insect known to me that causes a red spot to
appear upon the fruit or green bark which it infests. This discolora-
tion is usually attributed to the saliva with which the scale-insect
dilutes the sap of the infested tree or fruit, but why this should pro-
duce such a discoloration in the case of the present species but not in
that of any other species is no easy matter to explain. It need not be
taken for granted, however, that the saliva of all the different species
is identical in its composition. That of the present species may pos-
sess some peculiar, irritating principal which does not exist in the
saliva of any of the other species, and therefore the etfects of the
attacks would not be the same in the different species.

22

Young branches thickly infested by this species soon present a
gnarled, knotted, and stunted appearance, and if everything is favorable
to the rapid increase of these scales the tree is finally killed by them.
They appear to have a discrimination in relation to their food plants
that is difficult to account for. I have on more than one occasion seen
Leconte pear trees growing in the midst of other varieties of pear trees
which were thickly infested with these scales, and yet it was impossible
to find even half adozen specimens of these scales on the Leconte pear
trees. I have also been informed that the Black Tartarian Cherry tree
enjoys the same immunity from the attacks of these pests, even when
completely surrounded with badly infested cherry trees.

Among insect enemies the most common and widely distributed
species is, perhaps, the Twice-stabbed Ladybird referred to above in
the chapter treating of the Red Scale. I have frequently seen infested
pear trees upon which these ladybirds occurred in large numbers,
still I never knew of an instance where even a single tree had been en-
tirely or even very nearly freed of the scales by these ladybirds.
Another ladybird which also attacks the San José Scale is the small
Scymuus referred to in the chapter above mentioned, but this species,
like the preceding one never occurs in sufficient numbers to entirely
exterminate the scales.

Of internal parasites I have bred from these seales large numbers of
small, four-winged Chalcid flies known as Aphelinus fuscipennis Howard,
a parasite that appears to be quite a general feeder, as it has been bred
from at least half a dozen different kinds of scale-insects belonging to
species which are protected by a shell or scale. Although occurring in
such large numbers, still this parasite is not able to keep the scales in
check. It doubtless breeds throughout the year, as I have bred speci-
mens as late as the 10th of November. Although I have never bred
any other kind of internal parasite from the San José Scale, still it
would appear that other kinds attack it in the northern part of the
State. On the 31st of March of the present year I received from HE.
M. Ehrhorn, of Santa Clara County, two different kinds of Chaleid
flies for naming, and in the accompanying letter occurred the state-
ment that both of these parasites had been bred from San José Seales.
These parasites proved to be the Chalcid flies, known as Aphelinus
mytilaspidis Le B. and Coccophagus citrinus Craw.

It appears that certain conditions of the climate affect these scales in
an injurious manner, just as is the case with several other kinds of
scale-insects. A few weeks ago Mr. C. H. Richardson, of Pasadena,
one of the county inspectors of fruit pests, showed me several pear
trees in that locality which a year ago were very thickly infested with
these scales, as was evidenced by the gnarled appearance of the branches
as well as by the dry scales still adhering to the trees. After a care-
ful examination of these scales scarcely a live one could befound. Mr.
Richardson assured me that these trees had not been treated with any

23

kind of insecticide, and they certainly gave no evidence of such treat-
ment. The dead scales showed no indications of having been destroyed
by ladybirds nor yet by internal parasites. Wishing to ascertain if
this singular mortality was general among these scales in other locali-
ties, I examined several infested pear trees in this city, but found that
the fruit and new growth upon them were thickly infested with these
scales, which were alive and to all appearance in a very thriving con-
dition. It would appear, therefore, that this mortality among the San
José Seales was entirely due to certain climatic influences, unless it
can be shown to have been due to some low form of fungus growth.
The remedy most extensively used in this State for the destruction
of the San José Scale on dormant trees is the one containing lime, salt,
and sulphur, described in my annual report to Prof. Riley for the year
1890 and published in Bulletin No. 23, Division of Entomology, of this
Department (pp. 30 to 34). I there gave an account of a series of ex-
periments which I had made with the above mentioned substances,
both when used singly and also when used in various combinations,
and expressed my intention of pursuing this subject still further the
following winter with a view of improving upon the insecticidal proper-
ties of the wash used at that time. Accordingly, on the 10th of Feb-
ruary, 1891, I made a number of experiments with the above-mentioned
ingredients, and give herewith a brief account of the principal ones:

Experiment 260.—Sulphur, 30 pounds; lime, 43 pounds; water sufficient to make
100 gallons. The sulphur and lime were placed in the kettle together and water
added; the whole was then boiled for two hours without first allowing the lime to
slake; the solution did not assume an orange-yellow color as soon as in other experi-
ments where the lime was first slaked before being boiled with the sulphur. Strained
the solution and sprayed two pear trees with it at about 2:20 p. m.; sun shining;
light breeze. Examined these trees March 26 and found a great many living San
José Scales upon them.

Experiment 261.—Same as in the preceding experiment, except that before spray-
ing it upon the trees I added 23 pounds of salt to the diluted solution and stirred it
until the salt was dissolved, then sprayed a peach tree with it at about 2 o’clock in
the afternoon. Examined this tree March 25 and found upon it many living San
José Seales. Still, these were not as numerous as upon the trees treated in the pre-
ceding experiment, where no salt had been used.

Experiment 258.—Sulphur, 45 pounds; lime, 65 pounds, water sufficient to make 100
gallons. The sulphur and lime were first placed in the kettle; water was then added
and the lime allowed to slake, after which more water was added and the whole then
boiled for two hours. At first the solution was of a pale yellow color, but it soon
became dark orange yellow, assuming this color much sooner than was the case in
experiment 260, where the lime was covered with water and boiled without first be-
ing allowed to slake. The solution when properly diluted was strained and two
apple trees were sprayed with it at about 2:40 p.m. I examined these trees March
26, and found quite a large number of living San José Scales upon them.

Experiment 259.—Same as in 258 except that when diluted ready for use I added 34
pounds of salt to the solution and stirred it until dissolved, then sprayed a prune
tree with it at 3 o’clock in the afternoon. I examined this tree March 26 and found
a few living San José Scales upon it, much less than in experiment 258, or any of
the preceding ones.

24

In experiments 258 and 260 the bisulphide of lime (CaS,) was
formed, but this did not prove as destructive to the scale-insects
sprayed with it as was the case where a certain amount of salt had
been added to it. From this it would appear that the bisulphide does
not of itself and alone constitute the insecticidal property of this wash;
at the same time, my previous experiments prove that salt alone simply
dissolved in water possesses very little value as an insecticide. Still,
when these two substances are combined, the resulting solution pos-
sesses much greater insecticidal properties than does either of them
when used separately.

In making the above experiments I was aided in the mechanical part
of the work by Mr. C. H. Richardson, of Pasadena, who kindly placed
his infested fruit trees at my disposal.

The first rain which occurred after the above experiments were made
began on the morning of February 15, and continued almost incessantly
for the space of two days and one night. Two days later this was fol-
lowed by a long-continued rain. Since the solution was upon the trees
for the space of about four days and five nights before the rain began,
it would appear that it had sufficient time in which to act upon the
scales before being washed off by the rain, and that its effects upon the
scales would have been about the same had no rain occurred for several
months after the various solutions were applied to the trees.

The wash used in experiment 261 is practically the same as the one
in common use all over this State for the destruction of the San José
Scale on dormant deciduous trees. Still, as stated above, it did not
prove fatal to all of the scales sprayed with it. Even when used one-
half stronger than this, as it was in experiment 259, it did not destroy
all of the scales sprayed with it. These and other experiments which
I made with this wash during the past winter confirm the opinion ex-
pressed in my preceding report, to the effect that this wash is not as
effectual as the resin wash made one half stronger than when used on
citrus trees. I have given a full account of this resin wash of the above
strength on pages 27 to 30 of Bulletin No. 23, referred to above; so it
will be unnecessary to more than give the formula in this place:

Resin jsag4 2 Sos en ek eek kee Lee ee eae pe pounds... 30
Caustic soda@/0) pericent strong) == 5526 eee e ee eee doses 9
Pistols oe ce ee i oa ce a pints... At
Water, sufficient to make gallons................-.-. Ss fear 100

This wash can only be used upon dormant trees. Owing to the fact
that in some portions of the State the winter rains interfere to a great
degree with the spraying of the trees at that season of the year, fre-
quently rendering wholly ineffectual the labor of a whole day and mate-
rially lessening the insecticidal effect of the wash used during the
preceding week, it is the custom with some growers to confine their
Spraying Operations entirely to the rainless summer season. At this
Season, of course, it would be impossible to use as strong a wash as

25

could be employed during the winter season, owing to the injury it would
occasion to the foliage and blossoms or fruit. For the purpose of ascer-
taining how strong a wash could be used on various kinds of deciduous
fruit trees during the summer season, I made, a series of experiments
with resin washes of various strengths on the 4th of September of the
present year. I used a wash two-fifths and also one three-fifths as
strong aS in the formula given above; these I sprayed upon apple,
pear, peach, and prune trees a short time before the noon hour, and at
a time when the sun was shining brightly, but none of the leaves on
any of these trees were injured even by the strongest wash. Only the
apple trees contained any fruit, but this was not injured by the wash.
The stronger wash is of the same strength as that commonly used for
the destruction of various kinds of scale-insects upon citrus trees in
the hottest part of the summer season, and the above experiments in-
dicate that it can also be safely used upon growing deciduous trees.

I also sprayed some of the stronger wash upon a rose bush, but the
leaves on this bush were slightly injured by it; on these bushes, there-
fore, it would be necessary to use a somewhat weaker wash.

THE GREEDY SCALE.
(Aspidiotus rapax Comst.)

This scale-insect received its name not from a voracious nature and
consequent destructiveness, but rather from the fact that it infests such
a great variety of different kinds of trees and plants. The following is
a list of those upon which I have found full-grown specimens of this
species:

Apple, Pear, Loquat, Myosporum, Birch, English Laurel, Maple, Sil-
vertree from South Africa (Leucadendron argentewm), Rhamnus croceus,
California Walnut (Juglans californicus), English Holly, Fuchsia, Cot-
tonwood, Camellias from Japan, also on oranges and lemons.

The last two fruits sometimes become very thickly infested with these
scales, but this seldom happens, except in the case of those allowed to
remain on the trees for several months after they are ripe; in such
cases I have never found one of these scales upon any other portion of
the tree.

This insect was evidently imported into this State from some other
country, although [ can not find any reference to it in foreign countries
in any work to which I have access. It is possible, however, that this
is the same insect previously described by Boisduval under the name
of Kermes camelliew, and which has been referred to the genus Aspidiotus
by later authors. This latter species also infests Camellias, Euonymus,
and various other kinds of ornamental shrubs and trees in Europe, New
Zealand, and perhaps also in other countries,

26

Tuk SOFT OR BROWN SCALE.
(Lecanium hesperidum Linn.)

This is perhaps the most common and widely distributed of the scale-
insects, being found in the four quarters of the globe, and although not
infrequently occurring in large numbers, still 1 have never known of a
single instance where a tree or plant has ever been destroyed by it.
Its general effect is to weaken or stunt the infested plant and to ren-
der it black and unsightly by reason of the black fungus which always
accompanies its attacks.

This scale-insect is quite a general feeder, infesting wild trees and
plants as well as cultivated ones. I have found full-grown specimens
on the following trees and plants:

Lombardy Poplar, Grape, Loquat, Rubber Tree (ficus macrophylla),
Ash, Euonymus, Maple (Acer dasycarpum), Rhamnus crocea, Heteromeles
arbutifolia, Rhus integrifolia, Pepper Tree (Schinus molle), Willow, Apri-
cot, Citrus trees, Fig, Locust, English Ivy, English Holly, Rose, Calla
Lily, Oleander, and Pittosporum. It infests the leaves and green bark,
but is very seldom found upon the fruit.

This species brings forth its young alive, although when first ex-
cluded they are still enveloped in a very thin sac, which in a short
time is cast off. They remain for several days beneath the parent and
then start out for themselves. The greatest number of larve and
- pseudo-ova that I ever found at one time beneath a scale of this spe-
cies was twenty-four, of which number twenty-one or twenty-two were
fully developed young ones. This was in the month of May, and dur-
ing the same month I repeatedly found from eighteen to twenty of these
larvee beneath an adult scale.

This species is very subject to the attacks of internal parasites, of
which no less than five different kinds are known to attack it in this
country alone. Of this number I have bred Hneyrtus flavus Howard,
and Coccophagus lecaniw Fitch from specimens of this seale-insect col-
lected in this city. The Hneyrtus attacks principally the larger seales,
each of which frequently contains three or four of the parasites lying
transversely to the longest diameter of the scale, and readily distin-
guishable by their lighter yellow color. On the other hand, the Cocco-
phagus principally attacks the younger scales, only one of the parasites
infesting a single scale, which it causes to swell up and assume a black-
ish color. I have frequently found whole colonies of these scales every
member of which had been destroyed by one or the other of these par-
asites.

On the 11th of October, 1890, I collected several of these parasitized
seales, all of which had been killed by having been subjected to the
treatment with hydrocyanic-acid gas referred to in the chapter on the
Red Seale, and three days later an apparently healthy specimen of Coc-
cophagus lecanvi issued from one of them. This parasite being in the

27

pupa state at the time its host was subjected to the poisonous gas, was
not affected by the gas to the same degree it would have been if in the
perfect or adult state, since I have repeatedly proven it to be a fact that
larve and pupe of insects are not affected by this gas to the same de-
gree that the adult insects are. At the same time, when a scale is in-
tested with one of these parasites and is sprayed with a resin wash
sufficiently strong to kill the scale, this also proves fatal to the included
parasite. This is one of the many advantages which the gas treatment
possesses over any kind of a wash for destroying scale-insects.

Besides the gas treatment and the resin wash, both of which are re-
ferred to above in the article treating of the Red Scale, another remedy,
which has the advantage of being very simple and nearly always at
hand, consists of spraying the trees with a solution of common brown
laundry soap—1l pound dissolved in 3 gallons of water. I have seen all
of these scales on small orange trees entirely destroyed by a single ap-
plication of this remedy.

THE HEMISPHERICAL SCALE.
(Lecanium hemisphericum Targ—Tozz.)

My collection contains three different forms of Lecanium which are
here commonly known under the name of L. hemisphericum. The
largest individuals of the largest form measure 5™™ long by 4 wide
and 3 high; these I have found upon pear and orange trees, and also on
Sycamore (Platanus racemosus), Wild Lilac (Ceanothus divaricatus) and
on California Holly (Heteromeles arbutifolia). The largest individuals
of the medium form measure only 34" long by 3 wide and 2 high :
these I have found only on orange trees. The third and smallest form
Thave found only upon the Hare’s-foot Fern (Davalliacanariensis), where
they occurred in such large numbers as to kill the plant infested by
them. The largest individuals measured only 3™™ long by 2 wide and
1} high. The largest formis evidently the Lecanium hibernaculorum of
Boisduval (originally described as a Chermes), since it agrees very well
with the description of this species given in The Entomologists Monthly
Magazine, V ol. Xxt1, p.78. This description is by Dr. J. W. Douglas, who
has made this groupof insects his special study, and who had before him
specimens identified by Dr. Signoret, the highest authority upon scale-
insects. The medium form found upon orange trees is evidently the -
true hemisphericum, while the smallest one is just as certainly the Le-
camium filicum of Boisduval (also originally described as a Chermes).
Mr. Maskell, of New Zealand, another well-known authority upon scale-
insects, considers hemisphericum and jfilicum as belonging to one and
the same species, and is inclined to consider hibernaculorum as being
only a larger variety of the above species; it is very doubtful, however,
that he had the true hibernaculorum before him when making his ob-
servation, Since the measurement he gives (one-ninth of an inch in di-

28

ameter, being less than 3™™) is much too small for my specimens and
those described by Dr. Douglas. The latter author considers these
three froms as belonging to three distinct species. The specimens in
my own collections indicate that hibernaculorum is undoubtedly distinet
from the other two forms, being larger, destitute of distinct lateral ca-
rine, and the flattened margin is much narrower than in either of the
other forms. I incline to the belief, with Maskell, that hemisphericum
and filicum are but forms of one species, but to settle this point defi-
nitely it would be necessary to compare the larve of these various forms
which as yet [have not had the opportunity of doing. Neither of these
three forms are at all common in this portion of the State.

THE BLACK SCALE.
(Lecanium olee Bern.)

This scale-insect is widely distributed, being found in nearly every
portion of the civilized world, living in greenhouses in the colder coun-
tries and in the open air in the warmer climates. It is not so destruc-
tive to plants as some of the other species are, and I have never known
of a single instance where a tree or plant has been killed by them, al-
though they sometimes occur upon certain trees in immense numbers.
The injury caused by them is seen in a general weakening of the entire
tree, which, if badly infested, is rendered unsightly by reason of the
black fungus which exists upon the liquid exudations of these insects.

Citrus trees are very subject to the attacks of these scales, and the
fruit of trees infested by them is rendered so unattractive in appear-
ance on account of the black fungus above referred to that its market
value is much less than it otherwise would be. Among deciduous trees
the Olive and Apricot appear to be more subject to the attacks of these
scales than any of the other kinds. The Black Scale, however, does
not appear to be very particular as to the kind of plants upon which to
gain a sustenance, as will be seen by reference to the following list of
plants and trees upon which I have found full-grown specimens of this
scale-insect:

Citrus trees. Lombardy Poplar.
Apricot. Myosporum.
Almond. Melaleuca purpurea.
Sycamore. English Laurel.
Rhus integrifolia. English Holly.
Heteromeles arbutifolia. Beech.

Oleander. Ash.

Baccharis viminalis. Acer dasycarpum.
Ficus macrophylla. Rhamnus crocea.
Habrothamnus elegans. Pepper Tree.
Guava. Grevillea robusta.

Irish Juniper. Ligustrum japonicum.

29

Indian Cedar. Sonchus oleraceus.
Cedar of Lebanon. Cycas revoluta.
EKuonymus. Artemisia californica.
Red Pepper. Solanum douglasir.
Castor Bean. Abutilon.

Quite a large number of these plants and trees in this list are wild
ones, and in several instances they were situated several miles from
cultivated plants of any kind. There can be little room for doubting
that in these instances the scales were carried to them by birds which
had visited the infested cultivated plants, and afterwards flown to and
alighted upon the wild ones.

The observations which I have made upon these scales indicate that
there is but a single generation produced each year. I give herewith
my notes upon this subject as I find them recorded in my note books;
these notes cover a period of several years, but were mostly made in
Los Angeles County.

February 4.—Found a great many empty scales of Lecanium olee on orange trees
on the green twigs near the terminal ends of the branches; also found a great many
young ones from 1 to 14 mm. long, some of which show the dorsal and two transverse
carinae quite distinctly.

February 8.—Found several Lecanium olee about one-half grown on Baccharis vimi-
nalis.

February 10.—Found empty scales and a great many young of Lecaniuwm oleew on an
Oleander.

March 11.—In an extended search for the eggs of the Black Scale today none were
found.

March 30.—Found Black Scales about one-third grown on Indian Cedar and Cedar
of Lebanon.

March 31.—¥ound several eggs of the Black Scale.

April 1.—Found a living Black Scale, beneath which were about fifty eggs, the first
I have found this year; found no other eggs of this species after an extended search,
the majority of the scales being not more than half grown.

April 3.—Found a Black Scale, beneath which were about a dozen eggs, but the
most of the other specimens were not yet fully grown.

April 16.—Found a few eggs of the Black Scale.

May 21.—Eggs of the Black Scale just beginning to hatch.

June 2.—The Black Scales have deposited from one-third to one-half of their eggs.

June 3.—Beneath the largest Lecanium olee I could find on an orange tree were a
trifle over 2,200 eggs and young larve.

June 22.—Received many Black Scales on Oleander from Santa Clara County; they
were from one-half to fully grown, and several of the latter individuals covered
eggs.

August 10.—Under some adult Black Scales all of the eggs have hatched out,
while beneath others from one-sixth to one-third of the eggs are still unhatched.

September 22.—F ound no eggs of the Black Scale after an extended search.

These observations were made upon scales living in the open air, and
indicate that the greater number of the eggs are deposited during the
months of May and June, although a few may be found as early as the
last week in March and as late as the first week in September; outside
of this period but few eggs of this species willbe found. Although this

30

species is quite generally known as the Black Scale, still this term is
an evident misnomer, at least as far as some specimens of this scale are
concerned. On the 16th of April, 1890, Mr. F. O. Cass, of this city,
brought me several leaves and twigs of Oleander upon which (para-
doxical as this may seem) were three Black Scales of a uniform white
color; some of the other scales were dark brown, while the remaining
ones were of the normal brownish-black color. I submitted them to
Prof. Riley, and under date of April 23, 1890, he wrote me as follows
in regard to them:

I have received a box containing white ‘‘ Black Scale.” I feel sure that this is
Lecanium olew, but do not recollect that I have seen anything lke it before. I¢ is
more probably to be accounted for as a case of albinism, which is the only case I
know of in Coccids. Lecanium does not molt in this way.

I have never observed this characteristic in any other kind of seale-
insect, and it appears to be of rare occurrence among the individuals
of the present species.

The young of Black Scale after issuing from the eggs usually remain
beneath the body of the parent for several hours, finally crawling out
and taking up a position on some other portion of the plant; they do
not settle down in one place permanently, but change about as circum-
stances may make it necessary. I have seen half-grown individuals
thus crawling about. As arule they infest only the leaves and bark;
only in rare instances do they attack the fruit. The eggs first laid are
hatched out before the last egg is deposited, and thus the processes of
deposition and hatching proceed simultaneously until the last egg
has been deposited. The number of eggs deposited by a single female
is simply enormous; as stated above, I counted beneath one of them
over 2,200 eggs and young larve, all of which were undoubtedly the
progeny of this female.

Among the insect enemies of the Black Scale may be mentioned the
Twice-stabbed Ladybird (Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls.), the larva of
which I have repeatedly caught in the act of feeding upon these scales.
T have also seen the larva of the Tineid moth, Blastobasis iceryeella Riley,
feeding upon these scales. I find by reference to my note book that on
the 11th of March, 1887, I found a larva of this species beneath three
empty full-grown Black Scales on an olive tree; this I transferred to
one of my breeding cages, in which I placed a branch of an olive tree
upon which were Black Scales of all sizes. A few days later I examined
this cage and found that the larva had spun a thin, loose silken web
over some of the Black Scales and had partially devoured several of the
half-grown ones. This larva had changed to achrysalis when examined
on the 4th of May following and the moth issued May 28. A full de-
scription of this insect will be found in the Annual Report of this De-
partment for 1886 (pp. 484-486), and a figure of the moth is also given
at Fig. 3, Pl. 111, of the above-mentioned report.

By far the most effectual destroyer of the Black Scale, however, is a

31

small, four-winged Chalcid fly known as Dilephogaster californica
Howard. A description and figures of both the male and female of
this useful parasite will be found in the Annual Report of this Depart-
ment for the year 1880, p. 368, and Pl. xx1v, Figs. 3 and 4. The name
Tomocera, under which this insect was described in the above-men-
tioned report, was found to have been previously used for another group
of insects belonging to the order Thysanura, and the name Dilophogas-
ter was therefore substituted for it. I have quite frequently found
orange trees upon which fully 80 per cent of the adult Black Scales
had been destroyed by these parasites. I find by reference to my note
book that I bred parasites of this kind on the 14th and again on the
27th of June from Black Seales collected on the 25th of the preceding
April; and that on the 22d of September I found a full-grown larva
of this parasite under an adult Black Scale. I also captured specimens
of this Chalcid on the following dates: January 17, July 2, August 31,
September 21, and October 12. This would seem to indicate that at
least two and perhaps even three generations of these parasites are
produced in one year.

It is to be regretted that these useful parasites sometimes fall a prey
to other insects, but such is the case. I find by reference to my note
book that on the 21st of September I sawa larva of a slender greenish
bug known as Diplodus renardu Hol. engaged in feeding upon one of
these parasites; the beak of the larva was inserted into the body of the
Chalcid fly and the juices of the latter had been nearly extracted by
the voracious captor. Fortunately, these predaceous insects are not
abundant. I have occasionally seen them preying upon other kinds of
Chalcid flies besides the Dilophogasters; on the 1st of September I
captured one of the adults which had its beak inserted into a Perilam-
pus sp., one of the Chalcid parasites of the Lace-wing referred to above
in the chapter treating of the Red Scale; the Diplodus held the Chalcid
beneath his front feet, somewhat as a dog holds a bone while gnawing
it. Ihave occasionally found the square or roundish egg masses of this
Diplodus attached to the upper surface of the leaves of orange trees;
each mass contains from thirty to forty eggs which are regularly ar-
ranged in rows, the eggs in one row alternating with those on either
side of it. Hach individual egg is nearly cylindrical in form, of a honey-
brown color, except the top, which is white, and near its center is a
small puncture as if made ‘with the point of a needle. The mass is
fastened to the leaf by a very sticky substance, which, however, does
not hold it firmly, and the egg mass may be easily removed from the
leaf with the thumb and fingers of one hand. The adult Diplodus
measures nearly half an inch in length, is rather slender, and of a
yellowish-green color variously marked with black and yellow.

Notwithstanding the immense numbers of Black Scales and their
eggs which are annually destroyed by the Dilophogasters, still these
scales frequently become so abundant as to render it necessary to em-

32

ploy artificial means in order to rid the trees of these pests. For this
purpose the treatment with hydrocyanic-acid gas and the resin wash,
both of which are referred to above in the articles treating of the Red
Scale, are also employed for the purpose of destroying the Black Seale.
The gas treatment proves fatal to the scales, but does not destroy all
of the eggs. The resin wash destroys the greater number of the eggs
and also of the younger scales that it reaches, but it does not always
destroy the larger individuals. On the 6th of November, 1890, I had
eleven olive trees sprayed with the resin wash made according to the
following formula:

Resin sc. Sse ee 5 ss BOOS IS CORO IG O0Eo COO0G0 Gg asoe pounds 18
Caustic soda (70 per cent strong) ..---..-.25.--2-2225-22--.. dOze te
LONE See San peo o ote OB Se ESE oobboobEd dooda Osoqug Sano GoSC pints.. 24
Wiater, sufiicientitomake (2-5 222222 s ence eee gallons.- 100

The Black Seales infesting these trees were less than one-third grown.
IT examined them on the 13th of December, and found that nearly all
of the scales were dead, those still alive having to all appearance es-
caped being sprayed with the wash; the leaves and fruit upon these
trees had not in the least been injured by the wash.

On the 22d of September of the above-named year I sprayed a small
olive tree with a wash made in accordance with the above formula, and
after carefully examining the Black Scales upon it on the 21st of the
following month I found only a single living scale, while the leaves on
the tree were uninjured. On the 6th of January of the present year I
was Shown an Abutilon plant thickly infested with Black Scales, and
was informed that it had been quite recently sprayed with a wash
practical'y the same as that described above; still quite a large per-
centage of the oldest scales had not been destroyed by the wash. It
would therefore be advisable to spray the trees at a time when the
scales are very young; this period in ordinary seasons extends from
about the first of October to the beginning of the new year.

In place of the above wash, some of our fruit growers use one which
contains no fish oil, being composed simply of resin, caustic soda, and
water. This, besides being cheaper than the preceding wash, is also
less troublesome to make, and while it is not so effectual as the former
wash, still it proves fatal to a large percentage of the younger Black
Seales. One of my correspondents, Mr. C. B. Messenger, of Pomona,
in a letter to me bearing date of March 31, 1890, gives his experience
with a wash of this kind as follows:

Last year some of the trees sprayed in midsummer witha wash consisting of resin,
25 pounds; caustic soda, 6 pounds, in 100 gallons of the wash, were almost perfectly
cleaned of Black Scales, but I now find that the fruit, orrather a small portion of it,
was made unsalable by the solution giving the oranges arussety appearance. Some-
times the whole orange is thus affected, but usually only in streaks where the solu-
tion collected and ran around to the under side, where it was the worst. Thespray-
ing did not act in the same way on the fruit in the other orchards, although the
same strength of wash was used throughout the season. The present work was fol-
lowed by very hot weather. Was this the cause of it?

33

I have often noticed, and in my writings have frequently called at-
tention to the fact, that when used in very hot weather all washes are
more liable to injure the tree or fruit than would be the case if used in
cooler weather. For use on bearing citrus trees in very hot weather
no wash should contain over 5 pounds of 70 per cent caustic soda in
100 gallons of the wash; if a greater quantity than this is used at such
times there is great danger of marking the fruit in the manner above
described. When only resin and caustic soda are to be used, 5 pounds
of the latter and 18 pounds of the former in 100 gallons of the wash is
as much as should be used in very hot weather on bearing citrus trees.
I have never known of a single instance where a wash of this strength
has marked the fruit even when used in the very hottest part of the
summer season. }

It is interesting to note that the wash used by Mr. Messenger is pre-
cisely the same as the one I used on the 7th of August, 1889, in my
experiments 199 and 200, an account of which I gave on page 15 of
Bulletin 22, referred to above. I there recorded the fact that the wash
had produced rusty, brownish spots upon the young oranges, just as
Mr. Messenger also found that it would do.

In traveling about over the southern portion of the State I have
frequently noticed that the Black Scale thrives best near the coast,
and that in the hot, dry interior valleys a large percentage of them are
destroyed by the extreme heat. Even in localities not far from the
coast, large numbers of the younger scales perish during the excessively
hot weather that sometimes occurs during the months of July and Aug-
ust. In fact, in almost any locality these scales will be found in the
greatest numbers upon trees having a dense foliage, or which are so
situated as to be more or less shaded from the direct rays of the sun.
For this reason a judicious use of the pruning knife will accomplish
much in the way of preventing trees from becoming unduly infested
with these scales, while at the same time it will cause the tree to be in
a better condition for being treated with artificial remedies.

THE FROSTED SCALE.
(Lecanium pruinosum Coq.)

Since writing up the account of this species which appeared in IN-
SECT LIFE, vol. 111, pp. 382-384 I have made but few additional notes
on this species. One new food-plant must be added to the list given
in the above-mentioned account; this is the common Cork Elm, quite
largely grown for ornamental purposes, especially in the northern part
of the State. On the 24th of May I received twigs of this tree thickly
infested with Frosted Scales; these were sent by Mr. G. W. Harney,
President of the Yuba County Horticultural Commission; and during
a recent visit to Marysville Mr. Harney showed me the original tree
from which these scales had been taken. Several of the branches on

—21382—No. 26—3

4

this tree were very thickly infested by the scales, indicating that the
tree is perfectly congenial to their tastes and requirements.

In the above-mentioned account I stated the fact that at that time
no insect was known to attack these scales, but since this was written
I have bred from them numerous specimens of a small Chaleid fly,
known as Coccophagus lecanti Fitch. These attack only the younger
scales, and only one of the parasites infests each scale, causing the lat-
ter to assume a more convex, much smoother form than when not para-
sitized, and the entire upper portion of the parasitized scale becomes
black.

THE BROWN APRICOT SCALE.
(Lecanium sp.)

In the Santa Clara Valley, south of San Francisco, occurs a species
of Lecanium which is sometimes very destructive to various kinds of
deciduous trees. On the 21st of March of the present year I received
specimens of these scales from Mr, F. M. Righter, an extensive grower
of deciduous fruits located in the above-mentioned valley. The scales
were of two sizes, representing two different generations, the old dead
and dry females and the nearly half-grown young ones. A careful ex-
amination of these specimens convinced me that while they were evi-
dently closely related to the Frosted Scale of the preceding chapter,
still they evidently belonged to a distinct species. The more marked
differences consisted in the smaller size of the adult females, the fact
that they never became covered with a whitish powder, and the further
fact that the younger ones are destitute of the submarginal row of long
bristles which occur in the young of the Frosted Scale.

In the letter which accompanied these specimens Mr, Righter writes
as follows concerning them: |

I send you by today’s mail specimens of the Brown Apricot Scale, so called, not-
withstanding they infest prune trees as much or more than apricot. They are also
found on peach, pear, apple, and cherry, but principally on apricot and prune.
* * * JT think they are not the same as the Brown Scale you mention; they are
never covered with a white powder.

Thinking that perhaps the submarginal bristles may have existed in
perfect specimens of the young seales but had been accidently broken.
off of the specimens sent me through the mails, I requested Mr. Righter
to examine the young scales fresh from the tree and ascertain if these
submarginal bristles existed upon them; and under date of April 18,
1891, he writes me as follows:

I have a microscope of very high magnifying power, and have carefully examined
both the young and the full-grown scales, and find that neither of them are pro-
vided with bristles around the edge of the body. Nor can I find any as large as you
mention, 7. e., seven twenty-fifths of an inch in length; the largest I can find meas-
ure seven thirty-seconds of an inch in length.

Again, under date of May 12, he writes as follows:

The Brown Apricot Seale seems to have completed its work. Its eggs are laid,
and it is seemingly wholly inactive.

~

ar)

The largest adult specimens received from Mr. Righter are 4™™ long
by 3 wide and 12 high, and the smallest adult specimens are 3™™ long,
2 wide, and 1 high; the color is a ight yellowish brown, the outline oval,
narrowing anteriorly; the sides are rugose and transversely carinate,
the dorsum much smoother, and with indications of a medium carina
most distinct anteriorly; the edges are thin and spread out.

My library contains references to upwards of fifty descriptions of as
many different kinds of Lecanium, and it is quite impossible to decide
to which of these numerous species the Brown Apricot Scale belongs.

As aremedy, the stronger resin wash described in the chapter on
the San José Scale will doubtless be found effectual when used against
the present species; it should only be used while the trees are dor-
mant, and at that time none but the younger scales will be found alive,
there being but a single generation each year. Common brown laun-
dry soap, 1 pound dissolved in 3 gallons of water, will doubtless prove
fatal to these scales, as I have known it to do when applied to the com-
mon soft Brown Scale.

THYMO-CRESOL AS AN INSECTICIDE. |

Some time during the past summer I received a can of thymo-cresol
for experimental purposes. No opportunity occurred for testing this
insecticide until on the 4th of September, at which date I sprayed some
of the diluted liquid on an orange tree infested with the Yellow Seale
(Aspidiotus citrinus) and with the Soft Scale (Lecaniwm hesperidum).
Lused it in the proportions of 1 gallon to 1,000 gallons, and also to 2,000
gallons, of the wash, these being the proportions recommended for de-
stroying scale-insects on orange trees as given in the circular which
accompanied the can of insecticide. The weaker wash did not prove
fatal to a very large percentage of the scales, but the stronger one de-
stroyed about 90 per cent of them; there were very few of the soft scales
on this tree, but all of them were destroyed by the wash, while the
fruit and leaves were not injured. In the printed directions it is rec-
ommended to syringe the trees with pure water fifteen minutes after
applying the wash, but this I did not do, since it would occasion too
much labor to carry out this plan in the case of large orange groves.

According to a schedule of prices which accompanied the can, a
3-gallon can of the thymo-cresol costs $5.25; at this rate, each gallon of
the stronger wash used above would cost somewhat less than one-fifth
of a cent per gallon, which would make this an extremely cheap insecti-
cide.

In the printed directions it is recommended to make three applications
of this wash, at intervals of eight or nine days, each application to be
followed by a spraying with pure water fifteen minutes after the appli-
cation is made; this plan might be followed in regard to a few plants
or small trees, but it is altogether too expensive for adopting in the
case of large orange groves.

ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES FOR THE SEASON OF 1891.

By Mary E. MURTFELDT.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL,

KIRKWOOD, Mo., October 31, 1891.
Sr1r: I herewith inclose a record of some of my observations and experiments for the
past year relating to economic entomology.
Respectfully yours,
MARY E. MURTFELDT,
Dr CoV. RILEY,
Entomologist,
U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Taking one locality with another, this State may be said to have
suffered less from the ravages of insects during the season of 1891 than
for many years previous. The climatic conditions ftom early spring
until the middle of August, a period covering the growing season of the
most important crops, was exceedingly favorable to the perfection of
vegetation. As a consequence, the yield of grain, hay, fruits, and many
sorts of vegetables has been abundant and the quality unsurpassed.

In certain localities there were irruptions of injurious insects which
for a time caused anxiety, but these were, as a rule, over limited areas,
and the aggregate of loss occasioned by them was less than had been
anticipated.

The most annoying pests of the spring and early summer were Aphi-
did of numerous species. The punctures of the fruit-infesting forms
produced on the new growth of grapes, peaches, and plums consider-
able blight and deformity.

The Woolly Aphis of the Apple (Schizoneura lanigera) is an almost
invincible enemy of young orchards in some sections of the State, es-
pecially on gravelly soils. On such specimens of diseased roots as were
sent to me I could find no trace of parasites or other natural enemies.
Drenching with strong, hot soapsuds was recommended, and was re-
ported as quite successful in checking the work of the insect, but in
some of the orchards the roots were so warty and diseased that recupera-

36

oO”

tion was impossible, and uprooting and burning the trees seemed the
only advisable plan to pursue.

The Grain Aphis (Siphonophora avence) was sent to me from several
localities, butits appearance was by no means general, and the oat crop,
which in Missouri suffers most from this insect, was good in almost all
parts of the State.

The Chinch Bug (Blissus lewcopterus) appeared in considerable num-
bers in the western and southwestern parts of the State, first on wheat,
which it did not materially injure, and later on corn, some fields of
which were seriously damaged. The dissemination of the germs of so-
called “‘chinch-bug cholera,” by Prof. Snow, of Kansas, and Prof.
Forbes, of Illinois, was actively carried on, and the confidence of farmers
in this natural remedy for the most serious pest of their grain fields was
proved by the extent of the demand for the diseased bugs. Probably
not all made use of the latter in a way to accomplish the ridding of their
fields of the bugs, but so far as I have been able to learn a very encour-
aging measure of success attended the introduction of the disease germs
into infested wheat and corn fields.

The Joint-worm ([sosoma grande Riley) appeared in several sections
of the State about the first of June and excited much apprehension for
the safety of the wheat crop. In the samples of grain sent me the larvee
were invariably working in the heads, then just in bloom. None were
found in any of the lower joints. Infested heads were, of course, utterly
destroyed, as from three to six worms were often found in one head.
Mr. J. F. les, of Lexington, found about 80 per cent of the heads
injured in a certain field, and anticipated the loss of his crop, but later
he informed me that the damage was mainly confined to a portion of a
field that had been planted on wheat stubble of the previous year.
The specimens reared from larvae sent me were all females, and but one
head contained pup that had the appearance of. being parasitized, but
I was not able to obtain the flies of the latter.

The Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).—Notwithstanding the
almost total failure in this locality of all cultivated and most of the
native stone fruits, for the two preceding years, this hardy and adapt-
ive insect presented itself this season in sufficient numbers to inflict
considerable damage upon the sweet cherries, early plums, and free-
stone peaches. On the latter, however, its work was not disastrous,
and the later varieties escaped with very few punctures. The fruit
that tided it over last year was probably the Wild Black Cherry (Pru-
nus serotina) and possibly some of the pip fruits, although I have never
reared it from any of the latter. I have, however, repeatedly bred it
from larve in gooseberries.

The Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murgantia histrionica) was not only -
unusually destructive to cabbage, cauliflower, and other cultivated
Cruciferee, butin the southern counties attacked beans, peas, and sev-
eral other sorts of vegetables. This pest seems to be steadily advanc-

38

ing northward and has now reached about the middle of the State,
having been sent to me from Phelps, Washington, and Boone counties.
The mature bugs are long-lived, and my correspondents claim that
egos, young larve, nymphe, and perfect insects are contemporaneous
throughout the season, and that wherever they abounded the cabbage
crop was almost, or quite, a failure. With a view to test insecticides
-upon them, Lobtained in July, from Phillipsburg and elsewhere, several
lots of the mature insects. Many of these had deposited their beauti-
ful egg-clusters in the boxes by the time they reached me. There was
considerable variation in the intensity of the markings of these eggs,
some being very dark, while others had the black lines but faintly in-
dicated, and one set of about a dozen was entirely pearl white. The
young bugs hatched in the course of two or three days, emerging
through the lids of the little “ barrels,” which were lifted on one edge,
the shell retaining its form and ornamentation after giving up its in-
mate.

Part of the young bugs were transferred to plants in the garden con-
fined under wire screens, while others were retained in the breeding
cages.

The insecticides experimented with were X. O. dust and Pyrethrum,
neither of which made much impression, and arsenites of ammonia in
the proportions of two tablespoonfuls to a gallon of water. This killed
some of the young bugs, but also severely burned the plants, and
would not, in any case, be safe to use on such a vegetable as cabbage.
Kerosene emulsion killed the yoang bugs but did not affect those that
were full-grown. Thymo-cresol—one part to thirty of water—a very
strong solution, was also of no avail. Hot water was then used, taken
boiling from the range, carried about 100 yards to the garden, trans-
ferred to the sprinkling can and immediately applied to the infested
plants. The temperature was not taken, but it could not have been
much below 150° Fahr. The plants were but slightly wilted, and the
bugs were all killed. In this experience all my correspondents who
have tried the remedy coneur. The only difficulty is to bring this, or
any other application in contact with all the insects, as they seem to pre-
fer feeding on the undersides of the leaves. Butif the drenching with hot
water be supplemented by careful hand-picking, two or three times
during the season, the pest may be temporarily eradicated.

Cutworms this season gave far less trouble than usual. I am econ-
vinced that warm, wet winters do not agree with them. Nephelodes
violans was the only abundant species. This was found in hay fields
eating the stalks and blades of timothy grass.

Orsodachna atra Alhy.—This Chrysomelid was observed early in April,
on the grounds of a neighbor, swarming on the blossoms of the peach.
It would crowd into the unfolding buds, tear open the anthers, and
devour the pollen proceeding from blossom to blossom with great ra-
pidity, destroying every anther in its progress. In their haste and

39

greed these beetles would accumulate considerable pollen on their heads
and fore tarsi, and it is probable that some of this was brought in con-
tact with the stigmas, but there was every reason to fear that they would
devour the lion’s share of the golden grains and that the ovules would
not receive enough to fertilize them. A few days later I found a con-
siderable number of the same beetles at work on an isolated tree on our
own place, and as the variety of peach was not very choice, it afforded
a good opportunity to test the result of the insect attack. They were
accordingly suffered to cut as many anthers as they would. As a
matter of fact, this tree, though young, vigorous, and favorably situated,
and covered with blossoms in the spring, bore very little fruit, while
others of the same variety, on which Orsodachna had not been seen,
produced abundantly. Should it become a pest in future years, its
habit of dropping to the ground when disturbed would enable fruit-
growers to destroy it by jarring it down upon cloths or trays moistened
with kerosene.

The Cottony Maple Scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilis).—The vanguard
of the hosts of this pernicious Coccid appeared again in St. Louis dur-
ing the past summer upon the trunks and branches of various trees
and shrubs in the parks, and in many private grounds, and unless
timely attention is given to the matter it will next year proveas annoy-
ing and destructive as it was Six or Seven years ago.

The Post Oak Coccid (Chermes sp?).—The clusters of globular female
scales of this insect were to be found in the axils of almost every twig
and leaf of the Post Oak (Q. obtusiloba) during the past summer. These,
in connection with an undetermined fungous disease, produced a re-
markable blighting of the new growth, and in a number of cases seemed
to be the cause of the death of the tree. So noticeable was the effect
in the forests around Kirkwood that many people contended that it
was “locust year,” and wondered why we had not noted the shrilling
of the Cicada. It was with difficulty that I could make them believe
the contrary.

My attention was not attracted to this insect sufficiently early in the
season to enable me to observe its development, and at present the
seales contain only a mass of empty shells or skins. No guest insects
were bred from them during the season.

The White-marked Tussuck-moth (Orgyia leucostigma).—The larvee of
this insect were very destructive to the foliage of Willow, Walnut, Chest-
nut, Maple, and some other shade trees of the streets and parks of St.
Louis, as well as to Apple and Plum in private grounds, but I noted in
it a habit which will (or might) enable those suffering from its ravages
to destroy a large proportion of the eggs, namely, the trapping of a
great number of the caterpillars as they were seeking a hiding place
in which to spin, by the cotton bands with which so many of the trees
that shade the sidewalks are encircled. Some of these bands that I
have examined have been quite crowded with the chrysalids and egg-

A()

masses of the insect, and, if removed and burned before spring, will
certainly prevent the development of myriads of the pest. From young
larvee sent to me last spring I reared several parasites (Limneria flavi-
cincta, Ashm.), but these were not sufficiently numerous to materially
reduce the numbers of the host insect. If the infested trees be sprayed
with Paris green, in the proportion of 1 pound to 300 gallons of
water, or a very dilute solution of arsenites of ammonia, 1 pint to 100
gallons of water, the insects will be killed without injury to the foliage
of any tree.

Chamyris cerintha Treat.—The singular larve of this beautiful moth
were taken this summer feeding on the foliage of the Damson Plum.
They devour the leaf on both sides to the mid-rib, leaving the latter.
I think they have not heretofore been recorded among insects that dep-
redate on the foliage of fruit trees.

Catocala grynea is becoming with us quite a serious orchard pest
during the latter part of May and June. The larve rest during the
day, closely appressed to the trunk and larger branches, and feed at
night. Spraying with Paris green is an effectual remedy.

Edema albifrons, which has not been found here for anumber of years,
made a serious attack on the white and post oaks early in the summer,
inflicting considerable injury on the foliage. No experiments were
made in the application of artificial remedies.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE FOREST TENT-CATERPILLAR.

While on a visit to Minnesota in May I had an opportunity of wit-
nessing a remarkable outbreak of the above-named insect (Clisiocampa
disstria Hbn.). In all the forests around Minneapolis, and especially
on the fine trees along the shores of Lake Minnetonka, the oaks, elms,
lindens (Tilia), and ash trees were entirely stripped of their young
leaves, the larve migrating from tree to tree as fast as the latter
were defoliated. Many would descend by the trunk, but a large pro-
portion preferred to leave the tree by means of silken ropes, often
stretched from the highest branches to the ground, and which, by
the thread contributed by each descending worm, became eventually
as thick as packing cord and very strong. Down this the worms
crawled in single file. In driving along the woodland roads these long
swaying strings of worms presented a most singular spectacle. Occa-
sionally one of these ladders would be carried by the wind (or possibly
by the accidental impact of a bird) from one tree to another, and even
across the roads, forming festoons of crawling worms through which it
was anything but agreeable for nervous people to drive.

The few orchards of that part of the country were also badly infested
by the same species.

I could not observe much of the tent-making habit. Even when
molting in companies the larve merely spun mats of silk against the

Al

bark of the tree and in very few cases was there any attempt at a
shelter.

From accounts in the papers of that date it would seem that the in-
sect prevailed throughout the forests of the Northwest, and in some
instances, while moving in armies from one locality to another, they
were So numerous on railroad tracks as to occasion delays and stoppage
of trains. Poultry refused to feed upon them, and, so far as I was able
to observe, very few birds attacked them. My stay was not sufficiently
prolonged to enable me to ascertain what proportion of the larvze were
destroyed by parasites. I was informed by friends who were summer-
ing at Lake Minnetonka that one still, warm evening early in July all
the moths seemed to issue at once and were so numerous that the flut-
tering of their wings up and down the trunks of the trees and among
the branches filled the air with a distinct and peculiar humming sound
that attracted very general attention and curiosity.

On the succeeding evening scarcely a moth could be seen, and it was
supposed that the brisk wind that blew during the day had carried
them into the lake. So far as I could judge by their behavior in the
rearing cage, they develop with remarkable regularity, hatching, molt-
ing, and transforming simultaneously, so it is probable that in one or
two evenings of winged existence they had fulfilled their mission of
providing for the continuance of their kind.

NOTES ON SOME NATURAL ENEMIES OF PERNICIOUS INSECTS.

The Web-worm Tiger (Plochionus timidus) (if I may be permitted to
give it a popular name) realized all that was anticipated of it this sea-
son in its work of exterminating the insect it has selected for its special
prey.

June 6 I found two colonies of Hyphantria cunea, one on a young tree
of Box Elder and the other on a vigorous sprout of Laurel Oak, both in
excellent position for observation i situ. The larve in each case had
inclosed but two or three leaves and seemed to be about ready for the
first molt.

On the 10th a single specimen of Plochionus was observed running
up and down in each of these webs. On the 16th a close examination
of the nest revealed a dozen or more of the slender white eggs attached
to the twigs and petioles of the leaves and a few laid loosely in the
web. On the 20th larve about 3™™ in length were seen in the web and
probably others had attached themselves to the Web Worms, now about
11™™, or one-half inch in length.

When next visited, June 23, the colony on Box Elder had migrated
and separated into three companies on different parts of the tree.
They had not, however, in this way escaped their relentless foe, for a
number of the active littlé Carabids were running about among them
apparently quite at home wherever the worms were. ‘T'wo were seen

42

with their jaws buried in the bodies of the Hyphantria larve just back
of the head.

June 27, the presence of this savage and persistent enemy seemed
to utterly ‘*demoralize” the web worms, causing them to repeatedly
“break up housekeeping” and seek new locations, separating into
smaller and smaller groups in the instinctive search for safety. But
the attempt is vain: for no sooner are they established than Plochionus
is on the trail, and is not long in discovering their whereabouts and
biting into them whenever it is hungry.

By the end of June the colonies on both trees, though not nearly fall-
grown and greatly reduced in numbers, had dispersed, the gregarious
instinct having evidently been lost much sooner than usual. A few
Plochionus larve about one-half size were to be seen in the deserted
webs for a day or two after the web worms had disappeared, after which
they, too, departed, and I presume descended to the ground, where they
preyed upon such larve as could be found there. A few were placed
in a rearing jar and supplied with Spilosoma, Orgyia and other hairy
larve, but these were not attacked. nor was I able at the time to find
any other species upon which they would feed, and all perished without
completing their development.

The second brood of Hyphantria, which with us has always been
most numerous and injurious, was very sparsely represented in this
locality. Upon my return from the East I made diligent search in
Kirkwood and vicinity for the remains of webs or other evidence of the
worms, but could find very few. To my mind there is no question
that this happy immunity is due primarily to the agency of the little
Carabid, which has in some way suddenly acquired the habit of prey-
ing upon them.

Uropoda americana.—About the middle of July I received from Mr.
F. M. Webster a few specimens of the Striped Cucumber Beetle (Dia-
brotica vittata), thickly infested with the above-named large brown
mite, with the request that I attempt to colonize it on the same or allied
species of beetles here. Just at that season I could find but very few
examples of D. vittata, but as D. 12-punctata was abundant I hoped the
mites would accept the latter as asubstitute. In this I was disappointed,
the parasites refusing to leave their original hosts. After a few days
two or three specimens of vittata and several each of Colaspis pre-
texta, C. tristis, Lema trilineata, and Doryphora 10-lineata were intro-
duced into the jar and each supplied with its preferred food. The jar—a
-large one of clear glass—was kept on my desk under constant obserya-
tion, and in two days I noticed a few of the mites on each species of
Colaspis, with a very evident preference for the pretty blue tristis. In the
course of a week all the specimens of the latter were thickly covered and
much weakened, while only a few were found on pretexta and none at
allon any of the other species, not even on the fresh specimens of their
original host. In accordance with a suggestion, the attempt was made

43

to colonize them upon Anasa tristis and other Hemiptera, but without
success. |

A few of the mites had, when first received, been introduced into the
cucumber bed, and upon leaving home in August I transferred all the
beetles to the garden in the hope that they would disseminate the para-
site. To what extent this has been done I can not now say. Upon my
return home, after an absence of a month, I found the garden suffering
from heat and drought, the cucumber plants nearly all dead, and no
mite-infested beetles to be seen. IL hope, however, that Uropoda may
reappear next season in time to save us, in a measure, from the attacks
not only of the cucumber beetle, but from those of Colaspis on flowers
and grape foliage, on which both the bronze and the blue species have
for several years inflicted much damage.

The Cabbage-worm Parasite (Apanteles glomeratus).—It is with great
satisfaction that I announce the advent into Missouri of this valuable
natural check to the ravages of Pieris rape. It was observed about
the 1st of August in the gardens of Kirkwood, and about the same
time was reported to me by Mr. C. P. Fox, of the experiment station at
Columbia, in this State. Mr. Fox.claimed that in his locality it had
destroyed about 80 per cent of the worms. Unfortunately many of the
cocoons received from this gentleman were infested with a secondary
parasite ( Tetrastichus sp.?) which may interfere somewhat with its future
abundance. In this vicinity the primary parasite was unmolested, but
was not so numerous as at Columbia, not more than one in five or six -
of the worms being affected. It was found, also, upon two larve of P.
protodice, which in our garden were feeding upon Sweet Alyssum. It
has been several years since I found the latter larve upon cabbage.
In some unexplained way P. rape seems to have driven them from the
field.

IT have not yet learned how general the appearance of the cabbage-
worm parasite was during the past summer in this State, but, judging
from the fine crop of cabbages sent to our city markets from the north-
ern and western counties, the vegetable must have been rescued by
some natural agency from its most serious enemy, and this agency, I
strongly suspect, was the little Apanteles under consideration.

INSECTICIDES.

The only new preparation experimented with this summer was
“Thymo-cresol,” Lawford Bros., importers, Baltimore, Md. This fluid
is offered to the public more especially as a ‘cold-water dip” for sheep
and for use on poultry and other animals in the case of vermin. It is
also claimed to be a valuable disinfectant and antiseptic. In accord-
ance with instructions from the Department it was tried as an insecti-
cide in the place of kerosene emulsion. Added to 50 parts of water it
forms a milk-white, soapy fluid that distributes readily through the
Lewis hand sprayer. It has no disagreeable odor, a point that counts

44

in its favor, and is not irritating to the skin, nor in any degree poison-
ous.

The first use made of it was against that worst of all poultry pests,
the Chicken Louse (Goniocotes hologaster). This is a minute creature,
much resembling the Red Spider so injurious to plants. It is often
found in birds’ nests and is probably in this way communicated to
chickens. In the case in question these lice not only appeared in the
chicken house, but invaded the adjacent stable, where they proved ex-
tremely irritating to not only the horse, but to the person in charge. As
soon as the matter was mentioned at the house measures were taken to
exterminate the pest. The chickens and other animals were excluded
from their usual quarters and the buildings fumigated with burning
sulphur. This was followed by a thorough dusting with air-slaked
lime, usually a dependable remedy. In this instance, however, these
measures did not suffice to expel all the lice, and complaints of the nuis-
ance continued. As a last resort the Thymo-cresol, a package of which
had just been received, was recommended, and a large quantity ot
water was prepared with the proportions of the remedy according to
instructions. With this the chicken house, inside and out, and the en-
tire stable was thoroughly drenched by the aid of the appliance men-
tioned above, and there was no further trouble with the louse.

As a disinfectant its use was continued throughout the season in the
barn and outbuildings.

Asan insecticide my experiments would not justify me in recommending
itfor generaluse. Itwas tried upon the beetles and larve of the Potato-
beetle; upon the Squash Bug (Anasa tristis); upon the Twelve-spotted
Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica 12-punctata); upon the Harlequin Cabbage

Bug (Murgantia histrionica), and upon a number of other Coleoptera

and Hemiptera without appreciable effect. Various Aphididz were
destroyed by repeated applications; the larve of the Cabbage Butter-
fly were also sickened by two or three doses, but a single wetting did
not suffice to do much good; a strong solution—1 part to 50 of water—
was used upon Harris’s Apple Seale (Chionaspis furfurus) and upon the
Rose Seale and seemed to penetrate to and destroy the eggs; but on
the whole it is not sufficiently drastic to kill at once by contact, and is
not speedily poisonous to vegetable-feeding insects if taken in with the
food. Its effects on vegetation are not injurious, except when a num-
ber of applications are made in succession without spraying with pure
water to rinse it off. I hope to repeat and extend experiments with it
another year, especially to give ita thorough trial on animal parasites,
for which but little opportunity offered the present season.

REPORT OF PROGRESS IN THE INVESTIGATION OF THE
COTTON BOLL WORM.

By F. W. MALty.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

SHREVEPORT, LA., October 9, 1891.

Str: At your request I have hastily prepared a very brief and condensed summary
of this season’s work, carried on under your direction, upon the Cotton Boll Worm
(Heliothis armigera Hiibn.).

All details as to experiments, observations, and special notes have been omitted,
as the summary was only to give an adequate idea of the present condition of the
investigation.

Very respectfully, yours,
F. W. MALLy,

Assistant.
Draco. RILEY,
Entomologist.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESTRUCTIVENESS.

The Boll Worm is found throughout the whole cotton region. Over the
greater portion of this area its injury is only slight and not worthy of spe-
cial economic consideration. The regions where special remedial or pre-
ventive measures are practicable comprise that portion of Texas included
by an irregular line drawn from Paris to Tyler, to Cameron, to Temple,
to Gainesville, to Paris. For Arkansas a narrow belt from Fort Smith
to Morrillton, to Little Rock, to the southeastern portion of the State
For the Indian Territory a strip running from Gainesville, Tex., to Fort
Smith, Ark. These are the areas of greatest destructiveness, and for
the whole area the injury may range from 10 to 15 per cent of the whole
crop. For certain counties the percentage of injury is greater. Again,
individual plantations may be almost wholly destroyed while a dozen
others adjoining may escape with only slight injury. The sensational
reports of damage are nearly always based upon these individual ex-
amples, and an accurate scientific estimate of the average for a county
or district isseldom made. The worst infested fields are, in most cases,
those which for some of many reasons which could be given in a de-
tailed report behind the others; that is, late cotton. This makes them

45

AG.

more attractive 10 the moths and accounts, in part, for the fact that
one field is badly injured while surrounding ones are not. The injury
in other portions of the cotton region not specially outlined above
amounts to less than 2 per cent, and is so scattering as not to demand
serious attention, unless, perhaps, in a few isolated exceptional locali-
ties.

FOOD-PLANTS.

Corn is well known as its choice food-plant. Cow-peas rank next,
and cotton probably third, though there is evidence that if the tomato
crop were in as prime a condition later in the season when corn matures
the tomato would rank third, and cotton, at best, about fourth. This
accounts in part for the slight injury to cotton over most of the cot-
ton belt, where many of the crops just mentioned are planted a second
time later in the season, and which, therefore, divides the attack of the
Boll Worm on cotton. Experience has abundantly shown that cotton as
a food-plant is more a compulsion than a choice. More stress should
be placed upon the importance from an economic, entomological stand-
point upon the many host plants already on record for this species. In
localities where the cultivation of tobacco is being introduced it is to be
noted that the Boll Worm abundantly attacks the crop, and care must
be exercised in order that its ravages may not attain serious propor-
tions and endanger the progress of the introduction of this crop. In
large cities even flower gardens entirely isolated from corn or cotton
fields, have been frequently found to be infested with Boll Worm. This
can not be accidental, as might be urged, if these gardens were exposed
to badly infested fields, and it simply illustrates the reckless, apparently
indifferent habit of the female as to the host plant upon which she de-
posits. Special mention in city flower gardens should. be given the
Verbena, Geranium, Abutilon, rosebuds, and Jack Beans.

CHARACTERS AND TRANSFORMATIONS.

These have been so fully described heretofore that nothing further
deserves special mention in this connection, except the habit of can-
nibalism among the worms. As for the imagos, former observations as
to their diurnal habits have been fully verified the present season. At
Arlington, Tex., last August, hundreds were seen flying and feeding
freely on cow-peas from 9:30 to about 11 a. m. Though carefully
watched, deposition at this time was not observed, and it appeared that
they were only breakfasting. Deposition, however, could be frequently
noted in the afternoon several hours before sundown.

NUMBER OF BROODS AND HIBERNATION.

As to the number of broods nothing additional need be mentioned
at this time. The question of hibernation, however, demands special
consideration, and steps must yet be taken to determine more definitely

AT

the facts. Your agent, unfortunately, has been located in regions not
especially infested, and it transpires that owing to the scarcity of adults
at any season in the localities under observation that hibernating speci-
mens would be rarely found.

There is no question but that many pup do not issue in the fall, but
remain as such over winter. Many of these even enter the pupa state
as early as the middle or latter part of September and remain quiescent
until April or May. The decided overlapping of the broods from the
beginning of the season is thus easily explained, for doubtless the
hibernating moths appear earlier than those issuing from the pup in
spring.

Observation proves beyond a doubt that a great majority of the
destructive brood on cotton in August and September issue as imagos
before the close of the season. The facts also prove that instead of the
number of worms which might rightfully be expected from these imagos
to appear in greatly increased numbers absolutely appear in decreased
numbers. This indicated that some of the moths of this brood were
bent upon hibernation and refrained from depositing at this time. In-
deed, the facts disclosed by the latest observations warrant the asser-
tion that many of the imagos resulting from this destructive brood
hibernate. The majority of the worms spoken of in previous reports
as found so late in the season are mostly those from the eges of belated
females of the preceding brood and worms whose most rapid develop-
ment has been hindered by various, perhaps accidental, unfavorable
environments. Furthermore, as previously stated, the broods from the
very first of the season overlap. Doubtless, therefore, a great portion
of the worms found during the latter part of September and later con-
sist also of the lap, so to speak, of the last brood, and should not be
counted as a separate brood or even a partial one.

NATURAL ENEMIES.

The cannibalistic habit of the Boll Worm makes it its own greatest
enemy, as will be shown under the head of remedial measures. All the
enemies noted in Bulletin No. 24 of the Division have been observed
again. The same special stress and importance must again be repeated
in speaking of the egg parasite (Trichogramma pretiosa). Its value can
not be overestimated. Among birds the Sapsucker, Crow Blackbird,
and Crows deserve special mention. Another species of Robber Fly
was noted catching the imagos. Observations upon the habit of ants
(Solenopsis geminata) earlier in the season makes it absolutely certain
that at that season they frequently capture a Boll Worm. ‘They do so
mostly when the worm travels or comes out of the ear of corn to molt.
They seldom enter an ear of corn for a deliberate search after their vic-
tim. Later in the season, when there is a greater diversity of insect
life and also vegetable growth, the ant loses special interest in the Boll
Worm.

48

A small Capsid (Triphleps insidiosus) is found abundantly on corn
silks. It punctures and feeds upon the eggs of Heliothis and probably
very young Boll Worms. Many beneficial insects, especially the small
Scymnid beetles, are also abundantly found on corn silks. This sub-
ject will, however, be treated more fully in a subsequent report.

INSECT RAVAGES EASILY MISTAKEN FOR THOSE OF BOLL WORM.

All of those noted in Bulletin No. 24 of the Division have been ob-
served again, with the additional one of Thecla peas, which, however,
had been previously recorded. Among the Tortricide, a number of
species have been reared on cotton. The habits of the larve are well
known to be such that it is reasonable to expect that those species of
Pyralide and Tortricide which feed on cotton at all may occasionally
in doing so bore a stem or peduncle, or even the bolls, forms, and
squares themselves.

Many Hemipterous insects puncture very young forms and squares,
or their peduncles, causing the prospective fruit to fall. The mark re-
sulting from the puncture closely resembles the working of very young
Boll Worms, and by many planters the latter are held responsible for
the injury. To Hemipterous insects is due much of the shedding of
cotton in August and September, and ravages are popularly called
“sharpshooter” work. The most injurious, and perhaps also the most
abundant of the sharpshooters is a large leaf-hopper (Awlacizes sp.).
Calocoris rapidus, Largus cinctus are among those also which do much
damage. The life-history and ravages of these insects must be re-
served for more complete discussion in a subsequent report.

REMEDIES.

The great range of food-plants of the Boll Worm, its habit and method
of feeding upon special portions of these host plants, together with the
isolation of individuals which necessarily follow such food-habits, make
all insecticidal measures.of any nature little of or no practcial utility.
In the regions designated heretofore as injured probably about 2 per
cent or less, the attack by the Boll Worm is divided between so many
different crops that the application of any insecticide upon one crop be-
comes much more expensive for that crop than the injury done by the
worm. Furthermore, such measures are inadequate unless applied to
all the crops attacked at any specified time in any given locality. For
these regions it is evident, therefore, that insecticidal measures are
entirely impractical, even though the insecticide be aperiectly efficient
one and can be applied with the greatest effect. The same can be said
for localities worse infested, though the difference in destructiveness
partly mitigates the excess of expense. In any case, the vast areas of
cotton to be treated in addition to other crops still make such measures
questionable as to expense, aside from the time required during the

Bees ee ‘
ae

49

busy season when such remedies must be applied. It is the opinion,
therefore, of your agent that no insecticidal measures, even though
efficient as such, are to be recommended, because from the nature of the
case they are burdensome and impracticable. The whole work must
be accomplished by preventive measures, such as are hereinafter dis-
cussed, and which have been suggested by the food-habits of the species
in question, and which by experiment have been found adequate. In
this way it was determined that the Boll Worm has a choice food-plant
among the long list recorded, and, as will be seen, it has been the effort
of your agent to demonstrate the practicability of manipulating this
food-plant so as to concentrate the attack upon it, first trapping the
worms and then destroying thei.

PLOWING.

Fall plowing, as a preventive measure against Boll Worm in slightly
infested regions, is not practical as a purely boll worm measure. In
badly infested regions it is to be done when possible. The great difti-
culty with this measure is that the top crop of cotton is seldom all picked
timely enough to make fall plowing possible before the rainy, wintry
season begins. Due to this fact, it must be urged that plowing be done
in spring, as early as it is possible to plow and pulverize the soil. This
early plowing, with the cold, rainy weather and occasional frosts, which
occur as late as April 1, will insure the destruction of many of the
chrysalids. The after-preparation of the soil at planting time will
doubtless destroy a small percentage of the surviving pupe.

Early plowing, in addition to being a boll worm preventive, has its
strong advocates among leading agricultural men, who insist that it
should be followed as an improved method or practice of farming, since
larger and better crops are produced when done.

CORN.

Corn is beyond doubt the choice food-plant of the Boll Worm. From
about the middle of April, when the corn becomes large enough for the
Boll Worm to work in it, this worm may be found, and continuously so
on through the season so long as green corn in suitable condition for
food is found. Until about the middle of May or first of June, Boll
Worms are rarely found on any other plants than young corn. This
being true it is surprising to find that the first brood is sosmall. From
numerous accurate accounts in May and early June, at Shreveport, La.,
it was found that about 2 per cent of the young corn plants showed
signs of Boll Worm ravage, while (due to the change of plants by the
worms) less than 2 per cent actually contained worms.

At this time there is presented the first and most important opportu-
nity for inaugurating preventive measures, namely: to cut out the in-
fested plants and burn them or simply crush the “bud” of the corn

21382—No, 26-——4 ry

50

and mash the worm it contains. The small percentage of corn which,
even by the severest method, will be destroyed, together with its ab-
solute certainty in attaining the desired end makes this a cheap, effect-
ual, and practical measure to practice at this season of the year.

Some advise the application of oil emulsions to the ‘‘ buds” of the
young corn plants, but the time required to prepare the emulsions, ex-
pense of material and apparatus for applying properly the liquids or
powders used, again throws it beyond the realm of the practical. There
can be no practical advantage gained since no remedy of this nature
can be more satisfactory and expeditious than the practice of crushing
or cutting out and burning of the ‘“‘buds” of infested plants as already
described.

This preventive measure has the advantage of being inaugurated
at atime when labor is not so much needed for other purposes, and
hence can be done at a lesser cost and sacrifice. It can be utilized,
however, only during the fore part of the season, before the corn tas-
sels, and hence the importance of early action on the part of the plant-
ers at the time specified.

As a second preventive measure the cotton field should be so ar-
ranged that four or five rows of corn are planted for every forty or fifty
rows of cotton, the corn to be planted at a such a time as to be in the
prime of silking and roasting ears a week or ten days after the July
brood of Boll Worms matures in the regular crop corn; that is to say,
at the time when the moths of the destructive August brood which at-
tacks cotton begin issuing. Finding the regular crop corn too near
maturity they are compelled to go to the cotton. This occurs from
about the first to the middle of August, depending more or less upon
the locality. The important point is to have green corn in suitable con-
dition for food at the time when what is called “the destructive brood”
goes to cotton. This time, as is well known, varies some in each local-
ity, and can and must be best determined by the farmers of their re-
spective localities. In most cases the result will be accomplished if the
trap corn spoken of is planted from about the first to middle of June.

By some dozen experiments with trap-planted corn in various loeali-
ties, its practicability as well as efficacy has been demonstrated. The
female unquestionably selects the trap-planted corn for egg deposition
to the practical neglect of the surrounding cotton and all other food
plants except cow-peas. The trap-planted corn being reduced to the
minimum quantity, the egg deposition upon each individual ear is un-
naturally increased. Oftentimes fifteen to twenty-five or thirty eggs -
were found on the silks of a single ear. The worms fed and found
plenty of room in the ear of corn for a time, but as they grew larger
they became crowded and began to prey upon each other. When this
preying is once started it is carried to such an extent in these infested
ears that rarely more than one (sometimes two) of the twenty or thirty
worms ever attain maturity. Those even which attain maturity have
yet the risk of capture by natural enemies, parasites, disease, etc., to

51

experience when leaving the ear and traveling about seeking a suitable
place for pupation. The number of ears of corn having been reduced
to a minimum by trap planting, it is found that the cannibalism in-
duced among the worms reduces those reaching maturity to minimum
also. More than a minimum can not be accomplished, whatever be
the remedial or preventive measures. It becomes questionable, there-
fore, whether it is to be recommended that the trap-planted corn be
- cut and burned so as to destroy the few worms attaining maturity in
it, because the value of the corn more than compensates for the small
percentage of worms thus maturing.

Again, the numerous fresh corn silks so late in the season seem to be
specially attractive to many beneficial insects as suitable resorts, and
the egg parasite and many of the other smaller natural enemies of the
Boll Worm are found abundantly on these silks and in the ends of the
ears. Whether they are attracted by the corn silks being fresh or in
search of the objects of their prey, the fact remains that, being thus
conveniently quartered in the trap itself, these beneficial insects have
more frequent and better opportunities for successfully preying upon
the obnoxious insect. Their attack under such circumstances may be
said to be artificially concentrated more or less against a specified in-
jurious insect and hence makes them more efficient agents in reducing
and assisting in the control of the ravages of that species. A portion
of these beneticial insects would also be destroyed by any treatment of
the corn looking to the artificial destruction of the Boll Worm. In view
of these additional facts it seems best not to urge such a measure.

As to the first preventive measure, some insist that cutting out
infested corn early in the season endangers a good stand. In reply it
can be said that, much of the corn being drilled in, some is chopped out
at the time of the first plowing. At the time of this first chopping a
greater proportion of the drilled corn can be left and at the time neces-
sary to most efficiently attack the Boll Worm the portion cut out will
be counterbalanced by the slight excess left from the first thinning.
But, as already stated, absolute chopping and burning need not be
resorted to if care is exercised so that the crushing process be thor-
oughly done. In that case the worm is destroyed and the plant, as
experiments have shown, is not materially injured and still makes a
good ear of corn.

To the second, some object that by planting a trap crop in the man-
ner recommended you actually encourage the greatest possible devel-
opment in point of numbers, that succeeding broods will be proportion-
ately greater, and hence the measure will be worse than no remedy.
This has already been partially answered. The trap corn is reduced
to the minimum in quantity. This makes a maximum crowded condi-
tion which induces the maximum cannibalism in the species and, as
already explained, actually makes the Boll Worm its own destroyer.
On the other hand, if the trap corn were not planted the moths would
of necessity deposit on cotton, Here there is plenty of room and each

52

individual worm would feed and mature independently; hence no con-
ditions exist to induce their preying upon each other and the maximum
number of worms attain maturity.

The results of this preventive measure may be concisely stated to
be: First, protection of the cotton. Second, the minimum number of
Boll Worms reach maturity without additional expense after being
trapped. Third, the first and second are both attained without special
cost, in that no money outlay is necessary; no additional labor, since
the same would be required were the rows cotton instead of corn; at
any rate corn enough is produced to pay for the time and labor re-
quired. Fourth, beneficial insects are more or less attracted and their
attack concentrated to a certain extent upon a single obnoxious insect.
Fifth, the planter thus protecting his cotton is certain to succeed,
whether his neighbors attempt equally with him to protect theirs or
not, for, having fresh corn in good condition in his cotton, visiting
moths from adjoining farms will choose to deposit and the resulting
worms will ravage the corn to the practical neglect of the cotton.

COW-PEAS.

For attracting or diverting the Boll Worm moth from the cotton this
crop ranks next to corn. The essential point to be attained is to plant
the peas at sucha time that the crop will be in the height of its bloom-

ing period during the latter part of August and September. The |

Boll Worm moth is very fond of sipping the sweets at the base
of the developing blooms and very young pods. The peas answer the
purpose best it seems if planted in distinct rows adjoining cotton fields.
The growth should be rank and dense, so as to induce the moths to
make these rows of dense growth their hiding place. From observa-
tion it has been often found that where patches of peas in prime con-
dition were met with during August and September the moths were
found there in great abundance and to the practical exclusion of them
in the adjoining cotton.

In case it is found that the late-planted trap corn will mature rather
too early to be of the greatest value, and especially in regions where
drought is apt to prematurely ripen corn, it is to be urged that cow-peas
be planted between the rows of corn in time to furnish a continuation
of the trap through the rest of the season. In any case it would be
well to plant the peas as suggested as an additional attraction along
with the trap corn. Care must be taken that only a minimum area is
planted, in order that, possibly, other remedial agencies can be applied
with the least possible expense if found advisable to do so.

POISONED SWEETS.

The only crop upon which there is a probability of practically utiliz-
ing poisoned sweets is that of the cow-peas, planted in limited areas as

.
|
|

53

previously recommended. With a limited number of rows, and these
Swarming with Boll Worm moths, a tasteful and attractive sweet well
poisoned and thoroughly applied is of some value. A great difficulty
is met with in that the liquid applied dries after a short time and what-

ever moths are to be poisoned in this way must feed soon after the ap-

plication. This process makes a daily application necessary and of
course renders the crop as forage entirely useless. The worst featur e,
however, is that the poisoned sweet, in order to be an effective poison,
must be ede so strong that one anneal application burns the foliage
and checks the growth of the vines to such an extent that from that
time the pea-vines become useless as a crop for attracting the moths.
Thus the very purpose for which it was planted is suddenly discon-
tinued. If the brood of moths found at this time issued evenly, this
might not be so serious an objection, but, since the brood issues very
scatteringly, it is desirable to have the trap a continuous one.

Hence it appears that whatever of benefit is attained by the use of
this insecticide it is at too great a sacrifice to make the extensive appli-
cation of it advisable.

Experience has shown that the poisoned liquid must be actually ap-
plied to the food-plant in order to be most attractive, and hence most
efficient. If placed in pans or plates or on posts, boards, and like ob-
jects, a few moths are trapped occasionally. These catches even seem
rather accidental, as the great majority are not attracted and, in fact,
the liquid offered in any other locality than upon choice food-plants
Seems really to form no decisive attraction.

PYRETHRUM.

As already intimated, no insecticide can be of practical utility against
the Boll Worm. Much work has been done, however, in making decoc-
tions and various extracts of this powder. The principal points con-
sidered were those of determining the difference in extractibility of hot
and cold decoctions, hot and cold extracts with oils, such as kerosene
or head-light oil. These various extracts and decoctions were always
made into an emulsion with oil. The emulsions were then diluted and
applied in the usual way. There is some difference in the extent of
extraction of the insecticidal properties by hot and cold processes, as
also the aqueous and oil extracts. The difference by one of the proc-

esses is a decided one, though its practical utility upon this particular
species is questionable, except in special cases under certain conditions.

LIGHTS.

Numerous and decisive experiments with lamps for trapping Boll
| Worm moths were made. Some of these were made under the most
favorable circumstances. They all proved the absolute folly of this
practice among planters. The moth is not attracted much at any stage

%
Eee
Py —

54

of its existence, and whatever insects are captured are on the whole
decidedly beneficial. This practice then is a positive injury, in that it
systematically. destroys beneficial insects without accomplishing any
good as arecompense. This measure, so commonly practiced by plant-
ers, Should, in view of the decided and constant harm attendant upon
its use, be unhesitatingly condemned whenever opportunities are pre-
sented for doing so.

INSECT DISEASES.

In order that any insect disease should be most efficient and prac-
tical, it is necessary that the pest to be infected be gregarious in habit
and travel freely enough to intermingle frequently. For the Boll Worm
both of these conditions are found directly by opposites, it being soli-
tary in habit and not traveling about as frequently as most species of
worms of economic importance do.

Furthermore, feeding on- the inside of the portions attacked their
chances for infection through natural agencies and communication with
diseased worms are proportionately decreased. Even should a Boll
Worm become diseased, in the majority of cases it would die in a boll
or ear of corn and the deliquescing portions of the body containing the
germs would be absorbed by the rotting or fermenting boll. No other
worm, therefore, is ever exposed to infection from it. The solitary hab-
its of the Boll Worm in the midst of suitable plants offering a great
plenty of food furthermore insures the most healthy and least acciden-
tal condition possible. None of the factors, such as excessive numbers,
often resulting in a scarcity of food, thereby reducing the vitality of
the worm, enter into consideration in the case of the Boll Worm. All
or any of these are conditions which greatly favor the propagation, in-
fection, and distribution of diseases. These facts concerning the num-
bers and food-habits of the Boll Worm make it impossible to accom-
plish anything in a practical way with this species, even though the
diseases in question were highly contagious and efficacious as destrue-
tive agencies. The reason, as already stated, consists in the fact that
there are certain conditions required in order that contagious diseases
can be introduced and disseminated, and those conditions are wanting
in this species.

Again, if there were any contagious insect diseases of economic im-
portance prevalent in the cotton belt they would before this time have
made evident their efficacy, especially when it is considered how long cot-
ton and other crops have been under cultivation, and which have been so
long ravaged by all the various insects, from some of which we might
expect the occurrence and spread of disease. There are such diseases
found in the cotton region, and they have been found in such localities
as to make infection possible under the conditions as above stated. By
observation it has been determined that occasionally Boll Worms do die,
and apparently from disease. Whether peculiar to the species or due

SE

to infection from other sources need not be stated here, because the
important point is that, in either case, the results thus attained natu-
rally are for this species, probably the best possible even by the codper-
ation of artificial means. This isin reference only to any possible in-
sect diseases already found in the region where the Boll Worm depre-
dates on cotton.

The only hope then would seem to be the introduction of a foreign
disease, or at any rate one not already found in the infested regions.
This was thought to be the case with the Cabbage Worm disease.
This disease, even in localities in the South where it is prevalent, pro-
duces no wholesale exterminative destruction of that species. This
disease in itself, then, under the local existing circumstances, is not of
that virulent kind necessary in most cases for the infection of a new
pest in anew locality. (This is only generally speaking, and is not to
be understood as meaning that a disease virulent in one species will be
equally so in another, or that a disease mild in one pest might not be
virulent in another.) Furthermore, the Cabbage Worm disease is
already found in a mild form in some portions of the cotton belt; also, a
very prevalent disease of the Cabbage Plusia (Plusia brassice), and
which is probably the same as the Cabbage Worm disease. Small
patches of cabbage are found here and there at quite frequent intervals
throughout most of the cotton plantations, a condition resulting from
the system of small negro tenantry prevalent among Southern planters.
Thus every opportunity is offered for the spread of the disease in ques-
tion in case it were highly contagious and of practical economic import-
ance in this connection. In fact it has been found that the Boll Worm
is occasionally found to be diseased. From symptoms and other bac-
teriological evidence it is now quite definitely determined to be identi-
eal with the Plusia and Cabbage Worm disease. It is quite probable,
therefore, that these diseases are already doing their work as exten-
sively as is possible under the specially peculiar circumstances already
mentioned, and which are such as to quite effectually baffle artificial
means.

The importance of the work with insect diseases is not to be under-
estimated, however. The work which it was possible to do simply dem-
onstrates that by mere contagion and transmission no great and won-
derful results are to be obtained. Rather in this case the question
becomes one of virulence, and not merely susceptibility to infectious
diseases. One acquainted with bacteriological methods knows that
these two objects can not primarily be accomplished simultaneously in
a single investigation; that is to say that the question of the inefficacy _
as a practical economic measure by the transmission of any contagious
disease must be determined first, and then attention is given, if the
pest is found susceptible, to those conditions which might increase the
virulence of the disease-producing germs in question. ‘The work, there-
fore, so far as followed out, is thorough and conclusive, but from the

56

nature of the case only one portion has been completed. What possi-
bilities lie in the way of experimenting purely with the germ in order
to attain the necessary virulence actual experiment will have to dem-
onstrate. In addition to giving attention to the virulence of the dis-
ease germs, more study should be given the natural conditions in order
to determine whether they may be artificially varied so as to be more
conducive to the dissemination of disease.

Above all, the subject ought not to be summarily dismissed, since
only a limited number of germs could possibly be experimented with.
True, the most hopeful ones were experimented with first, but yet it may
transpire that other well-known diseases, not yet tried, may be efficient.
The work has really been one of elimination of some specific germs by
which it was thought certain desirable results could be attained rather
than such as to conclusively demonstrate the impracticability of util-
izing insect diseases in the province of economic entomolog

INSECTS OF THE SEASON IN IOWA.

By HERBERT OSBORN, Special Agent.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

AMES, Iowa, December 5, 1891.
Str: I submit herewith my report on the more important insects of the season in
Iowa. The year has been one of unusual prosperity and excellent crops in the State
and the ravages of insects have attracted correspondingly little attention. Observa-
tions on some other species than those here mentioned are still in a condition too
fragmentary to warrant detailed report.
Very respectfully yours,
; HERBERT OSBORN.
Dr. C. V. RILEY, Entomologist,
Washington, D. C.

The past season has been quiie free from any sweeping insect inva-
sion, and, aside from the prominence of plant-lice and their great mul-
tiplication upon plums and wheat and the spread of the Clover-seed
Midge, there were none to attract special attention or to cause serious
alarm. There were of course the ordinary species present in their
usual abundance, and there is no doubt that crops were affected in con-
siderable degree; but the loss was not such as to attract unusual atten-
tion, and it is of course a matter of regular occurrence for a certain
amount of loss to occur in all crops without causing much inquiry from
cultivators. In fact, it is the common rule to consider these attacks of
little moment, or to believe them too little to be worthy the expenditure
of time and money to attempt their prevention. For some crops, and
where the cost of application of remedial measures would be large, it
is doubtless true, but there are certainly many instances where the
expense of applying some remedial agent or the trouble of adopting
some method of culture to avoid insect increase would be abundantly
repaid.

The White-winged Bibio (Bibio albipennis) attracted considerable
attention in the spring, appearing in great numbers in many parts of
the State, and in a number of cases it was sent in with the statement
that it was eating foliage of various plants. The evidence gained, how-
ever, did not suffice to establish any case where actual damage was

57

58

done to foliage, and we can but think that the flies occurred on plants
that had been previously eaten by some other insects and that the work
was erroneously attributed to these Bibios when they appeared in such
numbers.

Plant-lice were very abundant on almost all kinds of plants, and
especially on plum trees did a great deal of damage. The species
known as Aphis prunifolii was one of the most abundant forms, but
other species occurred, and one which was apparently the most common
and destructive appears to be referable to Myzus persice. This is a
brown or reddish-brown species, with greenish legs, and it occurs in
great abundance on the terminal portions of the twigs and causes very
extensive curling and twisting of the leaves, being almost as bad as
some gall-forming species in the amount of distortion produced. On
this account it is more difficult to destroy with kerosene emulsion than
the forms that are less protected, and we found that in some cases the
only satisfactory method of reaching them was to dip the worst branches
directly into the emulsion and wash them about till all the corners and
cavities had been reached. Later in the season the parasitic insects
affecting these lice became abundant and their injuries were practically
stopped. They can most seriously affect the growth of the fruit as
well as the general health of the tree. Ona small tree upon which I
allowed them to develop for the purpose of watching their progress,
they clustered on the stems of the plums, and even on the plums them-
selves, and the fruit thus infested became much wilted, much of it
covered with exuded juices; and even after the lice had been destroyed
by parasites failed to recover and make a good growth, some attained
only about half size, and were tough and of poorest quality when
ripened, while a portion became so withered that they failed to ripen
at all. It is evident that the insect should be attended to early in
spring, before the lice become numerous and the leaves become curled,
as then they can be destroyed very much easier and it will prevent the
damage to the fruit.

Two other forms, apparently distinct species and quite different also
from Phorodon humuli, were observed in small numbers on wild plums,
but they have not as yet been referred to any described species.

The Wheat Plant-louse (Siphonophora avene), which has been abun-
dant in States east of here for a few years past, appeared in abundance
in the eastern part of the State this season, especially in the north-
eastern portion (Jackson and adjoining counties). It seems to have
been noticed first only a few weeks before ripening of grain, and for
two or three weeks I received a great number of samples. In almost
every case, however, the specimens sent were noticed to be in large part
affected with parasites, and I could reply that the injury from the lice
would probably soon cease. In all cases where I received a second
notice from the same place it was to the effect that the parasites had
been increasing and that the injury had ceased. The louse is evidently

:

59

widely spread. It was seen at Ames in small numbers on oats, but in
this case also accompanied by parasites; and while it is probable that
wheat and oats may be affected by the louse another year, i think we
may depend upon the parasites being sufficiently numerous to prevent
serious loss. It would, therefore, not seem advisable to reduce in any
degree the planting of wheat or oats or any of the crops that may be
affected by this species on account of possible loss from this pest.

The Dogwood Plant-louse, which has been referred to in previous re-
ports, has been observed further and some additional facts secured, but
there are still some points of importance to be determined. Eggs of
this species and of the Dogwood Aphis (Aphis cornicola) were deposited
freely on some small dogwood bushes near my office last fall, and I
had an opportunity of watching them pretty closely during the spring.
The eggs near the ground seemed to pass the winter most perfectly,
and for the Schizoneura hatched in fair numbers in spring, a short time
before the blossoming of the Dogwood. The insects gathered upon the
expanding leaves and also on the blossom buds, and as the latter
opened they seemed to gather by preference in the bunches of blossoms
clustering upon the stems and at the bases of individual blossoms.
Apparently the second or third generation acquired wings, and the
Schizoneura then disappeared entirely from the Dogwood. They were
not to be found on grasses for some time later, but they would neces-
sarily be scattered widely and difficult to find at first.

During the autumn I received word from a Mr. Bower, of Norway,
that his corn had been troubled with plant-lice, and he sent me sam-
ples of Setaria infested with Schizoneura, which he said were the same
as he had been troubled with on his corn.

Thinking it probable that it was Aphis maidis that was affecting the
corn, and not the Schizoneura, I requested him to send samples if he
could then find them of the lice on the corn roots, and he soon sent me
some roots of corn on which were a number of Schizoneure resembling
in every respect the Schizoneura so common on grass. Some of these
were quite evidently acquiring wings, and shortly after I secured from
them a winged individual, which agrees closely with Schizoneura corni,
except that the antennal sensory pits are not so distinctly developed.

As the specimen was mounted while still quite fresh, there is a possi-
bility that the sensory pits had not become as well marked by the rigid
chitinous border aS in more mature individuals, and while I can not
affirm their identity it seems probable that they are thesame. If iden-
tical with the species affecting the Foxtail, it is evident that there is
an important relation between this weed and the corn with which it
grows so abundantly. It is certain that we have in the species of
Schizoneura here noticed another corn pest that is easily equal to the
common corn-root lousein its power to injure this important crop.

The Clover-seed Midge has become a serious pest in many parts of
the State, and, while it has been observed before and attention called to

60

the necessity of preparing for its probable spread here, this year is the
first one in which there has been a loss so great as to cause much alarm
amongst the farmers. Its most serious ravages have been in the north-
eastern part of the State, where clover has recently become a quite im-
portant and extensively cultivated crop. In many localities from which
T have received reports the loss of the clover seed this year has been
quite complete. In some cases it appears that the clover has been quite
extensively infested with the Clover Thrips (Phlwothrips nigra), the
slender red larva of which seems to be by some mistaken for the larva
of the Midge. The Midge was treated in Bulletin 13 of the Iowa Ex-
periment Station, illustrated with your figures, and it is hoped that this
discussion and the quite general attention it has received from the
agricultural press of the State will enable the growers of this valuable
crop to adopt measures by which to secure good crops of seed.

Another quite serious pest during the year was the Clover-seed Cater-
pillar (Grapholitha interstinctana Clem.), which appeared in this locality
in great abundance and caused the loss of a large percentage of the seed,
though, since for the first crop there was no effort to secure a crop of seed,
the loss was, of course, not so important. This species has been treated
in detail by Mr. Gossard and myself in Bulletin 14 of the lowa Experi-
ment Station and in an article presented to the Association of Keo-
nomic Entomologists (published in INSECT LIFE), and it is therefore
unnecessary to go into detail regarding it here. Itmay be stated, how-
ever, that it has been determined to be three-brooded here and that it
was found that, when the clover was cut and stored for the first crop
with the larve of the first brood still in the heads, all the larve per-
ished, and it is deemed a complete method of destruction for the species
to cut and store the clover while still in bloom the first time, provided
this is quite general, so that larve infesting the scattering clover in
fence corners and along roadsides are not developed in abundance to
lay eggs for the later broods of the season.

The Flavescent Clover Weevil (Sitones flavescens) also occurred in
considerable abundance here, and it is probably quite generally dis-
tributed through the State, since its habits are such as to attract little
attention.

The common species of locusts were abundant and:in some localities
I learned of considerable damage to clover and other crops.

In a number of trials of the hopperdozer plan of treatment for the
Grass Leaf-hoppers (which works effectually also for the young of
locusts), it was found that a simple flat sheet of sheet iron covered with
coal tar on the upper surface and drawn along by means of cords at-
tached at each end was a most effective method of capturing the jump-
ing species not only of leaf-hoppers, but young locusts and a number
of other small insects. A paper giving results of these tests was read
at the Washington meeting of the Society for the Promotion of Agri-
cultural Science, and published under joint authorship with Mr. Gossard

61

in Bulletin 14, lowa Experiment Station. The most important results
may be here stated. In an experiment upon a plat of grass land a por-
tion was treated with the tarred sheet on May 29; the remainder of the
plat, or rather a corresponding portion on the opposite side of a nar-
row roadway, was left untreated. On June 9 a trial by running the
tarred sheet over a strip 3 rods in length on each plat, it was determined .
that by actual count the leaf-hoppers were more than five times as plenty
Oe the plat that had been untreated as on the treated plat. And July

2, when the hay was cut on each plat, the yield from the treated plat

Was o4 per cent better than that of the untreated plat.

On June 20 the tarred sheet was tried on another part of the lawn,
and, “in moving 55 feet with the dozer, the number of leaf-hoppers taken
was estimated by counting the insects on three sections of the dozer,
each 6 inches long and extending the entire width of the dozer. The
counts were 183, 319, and 226, respectively, which averages 245 for each
section, or 4,131 on the whole pan. At this rate about 576,000 insects
would be caught per acre.

‘¢ Another test was made at the same time, dragging the dozer over
66 feet of lawn. This time five sections of 6 inches each were counted
off and averaged, instead of three, which resulted in giving 2,805 OSCE
on the dozer, or 213,089 would be taken on an acre.”

In previous reports I have given some estimates as to the number of
these leaf-hoppers that may occur on an acre of grass land, and it will
be seen that these trials not only give confirmatory evidence as to the
great numbers of these pests that live in grass, but show that they can
be captured successfully by the hopperdozer plan. Since the latter
trials were made in hot weather and when most of the insects were
winged, it was impossible to capture all of the hoppers, and it is prob-
able that the actual number of hoppers on the Jand averaged well up
to 1,000,000 per acre. By selecting best conditions, it will be possible
to capture a larger percentage, and the profit of securing even half of the

hoppers in the grass will, I believe, well repay, all expense and trouble

of treatment.

A very interesting occurrence of the year was the remarkable in-
crease of a parasite (Apanteles glomeratus) aftecting the common Cab-
bage-worm (Pieris rape).

About the Ist of May I received from you some parasites imported
from England, but they were already issuing from the cocoons and
there had been no cabbages planted at the time in this locality, so that
my only hope of getting them established here was to place them on
Black Mustard growing wild, and even here I had little hopes of getting
them established, as P. rape had only begun to appear in the imago
and there was little possibility of larve being ready in time for oviposi-
tion of Apanteles. About the lst of August I was somewhat surprised
to have brought to me a number of rape larve with cocoons of a para-
site that resembled exactly the Apanteles. When the imagos issued

62

they proved to be, so far as I could see, identical, and my opinion was
confirmed by referring the specimens to your office. The Apanteles
had been most abundant in the gardens of a Mr. Gregory, a gardener
near Ames, but about 3 miles from where the Apanteles had been in-
troduced, and it seemed almost impossible that they could have become
so widely distributed and so abundant inso short a time. I made care-
ful inquiries of Mr. Gregory, and found that the parasite had been first
observed by his wife in the fall of 1890, but in small numbers, and at
the time supposed to be an injurious species, and all that were observed
had been destroyed. During the summer just past, however, she had
seen the larve issuing from the caterpillars and rightly appreciated
their beneficial nature. They became so abundant in Mr. Gregory’s
garden that he told me they had entirely destroyed the cabbage worms
on his place, and they also multiplied extensively in the cabbage patches
on the college farm, so that there will probably be very few of the cab-
bage worms another season and even if they appear in some numbers
the parasites should be so thoroughly distributed as to be able to keep
them entirely in check. .

While this occurrence of the Apanteles by some previous introduction
makes it impossible to say with certainty whether any were established
as a result of the introduction of last spring (and the probabilities were
against a successful issue in this case) there is the strongest proof of the
ability of the species to thrive and to successfully reduce the numbers
of Pieris rape. It would be of interest to ascertain the source from
which they were introduced, but nothing could be learned of any proba-
ble introduction direct from any distant point and it seems most likely
that the species has simply spread through its own powers of dispersal
from other parts of the country where it has been present. It would
seem to be a very easy species to distribute from one point to another,
but for the Northern States it would seem more easy to introduce in the
latter part of the season, as the imagos issue in spring too early to find
rape larve ready for them to oviposit upon. Mr. Gregory informed me
that the parasites were noticed issuing from the pup as well as from
the larve.

The Apple Maggot, which reports indicated ascommon in some sec-
tions of the State last year and which it was feared might prove trouble-
some to our orchardists, has not been heard from the present season, al-
though the apple crop has been a large one. Should it make no further
appearance it would seem to strengthen the idea that it does not thrive
in this region, perhaps on account of unfavorable soil, a condition that
may be viewed with much satisfaction by our fruit-growers,

Fils:

aw

1%

i

REPORT OF ENTOMOLOGICAL WORK OF THE SEASON OF
Soir

By F. M. WEBSTER, Special Agent.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

COLUMBUS, OHIO, October 10, 1891.

Srr: I herewith submit my annual report for the current year. My last report
preceding this related to the development of the Hessian Fly, and especially as show-
ing the desirability of late sowing as a means of warding off the fall attack. It
seems, however, that where the carrying out of this advice leads to a procrastination
in the preparation of the ground it is likely to lead to injurious effects, where wheat
is to follow clover. I have, therefore, prepared the accompanying report in order to
show the nature of another class of depredators, and how it is, doubtless, possible
and practicable to follow out the directions as to late seeding and still avoid contact
with this second evil.

Yours very respectfully,
F. M. WEBSTER,

Special Agent.
rs Ca¥. RILEY,

U. S. Entomologist.

INTRODUCTION.

During the fall of 1890, after the rendering of my annual report for
that year, I was engaged in the study of various insects, notably those
affecting young growing grain. On February 2, 1891, I started ona
tour of investigation through Arkansas and Texas, in order to continue
work begun by me in 1886, relative to the occurrence and effect of vari-
ous species of Simulium infesting the streams of the valley of the lower
Mississippi, and also to investigate the depredations of the Grape Cur-
culio in northwestern Arkansas. From the 20th of February to the 1st
of April I was in Texas engaged in further studies of Simulium and
grain insects. A report of the work of this trip has been forwarded
you and published in INSECT LIFE. Soon after my return, in accord-
ance with your direction, I visited the farm of Dr. I. W. Chamberlain,
at Hudson, Summit County, Ohio, to investigate an occurrence of the
Clover Hay-worm. A report of this and further investigation of the
species inyolved has been’ forwarded to you, Further investigations

63

64 é

into the habits of some destructive species of Tipulidz were made, and
a report, illustrated by drawings, was presented to you for publication.

A report on observations upon many species of Coleoptera has also
been prepared and forwarded to you for publication. In pursuance to
your instructions, | secured a large number of eggs of Lachnosterna,
especially of L. fusca, L. gibbosa, and L. hirticula, and, after carefully
watching the development of these eggs, placed the larve in breeding
boxes, and have colonies of larve of each of these three species, reared
from the egg, and at present thriving nicely in confinement.

On April 23 I received from you a consignment of Semiotellus nigripes,
and, in accordance with your instructions, placed the larger portion in
a wheat field seriously affected by the Hessian Fly, and the smaller
portion were placed on fly-infested plants, under a cover of Swiss mus-
lin. Later I received from Prof. Bruner a second consignment, which
was promptly forwarded to Prof. Charles EH. Thorne, Director of the
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, who placed them in two fields
of wheat near Columbus, Ohio. In regard to the success in introduc-
ing these parasites, | am not yet able to report. I did not rear adult
Semiotellus from those released among grain, under cover, but this is in
no way to be construed into a failure to colonize them in the field.
When received many had emerged from the flaxseeds, and some of
them had perished, and the larger portion of those remaining were
placed in the fields. At the time of the release at La Fayette, Ind., the
adult Hessian Flies and native parasites were abroad in great num-
bers. ‘The field where they were placed had been seriously attacked by
the fly during the preceding autumn, fully one-half of the wheat plants
being affected. That portion of the field where colonization was made
has not been molested since, except to remove the crop. Wheat was
again sown on the larger portion of this field and also on another ad-
joining, also in wheat last year, so that at present there are two fields
of wheat growing within 20 yards of the spot where the liberation took
place. Therefore, while I am unable to say whether or not the parasite
has become established, I can say that it has had every opportunity to
do so, and a failure in this case would almost prove conclusively the
imposibility of colonization. The number of living parasites placed
was too small to show immediate results, and, therefore, time must be
given for them to multiply before expecting absolute proof of coloniza-
tion. Withregard to those released here I am not so hopeful, as wheat,
owing to dry weather, did not germinate quickly after being sown, and,
I fear, may have come too late to afford hosts for the Semiotellus. Both
fields where the parasite was liberated still remain uncultivated.

On July 1 of this year I severed my connection with the experiment
station at La Fayette, Ind., and formed a similar connection with the
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station located at this place, a change
which was approved by yourself.

Since locating here several destructive insects have demanded atten-

i 65

Mp

tion. The Wheat Midge, Diplosis tritici, appeared in limited numbers
and was investigated in accordance with your instructions. A bulletin
was issued by me from the station dealing with chronological data in
regard to the pest, and a report submitted to yourself relating to this
and some other closely allied species.

Many inquiries in regard to the Hessian Fly have been received, and
in order to meet a popular wish my report of 1890 to yourself, and ap-
pertaining to this species, has been received and adapted to a station
bulletin, which was issued in November of the present year. This, I
think, will afford the desired information to the farmers of the State
and reply to a vast amount of inquiry, which would otherwise have to
be answered by letter.

The indications are that several important pests will demand atten-
tion next year, and, with your approval, considerable time will be spent
in becoming acquainted with the State and the people, with a view of
securing assistance from the farmers and affording the same in return.
The facilities offered by the station will enable me to push some inves-
tigations which I have not been able to do before.

REPORT ON SEVERAL SPECIES OF CRANE-FLIES INFESTING MEADOWS
AND PASTURES, AND WHICH MAY ALSO PROVE INJURIOUS TO
WHEAT.

Any extended study of the species belonging to this group of insects,
the Tipulide, is impeded by many obstacles, owing, first, to the great
difficulty of securing a proper determination of the species involved,
and, second, to the fact that they are among farmers to a considerable
extent associated with cutworms, the larve being known as cutworms
and the adults as ‘“‘cutworm flies;” so that it is not only a difficult task

| to indicate the exact insect, but equally so to secure accurate data with
respect to its habits in the fields. In England these insects have long
ravaged fields of young wheat sown after clover, but in this country
such attacks have not often been observed. With the increasing pop-
ularity of clover-growing, both for pasture, meadow, seed, and fertilizer,
it would appear that we are on the verge of a new era with respect to
| the effects of these insects in our clover fields; and even now one who
watches them carefully and notes the numbers of adults which are often
| to be observed about our clover fields can not help but suspect that
they are working an injury which we either fail to observe, or, observ-
ing, attribute the loss occasioned thereby to other causes. So far as
grain crops are concerned, the indications are that the American hus-
bandman will have little trouble in preventing serious ravages in his
fields. What the future of our clover lands is to be, especially if allowed
to remain intact for a number of years, is yet to be seen. Of the species
studied, there is not one the ravages of which can not be almost en-
tirely prevented in young wheat by plowing the ground during late
August or early September, and there is every reason to believe that if
21382—No. 26 5

66

the fall growth of clover is kept mowed or grazed off during September
and October little trouble will likely follow from the depredations of the
larvee the following spring. Some species, notably the ones studied in
the Indiana fields in 1888 and 1890, are two brocded, the eggs being de-
posited in spring and fall, while Tipula bicornis, which was reared from
the field at Ashland, Ohio, and a species near or identical with Tipula
angustipennis Loew, are probably single brooded, ovipositing during
late September and October only.

TIPULA BICORNIS Loew.

On May 17, 1888, we received the following note from the editors of
the Anderson Herald:
ANDERSON, IND., May 16, 1888.

We send you by today’s mail a bottle with some worms which are taking the place
of cutworms in our county. Wesend them to have them named or to find out the

name.
THE HERALD COMPANY.

We visited the locality on May 23, but could learn of but one infested
field, this being on the farm of Mr. J. C. Beesom, located about 35 miles
from the city of Anderson. This field consisted of 22 acres of under-
drained clay loam, with the soil of the depressions darker colored, the
surface, however, being nearly level. The field for the two preceding
seasons had been devoted to red-clover pasture, but not pastured dur-
ing the last year after about August 1. After this date there sprung
up a rank growth of clover, and, besides, a great number of Rag-weeds
(Ambrosia). During March of 1888 the clover had been almost totally
killed, the owner thought by the weather. About April 16 Mr. Beesom
began to break the field, and then discovered myriads of these larve,
which were new both to him and his neighbors. At this time, from a
square foot of ground he took two hundred of the larve, and did not
dare to plant his fields from fear of these worms destroying his crop.
On May 16 he found them still in the earth in immense numbers, and
noticed that a considerable percentage had disappeared—doubtless
pupated.

When I visited the field fully 90 per cent were in the pupal stage,
their numbers fully confirming Mr. Beesom’s statement as to the num-
ber of larve, the lower and darker colored spots being the worst in-
fested. There were, at the time of my visit, very few adults to be
found in the grass along the edges of the field, but in the sod, which
was that of Blue Grass, no larvie or pup could be found. Although
the two stages were pretty generally distributed over the whole area of
the field, they were especially abundant under clods, turf, or half-cov-
ered bunches of weeds and other débris. On the level plowed ground
the pup could be detected by round holes which they occupied in a
vertical position. Under the clods this feature was not so noticeable;
although in these cases they seemed to favor the edges of their coverts.

ne

67

The country was originally thickly wooded, but has for a long time
been cleared up, except frequent groves, which are usually pastured.
The infested field was one cleared by pioneers many years ago.

The advanced stage of development to which the insects had already
attained precluded the possibility of thorough study in the field, espe-
cially of the larval habits, and hence we were obliged to be content with
a few and a good supply of pup, with which we returned home.

After the general habit of these insects the pupa occupies a vertical
position in the earth, and the adult, just prior to emerging, pushes from
one-half to two-thirds of its body above the surface. In this position a
large number of pup were placed in breeding cages and the result
most carefully watched. The first adult, a male, appeared on May 25,
and did not burst from the pupa until after the latter had been protrud-
ing from the earth for several hours. The pupa case first bursts along
the head and prothorax, and the head and shoulders of the adult first
appear. Until enough of the body has been delivered to clear the tips
of the wings, egress is brought about by muscular extension and con-
traction of the abdominal segments. After the wings are free, but
while still in its vertical position, the imago changes its tactics, and
begins to rock gently backward and forward, drawing up the legs
slightly at each backward motion, until they are finally withdrawn
from the case, and the now nearly emerged insect bends forward with
the nearly empty pupa case and crawls forth. In the case of the
female, loaded down with her burden of eggs, the assistance of the
male is often required to finally extricate her.

On the 26th a large number of adults of both sexes emerged in the
breeding cage, followed on the 27th by still greater numbers, the males
in the majority; but hardly to the extent indicated by Mr. Beesom in
the following letter, received a few days later: 7

ANDERSON, IND., May 29, 1888.

Mr. F. M. WEBSTER: According to promise I will give you a history of the worms
and fly. On May 26 the flies were very numerous around the fences, multiplying each
day until the 29th, when the field was swarming with the ‘‘gran’daddy long-legs.”
On the same day there was some not yet hatched, but not many, and some were just
coming out. I watched their habits, and think from appearance there was about one
female to one hundred males. The female is full of eggs when hatched; has about
three hundred eggs of a jet black color. I saw the male helping the female out of
the shell. He would do this by standing upright with the female pushing back and
forth. In this case the shell would be half way out of the ground. As soon as he
would get her out he would impregnate the eggs. This is about all I can tell you
now.

Yours etc.,

J. C. BEESOM.
Soon after emerging, sometimes within a few hours, the female begins
her work of oviposition. Three newly emerged females, placed sepa-
rately in glass tubes, produced respectively 297, 282, and 289 eggs. In
confinement, these eggs were thrown off at the rate of from 3 to 10 per
minute.

68

Authorities differ as to the mode of oviposition among the Tipulide ;
and it is not improbable that there may be a difference of method in
different species. Curtis opined that the British species oviposited
while on the wing, and Miss Ormerod says that Tipula oleracea Linn.,
oviposits in or on the surface of the ground, while Dr. Riley states that
he has witnessed the oviposition of an American species, Tipula trivit-
tata Say, and the eggs are forced into the ground by means of a double
pair of valves, something as in the case of our common locusts.

In the species under consideration, the terminal abdominal segment
of the female is much more obtuse than in some other of the American
species, ending in a pair of broad, concave valves or plates, whose office
appears to consist in holding the eggs in place and assist in directing
them to within the reach of a second pair of organs. With the female
standing on a horizontal surface, in a natural position, the egg appears
to pass down the oviduct with the concave surface downward, but on
nearing the terminus. of the oviduct the posterior end of the egg is
thrown under and forward, thereby bringing the concave side upward,
and lying, seemingly, directly under a small liguliform plate which is
attached only at its base. The apical portion of this triangular plate
appears to fit the concave side of the egg, which is prevented from going
too far backward by the anal valves previously mentioned. Itis here
that the second pair of plates or valves, apparently the most important
appendage, is called into play. This is situated just beneath or a little
back of the triangular plate, their bases having very nearly a common
origin, and is composed of two movable valves, or claspers (whose base
is broadened into a thin flap, which, coming upward at the sides, forms a
receptacle for the egg) which, when closed together, form a hemispheri-
cal cup having almost the exact form of one-half of the epicarp of the hick-
ory nut; and each of the two parts, when opened, as faithfully represent
one of the valves of the epicarp. When the egg is in position on the
triangular plate these valves are pressed against and about it, inclosing
it on all sides, leaving only a portion visible along the apex; and drop-
ping downwards slightly, but gently, the egg is projected forth with a
slight snapping sound, seemingly propelled in much the same manner
as one would eject the pit from a ripe cherry by pressing it between the
thumb and forefinger. Whether the liguliform plate follows the valves
in this downward movement, or not, I could not determine, but think
such is the case, as the egg is not projected directly backward, but de-
flects considerably downward. The movements of oviposition are made
so quickly that it is exceedingly difficult to observe the exact action of
the parts, and therefore I give them as they appeared tome. Further
observation may require a slight revision.

I have an idea that the two elevations at the base of the liguliform
plate, which is drawn as seen from beneath, may serve to keep the
ege from slipping backward and may also assist in pushing it for-
ward. At the base of plate, on the under side, are two loose ap-

69

pendages fixed at base and middle, forming, as it were, a sort of basal
pocket for each of the claspers. The exact use of these I can not un-
derstand, but suspect they assist in some manner in holding, or, pos-
sibly, propelling the egg, as, in Pachyrrhina, they are reduced to what
appears to me to be a mere cushion.

I wish it distinctly understood that I did not witness oviposition, ex-
cept under artificial environments, and therefore it would not be best
to take too much for granted. But, in view of the mechanism of the
organs of oviposition, and the manner in which they are called into
play, together with the fact that in the breeding cages the eggs were
scattered about, without the least indication of a desire to secrete them,
it seems at least doubtful about this species ovipositing in the ground,
though it must be confessed the organs of oviposition have a strange
resemblance to those of migratory locusts.

The egg.—The egg is 0.8™™ in length, and from 0.3 to 0.4™™ in breadth, elongate-
ovoid, strongly concave on one side, of a jet black color and highly polished.*

The larva.—The larva is about 20™™ in length, and in maximum diameter is about
3™m; head retractile, small and horny, whitish in color, and spotted with black; an-
tennz yellowish; body strongly wrinkled, transversely, especially the posterior seg-
ments. In the young larve there are on most of the segments sparsely placed, stout,

curved bristles, but in the mature larve these are more frequently missing. The

first segment is small, the others increasing to the eighth; thence decreasing to the
twelfth. The first seven segments are much smoother, but not as clearly defined as
the last five. The terminal segment is very obtuse, and armed above with a row of
four stout hooked spines, curved posteriorly, beneath which are two large spiracles,
and below each of these is ashort, fleshy spine, curved upward. General color, dingy
white.

The pupa.—The pupa varies in length from 138™™ to 18™™, and in breadth from 3™™

to5™™; head, with eyes, distinct; the antenne is insecurely attached along the breast,

short, eleven-jointed, the last joint strongly constricted at tip; horns prominent,
knobbed, curved, moderately distantly separated at base, with an intervening median
black ridge; thorax quite prominent, and rotund above; wings extending to anterior
margin of first ventral segment; legs extending, usually, to posterior margin of first
ventral segment, where they all terminate together, forming a sort of flap, easily
detached from the segment and from each other. The abdomen is usually rather
strongly depressed, widening from base to third segment, gradually tapering from
thence to tip. Excepting the terminal, all of the abdominal segments are provided
with a transverse row of short spines on the dorsal surface, and likewise on the ven-
tral surface, with the exception of the first and second, which have, instead, two
large and two small spines, one of each placed on either side of the middle. The
terminal segment ends with a cluster of closely placed, fleshy pustules, which appear
to be more or less retractile. Back and above these are two fleshy spines, eight in
number. The lateral margins of the abdomen are wide and thin, armed with a lateral
row of spines, two on each segment. General color of pupa, dull, dingy brown.

As clover was seriously injured throughout the West during the
winter and spring of 1888, any attempt to estimate the injury occasioned
by these worms would, of necessity, be mere guesswork.

*Kegs very similar to, if not identical with, these were described some years ago
by Dr. Riley, to whom they were sent by Prof. S. A. Forbes, he having found them
in the stomach of the Catbird in Illinois. (See Am. Ent., vol. 111, p. 24.)

\

70

That this species is double-brooded there is no reasonable doubt, later
observations showing that the eggs of the fall brood are deposited
principally during September, the insect wintering over in the larval
stage and finishing this stage in early spring, its period of development
being a little later than the following species, although the two may be
found abundantly at the same season, the Pachyrrhina appearing first
and seeming to be well advanced in the work of oviposition by the time
this begins to appear in noticeable numbers.

Respecting natural enemies, Mr. Beesom had observed great numbers
of crows and “bee birds” hovering about this field almest constantly,
and he was quite positive that they were engaged in the destruction of
the larve. From what has already been stated, it seems probable that
the adults are, to some extent at least, destroyed by the Catbird. Of
the probable insect enemies, Pterostichus lucublandus was particularly
abundant, and Mr. Beesom at once pointed them out as the most nu-
merous in the field, and particularly where the larve were then congre-
gated. Harpalus pennsylvanicus, H. caliginosus, and Pterostichus femor-
alis were also present in considerable numbers, as were also the larve
of some species of Harpalus and Platynus, these larve being especially
abundant in places where the pupe of the Tipula were massed.

PACHYRRHINA Sp.?

Late in April, 1890, news came to me of the depredations of a new
insect pest in fields of young wheat near Farmersburg, Sullivan County,
Ind. This time the depredators proved to be the larve of a species of
Pachyrrina, but whose depredations were very much like the preceding;
a visit to the locality on the 26th, and especially to the fields of Mr. T.
H. Kendall, revealing the nature of the depredator and effect of its
ravages. The insect was at that time most abundant in the pupal
stage, these pup, after the manner of the Tipulide in general, occupy-
ing vertical cells in the ground. Larve were, however, present in con-
siderable numbers, both in the earth and on the surface, the day being
rainy, and not only about the wheat plants, but also about stray clumps
of timothy, of which there were a considerable number scattered over
the field among the wheat. For reasons which will appear further on,
the numbers present in both stages did not correspond at all with the
reports of Mr. Kendall, nor with the amount of damage clearly attrib-
utable to the pest. The most seriously injured fields were those which
had been in clover the previous year.

Of two fields adjoining each other, one sown on oat stubble, the other
on clover sod plowed early in October, the latter was damaged fully 50
per cent, while the former had escaped uninjured. Another field a
short distance from these, also in clover last year but plowed late in
August, was damaged only about 15 per cent. A clover field adjoining
the first two had been completely ruined, but this might have been in
part due to the winter, although the insect was present in abundance.

71

A close inspection of the most seriously injured fields showed large areas
of grain totally destroyed, while other areas among them were little
injured. ‘The plants themselves had not been thrown out by the frost,
but were well fixed in the soil. The day was rainy, and many of the
dead plants had a green appearance like that of wetted hay, and did
not at all resemble those killed by frost or freezing, indicating that they
had withered.

Mr. Kendall stated that up to the 1st of February his wheat was in
fine condition, but after that time it began to die, and continued to do so
rapidly until about the first week in April, since which time the dep-
redations had gradually ceased. Soon after the trouble began he had
observed the larve in myriads both above and below ground, but they
worked below, not cutting off the plants, but apparently wounding them
and sucking the juices. In working about just beneath the surface of
the ground they raised ridges like those made by moles, but about the
size of straws, and the earth immediately about the plants was often
worked up as if by ants or earth-worms.

A large number of larvee and pup were secured and taken home,
in order that I might be able to study the method of feeding in the
former, secure adults, and watch the oviposition of the females, which,
I judged, might differ from those previously studied in case they proved
to be of a different species. While collecting this material, not only
many dead pup were noticed, but larve also, lying on the surface of
the ground, many of which had turned black wholly or in part, after
the manner of diseased cabbage-worms. This led to the suspicion that
they had been attacked by a fungous disease, which had reduced their
number and consequent injury. While all living material was, on my
arrival home, placed in a breeding cage and thus kept out of doors,
nearly all of the pup were destroyed, almost entirely, I believe, by this
fungoid enemy, which Dr. J. C. Arthur informs me is undescribed, and
for which he proposes the manuscript name HYmpusa pachyrrhine. One
larva constructed its cell in the earth in the breeding vage and trans-
formed to the pupa, but the next day this pupa worked itself upward
out of the cell and was found lying on the surface dead, and covered
with spores of Empusa. How much this fungus had to do with the
stopping of depredations of the larvae on the wheat it is, of course, im-
possible to say, but it must have destroyed a large percentage of the
pest.

The first adult appeared in the cage on the 28th, two days after
removal from the field. Other adults emerged so very sparingly, and
at such long intervals, that no opportunity was offered to secure fer-
tilized eggs or note the ovipositing habits of the females. The first of
the only two females reared was nearly dead when a male emerged,
and, though fertilized, died without ovipositing, and the male refused
to pair a second time, leaving the second female without a mate, she
dying before a second male emerged. Two females and four males

2

were all the adults secured from the material brought home, the others,
as I believe, having been destroyed by the Empusa previously mentioned.

The same species was found in abundance in clover fields about
Lafayette during the whole of the month of May, eggs being secured
on the 28th from a female taken in the field. We have this year
reared adults which appeared June 4. About the 10th of August males
began to appear again in great abundance, and both sexes were ob-
served on the 15th, and by the 27th they seemed to be in the height of
the ovipositing season; but the females stubbornly refused to oviposit
in confinement, and it was only by securing a female while laying her
eggs in the field that I secured an additional supply, though I saw a
female which had been caught in a spider snare depositing her eggs
freely. By the 20th of September the species had nearly disappeared,
only spent females being seen, though the present season, near Colum-
bus, Ohio, one was observed filled with eggs as late as the 22d. It
seems, therefore, that the ovipositing seasons are, as a rule, from about
May 1 to June 15 and from about August 10 to September 25, the
period covering about six weeks.

The organs of oviposition in this species are very different from those
of the preceding, giving to the posterior segment of the females a very
different appearance. Instead of the broad valves we have a pair of
chitinous forceps while the lower plates are produced with the pro-
longations vertically flattened, and the base forms an elongate recepta-
ele. The liguliform plate is less robust and partakes more of a ecarti-
laginous than a chitinous nature, its office evidently being in part sus-
tained by the teeth with which the interior basal part of the second pair
of plates is provided. The two pair of plates, when not in use, close up
and form a slender prolongation of the last abdominal segment. The
egg differs from that of the preceding species by being smaller and havy-
ing five distinct grooves, presumably allowing the teeth of the lower
plates to gain a stronger hold on the egg itself, and thus reénforeing
the liguliform plate, which, as in the preceding, seems to fit into the
concavity of theegg. The manner of oviposition is as follows: The egg,
leaving the oviduct, drops into the second or lower pair of claspers and
under the small liguliform piece, the concave side upward. Here it
seems to be held in place while the upper organ or plate is drawn back-
ward, the lower being at the same time slightly advanced until the two
flattened prolongations drop in between the two upper ones, when there
is a Sharp click and the egg is thrown forth at an angle of probably 40
degrees. As with the preceding species, the rapidity of the movement
renders it difficult to observe accurately or to determine the exact source
of propulsion. The females of this species utterly refuse to oviposit in
confinement, and it is only by capturing them in the fields, after they
have probably begun oviposition, that one is able to secure eggs.
Kiven here, however, we have not been able to witness undisturbed
oviposition, and therefore net a»le to observe whether or not they use

13

the combined organs with which to place the eggs in the earth, as their
general contour would indicate might be the case. More especially does
this seem possible as the preceding species, whose organs of oviposi-
tion do not seem fitted for placing eggs, oviposit freely in the breeding
cage. Besides being grooved, the eggs of these Pachyrrhine are smaller
and less robust than those of Tipula bicornis. The number of eggs
which the female produces is also uncertain, as I have not been able to
secure accurate data on that point.

On May 7, 1891, I received a number of Tipulid larve from Mr. D.
F., Wise, of Ashland County, Ohio, with the statement that they were
present in one of his fields in myriads, and he was afraid to plant corn
therein through fear of their destroying his crop. The owner described
the infested field as having been devoted to wheat three and two years
previously, yielding about 20 bushels per acre; was seeded to clover, and
last year acrop of haywasremoved. Thisspring, however, the clover had
disappeared and the entire field of 14 acres furnished only feed enough
for twenty-two ewes and their lambs. From these larve I reared, June
4, a male and female of this species. Mr. Wise wrote me later that he
had observed these worms in his clover fields, and had noticed unac-
countable injuries thereto for the last nine years, but thoughttheintruders
were ordinary cut-worms. About the first of April,this year, he began
tiling his field, and on the following morning found the bottom of the
ditch, though covered with water, was swarming with these larve, and
the fact of their living in water raised the suspicion that they were not
true cut-worms. On May 16, nearly six weeks later, he wrote that those
larve were still living in the ditch.

When I received the larve from Mr. Wise they were placed in a large
glass with considerable earth and a clover plant, but no drainage.
After waiting a considerable time for other adults to emerge from the
larvee, I concluded that the remainder had died, and paid no further
attention to the glass in which they had been placed.

TIPULA COSTALIS Say.

Barly in July an examination of the earth in the glass mentioned
above, now nearly a solid mass, showed several larve, and, what was
more surprising, they were still alive. During my removal from La-
fayette, Ind., to Columbus, Ohio, and the rearrangement of things,
this glass accidentally became filled with water, and remained so for
nearly two weeks, when, judge of my astonishment on examining the
contents, ten larvee were found alive and completely submerged in the
water, one floating about with its posterior upward. The larve were
at once removed and placed in a flower-pot, in which a fresh clover
plant was placed, and this kept watered. Nothing appeared until Sep-
tember 20, when a male emerged, followed on the next day by a female.
These were kept together, and, though copulation took place, the
female stubbornly refused to oviposit, and died without furnishing” me

74

with a single egg. The same day on which the latter of these two
adults emerged, while riding along the road, myriads: of both sexes
were observed. They were also received from Mr. J. M. Jones, of
Dunkirk, Hardin County, who wrote under date of September 19,
stating that they had appeared about the 15th and were literally
swarming. He also called attention to the popular notion of their
originating from cut-worms. All facts taken together indicate that this
species is single-brooded, the eggs being deposited during late Sep-
tember and early October. Mr. Wise states that the larve of these
Crane-flies are most abundant in low, grayish-black soil, and where the
ground is the wettest, and that during heavy rains they appear to work
nearer the surface of the ground. He also states that to his knowledge
they have never injured corn planted in these fields, and the present
season has shown no exception.*

From the foregoing it seems that our clover fields are menaced by at
least three species of Crane-flies, one of which is known to be, under
certain conditions, exceedingly destructive to wheat, while the other
two may rest under grave suspicion. In a former report to this Depart-
ment I clearly showed the desirability of sowing wheat late in the
fall—the exact time depending upon the locality—as a protection against
the fall attack of the Hessian fly. It seems now that though sowing
should be deferred, plowing, in cases where wheat is to follow clover,
should be done late in August, or at least before the middle of Septem-
ber, in order to escape injury from the larvee of Crane-flies.

Besides the enemies of Crane-flies already given, I have observed an
ant, Aphenogaster fulva, attack and drag away a living female of Pa-
ehyrrhina, and in addition to the bird enemies given by Mr. Beesom the
following is a list of birds found to have preyed upon these insects in
Illinois (see Bull. State Lab. Nat. Hist. UL, No. 3, pp. 104-135):

NovOr | Ratio of

e he |,. 4° | food com-

Species of bird. | pidoes losealcn

| : | Tipulide.

RODIN see esse eee eee 114 -O1

Gatbind tosses S28 oe Se eee 70 . 05

Wioode Thi shivae. besser 22 le,

TAH COLD RTUSN ee are see ae tee eee 11 . 08

Swainsoneihnushs se eee eae 11 . O4
|

* Since the above was written letters have been received from Mr. Wise stating
that the corn in the field infested by the larvie of this species did not yield half a
crop. The plants were thrifty until in August, when they suddenly ceased to grow,
with the result stated. Roots sent me show unmistakable signs of attacks by in-
sects, such attacks not being made until after the plants. had become well rooted,
after which a vast number of small roots had been thrown out to replace the larger
ones destroyed. While, therefore, it is as yet too much to say that Tipula costalis is
a corn-destroying insect, there seems a prospect that future study may prove it to be
such.—F. M. W.

REPORT UPON THE GYPSY MOTH IN MASSACHUSETTS.

By SAMUEL HENSHAW, Special Agent.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.

CAMBRIDGE, Mass., December 7, 1891.
Str: I herewith submit my report upon the Gypsy Moth (Ocneria dispar) in Massa-
chusetts, undertaken in accordance with your instructions.
Yours truly,
Sam’L HENSHAW.
Prof. C. V. RILEKy,
U. S. Entomologist.

This insect, a native of Europe, is mentioned in the American Ento-
mologist for February, 1870 (Vol. 11, p. 771), as accidentally introduced
into New England (Cf. also Riley’s Second Missouri Report, 1870, p.10).
Though noted at that time as “spreading with great rapidity” it was
not until November, 1889, when Prof. C. H. Fernald, of the Hatch
(Massachusetts) Experiment Station, issued a special bulletin, entitled
‘“ A dangerous insect pest in Medford,” that the species attracted gen-
eral attention.

Prof. Fernald’s bulletin, aided by notices in the daily press, led to the
mention of the insect by Governor Brackett in his message to the State
legislature in January, 1890; he said: “A new enemy is at present
threatening the agriculture, not only of our State but of the whole
country. I refer to the Gypsy Moth (Ocneria dispar), a European in-
sect which has recently appeared in the State. They are said to attack
almost every variety of tree as well as the farm and garden crops.
They are now confined to a very small area in Middlesex County, but
have become acclimated and are spreading with great rapidity. If
their eradication is to be attempted, immediate measures are of the
utmost importance.” ;

A hearing was given by the Committee on Agriculture and an act
was passed by the legislature authorizing the appointment by the
Governor of a Gypsy Moth Commission to consist of uot more than
three members.

73

76

The following is the act:
[CHAP. 95. ]
AN ACT to provide against depredations by the insect known as the Ocneria dispar or Gypsy Moth.

Be it enacted, etc., as follows:

SECTION 1. The Governor, by and with the consent of the Council, is hereby author-
ized to appoint a commission, of not exceeding three suitable and discreet persons,
whose duty it shall be to provide and carry into execution aJl possible and reason-
able measures to prevent the spreading and to secure the extermination of the Oc-
neria dispar, or Gypsy Moth, in this Commonwealth; and to this end said Commission
shall have full authority to provide itself with all necessary material and appliances
and to employ such competent persons as it shall deem needful; and shall also have
the right in the execution of the purposes of this act to enter upon the lands of any
person. .

Sec. 2. The owner of any land so entered upon, who shall suffer damage by such
entry and acts done thereon by said Commission, or under its direction, may recover
the same of the city or town in which the lands so claimed to have been damaged
are situate by action of contract; but any benefits received by such entry and the
acts done on such lands in the execution of the purposes of this act shall be deter-
mined by the court or jury before whom such action is heard, and the amount thereof
shall be applied in reduction of said damages; and the Commonwealth shall refund
to said city or town one half of the amount of the damages recovered.

Src. 3. Said Commission shall have full authority to make from time to time such
rules and regulations in furtherance of the purposes of this act as it shall deem need-
ful; which rules and regulation shall be published in one. or more newspapers pub-
lished in the county of Suffolk, and copies of such rules and regulations shall be
posted in at least three public places in each city or town in which said Ocneria
dispar or Gypsy Moth shall be found by such Commission to exist, and a copy thereof

shall be filed with the city or town clerk of each city or town. Any person who -
shall knowingly violate any of the provisions thereof shall be punished for each vio-'

lation by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars.

Src. 4. Said Commission shall keep a record of its transactions and a full account
of all its expenditures, in such form and manner as shall be prescribed by the Gov-
-ernor and Council, and shall also make return thereof to the Governor and Council
at such time or times and in such form as shall be directed by the Governor and Coun-
cil. The expenses incurred under this act shall be paid by the Commonwealth, except
claims for damages by the entry upon the lands of any person and acts done thereon
by said Commission or by its direction, which shall be paid as provided in section
two of this act.

Src. 5. The Governor and Council shall establish the rate of compensation of the
Commissioners appointed under this act, and the Governor may terminate their com-
missions at his pleasure.

Src. 6. Any person who shall purposely resist or obstruct said Commissioners or
any person or persons under their employ while engaged in the execution of the pur-
poses of this act, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding twenty-five dollars for
each offense.

Src. 7. It shall be unlawful for any person to knowingly bring the insect known
as the Ocneria dispar or Gypsy Moth, or its nests or eggs, within this Commonwealth;
or for any person knowingly to transport said insect or its nests or eggs from any
town or city to another town or city within this Commonwealth, except while en-
gaged in and for the purposes of destroying them. Any person who shall offend
against the provisions of this section of this act shall be punished by a fine not ex-
ceeding two hundred dollars or by imprisonment in the house of correction not
exceeding sixty days, or by both said fine and imprisonment.

Sec. 8. To carry out the provisions of this act asum not exceeding twenty-five
thousand dollars may be expended.

Src. 9. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

U7

This act was approved March 14, 1890, and the Governor named W. W.
Rawson, of Arlington; Pearl Martin, of Medtord, and J. H. Bradley, of
Malden, as the Commissioners; they organized March 22, 1890. The
appropriations for the work were authorized in the following act and
resolve, approved April 2, 1890, and June 3, 1890:

[ Car. 157.)

AWN ACT making an appropriation for the extermination of the insect known as the Oeneria dispar or
Gypsy Moth.

Src. 1. A sum not exceeding twenty-five thousand dollars is hereby appropriated
to be paid out of the treasury of the Commonwealth from the ordinary revenue, for
the purpose of meeting expenses authorized by chapter ninety-five of the acts of the -
present year providing against depredations by the insect known as the Ocneria dispar
or Gypsy Moth.

Sec. 2. This act shall take effect upon its passage.

[CHAP. 66. ]
RESOLVE relative to the insect known as the Ocneria dispar or Gypsy Moth.

Resolved, That there be allowed and paid out of the treasury of the Commonwealth
a sum not exceeding twenty-five thousand dollars, in addition to the twenty-five
thousand dollars authorized by chapter ninety-five of the acts of the present year,
for the purpose of continuing the work of the Commission appointed under said act
in preventing the spreading and securing the extermination of the Ocneria dispar or
Gypsy Moth in the Commonwealth.

Of this sum of $50,000 only $25,514.31 was expended during the work
of the season.

Naturally the first work of the Commission was to determine the
limits of the infested region. The only data at hand stated that the
Ocneria was confined to an area in the form of an ellipse about a mile
and a half long by half a mile wide situated in Medford. It was at
once discovered that the Ocneria was abundant in many other localities.
By the end of May, 1890, the infested region was stated to cover a dis-
trict 4 miles wide and 16 miles long.

At the end of their term of service (February 25, 1891), the Commis-
sioners stated that the infested territory was confined to Everett, Mal-
den, Medford, the westerly parts of Chelsea, the northwesterly of
Arlington, the easterly edge of Winchester, and a few scattered locali-
ties in Somerville, in all an area of about 50 square miles. The district
being determined, an inspection of trees, shrubs, fences, ete., followed,
all infested being marked with a piece of red flannel. Attention was
first given to the masses of eggs and their destruction was pressed
energetically until the first days of May, when spraying began. Lighted
kerosene torches were used to destroy the egg masses. They were
applied to the eggs in the positions in which they were found.

Many acres of brush land were burned over. The work of spraying
began May 12 and was practically finished July 23. Mr. ©. A. Longley
was in charge of the work and the insecticide used was Paris green,
one pound in 150 gallons of water. During the season about 2 tons
of Paris green were used and 70,000 trees sprayed. The spraying equip-
ment consisted of a cask mounted upon a wagon, a force pump with
stirrer, 100 to 200 feet of hose and nozzles. Four men accompanied each

78

team. A means taken to prevent the spread of the Ocneria was the
employment of officers with authority to stop and examine every team,
carriage, horse car, or person passing outside the limits of Malden and
Medford and to examine the same. Though the utility of this work
was doubted from the first it was continued until most of the larve
had transformed into pupe. In the fall months the Commission also
did some work destroying the egg masses.

On February 25, 1891, Governor Russell, acting under authority of
Section 5, Chapter 95, acts of 1890, sent a message to the Legislature
and to the Executive Council removing the Commissioners for cause and
placing the work in charge of Messrs. W. R. Sessions, N. S. Shaler,
and F. H. Appleton. All the new appointees are connected with the
State Board of Agriculture and serve gratuitously. See INSEcT LIFE,
Vol. Il], pp. 472-474 for the act passed by the general court in 1891

a oe . ae MI ae ere
‘, “Sy ; CaO *s POET ON a i :

°. re SS =~

ees /DANVERS: :
‘ READING Z73--.. . BEVERLY

at aecatee Y,
a eee dis
i ' WILMINGTON WY t4 =
A - Ty. PEABODY |
i Vy C
Yi

Yay
A READING WY, Me -. :
UY LID, CL
LAC Wi anweFiELO Y
OBURN

‘Yyy ky

{woe Uy YY

4
3

“UINCOUN Yy YA aE ORY, CLRINERS
ite ch eit Y LY UY 7 ,
. ; € y j
sen ees Yy ogg NY, Ly Men “A per Y a
pia etre scam LLY ol es > Sr
' Ly Be G “4, wa
: ; ZY jfly7 iS KG z 2/06 ov
\ %& GZ BOSTON
‘ a, Y aS BOSTON
. NEWTON Xo wt
pane yee wo cS a
“0 © BOST.ON

and for the rules and regulations of the Committee. Early in March
the Committee placed the field work in charge of Mr. E. H. Forbush,
to whose tireless energy most of the good results are due.

Starting with the information as to the limits of the infested region
given by the Commission of 1890 it was soon discovered that the Ocneria
was abundant in many places in addition to those reported. It can
now be stated to occur in Marblehead, Salem, Swampscott, Lynn,
Lynnfield, Reading, Wakefield, Saugus, Revere, Chelsea, Charlestown,
Cambridge, Somerville, Watertown, Waltham, Belmont, Arlington-
Lexington, Burlington, Woburn, Winchester, Stoneham, Melrose, Mal,
den, Everett, and Medford. There is a great difference in the abun-
dance of the Ocneria in the various localities, and the bulk of the dam-
age has been confined to Everett, Malden, Medford, and Arlington,

19

The main lines of work this year have not been different from those
adopted the preceding year, though in some details there have been
changes. The greatest attention has been paid to the destruction of
the eggs. It was thought that the method of burning the eggs in situ
adopted last year was injurious to the trees and that many of the eggs
were not only not destroyed but scattered about. Consequently such
aS were in exposed situations on trees, fences, etc., were cut out and
burned.

The danger of scattering the eggs by this method would not seem to
be very much less than by burning them in place.

For egg masses that could not be collected and destroyed another -
method has been employed. This is called blazing, and is applied
chiefly to stone walls, trunks of old trees, heaps of stone, ete.

The apparatus used consists of a cyclone nozzle attached to a pole, a
brass rod passes through the pole, a line of hose connects the pole with
a tank, from which crude oil is pumped. A blaze thus started, a run-
ning fire is secured, and it soon penetrates all the cracks and crevices.
This seems a useful and effective way of destroying many eggs not
readily reached by any ordinary method. The committee and their
superintendent place their greatest hope of the extermination of the
Ocneria upon the destruction of the eggs; to an impartial observer,
however, the probability of the detection of every mass of eggs scattered
over an area of 50 square miles seems very small, especially when it is
remembered that they are placed in almost every conceivable situation .
upon the trunks, branches, and even the leaves of trees and shrubs,
upon fences, the sides of houses, under stone walls, piazzas, board walks,
ete. So far as my observations go the search for the eggs has been
carefully done, though I have found masses of the eggs after the inspec-
tion of the locality had been completed. Many similar cases have been
reported; they should be considered as a criticism of the method rather
than an indication that proper care had not been exercised, for as Prof.
Fernald says, ‘‘it is not at all probable that one will find all the egg
masses even with the most careful searching on the trees in a small
orchard.” :

Owing to a lack of time or insufficient force some of the most badly
infested districts were not inspected during the spring search.:

Early in May the committee turned their attention to destroying the
larve by spraying with Paris green. After the visit of the United
States Entomologist, about the middle of June, a nozzle that would
throw a mist spray was obtained, an ordinary garden nozzle having
been used up to that time. A tendency to cover too much ground in a
given time was noticed, and also much unevenness in the effectiveness
of the spraying. It is quite possible, however, that this unevenness
due to inexperience was inevitable under the circumstances.

Though this indiscriminate spraying undoubtedly did much good in
lessening the ravages of the cankerworms, Orgyia, etc., it certainly in-

80

creased an already existing strong feeling against the use of Paris
green, and many land-owners did all in their power to annul or neutral-
ize the work of the committee.

To prevent the larve ascending the trees two methods were used;
the one consisting of a band of printer’s ink and the other of strips of
bagging. While the larve were unable to cross the band of ink, its
composition was such that it required renewal every few days, and its
application left each tree with an ugly girdle and possibly did injury to
the trees. Insect lime would have been a desirable substitute. The
strips of bagging served as a hiding place for any wandering larve,
which were collected and destroyed.

The work of inspecting vehicles passing out of the district was dis-
continued after a trial of about two months; information as to the chief
direction of travel from the infested district seems to have been the
only result of this work.

Considerable work was done in trimming trees, clearing away and
burning rubbish, and in cementing holes in trees, fences, etc. The hab-
its and natural history of the Ocneria as observed here differs some-
what from the same in Europe.

I have no evidence that it is double brooded. The winter is passed
in the egg state. There is much irregularity in the hatching of larve,
they were first observed on April 15, in 1890, and on the 20th of the same
month in 1891; they were abundant May 20. In 1891 larve hatched
as late as June 17 and by the 10th of July young larve, fully grown
larve and all intermediate stages, pupe and imagos were found. The
young larve on hatching scatter, feed chiefly during the night, resting
during theday upon the leaves, branches, etc. The tendency to wander
increases with growth. In confinement they cluster together, eat more
continuously and strip the twigs in a more methodical manner than ob-
served in those feeding at large. Pup were abundant July 10; this
stage usually lasts from twelve to twenty days though several have
given imagos after eight and nine days.

The males fly readily but the females are excessively sluggish; even
when blown by the wind they have a marvellous faculty of getting to
the ground or to the sheltered side of a tree or fence. The greatest
distance I have seen one fly was a little short of 6 feet. The moths are
not readily attracted by light.

As is well known the Ocneria is a most general feeder. Ihave found
it on Linden (Tilia), Horse Chestnut (Aesculus), Maple (Acer), Pear,
Cherry, Plum {Prunus), Rose (Rosa), Apple (Pyrus), Ash (Fraxinus),
Elm (Ulmus), Hickory (Carya), Birch (Betula), Alder (Alnus), Oak
(Quercus), Beech (Fagus), Willow (Salix), and Poplar (Populus). It has
also eaten, in confinement, Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis), Dogwood
(Cornus), and Fringe-tree (Chionanthus). It refused Grape (Vitis).
Other records include Quince, Apricot, Pomegranate, Hornbeam, Hazel-
nut, Lime, Norway Spiuce, Larch, Fir, Azalea, Myrtle, Corn, Wisteria,

81

Cabbage, Chestnut, Arbor Vite, Yew, Ilex, Pine, Mespilus, Peach,
Millet, Plane-tree, Hawthorn, Mulberry, and Strawberry.

An interesting point in connection with their ability to feed on so
great a variety of piants is the facility with which they can be changed
from one food-plant to another. I have fed a number of larve all from
a Single mass of eggs, the food-plant of every one of which was differ-
ent, and with others have changed the food-plant every day during
their entire larval history. The larve of Ocneria are frequently found
with the eggs of a Tachinid attached to them. Generally there is but a
single egg, though sometimes two, three and four have been observed ;

they are usually on or near the head. In most of the cases that came ©

under my observations the Ocneria moulted before the eggs of the
Tachinid hatched. Two of the Tachinids which pupated August 19,
gave imagos September 2. Another fact which must lessen the value
of this Tachinid as a destroyer of the Ocneria is a habit the larve
have of rubbing the head against some hard substance. This was
observed several times, and in some cases the eggs though not detached
were injured. Although I can not state that Pimpla pedalis is parasitic
upon the Oeneria it has been very abundant in the infested region this
year, and I think it very probable that it will be found among the para-
ites of the Ocneria.

Doubtless many birds will be found feeding upon the Ocneria. At
this time there are but two species, the Yellow-billed Cuckoo and the
Black-billed Cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus and C.erythrophthalmus), that
I can name as aiding quite materially in the destruction of the larve.
Among invertebrates the following can be named: . Cicindela 6-guttata,
Camponotus herculaneus, Sinea diadema, an undetermined Syrphus, and
Chrysopa, Lithobius forficatus; also the following spiders: Epetra stria,
Steatoda borealis, Lycosa sp., Drassus sp., Agalena nevia, Phidippus gal-
athea (mystaceus), Epiblemum scenicum, Marptusa familiaris, and Tho-
MILUS SP.

While the original creation of the Commission and the subsequent
transfer of the work to the State Board of Agriculture were warranted
by the nature of the emergency, it was undoubtedly a mistake to appoint
men to look after such important work—work demanding, in the words
of the appointing power, ‘‘ prompt, judicious, and energetic action”—who
were already more than occupied with other work. The fact that they
were appointed with the distinct understanding that their services
should be given gratuitously, while not equivalent to saying that their
services would be slight, does indicate that they would be secondary
to more important affairs.

And while it is only just to the present committee to state that they
have devoted more time to their work than could have been asked or
expected, it is interesting to note that one of them is now in favor of
at least a per diem compensation, and recently so testified before a leg-
islative committee.

21382—No. 26—_6

82

The destruction of the Ocneria being primarily an entomological
question, the need of an entomologist acting in constant concert with
the committee would seem to be undisputed. That there was no such
person employed is proved by the fact that the Committee allowed the
most important month for spraying to pass without procuring the most
improved apparatus.

The attention drawn to this insect should lead to the passage of a
general law against insect and fungus pests. A State officer acting
under the direction of the State Board of Agriculture could recommend
to farmers and others the means to be used against noxious insects and
fungi, and the law should be so framed that penalties could be imposed
upon owners who took no precautions after due notice had been given.
Some such legislation would soon bring the orchards and shade trees
of Massachusetts into a more creditable condition, and the introduction
of the Ocneria could be looked upon as a benefit rather than an
injury.

REPORT OF APICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS IN 1891.

By A. J. Cook.

LETTER OF SUBMITTAL,

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, Micu., November 15, 1891.

Sir: I beg leave to submit the following report of experiments in apiculture for
the season of 1891. It will be noticed that in this report the plural pronoun has
been used, and this is eminently proper, as Mr. John H. Larrabee has not only had
charge of the work directly, but has aided very much by offering many excellent
suggestions.

Respectfully, yours,
A. J. Cook.

The past season has been very unfavorable for apicultural experi-
ments, not only in Michigan, but throughout the entire country. The
secretion of nectar from clover, and indeed from nearly all other honey
plants, was very meager indeed. In Michigan the season has been
peculiar for drought and cold. The exceptionally cool temperature has
been very general throughout the country, while in many sections there
has been an excess of rainfall. As the honey production has been very
light in nearly all sections, it would seem that the low temperature
might be the chief cause of the light honey crop for this season.

SPECIAL PLANTING FOR HONEY.

The experiments of this season have been a continuation of those of
the past three years. The aim has been to determine whether it would
be profitable or not to plant solely with the view of increasing the acre-
age of honey plants, and so the production of honey.

As the expense of planting, use of land, and danger of failure to
secure a crop are considered, we easily see that we can not hope for
a profitable return unless the plants have value besides for honey, are
sure to give us honey despite the season, to grow when planted even
though drought confronts us, to grow and thrive with but little care ©
after planting, and to hold their own against insects, drought, and all
discouragements,

83

84

THE CHAPMAN HONEY-PLANT.

As this plant has been very highly extolled, was lauded by a special
committee selected to examine it, and has been widely distributed by
Government, it was considered a desirable plant with which to experi-
ment.

Quite a large area was planted to this Hchinops spherocephalus on two
successive years. The soil was clay loam. The ground was fitted as
well as for corn, the seeds sown in drills, and cultivated the first season.
The plants came well and grew remarkably well. They never blossom
until the second season, so there are no returns the first year. This is
the first serious objection to them ay honey plants. The second summer
the plants blossomed full. They were very vigorous and the blossoms
very numerous. The bees seemed to visit the flowers very freely. Mr.
Th. W. Cowan, a celebrated apiarist of England, said to me some
years since regarding this plant: ‘The bees hang around it persistently,
but I could never see that the gain in honey in the hive was ever per-
ceptible.” I found the same true here. Actual weighing showed very
little gain, nor was our honey crop superior to that of our neighbors
with no Echinops within range of their bees. The plants blossom from
July 20 to August 20, at a good time and for a long season, if they were
of any value.

In the winter we cleaned the seed. Although previously warned,
and consequently protected by veils and gloves, the barbed awns sought
out our eyes and skin everywhere. The pain caused was intense. All
who aided in cleaning the seed were in agony for several days. Even
this alone would or should preclude this plant from general use. To
my disappointment, these plants seemed to exhaust themselves this first
season. The next year there were almost no blossoms, but new plants
came up very thickly from seeds scattered the previous autumn. This
failure of the plants to afford blossoms the third season from planting
I know is not always true, as I have had blossoms for four years from
plants on sand. Itis probable that when the plants are very luxuri-
ant and are allowed to seed we can only count on a single crop of blos-
soms. This season, the fourth from planting, we had a rather feeble
growth of plants. The grass and weeds fought with the Echinops for
the land and succeeded in so far that we secured a very meager quantity
of bloom, and apparently no valuable results in our honey crop. Thus
the failure to blossom the first year, the failure to secrete any large
amount of nectar, the failure in many cases to bloom the third year,
and the inability to compete with grass and other weeds without expen-
sive aid, makes it certain that if any plants will pay for honey alone
this is not one of them.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT.

This plant (Cleome integrifolia) has again been tried for the third year.
That it is a very superior honey plant and blossoms at just the right

3 ™

85

time, all through July and August, is certainly true; but it is not a
very pushing plant, and the seeds will not germinate unless exposed to
the weather for months. Thus it is necessary to plant in August or
September of the previous year if we expect a fair stand of this plant.
When this is done, unless the land is very free from grass and weed
seed, the latter will get the start, and our Cleome will be choked out.
Thus I think we have proved that Cleome is only suitable for planting
in waste places, when from its beauty and excellence as a honey plant
it rivals even the Sweet Clover.

There seems little doubt but that we should secure much honey from
this plant were we to take the necessary pains to secure a full stand of
acres of vigorous plants. But this can be done only at large expense,
too large to ever pay in actual practice.

RAPE.

Knowing from the study of small plats, that have been grown here
for years, that the Rape (Lrassica campestris var. colza) and the mus-
tards seemed especially attractive to the bees, and knowing that the
former was regarded very highly by many farmers for pasture, especially
for sheep, it was thought advisable this season to sow several acres of
ground to this plant. Part of the land was light sand and another part
clay loam. As the plant blooms in about four weeks from seeding, we
sowed it the middle of June.

We are likely to have a severe drought at this time, and this year was
no exception. The seed failed to germinate well, especially on the sand.
By the middle of July both fields were in full bloom, yet the bees did
not swarm on the flowers, as we had hoped they would, nor did the
honey product seem affected by the near presence of the rape. I am
not sure that we gained any special advantage from it. If we did it
was not perceptible. The weather for nearly all the time was very cool.

I do not believe it will ever pay to sow rape specially for honey. If
it is sown for pasture, as recommended in England and Ontario, there
will be but little bloom, and so, even in favorable years, the beekeeper
would receive but small advantage. If grown for seed there would be
a profusion of bloom, and in favorable seasons the honey product would
be without doubt greatly augmented.

It is certainly wise for the apiarist to encourage and even urge the
planting in his neighborhood of any and every useful honey plant, as
Rape, Alsike, Clover, and Buckwheat. Often from unfavorable weather
they will not afford nectar, still they may bridge the whole distance
between failure and success.

SWEET CLOVER.

Bee-keepers have long known that Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba),
though often failing to secrete nectar, is still qne of our first honey
plants. It not only yields in favorable seasons very abundantly, but

86

the honey from it is very white and excellent. This plant is known as
Melilot, Sweet Clover, White Melilotus, and Bokhara Clover. While one
or two authorities, Prof. Thorne, of Ohio, and Prof. Tracey, of Missis-
sippl, have stated that it possesses value as a forage plant, the con-
Sensus of opinion throughout the country is that this luxuriant plant
possesses little value to feed either green or as hay. It has been sown
in many parts of the country by beekeepers and others in waste places
and along roadsides, and in such locations has frequently added deci-
dedly to the honey product. It is a beautiful plant, with a sweet. per-
fume, and may well replace Ragweed, Mayweed, Smartweed, etc., along
our highways.

We sowed several acres of this plant this spring, six on sand and three
on clay. The drought came on and the yeung plants upan the sand
withered and died. On the clay the catch was only partially successful,
but the plants have stooled and we think will produce a fairly good crop
of bloom. It is our purpose to see if it may not be a valuable silage
plant. Itsurely produces abundantly. Ifit will be appetizing as silage
So as to possess value to the farmer them from its double value as a
Silage plant and a most excellent honey plant it may well be grown by
the bee-keeping farmer and may be urged conscientiously by the apiarist
upon his neighbor farmer. This plant, like nearly all the clovers, is a
biennial, and so we must wait till next year to complete our experi-
ment, when we hope to prove that Melilotus is valuable for silage.

Our conclusions thus far are that special planting for honey will
never pay. Unless we can find a plant that will always secrete nectar,
and, aS seasons of honey failure occur in all countries, we conclude that
none such exist, and we certainly can not afford the expense and labor.

We think our experiments warrant this conclusion. That it may
and often has paid well to scatter seeds of Sweet Clover in waste places
there is no possible doubt. Along the roadside this plant may well
replace such utterly worthless and ugly plants as Ragweed—species of
Ambrosia, and Mayweed—Maruta cotula. The first year’s growth and
the second till after bloom are very handsome. After bloom the dry
ugly stock may be cut, when the undergrowth from the seeds of the
present year will make a pleasing border to the road. Cleome may also
be planted in all waste places. This has been done with excellent re-
sults in Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is a very handsome plant, and
like Sweet Clover is easily subdued if not wanted. In ease this is de-
sired the seeds should be planted early, as early as August or Septem-
ber, else they will not germinate well the following season.

BEES AS FERTILIZERS.

Spraying fruit trees in early spring to prevent the ravages of various
insects is becoming very common. Spraying trees while in bloom is
very likely to poison the nectar and destroy the Honey Bee. This has
been done in several cases. Not only have the mature bees been poi-

87

soned, but the brood has also been destroyed. The fact that doubt has
been expressed in reference to such poisoning, and the fact that even
legislators have expressed disbelief in the value of bees to horticultur-
ists, led to the following experiments:

Bees in cages were given foliage sprayed with sweetened water, and
in other precisely similar cages the same sweetened water in which
London purple had been mixed in the proportion of 1 pound te 200 gal-
lons of water. The bees in the first cages were in no way affected,
while the others were all dead in thirty-six hours, and in many cases
in twenty-four hours.

Thus we have positive proof, both in the field and from laboratory
experiment, that bees are very susceptible to the poisonous effects of
the arsenites, and that to spray fruit trees while in bloom always en-
dangers the lives of all bees that visit the flowers. In the other ex-
periments we desired to learn how important bees were in the work of
fertilization and cross-fertilization of plants. Trees examined in May
while in bloom showed twenty bees to one of other kinds of insects.
On a rather cold day, such as are likely to occur in time of fruit bloom,
hundreds of Honey Bees were found at work on the apple bloom, while
almost no other insects were to be seen.

In the following experiment the same number of blossoms were
counted on each of two adjacent branches on various trees, shrubs,
and plants. In each case one lot was marked by a tag giving the date
of the experiment, while the other was surrounded by cheese cloth
just before the blossoms opened, thus precluding the visits of all insects
from this lot, except such very small ones as Thrips, Jassids, ete., which
were so small that they would escape notice. After the blossoms with-
ered the covers were removed, and two weeks later examination was
made to note the results. The following table gives the results of the
this experiment:

| Fruit
z Date | Number Date .
Variety. Bete V-| unecov- of blos- exam- eet peer ae Remarks.
: ered. soms. ined. x is pe
son.

Apple.........- May 4] May 25 40 | June 11 0 15

ID Ops eter May 4] May 19 75 | June 11 0 3
Crab Apple .-..| May 4| May 19 200 | June 11 0 3 | Affected by the frost.
Apple......-.-- May 4] May 19 160 | June 11 2 9
Pease sesensetee May 4j] May 19 140 | June 11 0 it
Cherry .-...-...- May 4] May 19 300 | June 11 9 119
Strawberries ...| May 18 | June 16 60 | June 22 9 27

ID® sScbdoace May 18] June 16 212 | June 22 80 104

10%) oadeeuoss May 18} June 16 123 | June 22 20 36
Raspberries ....| May 26 | July. 6 | 2canes..| July 6 /........|......-. As many perfect berries as

on canes not covered.
ID) =copsasoc May 30] July 6 184 | July 6 93 160
ID scoobode Nery Bt) || Uw; Gy ween. so)) diullhy O lisccodcsslaconsade No difference by count or
appearance of fruit.

Red Clover..-.-. June 12 | July 30 | 10heads-.| July 30 0 191
White Clover ..| June 5} July 30 | 10heads-| July 30 0 541

In the ease of the strawberries boxes covered with cheesecloth were
set over the plants. As these stood on the ground, of course insects may

88

have come up from the earth. Thus a few insects may have gained ac-
cess to the flowers, as we note that the plants were covered for about
a month.

We see that in every case the fruit was greatly lessened, if we except
the two cases of raspberries. In several cases, notably those of the
clovers, no fruit or seeds were secured in the covered specimens. The
strawberries seem less affected than any other of the plants, except the
two cases of the raspberries. This may be owing, as suggested above,
to the presence of insects that could come up from the earth beneath
the plants. Perhaps strawberries, when the blossoms contain both sta-
mens and pistils, are less dependent on insects than many other fruits.
The two cases of raspberries are curious. We can not explain them.
The fact is very apparent that fruit-growers are nearly or quite as much
interested in the presence of bees as are the bee-keepers. Pomologists
then may well join hands with the apiarists in demanding and securing
a law making it a grave misdemeanor to spray fruit trees while they
are in bloom.

EXPERIMENTS IN BREEDING.

That bees, like all other organisms, are greatly subject to variation is
known to every bee-keeper. That they can be greatly improved by
careful selection is equally well understood by all observant queen-
breeders. The mating habits of bees are suchas to make experimenta-
tion in breeding difficult, but the obstacles are not unsurmountable.
We are working to overcome them and to develop a superior strain of
bees by judicious crossing and selection. This is slow work, and we
can hope for decided results only after a long period.

Our stock is from Syrian and Carniolan, and; as the former predomi-
nates, we have this season bred very largely from Carniolan. Several
of the most prolific queens are selected, and it is our purpose to use the
ones from these that winter the best the coming winter for breeding
next season. We shall try to test the Punic bees and, if they show
superiority, introduce some of this blood.

Besides the above, several other experiments of a miscellaneous char-
acter have been conducted which are of more or less interest.

CONSUMPTION OF HONEY IN THE SECRETION OF WAX.

This experiment was performed that we might determine how much
honey it requires to enable the bees to secrete 1 pound of wax. Three
colonies were taken, which we will designate as No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3,
the bees of which weighed 64, 84, and 54 pounds, respectively. No. 1
was given a virgin queen and no comb or honey. No. 2 was given a
virgin queen and empty combs. No.3 was given a laying queen and
empty combs. A vigorous colony on scales during the experiment
gained 44 pounds. The bees did not fly from these hives as vigorously
aS from hives not in the experiment. The feeding doubtless had some-

-

89

thing to do with this. No. 3 seemed to gather more honey and to be in
a more normal condition than Nos. 1 and 2. No.3 had a full frame of
brood nearly ready to seal at the expiration of the experiment. August
15, 28 per cent of the bees in No. 1 had wax scales, while none of No.
2 that were examined had wax scales. The experiment commenced
August 11. The bees of each colony were fed 21 pounds of honey.
The experiment lasted ten days.

Noe; Nox2: No. 3.
|

Pounds. | Pounds.) Pounds.
Wieichtiofebees Anpus tile os 22 5 Sass cians ao ase toeeis eee eoe ts 62 | 8 df
CLO Sena nt JAMIE NESTE ees oc esa cane pee oon ese eGo Desens ANeS Aare 35 43 403
Aton (eit 7M AAT Blo eee eea nos eseboaoeses sas abaceqsecemRanee 46 62 614
SEELEY TPP. SCLC AUD OY Ue) OO es Bs ee es i ea eae ea 11 19 202
Motalamouriv, of tee ds eivien ssa ee see eee eases. oon ces 21 21 21
Wechietjhoneyexiracted: Awensu 22. <2 5-2 52. se aia 2 ae 9 163 18
JSD THA AUER Ee See Ss Sa ae ee ee ee ee 12 43
GaimbinbweloitrmelenrGayss seseis=> 2 eee asses cee el seein - ss cioa-<= = 11 19 203
"UTE, YOR SY ECA LN oD CO a ae a a a 1 Et gl fn A heh ae oe
iRollenvingcombsratende state ssa a os Sele es gs cee see een 3 13 t4
PROTA EWEr SHU LeMO MEM: MbiCLOSC nese rere ose ara ota aie ata oi = eat eee aye ee ala oe 103 18 22
ASD pALeniGOEhElenGy GUE CO SCAleSs seer maori sae sa ya ee eae | a 1 it
Gainiinswer ent OLeNo- 2 OVELEN Ooty <)c)s\nal ain oe alala ante a 3 DOWNS eos aoododlaanaaacaSalascecdacoc

* Ounces. 7 Weight of young brood and pollen.

114 :8=—16 : x, or about 11 pounds honey to 1 pound of wax.

This experiment gives 11 pounds of honey as the amount necessary
to secrete 1 pound of wax. Huber decided, as the result of careful ex-
perimentation, upon 20 pounds as the amount, while Viallon and Hasty
concluded that the amount was less even than we have found in the
above. Of course, in such experiments there will be errors, as from the
conditions the colony is not kept in an absolutely normal condition.
No brood-rearing should be allowed, and so virgin queens were given to
colonies. Whether the bees work with less vigor physically or physio-
logically when a laying queen is replaced by a virgin, I can not say.

We thought over the experiment a Jong time and concluded on the
above as the nearest approach to the normal of any plan we could de-
cide upon.

The results from colony No. 3, which was normal, show that the error
was not great. A repetition will add correctness to the experiment.
We shall hope to repeat it another year. We believe the results are
not very wide of the truth in actually normal conditions.

DO WORKER BEES FEED THE DRONES?

Several times in the past we have tried experiments to determine
whether the worker bees fed the drones, as they do the queen and
larvee, the albuminous portion of their food. We know that drones are
great honey-consumers. It is reasonable to suppose that they are
equally great consumers of the albuminous food or bee bread. There
is little or no doubt that the upper head glands of the younger worker
bees secrete the liquid that digests the pollen. These glands are
large and turgid in the young or nurse bees, shrunken and inactive in

90

old worker bees, and absent in the drones and queens. From analogy,
then, we would reason that the queen, drones, and older workers—
the bees that do the outside work—as well as the larve, are fed the
digested pollen, which is rich nitrogenous food. If this is true, and
there can be no longer any doubt, then we have double reasons to re-
duce the number of drones in the apiary, to save honey and pollen and
also the energy of the nurse bees.

To prove this point we repeated the previous experiments of caging
drones in the hive behind asingle wire gauze, a double wire gauze, the
space between being more than 0.26 of an inch, which is the maximum
length of the worker’s tongue, and a perforated zinc cage. Honey was
placed in each cage in such a manner as not to daub any bees. In the
first kind of cage the bees could reach the drones through the single
gauze, though at some inconvenience, so as to feed them the digested
food. In the second cages this would be impossible and the drones
could only get honey for food. Inthe third cages the drones were con-
fined, but could be and were freely visited by the worker bees, as the
workers could pass freely through the zine, which the drones could not
do. In the single wire-cloth cages the drones appeared somewhat neg-
lected after several days. They lived from four to seven days, while in
the cages with double wire cloth none lived over three days, and they
generally died inside of forty-eight hours. Those confined in cages cov-
ered with perforated zinc lived for over two weeks and would probably
have lived much longer.

These experiments agree very closely with those previously tried.

THE CONDUCTIVITY OF WAX.

It is acommon practice among bee-keepers to confine the bees in
winter to a portion of the hive, thus to economize heat and the better to
preserve the health and vigor of the bees. Some experiments by Prof.
Gaston Bonnier, of Paris, France, seem to show that the combs are as
good a protection as is a division board, especially if fastened to close-
fitting frames, or, as in nature, to the side of the hive. To test this
matter we used a common division board, a close-fitting empty comb,
and a close-fitting comb full of honey These were used suecessively
to confine the bees to one part of the hive and leave a vacant space on
the other side. A thermometer was suspended in this empty space
and the temperature observed several times daily, and estimates
made with reference to the outside temperature. The averages showed
no difference with respect to the division board and the empty comb,
but did show a slight difference in favor of the comb full of honey.
We then used an empty hive, dividing it into three compartments by
means of a division board of wood and of empty comb, and again by the
use of the wooden board and a full comb of honey, the combs being made
equally tight-fitting with the wooden division board. A small lamp
was placed in the middle apartment and thermometers in the other

aE

two. The hive was placed in the cellar where the thermometer marked
a temperature of 58° F. The temperature in the compartment of the
hive with the lamp was 110°F. As between the board and empty
comb there was no difference in the temperature in the outer compart-
ments, while with the comb of honey the temperature was 44 degrees
cooler beyond the division, showing this to be a poorer conductor of
heat and a better protection for the bees than either the board or empty
comb.

Thus we see that for winter protection special division boards are
unnecessary if we but use close-fitting frames of comb or make such
frames close fitting in the winter time. It is also apparent that combs.
full of honey are better as nonconductors than are empty combs. Thus
in nature bees are well fortified against the cold of winter, as they are
combs walled in on each side by several full combs, which are fastened to
the side of the receptacle. We also see that close-fitting frames or else
frames with wide or close-fitting top and end bars are better to protect
the bees than are the common Langstroth frames. It is easy to see
from the above why box hives and hives with close-fitting frames, like
the Heddon, are well arranged to secure success in wintering.

CELLAR VS. OUTDOOR WINTERING.

In the more northern latitudes of the United States bees winter bet-
ter as a general thing and consume less honey in the cellar than on
the summer stands, even though packed or kept in chaff hives. The
last winter was an exception. Our bees in chaff hives wintered out of
doors consumed less honey apparently and were certainly in better
condition in the spring than were those wintered in the cellar. If we
could be sure of such mild winters as the last two have been, cellars for
wintering would certainly go out of use. Hence it is to be feared that
many bee-keepers will become confident, forgetting the cold and disas-
trous winters of the past, and soon there may come a return of the
severe cold and the mortality among the bees will be as terribly dis-
astrous as in the worst winters of the past. It is well to prepare for
war in time of peace. The wise bee-keeper will arrange each autumn
for a severe winter. Then he will be safe in any event.

PACKING ABOUT THE HIVES IN SPRING.

We have proved for the past two or three springs prior to that of
1891 that to pack closely about the hives with excelsior or other poor
conductors, confining the same by a large, well-covered case set around
the hive, has paid exceedingly well for the expense of the case and the
labor of adjusting it and the packing. The past spring we could see no
such advantage. The unprotected colonies gained as rapidly and were
as Strong in May as were those in the hives that were protected. The
explanation is not far to seek. The last spring was very mild and bees

92

suffered very little in any kind of hive. Usually we have many very
cold bleak days in April and early May; then protection pays exceed-
ingly well. The principle is a good one, ‘“ It pays to protect.” Occa-
sionally we have a spring like that of 1891, when it is unnecessary, but
we Should conduct our business for the general, not the exceptional.

INDEX.

Aphenogaster fulva, attacking Pachyrrhina, 74.

Apicultural experiments, report of, 83.

Anasa tristis, attempt to colonize mite on, 43.

thymo-cresol useless against, 44.
Apanteles glomeratus, advent in Missouri, 43.
increase in Iowa, 61.
Aphelinus fuscipennis, parasite of Aspidiotus
convexus, 20.
my tilaspidis, parasite of San José scale, 22.

Aphidide, thymo-cresol against, 44.

Aphis cornicola, notes on, 59.
grain, in Missouri, 37.
maidis, m., 59.
prunifolia, destructiveness in Iowa, 58.
woolly, of apple, in Missouri, 36.

Seymnus larva destroying,-17.
Apple maggot, in Iowa, 62.
Aspidiotus aurantii, food-plants of, 15.

notes on, 14. ;
citrinus, thymo-cresol against, 35.
convexus, notes on, 20.
nerii, notes on, 20.
perniciosus, notes on, 21.
rapax, notes on, 25.

Beehives, spring packing for, 91.

Bee-plant, Rocky Mountain, expts. with, 84.

Bees, as fertilizers of plants, 86.
cellar vs. outdoor wintering for, 91.
experiments in breeding. 88.
worker, do they feed drones, 89.

Bibio albipennis, wrongly reported injurious, 57.

Black smut, caused by Capnodium citri, 19.

Black scale, fungus attacking, 18.
enemies of, 30.
habits of, 28.
resin wash against, 19.
treatment of, 32.

Black Tartarian cherry, exempt from San José

scale, 22.

Blastobasis iceryeella, feeding on black scale, 30.

Blissus leucopterus, in Missouri, 37.

Boll worm, broods and hibernation, 46.
characters and transformations, 46
distribution and destructiveness, 45.
food-plants, 46.
investigation of, 45.
lights for trapping, 53.
natural enemies, 47.
poisoned sweets against, 52.
ravages mistaken for those of, 48.
remedies against, 48.

Brassica campestris var. colza, as a honey plant, 85.
Brown apricot scale, notes on, 34.
Brown scale, notes on, 26.
Bruner, Lawrence, report of, 9.
Cabbage butterfly, in Nebraska, 11.
thymo-cresol against, 44,
insects, in Nebraska, 11.
Plusia=Plusia brassice.
-worm disease, 55.
-worm, increase of parasite of, 61.
-worm parasite, advent in Missouri, 43.
Calocoris rapidus, on cotton, 48.
California Lace-wing, feeding on red scale, 17.
Capnodium citri, fungus of orange, etc., 19.
Capsid enemy of Heliothis, 48.
Catocala grynea, an orchard pest, 40.
Chamyris cerintha, on plum, 40.
Chapman honey plant, expts. with, 84.
Chermes sp.?, on post oak, 39.
Chicken louse, thymo-cresol against, 44.
Chilocorus bivulnerus, enemy of scale insects, 30.
enemy of red scale, 15.
Chinch bug in Missouri, 26.
Chionaspis furfurus, thymo-cresol against, 44.
Chrysopa californica, feeding on red scale, 17.
Cleome integrifolia, expts. with, 84.
Clisiocampa disstria, in Minnesota, 40.
Clover hay-worm, in Ohio, 63.
Clover-seed caterpillar in Iowa, 60.
midge, in Iowa, 59.
Clover, sweet, as a honey plant, 85.
Clover Thrips=Phleothrips nigra.
Coccid, post oak, in Missouri, 39.
Coccophagus citrinus, parasite of San José scale, 22.
lecanii, parasitic en scale-insects, 26.
Colaspis pretexta, attempt to colonize mite on, 42.
tristis, attempt to colonize mite on, 42.
Conotrachelus nenuphar, in Missouri, 37.
Convex scale, notes on, 20.
Cook, A. J., apicuitural report of, 83.
Coquillett, D. W.. report by, 13.
Corn, boll worm work on, 49.
Corn-rogt worm, in Nebraska, 9.
Cottony-cushion scale, see Fluted scale.
Cottony maple scale, in St. Louis, 39.
Cow-pea, as trap for boll worm, 52.
Crane-flies, bird enemies of, 74.
report on, 65.
Cucumber-beetle, striped, its Uropoda parasite, 42
twelve-spotted, thymo-cresol useless against,
44

93

94

Cutworms, in Missouri in 1891, 38. | Joint-worm, in Missouri, 37.
Cutworms, on sugar beet, 11. Kermes camelliz, possibly synonymous with As-
Diabrotica longicornis, in Nebraska, 9. pidiotus rapax, 25.

on sugar beet, 11. Laboulbeniacee, parasitism of. 16.

vittata, attempt to colonize Uropoda upon, 42. ; Lace-wings, cannibalistic habits of, 17, 18.
on sugar beet, 11. | Lachnosterna, work on biology of, 64.
12-punctata, thymo-cresol useless against, 44. | fusca, work on biology of, 64.

Dilophogaster californica, parasite of black scale, gibbosa, work on biology of, 64.

31. hirticula, work on biology of, 64.
Diplodus renardii, preying upon Chalcidids, 31. Ladybird, Australian, fluted scale kept in sub-
Diplosis tritici, investigated in Ohio, 65. jection by, 13.

Dogwood Aphis = Aphis cornicola. twice-stabbed, enemy of scale-insects, 15, 30.

Doryphora 10-lineata, attempt to colonize Uropoda (Scymnus) feeding on red scale, 16.

parasite on, 42. Largus cinctus, damaging cotton, 48.
Echinops spherocephalus, expts. with, 84. Leaf-hoppers, grass, hopperdozer against, 60.
Edema albifrons, in Missouri, 40. Lecanium filicum, 27.

Eleodes opaca, Tachina on, 12. hemisphzricum, notes on, 27.
tricostata, on cabbage, 11. hesperidum, notes on, 26.

Empusa pachyrrhine, fungus on Pachyrrhina, 71. thymo-cresol against, 35.

Encyrtus flavus, bred from Lecanium hesperidum, hibernaculorum, 27.

26. olex, fungus attacking, 18.
Entomological notes for 1891 in Missouri, 36. habits of, 28.

Flavescent clover weevil= Sitones flavescens. resin wash against, 19.

Fluted scale, subjugated by Vedalia, 13. pruinosum, notes on, 33.

Frosted scale, notes on, 33. sp., notes on, 34,

Goniocotes hologaster, expts. against, 44. Lema trilineata, attempt to colonize mite on, 42.

Gooseberry span-worm, in Nebraska, 10. Limneria flavicincta, parasite of Orgyia, 40.

Grape curculio, trip to investigate, 63. Locusts, abundant in Iowa, 60.

Grapholitha interstinctana, in Iowa, 60. Lyda sp., on wild plum, 10.

Greedy scale, notes on, 25. Mally, F. W., report by, 45.

Gypsy moth, birds feeding upon, 81. Maple-worm, green-striped, in Nebraska, 10.
food-plants of, 80. Melilotus alba as a honey plant, 85.
legislation against, 76. Meliola citri, fungus on citrus trees, 19.
line of work employed against, 79. Monoxia guttulata on sugar beet, 11.
region infested by, 78. Murgantia histrionica in Missouri, 37.

- report upon, 75. remedies against, 38.

Harlequin cabbage-bug, in Missouri, 37. thymo-cresol useless against, 44.
remedies against, 38. Murtfeldt, Mary E., report of, 36.
thymo-cresol, useless against, 44. Myzus persice, destructiveness in Iowa, 58.

Harpalus caliginosus, probable enemy of Tipula,70. | Nephelodes violans, abundant in Missouri, 38.
pennsylvanicus, probable enemy of Tipula,70. | Ocneria dispar, report upon, 75.

Harris’s apple scale, thymo-cresol against, 44. Oleander scale, notes on, 20.
Heliothis armigera, investigation of, 45. Orgyia leucostigma in St. Louis, 39.
Hemiptera, attempt to colonize Uropoda ameri- | Orsodachna atra on peach blossoms, 38.
cana on, 43. Orborn, Herbert, report of. 57.
Hemipterous insects on cotton, 48. Pachyrrhina sp., notes on, 70.
Hemispherical scale, notes on, 27. oviposition of, 72.
Henshaw, Samuel, report of, 75. Perilampus sp., bred from Chrysopa, 18.
Hesperomyces virescens, on Chilocorus, 16. preyed upon by Diplodus, 31.
Hessian fly, remarks on, 63. Phicothrips nigra, on clover in Iowa, 60.
report on, 65. Pieris rape, increase of parasite of, 61.
Hippodamia convergens, on sugar beet, 11. parasites of, 43.
Honey, consumption of, in the secretion of wax, 88. | Plant-lice, abundant in Iowa, 58.
special planting for, 83. Plant-louse, dogwood, notes on, 59.
Hopperdozers, for leaf-hoppers and locusts, 60. wheat, abundance in Iowa, 58.
Hydrocyanic gas treatment, reference, 19. Plochicnus timidus, enemy of Hyphantria
Hyphantria cunea, Plochionus timidus destroy- cunea, 41.
ing, 41. Plum curculio, in Missouri, 37.
Icerya purchasi, kept in subjection by Vedalia | Plusia brassice, disease of, 55.
cardinalis, 13. Pteromalus sp., bred from Chrysopa, 18.
Insect depredations in Nebraska, report on, 9. Pterostichus femoralis, probably an enemy of
diseases, and their relation to boll worm, 54. Tipula, 70.
Insects of the season in Towa, 57. lucublandus, probable enemy of crane-flies,
Insect ravages mistaken for those of boll worm, 48. 70.
Insecticides, experiments with, 43. Pyralidz on cotton, 48.
Isodromus iceryx, parasite of Chrysopa, 17. Pyrethrum, against boll worm, 53.

Isosoma grande, in Missouri, 37, Quercus obtusiloba, Chermes sp. on, 39.

FPO ITE”

sires comhuscks dacedihen hath aiunidtien Siteld bia emma hema tien Reteed dahil AE

‘
.=
>
é

OO ET MT TEE

Rape as a honey plant, 85.
Red scale, fungus attacking, 18.
notes on, 14.
remedies for, 19.
Red spider, resin wash against, 19.
Resin wash against scale-insects, 19.
Robber fly capturing boll worms, 47.
Rose scale, thymo-cresol against, 44.
San José scale, enemies of, 22.
habits of, 21.
remedies for, 23.
Scale-insects killed by fungus, 18.
of California, report on, 13.
Schizoneura, on dogwood, 59.
lanigera, in Missouri, 36.

Scymnus larva destroying, 17.
Scymnus sp., larva feeding on red scale, 16.
Semiotellus nigripes, colonization of, 64.
‘‘Sharpshooters”’ on cotton, 48.

Simulium, trip to investigate, 63.
Siphonophora avene, abundance in Lowa, 58.
in Missouri, 37.
Sitones flavescens, abundance in Iowa, 60.
Soft scale, notes on, 26.
thymo-cresol against, 35.

Solenopsis geminata, capturing boll worms, 47.

Spiders, enemies of lace-wings, 18.

Spraying injurious to honey bees, 86-88.
Squash bug, thymo-cresol useless against, 44.
Sugar-beet insects, in Nebraska, 10.

95

Sweet clover, as a honey plant, 85.
Tachina (fly) on Eleodes, 12.
Tent-caterpillar, forest, observations on, 40.
Tetranychus sp., resin wash against, 19.
bred from Chrysopa, 17.

Thecla peeas, on cotton, 48.
Thymo-cresol, as an insecticide, 35, 43.

useless against Harlequin cabbage-bug, 37.
Tipula angustipennis, notes on, 66.

bicornis, description of preparatory stages, 69.

notes on, 66.

costalis, notes on, 73.

oleracea, notes on oviposition, 68.

trivittata, note on oviposition, 68.
Tipulide, work on, 64.
Tortricide, on cotton, 48.
Trichogramma pretiosa, egg parasite of boll worm,

47.

Triphleps insidiosus, enemy of Heliothis, 48.
Tussock moth, white-marked, in St. Louis, 39.
Uropoda americana, attempts to colonize, 42.
Vedalia cardinalis, Icerya subjugated by, 13.
Wax, conductivity of, 90.
Webster, F. M., report of, 63.
Web-worm, fall, Plochionus timidus destroying, 41

tiger, enemy of fall web-worm, 41,
Wheat midge, investigated in Ohio, 65.
White-winged Bibio—Bibio albipennis.
Yellow scale, thymo-cresol against, 35.

Arlee

y

"a ees

i
'.

ap Aro a ea AE He Tag a Ie
GHikigeaelaen ee “ i -

- ee ES Mon VoodyiSe- te cewrtin here se ~ ~ = wn
——— ntact Seo cot a NOSE. NNN tone ty Sands te as a aa
_— erg se eer nnn yn not at we ages 7

ase ‘ ‘ Ri! A
erecta St, Seat ie Olt as es ater ge me
. Hi at hay mae Pip ow A Te A
arts . ot

rh senpreeueaneeee ate = seen & SEA Nestudhatbouis Rode emet ho Monolie Foals ohh Nas hanhmfecarmneh ap catete erm oe ~ Nr
as Pn Oy itr hire : oh ah EM a eas “ " opiate : - -

rs ; : n , Ec RETA aL RRA ee ee
tee be espe tsps rnin wd mm G y rise nerien odoin Mae AS SRNR os Pree ~ = r)

wae ime 4 mols
yenghs inaeary er ararateemenen ome thy
= fs wns

ag eH ve

Ai trentaa
ie wees a ee
-

Wehinduumrpaimees sop gam
b+ ~s 4