EXCHANGE

tfommomoeoltf) of Jtlassocljusctts.

A REPORT

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

MASSACHUSETTS,

BOSTON:

WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 POST OFFICE SQUABE.

1909.

tfommontoealtf) of

A REPORT

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

MASSACHUSETTS.

BOSTON:

WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 POST OFFICE SQUABE.

1909.

APPROVED BY
THE STATE BOARD OP PUBLICATION.

Commonrocaltl) of 4ila0sad)it0ett0.

COMMISSIONERS ON FISHERIES AND^GAME,
STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, Jan. 15, 1909.

To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives.

We herewith transmit a special report upon the mollusk
fisheries of Massachusetts, as ordered by chapter 49, Kesolves
of 1905, relative to scallops; chapter 73, Kesolves of 1905,
relative to oysters; chapter 78, Resolves of 1905, relative to
quahaugs; and chapter 93, Resojves of 1905, relative to clams.

Respectfully submitted,

G. W. FIELD,

Chairman.

276712

REPORT ON THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES OF
MASSACHUSETTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The general plan of the work was outlined by the chairman
of the Commission on Fisheries and Game, who has given at-
tention to such details as checking up scientific data, editing, •
revising, and confirming results, reports, etc. The work has
been under the direct charge and personal supervision of the
biologist to the commission, Mr. D. L. Belding. The able
services of Prof. J. L. Kellogg of Williams College were early
enlisted, and many valuable results which we are able to offer
are the direct outcome of the practical application of the
minute details discovered by Professor Kellogg in his careful
study and original investigations of the anatomy and life his-
tories of the lamellibranch mollusks.

Of the other workers who, under the direction of Mr. Belding,
have contributed directly, special mention should be made of
Mr. J. E. Stevenson of Williams College, W. G. Vinal of Har-
vard University, F. C. Lane of Boston University, A. A. Per-
kins of Ipswich and C. L. Savery of Marion. Those who
have for a briefer time been identified with the work are R.
L. Buffum, W. H. Gates and K. B. Coulter of Williams Col-
lege, and Anson Handy of Harvard University.

In addition to the results here given, much valuable knowl-
edge has been acquired, particularly upon the life histories of
the scallop and of the quahaug, and the practical application of
this knowledge to the pursuit of sea farming. It is hoped
that the commission will later be enabled to publish these re-
sults.

The present report is limited to a statement of the condition
of the shellfish in each section of our coast, and to considera-
tion of practical methods for securing increased opportunities

FISHERIES

for food and livelihood by better utilization of naturally pro-
ductive lands under water. Since the chief purpose of legis-
lative action under which this work was undertaken was to
ascertain how the best economic results could be secured, we
have thought it wise to embody the results of our investigation
in a plan which is suggested as a basis for appropriate legisla-
tion for making possible a suitable system of shellfish cultiva-
tion similar to that which already exists in Rhode Island, Con-
necticut and many other coast States, and which has been car-
ried on for more than two thousand years on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea.

The following tentative outlines are offered, and it is in-
tended to subject each topic to an unprejudiced examination
and discussion : —

A PROPOSED SYSTEM OF CULTURE FOR THE TIDAL FLATS AND

WATERS OF MASSACHUSETTS.

The Purpose. — The proposed system of shellfish culture
aims to develop the latent wealth of the tidal waters, to in-
crease the output of tidal flats already productive, and to make
possible the reclamation of large portions of the waste shore
areas of our Commonwealth. It is further designed to foster
dependent and allied industries ; to extend the shellfish market,
both wholesale and retail; to multiply opportunities for the
transient visitors and shore cottagers to fish for clams and
quahaugs for family use,, and to ensure fishermen a reliable
source of bait supply; to increase the earnings of the shore
fishermen, and to furnish work to thousands of unemployed;
to increase the value of shore property; to add to the taxable
property of the shore towns and cities of the State; to secure
to all the citizens of the State a proper return from an unutil-
ized State asset ; to furnish the consuming public with a greater
quantity of sea food of guaranteed purity; and in every way,
both in the utilization of present and in the creation of new
resources to build up and develop the fast-declining shellfish
industries of the Commonwealth.

Private v. Public Ownership of Tidal Flats. — The first dif-
ficulty confronting this proposed system is the too frequently
accepted fallacy that all lands between the tide marks now are

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 5

and should be held in common by the inhabitants of the shore
communities, to the exclusion of citizens from other sections
of the State, — an assumption which is directly contrary to
the more ancient law, supported by decisions of the highest
courts, that the right of taking shellfish is a public right, freely
open to any inhabitant of the State. Such unwarranted as-
sumption of exclusive rights in the shellfisheries by individuals,
corporations or towns sacrifices the rights of the majority.
The disastrous effect of this policy is plainly demonstrated in
the history of the rise and decline of the shellfisheries of Mas-
sachusetts.

Secondly, this fallacious assumption is contrary to the funda-
mental principles of all economic doctrines. It may be safely
affirmed that the individual ownership of property has proved
not only a success but even is a necessary condition of progress,
and has in fact at length become the foundation of all society.
It inevitably follows that if the system is justifiable in the case
of farm lands it is equally justifiable in the case of the tidal
flats, for the same principle is involved in each. It is there-
fore fair to assume that if private ownership of farm land has
proved to be for the best interests of human progress, so private
ownership of the tidal flats will also be a benefit to the public.

It is not our purpose to discuss the underlying principle in-
volved in private ownership of property, — it is simply our
purpose to call attention to two facts: (1) if individual control
of real estate is just, private ownership of tidal flats and waters
is likewise just; (2) that individual control of such areas is
the only practical system yet devised capable of checking the
alarming decline in the shellfisheries and of developing them
to a normal state of productiveness, and rendering unnecessary
an annually increasing mass of restrictive legislation.

The Present System. — The present system of controlling
the shellfisheries is based on the communal ownership of the
tidal flats. Ownership by the Commonwealth has degenerated
into a system of town control, whereby every coast community
has entire jurisdiction over its shellfisheries, to the practical
exclusion of citizens of all other towns. Thus at the present
time the mollusk fisheries of Massachusetts are divided into a
number of separate and disorganized units, which are incapable

6 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

of working together for the best interests of the towns or of the
public. This communistic system is distinctly unsound, and
is in direct opposition to the principles of social and economic
development. The man who advocates keeping farm lands un-
tilled and in common, for the sake of the few wild blackberries
they might produce, would be considered mentally unbalanced ;
but it is precisely this system which holds sway over our rela-
tively richer sea gardens. With no thought of seed time, but
only of harvest, the fertile tidal flats are yearly divested of their
fast-decreasing output by reckless and ruthless exploitation,
and valuable territories when once exhausted are allowed to
become barren. All hopes for the morrow are sacrificed to
the clamorous demands of the present. The more the supply
decreases, the more insistent becomes the demand; and the
greater the demand, the more relentless grows the campaign of
spoliation. The entire shore front of the Commonwealth is
scoured and combed by irresponsible aliens and by exemplars
of the " submerged tenth " who are now but despoilers, but who
if opportunity were present might become cultivators of the
flats rather than devastators. The thoughtful fisherman, who
would control the industry in a measure, is under present con-
ditions overruled by his selfish or short-sighted fellow workers,
and is of necessity forced to join their ranks by the clinching
argument that if the shellfisheries are to be ruined anyway, he
might as well have his share as long as they last. The theory
of public ownership of shellfisheries has been weighed in the
balance and found wanting. The necessity for some radical
change in the present system is becoming more and more ap-
parent, and a system of private control, with certain modifica-
tions, is the logical result.

Need of Reform. — The shellfish supply of Massachusetts
is steadily declining. So extensive is this decline that it is
unnecessary to mention the abundant proofs of almost com-
plete exhaustion in certain localities and of failing output in
others. While the apparent cause of this decrease is overfish-
ing and unsystematic digging, the real cause can be readily
traced to the present defective system of town control, which
has made possible, through inefficiency and neglect, the de-
plorable condition of this important industry. Unless the de-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 7

cline is at once checked, within a very few years our valuable
shellfisheries will be exhausted to the point of commercial ex-
tinction. The legislation of former years, essentially restrict-
ive and prohibitory in character, has unfortunately been con-
structed on a false economic basis. Its aim has been to pro-
tect these industries by restricting the demand rather than by
increasing the supply. What the future requires is not merely
protective or restrictive legislation, but rather constructive laws
for developing the shellfisheries. The system of shellfish cul-
ture here presented appears to be the only practical method
for improving the condition of these industries in such a way
as to protect all vested interests of both private and public
rights, and at the same time to make possible adequate utiliza-
tion of the natural productive capacity.

In brief, the proposed system of shellfish culture is based
upon a system of leases to individuals. These leases should be
divided into two classes: (1) those covering the territory be-
tween the tide lines, and consisting of small areas, from 1
to 2 acres; (2) the territory below low-water mark, comprised
of two classes of grants, which differ only in size and distance
from the shore, — the smaller (a), from 1 to 5 acres, to include
the shore waters, small bays and inlets, and the larger (&), of
unrestricted size, to be given in the deeper and more exposed
waters. The owners of all grants shall be permitted to plant and
grow all species of shellfish, and shall have exclusive control
of the fisheries area covered by such lease. The large and more
exposed grants, which cannot be economically worked without
considerable capital, should be available for companies; while
the smaller holdings, for which but small capital is required, are
restricted to the use of the individual shore fishermen. For
the tidal flats and shore waters but one-half of the whole ter-
ritory in any one township shall be leased, the other half still
remaining public property.

Success of this System. - - The system of private control by
leased grants is by no means a new and untried theory. In
actual operation for many years in this and other States, in
spite of lack of protection and other drawbacks which would
be eliminated from a perfected system, it has proved an un-
qualified success. The rapid depletion and even extermination

8 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

of the native oyster beds necessitated legislative consideration,
and for years the oyster industry above and below low-water
mark in this and other States has been dealt with by a similar
system. The plan here suggested would be but a direct ex-
tension of a well-tested principle towards the cultivation of
other species of mollusks. The financial value to the fisher-
men of such a step has been proved beyond all question in this
State during the past three years by the demonstrations of the
Massachusetts department of fisheries and game. These ex-
periments have proved that tidal flats, with small outlay of
capital and labor, will yield, acre for acre, a far more valuable
harvest than any upland garden.

This system has the further element of success by being
based on individual effort, in contrast to the present communal
regulation of shellfisheries. In all business individual initia-
tive and effort furnish the keynote of success, and the future
wellfare of the shellfisheries depends upon the application of
this principle.

Nature cannot without the aid and co-operation of man re-
pair the ill-advised, untimely and exhaustive inroads made in
her resources. This is shown in the thousands of acres of good
farm lands made unproductive by unwise treatment, and by
the wasteful destruction of our forests. It is as strikingly
tshown in the decline of our shellfisheries. The fisherman ex-
hausts the wealth of the flats by destroying both young and
adults, and returns nothing. The result is decrease and ulti-
mate extermination. The farmer prepares his land carefully
and intelligently, plants his seed and in due time reaps a har-
vest. If the fisherman could have similar rights over the
tidal areas, he could with far less labor and capital and with
far greater certainty year by year reap a continuous harvest
at all seasons. The success of the leasing system in other
States, notably Louisiana, Rhode Island and others, is definite
and conspicuous.

The Obstacles to this Proposed System. — Before the pro-
posed system of titles to shellfish ground can be put in actual
operation, it is absolutely necessary to have all rights and spe-
cial privileges pertaining to shore areas revested in State con-
trol by repeal of certain laws. In this centralization of author-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 9

ity four main factors must be carefully considered: (1) com-
munal rights to fisheries in tidal areas, as in the colonial beach
law of 1641-47; (2) the theory, practice and results of town
supervision and control; (3) the rights of riparian owners;
(4) the rights of the fishermen and of all other inhabitants
of the State. So important are all four that it is necessary to
discuss each in turn.

(1) Communal Fishery Rights of the Public. --The funda-
mental principle upon which the shellfish laws of the State
are founded is the so-called beach or free fishing right of the
public. While in other States shore property extends only to
mean high water, in Massachusetts, Maine and Virginia, the
earliest States to enact colonial laws, the riparian property hold-
ers own to mean low-water mark. But by specific exception
and according to further provisions of this same ancient law
the right of fishing (which includes the shellfisheries) below
high-water mark is free to any inhabitant of the Common-
wealth. The act reads as follows : —

SECTION 2. Every inhabitant who is an householder shall have free
fishing and fowling in any great ponds, bays, coves and rivers, so far
as the sea ebbs and flows within the precincts of the town where they
dwell, unless the freemen of the same town or the General Court have
otherwise appropriated them.

It is necessary that some change be made in this law, which
at present offers no protection to the planters. Its repeal is
by no means necessary, as the matter can be adjusted by merely
adding " except for the taking of mollusks from the areas set
apart and leased for the cultivation of mollusks."

(2) Results of Town Administration of MollusJc Fisheries. -
All authority to control mollusk privileges was originally vested
in the State. The towns, as the ancient statutes will show, de-
rived this authority from the higher State authority, developed
their systems of local regulations or by-laws only with the
State permission, and even now they enjoy the fruits of these
concessions solely with the active consent of the Legislature.
Thus thf State has ever been, and is at present, the source of
town control. The towns have no rights of supervision and con-
trol over shellfisheries except as derived from the General Court.

10 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The State gave them this authority in the beginning. It fol-
lows, therefore, that the Legislature can withdraw this dele-
gated authority at any time when it is convinced that it is for
the benefit of the State so to do. To those few who are directly
profiting at the expense of the many, this resumption of author-
ity by the State may seem at first sight a high-handed pro-
ceeding, but a brief survey of the facts will prove it to be justly
warranted and eminently desirable. The present system of
town control has had a sufficient trial. It is in its very essen-
tials an unbusiness-like proceeding. A large number of towns
acting in this matter as disorganized units working independ-
ently of one another could not in the nature of things evolve
any co-ordinated and unified system which would be to the
advantage of all. The problems involved are too complicated,
requiring both broad and special knowledge, which cannot be
acquired in a short term of experience. Lastly, the tempta-
tions of local politics have been found to be too insistent to
guarantee completely fair allotment of valuable privileges.

The Legislature has not only acted unwisely in allowing the
towns in this respect thus to mismanage their affairs, but it
has not fulfilled its duty to the Commonwealth as a whole. The
Legislature has unwittingly delegated valuable sources of wealth
and revenue, the fruits of which should have been enjoyed at
least in some degree, directly or indirectly, by all citizens of
the Commonwealth alike as well as by those of the coast towns.
Many of the coast cities and towns have dealt with this oppor-
tunity very unwisely, and few have developed or even main-
tained unimpaired this extremely valuable asset of the State.
It cannot be too strongly emphasized that such important sources
of wealth as the shellfisheries are not the property of the coast
towns alone ; they are the property of the whole Commonwealth^
and the whole Commonwealth should share in these benefits.
In allowing these valuable resources to be mismanaged and
dissipated by the shore towns, the Legislature has done a great
injury to all the inland communities, and, indeed, even to those
very coast towns for whose benefit such legislation was enacted.
The Legislature was not justified, in the first place, in grant-
ing jurisdiction over these important industries belonging
equally to the whole Commonwealth and to the coast towns.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 11

It was but an experiment. Inasmuch as these towns have
grossly mismanaged the trust placed in them, the Legislature
is doubly under the obligation to take advantage of the knowl-
edge gained by this experimental delegation of the State au-
thority to cities and towns. The completely obvious obligation
of the Legislature is to remove what is either tacitly or frankly
acknowledged by many city and town authorities, to be an im-
possible burden upon the city or town, and to restore to State
officers the general administrative control and supervision of
the public rights in the shellfisheries.

(3) Riparian Ownership does not include Exclusive Fish-
ing Rights. — The third objection is that in the assumption of
State control is involved the much-discussed and vaguely un-
derstood question of riparian ownership. To make plain the
conditions relative to the fisheries, including the shellfisheries
on the tidal flats, it should be borne in mind that in only four
States, Virginia and Maryland, Massachusetts and Maine, does
the title of the riparian owner extend to low-water mark, but
in these States the right of fishing, fowling and boating are
specifically mentioned as not included in the title. Under the
existing laws owners of seashore property in Massachusetts
possess certain rights (though perhaps not in all cases clearly
defined) over the tidal areas within 100 rods of the mean high-
water mark. As the proposed system of shellfish grants deals
with this territory between high and low water marks, it is
necessary to see in what manner, if any, the rights at present
possessed by riparian owners would be impaired by the leasing
of certain rights of fishing. While the riparian owner has in
a measure authority over the territory which borders his up-
land, there are certain specific limitations to this authority.
He does not have exclusive rights of hunting, boating and fish-
ing between the tide lines on his own property, but participates
in these rights equally with every citizen of this Commonwealth.
The courts have distinctly held that shellfish are fish, and that,
a man may fish — i.e., dig clams — on the tidal flats adjoin-
ing the shore without the consent of the riparian owner.

(4) Rights of the Fishermen and of All Citizens. — The
fishermen as a class are best located to benefit most from an
opportunity to lease exclusive fishing rights, whether they chance

12 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

to be riparian owners or not, though every other citizen of this
Commonwealth who so desired would not be excluded from an
opportunity to secure a similar lease. The personnel of the
fisher class has vastly changed in the past decade. There are
to-day two distinct types : The permanent resident, usually na-
tive born, bound to a definite locality by ties of home and kin
and of long association, — a most useful type of citizen. Con-
trasted with this is the other, a more rapidly increasing class, -
foreign born, unnaturalized, nomadic, a humble soldier of for-
tune, a hanger-on in the outskirts of urban civilization, eking
out an existence by selling or eating the shellfish from the pub-
lic fishing grounds. Too ignorant to appreciate the impor-
tance of sanitary precaution, the alien clammer haunts the
proscribed territory polluted by sewage, and does much to keep
the dangerous typhoid germ in active circulation in the com-
munity.

The public mollusk fisheries only foster such types of non-
producers, and prevent them from becoming desirable citizens.
The best class of fishermen and citizens has no advantage over
the worst, but is practically compelled to engage in the same
sort of petty buccaneering and wilfully destructive digging, in
order to prevent that portion and privilege of fishing which the
law says shall belong to every householder and freeman of the
Commonwealth from being appropriated by these humble free-
booters, who are at once the annoyance, the terror and the de-
spair of cottagers and shore dwellers.

All these conditions would be almost completely corrected
by the lease of the flats to individuals, thus removing from the
fishermen stultifying competition and compelling these irre-
sponsible wandering aliens to acquire definite location. But
most particularly a system of leasing would permit each per-
son to profit according to his industry, perseverance, thrift and
foresight.

The Grants. — As previously stated, the grants should be
made into two divisions: (1) including suitable areas between
the high and low water marks; (2) territory below mean low-
water mark. The privilege of planting and growing all shell-
fish should be given for both classes of grants. Class 1
would be primarily for the planting of clams, with additional

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 13

rights over oysters and quahaugs; c^lass 2 would be primarily
for the planting of quahaugs and oysters, with possible rights
over clams and scallops.

The grants should be leased for a limited period of years,
with the privilege of renewal provided the owner had fulfilled
the stipulated requirements of the lease. In order, however,
that these leases should not degenerate into deeds, to be handed
down from father to son, it might be necessary to assign a
maximum time limit during which a man might remain in
control of any particular lease. This would be merely fair
play to all concerned, for it would not be just to allow one man
to monopolize a particularly fine piece of property, while his
equally deserving neighbor had land of far less productive value.
In connection with this clause should follow some provisions
for payment of the value of improvements. Should there be
more than one claimant for lease of any particular area, some
principle of selection, such as priority of application, highest
bid, etc., should be established.

That there may be no holding of grants for purposes other
than those stipulated in the agreement, there should be a cer-
tain cultural standard of excellence to be decided upon relative
to the use made of the granted areas. A clause of this kind
is necessary in order to keep the system in a proper state of
efficiency, and to insure the development of the shellfish in-
dustries.

«A11 taxes on the capital invested in these grants and taxes
upon the income should go to the town in which the leasehold
is situated. In addition, there should be a just and equable
revenue assessed by the State on every grant, as rent for the
same. This rent should be apportioned according to a fixed
scale in determining the relative values of the grants, and
should be paid annually, under penalty of forfeiture. The
revenue might be divided into two parts: one part to go to
the State department having the control of the shellfisheries, for
the maintenance of a survey, control and protection of property
on leased areas, and other work; the second part to go to the
town treasury of the community in which the grant is located,
to be expended under the direction and control of responsible
State officials in restocking barren flats and otherwise develop-

14 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

ing the shellfish upon its unleased territory which is open for
free public use.

Grants to be Nontransferable. — These grants, while de-
signed for the use of all citizens of the Commonwealth, should
be made especially available for the poor man with little capi-
tal. In order to assure the poor man of the enjoyment of his
privilege, it is necessary to guard against the possibility of un-
due monopolization. Leases must, therefore, be strictly non-
transferable. Neither should areas be rented to another indi-
vidual under any consideration whatever. Every grant must
be for the benefit of its individual owner. He should be at
liberty to hire laborers to assist him in working his grant, but
not to transfer it in any way. Any attempt on his part to do
so should not only immediately result in the forfeiture of his
grant, but should also subject him to a heavy penalty.

Survey. — In order to guard against confusion and to main-
tain an orderly system, an accurate survey of all granted areas
should be made. The ranges of every grant should be deter-
mined and recorded. The plots should be numbered and prop-
erly staked or buoyed, and a record of the same, giving the
name of the owner, yearly rental and value, should be kept on
file at the proper town and State offices. The same system
which is now in operation in the oyster industry of other
States should be applied to all the mollusk fisheries of Massa-
chusetts.

Administration. — The department of the State government
under whose jurisdiction this system of leases may come should
be indued with full authority, properly defined, to supervise
the grants, furnish them with adequate protection by the em-
ployment of State or town police, oversee the survey, allot the
grants, and to exercise such other powers as may be necessary
to develop the system, remedy its defects and strengthen its
efficiency.

Protection of Property and of the Rights granted by the
Lease. — No system of shellfish grants is possible without ab-
solute protection. The lessee must be permitted to cultivate
his grant free from outside interference, and thus, with reason-
ably good fortune, he can enjoy the fruits of his labors. This
protection, which is the greatest and most vital need of the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 15

entire system, and the foundation upon which depends its whole
success, must be insured by proper legislation rigorously en-
forced, and accompanied by severe penalties.

Leasing of the Grants. — Every citizen of the Commonwealth
is entitled to participate in this system, but for obvious reasons
an inhabitant of any coast town should be given first choice of
grants within the boundary of his particular town. The first
grants might be given by allotment, but after the system had
become well established, they could be issued in the order of
their application.

Water Pollution. - - The sanitary condition of the marketed
shellfish taken from contaminated waters is not only at present
to some extent endangering the public health, but is placing an
undeserved stigma upon a most reputable and valuable source
of food supply for the public. The public should demand laws
closing, after proper scientific investigation, these polluted
areas, and conferring the power to thoroughly enforce such
laws. The danger arising from contamination should be re-
duced to a minimum by prescribing some definite regulations
for transferring shellfish from these polluted waters to places
free from contamination, where the shellfish may in brief season
be rendered fit for the market.

It should be unlawful to use any brand, label or other device
for designation, intended to give the impression that certain
oysters offered for sale were grown at specified places, e.g., Co-
tuit, Wellfleet, Wareham, etc., unless such oysters were actu-
ally planted, grown or cultivated within the towns or waters
designated, for a period of at least three months immediately
previous to the date of marketing. Furthermore, there should
be appointed proper inspectors, whose duties would be to guar-
antee by certificates, labels and stamps the purity of shellfish
placed upon the market, and likewise have the power of en-
forcing severe penalties on violators.

16 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

THE SHELLFISHEEIES OF MASSACHUSETTS: THEIR
PRESENT CONDITION AND EXTENT,

By D. L. BELDING, assisted by F. C. LANE.

Dr. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Commission on Fisheries and Game.

SIR: — I herewith submit the following report upon the present
extent and condition of the shellfish industries of Massachusetts. The
following biological survey was made in connection with the work done
under chapters 49, 73, 78 and 93, Resolves of 1905, and chapter 74,
Resolves of 1906. The statistics and survey records which furnish the
basis of the report were obtained by D. L. Belding and F. C. Lane.
Respectfully submitted,

DAVID L. BELDING,

Biologist.
INTRODUCTION.

When money was first appropriated in 1905 for a three-year investi-
gation of the life, habits and methods of culture of the clam, quahaug,
oyster and scallop, provision was made for a survey of the present
productive and non-productive areas suitable for the cultivation of these
four shellfish. The following report embodies the results of this survey.

A. Method of Work. — In making this survey two objects were in
view, which permit the grouping of the work under two main heads : —

(1) A survey of the productive and non-productive shellfish areas
of the State was undertaken, showing by charts the location, extent and
abundance of each of the four shellfish, as well as the biological con-
ditions of the waters and soils of the areas along the entire coast which
could be made more productive under proper cultural methods. Wher-
ever possible, information as to the production of certain areas was
obtained from the shellfishermen as a supplement to the survey work.

(2) Statistical records of the four shellfish industries were formu-
lated, showing their value and extent as regards (a) production, (b)
capital invested, (c) men employed. Data for these records were ob-
tained from town records, from market reports and from tiie dealers
and shellfishennen, both by personal interviews and by tabulated forms
of printed questions. Owing to the present chaotic condition of the
shellfisheries, it has been impossible to obtain absolutely exact data.
The statistics that have been obtained are to all purposes correct, and
are the most exact figures ever published on the subject.

B. Value of the Survey. — Before any reform measures of prac-
tical value can be advanced, accurate and comprehensive knowledge of
the present shellfish situation in Massachusetts is absolutely essential.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 17

Up to this time there have been only vague and inaccurate conjectures
as to the value of the shellfisheries, and even the fisherman, outside
his own district, has little knowledge of their extent and their economic
possibilities. The consumer has far less knowledge. For the first time
this problem of the Massachusetts shellfisheries has been approached
from the point of view of the economic biologist. This survey is in-
tended to present a concise yet detailed account of the present status of
the shellfisheries of Massachusetts, and is therefore the first step
towards the preservation of our shellfisheries by providing a workable
basis for the restocking of the barren and unproductive areas. It is
hoped that it will be of interest both to the fishermen and consumers.

C. Presentation of the Report. — The first part of the report pre-
sents the general results of the survey, i.e., the present condition of the
shellfisheries, while the second part deals directly with details of the
survey. The report is divided into four parts, each shellfish being con-
sidered separately. Under each is grouped (1) the industry as a whole;
(2) a statistical summary of the industry for the whole State; (3) the
towns of the State and their individual industries. A series of charts
showing the shellfish areas of the State makes clear the description of
the survey.

Geographical Situation. — The peculiar geographical situation of
Massachusetts renders possible the production of the four edible
shellfish — clam, oyster, quahaug and scallop, — in great abundance.
Cape Cod forms the dividing line between the northern and the southern
fauna, which furnish the coast of Massachusetts with a diversity of
molluscan life. Zoologically, the Massachusetts coast is the point where
the habitats of the northern (the soft clam, My a arenaria) and the
southern clam (the quahaug, hard clam or little neck, Venus merce-
naria) overlap. Nature has favored Massachusetts with a coast indented
with bays, estuaries and inlets which are especially adapted for the
growth of marine food mollusks.

Former Natural Abundance. — If we compare the natural shell-
fish areas of to-day with those of former years, we find a great change.
All four shellfish formerly throve in large numbers in the numerous
bays and indentations of our coast line. The area between tide marks
was formerly inhabited by quantities of soft clams, and the muddy
patches just below low-water mark produced great numbers of qua-
haugs. In the estuaries were extensive natural oyster beds. On our
shoals it was possible to gather many thousand bushels of scallops.
Now thousands of acres once productive lie barren, and we have but
a remnant of the former abundant yield.

Historical Wastefulness. — History tells us that the Pilgrims at
Plymouth " sucked the abundance of the seas " and found health and
wealth. But between the lines of history we can read a tale of waste-
fulness and prodigality with hardly a parallel, and to-day we find the
natural heritage of the shellfisheries almost totally wasted through
the careless indifference of our forefathers. Prof. James L. Kellogg, in

18 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

the introduction to his " Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana,"
gives the following excellent account of the exploiting of natural re-
sources : —

As one looks over the record of the settling of this country, and notes
how a continent was reclaimed from a state of nature, he can hardly fail
to be impressed with the reckless wastefulness of his ancestors in their use
of the treasures which nature, through eons of time, had been collecting.
In thousands of cases, natural resources, which, carefully conserved, would
have provided comfort and even luxury for generations of men, have been
dissipated and destroyed with no substantial benefit to any one. They scat-
tered our inheritance. Such knowledge dulls a feeling of gratitude that may
be due to them for their many beneficent acts, — though the truth prob-
ably is that few of them ever had a thought of their descendants. Men
seldom seem to have a weighty sense of responsibility toward others than
those who immediately follow them. The history of the prodigality of our
ancestors since their occupation of this great continent has not fully been
written, — and it should be, in such a way that the present generation
might know it; for sometimes it seems as if the present generation were as
criminally careless of the natural resources that remain to it as were any
of those that are gone. Perhaps it is hardly that. We have learned some
wisdom from the past, because our attention has recently been drawn to the
fact of the annihilation of several former sources of subsistence. Kapidly
in America, in recent years, the struggle to obtain support for a family has
become more severe to the wage earner. In thirty years the increasing
fierceness of competition has resulted in a revolution of business methods.
In every profession and in every line of business only the most capable are
able to obtain what the mediocre received for their honest labor in the last
generation.

But it is easier to condemn the past for its failures than to recognize
and condemn those of our own generation. The average man really has a
blind and unreasoning faith in his own time, and to laud only its suc-
cesses is to be applauded as an optimist. In the present stage of our
national life we certainly have no room for the pessimist, who is merely a
dyspeptic faultfinder; nor for the optimist, who blinds his eyes to our faults
and mistakes, and so fails to read their priceless lessons. Instead, our in-
telligence, as a race, has reached that degree of development which should
give it the courage to consider " things as they are."

Considering things as they are, we must admit that we are not realizing
our obligations to future generations in many of the ways in which we are
misusing our natural resources. This waste is often deliberate, though usu-
ally due to the notion that nature's supplies, especially of living organisms,
are limitless. The waste of 70 or 80 per cent, in lumbering the Oregon
" big trees," and the clean sweep of the Louisiana pine, now in progress, is
deliberately calculated destruction for present gain, — and the future may
take care of itself. In making millionaires of a very few men, most of
whom are still living, a large part of the lower peninsula of Michigan was
made a hopeless desert. To " cut and come again " is not a part of the
moral codes of such men. It seems to mean sacrifice; and yet they are woe-
fully mistaken, even in that.

But most often, no doubt, the extinction of useful animals and plants,

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

19

that we have so often witnessed, has been due to the ignorant assumption
that, under any circumstances, the supply would last forever. This idea
seems especially to prevail concerning marine food animals. The fact that
the sea is vast might naturally give the impression that its inhabitants are
numberless. . . . But when a natural food supply nears complete annihila-
tion, men begin to think of the necessity of a method of artificial culture.1

Present Unimproved Resources. — In spite of the wastefulness of
former generations, many areas can again be made to produce the
normal yield if proper and adequate measures are promptly taken to
restore to the flats, estuaries and bays of Massachusetts their normal
productive capacity. In spite of the fact that some of the natural beds
have entirely disappeared, either " fished out " or buried under the
debris of civilization, and others are in imminent danger of becoming
exhausted, Massachusetts still possesses a sufficient natural supply to
restock most of these barren areas.

Possibilities of Development. — Opportunities for development
are alluring. The shellfisheries could be increased, in these days of rapid
transit and marketing facilities, into industries which would furnish
steady employment for thousands of men and women, both directly
and indirectly, resulting in a product valued at a minimum of $3,000,000
annually, with possibilities of indefinite expansion. At present the idea
of marine farming attracts popular attention. The conditions are
parallel to agriculture, except that in the case of marine farming the
crops are more certain, — i.e., are not subject to so many fatalities.
The experiments of the Department of Fisheries and Game for the
past three years have proved that cultivation of shellfish offers great
inducements and profit to both individuals and towns. When the pres-
ent waste areas are again made productive, the value of the annual
catch should be increased tenfold.

Statistical Summary of the Shellfisheries for 1907.

NAME OF MOLLUSK.

PRODUCTION.

Area in
Acres.

Capital
invested.

Men
employed.

Bushels.

Value.

Clam, '.' ....

153,865
161,182
144,044
103,000

$150,440
176,142
194,687
164,436

5,111

2,400
28,890
30,900

$18,142
268,702
94,260
121,753

1,361
159
745
647

Quahaug, . . . . .
Scallop,
Total,

562,091

•685,705

66,501

$502,857

2,912

In the above table the areas for the scallop, clam and quahaug are
only approximate. The scallop and quahaug fisheries cover nearly the
same areas, and employ to a great extent the same men and capital.

1 Gulf Biologic Station, Cameron, La., Bulletin No. 3, 1905.

20

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Annual Yields (in Bushels) of the Shellfisheries of Massachusetts since
1879, from United States Fish Commission Eeports.

YBAB.

Clam.

Quahaug.

Oyster.

Scallop.

Totals.

1879, ....

158,621

11,050

36,000

10,542

216,218

1887, . . . . . . .

230,659

35,540

43,183

41,964

351,346

1888, . . . ... .'

243,777

26,165

45,631

26,168

341,741

1898, . . . . . • ,

147,095

63,817

101,225

128,863

441,000

1902, . . . . . , .

227,941

106,815

103,386

66,150

504,295

1905, .

217,519

166,526

112,580

43,872

540,497

1907,1

153,865

144,044

161,182

103,000

562,091

Massachusetts fishermen to-day receive an annual income of $685,705
from the shellfisheries, which approximately cover a productive area
of 40,000 acres. Under the present methods of production, the average
value per acre is only $17; each acre, if properly farmed, should fur-
nish an annual production of at least $100, or six times the present
yield. The shellfish areas of Massachusetts which are at/ present
utilized are giving almost a minimum production, instead of the enor-
mous yield which they are capable of furnishing. All that is necessary
to procure the maximum yield is the application of systematic cultural
methods, instead of relying on an impoverished natural supply. Not
only are the productive areas furnishing far less than they are capable
of producing, but also Massachusetts possesses 6,000 acres of barren
flats, which should become, under the proper cultural methods, as val-
uable as the productive areas. (This has been experimentally demon-
strate^ by the commission.) While it is possible to develop, through
cultural methods, these latent natural resources, it will take years to
bring them to a high degree of development. It can be partially accom-
plished, at least, in the next few years, and the present production in-
creased several times, as nature responds to the slightest intelligent
effort of man, and gives large returns.

DECLINE OF THE SHELLFISHERIES.
A. Is there a Decline?

(1) So obvious is the general decline of the shellfisheries that almost
every one is aware, through the increasing prices and difficulty of sup-
plying the demand, that the natural supply is becoming exhausted.

(2) Statistical figures of the shellfish production not only show a de-
cline, but conceal a rapid diminution of the supply.

Returns of Massachusetts Department of Fisheries and Game.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

21

(3) Production statistics alone should never be taken as typifying
the real conditions of an industry, as such figures are often extremely
deceiving. For instance : —

(4) The increased prices, stimulated by an increasing demand, have
caused a greater number of men, equipped with the best modern im-
plements, to swell the production by overworking shellfish areas which
in reality are not one-fourth so productive as they were ten years ago.

While the general decline of the shellfisheries is a matter of public
knowledge, specific illustrations of this decline have been lacking. The
present report calls attention to actual facts as proofs of the decline
of each shellfishery, by a comparison of the present conditions in va-
rious localities with the conditions of 1879. The only past record of
Massachusetts shellfisheries of any importance is found in the report
of the United States Fish Commission for 1883, and, although this is
very limited, it is sufficient to furnish many examples of the extinction
or decline of the shellfisheries in certain localities.

In a general consideration of the shellfisheries, it is noticeable that in
certain localities the extinction of the industry has been total, in others
only partial, while others have remained unchanged or have even im-
proved. This last class is found either where the natural advantages*
are so great that the resources have not been exploited, or where men
have, through wise laws and cultural methods (as in the oyster in-
dustry), preserved and built up the shellfisheries.

1879 v. 1907. — In comparing the present condition of the shell-
fisheries with that of 1879, it will be seen that many changes have taken
place. Even twenty-five years ago inroads were being made upon the
natural supply; from that time to the present can be traced a steady
decline. During the past five years the production has been augmented
by additional men, who have entered into the business under t£e at-
traction of higher prices, and the extension of the quahaug and oyster
fisheries. Though the annual catch is greater, a disproportionately
greater amount of time, labor and capital is required to secure an
equal quantity of shellfish.

1907.

1879.

Gain.

Production (bushels),

562,691

264,818

297,273

Men,

2,912

910

2,002

$502,857

$165000

$337 857

Area (acres), .......

66,501

66,501

The following instances illustrate specific decline in the various nat-
ural shellfisheries : —

(1) Oyster industry, natural beds: Wareham, Marion, Bourne, Well-
fleet, Charles River.

22 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

(2) Sea clam industry: Dennis, Chatham, Nantucket.

(3) Scallop industry: Buzzards Bay and north side of Cape Cod
(Barnstable).

(4) Clam industry: Essex, Plymouth, Duxbury, Buzzards Bay, An-
nisquam, Wellfleet, Nantucket.

(5) Quahaug industry: Chatham, Buzzards Bay, Fall River district.
These are only a few of the more prominent cases. Similar cases will

be found all along the coast of Massachusetts, and no one can deny
that the natural supply is rapidly becoming exhausted, and that methods
are needed to increase the production, or at least to save the little that
remains. t

B. Causes of the Decline.

I. An Increasing Demand. — The indirect cause of the decline of the
shellfisheries is the increased demand. To-day more shellfish are con-
sumed than ever before, and the demand is much greater each succeeding
year. It is an economic principle that there must be an equilibrium be-
tween supply and demand. If the demand is increasing, either the sup-
ply has to increase to meet the demand, or the price of the commodity
goes up and a new equilibrium is established. The supply must equal
the demand of the market. This increasing demand has worked havoc
with the shellfisheries. There was a time when the natural supply was
of such abundance that the moderate demand of those early days could
be met without injury to the fishery. Soon this limit was passed, and
with a steadily increasing demand came a corresponding drain on the
natural resources, which little by little started a decline, the result of
which is to-day apparent.

The ill-advised policy of the past has been to check the demand by
various devices, such as closed seasons, limited daily production, etc.
These not only have proved without benefit to the fisherman, but also
have hurt the consumer by the increased price. The demand can be
checked by raising the price, but this tends towards a class distinction
between the rich and the poor. The poor man should be able to enjoy
" the bounties of the sea " as well as the rich. The policy of the future
should be not to check the demand, but rather to increase the supply.

Several causes contribute to this demand, which has unlimited possi-
bilities of expansion : —

(1) The popularity of shellfish as an article of diet is steadily in-
creasing, not merely for its nutritive value, but for variety and change
in diet. Fashionable fads, i.e., the " little neck " of the restaurants and
hotels, contribute to the popularity of these shellfish.

(2) In the present age, transportation facilities and cold storage
make possible shipments to all parts of the United States, and continu-
ally widen the market for sea foods.

(3) The influx of summer people to the seashore not only causes an
additional summer demand, but also widens the popular knowledge of
these edible mollusks.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 23

(4) Advertising and more attractive methods of preserving and
selling sea food by the dealers still further increase the demand.

II. Overfishing. — The immediate and direct cause of the decline is
overfishing. Increased demand causes a severe drain upon the shellfish
beds, which soon leads to overfishing. It is not merely the hard working
of the beds, but the continuous unmethodical and indiscriminate fishing
which has caused the total extermination of once flourishing beds in cer-
tain localities. Under present methods a bed is worked until all its
natural recuperatory power is exhausted, and then it is thrust aside as
worthless, a barren area. Prof. Jacob Reighard, in " Methods of
Plankton Investigation in their Relation to Practical Problems," * aptly
sums up the situation in his opening paragraph : —

In this country the fisherman as a rule continues to fish in any locality
until fishing in that locality has become unprofitable. He then moves his
operations to new waters until these in turn are exhausted. He is apt to
look upon each new body of water as inexhaustible, and rarely has occasion
to ask himself whether it is possible to determine in advance the amount of
fish that he may annually take from the water without soon depleting it.

In this way the shellfish beds have become exhausted through the in-
difference and lack of knowledge on the part of the fishing public. In
colonial days the resources of the shellfisheries were apparently inex-
haustible. The conviction that man could ever exhaust the resources
of nature took firm hold of the Puritan mind, and even in the present
generation many still cling to this illogical doctrine, although proof to
the contrary can be seen on all sides. This idea has caused great harm
to the shellfisheries, stimulating men to wreck certain localities by over-
fishing.

III. Pollution of Harbors and Estuaries and the III Effects upon
Public Health through the Shellfisheries. — The unscientific disposal of
sewage, sludge, garbage and factory waste may tend to rapidly fill up
the harbor channels, as well as the areas where the currents are not so
rapid.

Competent authorities scout the idea that Boston harbor is 'at present
filling up to any considerable degree with sewage sludge, but the prob-
lem must be met in the not distant future. This sewage sludge upon
entering salt or brackish water precipitates much more rapidly than in
fresh water or upon land, and becomes relatively insoluble, hence the
accumulation in harbors, e.g., Boston and New Bedford harbors and
the estuaries of the Merrimac, Taunton and other rivers. This sludge,
instead of undergoing the normal rapid oxidation and nitrification, as it
does when exposed to the air on land, undergoes in the sea water a
series of changes, mainly putrefactive, which results in the production
of chemical substances which in solution may (1) drive away the fish

1 Unitei States Fish Commission Pamphlet, 1898.

24 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

which in incredible quantities formerly resorted to that place; (2)
impair the vitality and even kill whatever fish spawn or fry may be
present; (3) check the growth of or completely destroy the microscopic
plants and animals which serve as food for the young fish and shellfish ;
(4) by developing areas of oily film floating upon the surface of the
water, enormous numbers of the surface-swimming Iarva3 of clams,
quahaugs, scallops, oysters, mussels and other marine animals may be
destroyed annually. But most serious of all is the fact that all the
edible mollusks, notably the clam, quahaug, oyster and mussel, act as
living filters, whose function is to remove from the water the bacteria
and other microscopic plants and animals. Most of these microscopic
organisms serve as food for the mollusk ; and in instances where the mol-
lusk is eaten raw or imperfectly cooked, man is liable to infection, if the
bacillus of typhoid fever or other disease chances to be present in the
mollusk. Though the chance of such infection is remote, it is neverthe-
less actually operative. Many typhoid epidemics in this country and
abroad have been found to be directly referable to shellfish from sew-
age-polluted waters. For these reasons approximately 1,500 acres in
Boston harbor and 700 acres in New Bedford harbor have become un-
suitable for the growth of shellfish; and the State Board of Health,
after investigation, decided that clams, oysters and quahaugs found
within these areas are likely to be the direct cause of a dangerous epi-
demic of typhoid. For this reason the taking of these shellfish for any
purpose was very properly prohibited; but at the last session of the
Legislature a bill was passed which permitted the taking of such shellfish
for bait, upon securing permits from the Board of Health, and provid-
ing heavy penalties for both buying and selling. As a matter of fact,
however, it is well-nigh impracticable to properly enforce this law, for
the reason that it is possible only in very rare instances to keep any one
lot of clams known to have been dug under these conditions under sur-
veillance from the time of digging until they are placed upon the hook
as bait. Complete prevention of the taking of such shellfish is the only
method by which the public health can be properly safeguarded. Even
though in our opinion the annual financial loss to the public from the
destruction of this public fishery by the dumping of city sewage into the
water is not less than $400,000, the public health is of greater
consequence, and should not be jeopardized, as is the fact under present
conditions. Until such a time as the public realize that economic dis-
posal of sewage must take place on land rather than in water, laws
absolutely preventing any contact with the infected shellfish should be
enforced without exception. In instances like these it is greatly to be
deplored that but rarely under our system of 'government can legisla-
tion, which the best knowledge and common-sense demand for the public
weal, be passed in its adequate and beneficial entirety, but is so fre-
quently emasculated in the selfish interests of a few persons.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 25

IV. Natural Agencies. — Th,e above causes are given as they are
obviously important, but by no means are they to be considered the only
reasons. Geographic and climatic changes often explain the extinction
of shellfish in certain localities.

THE PRESENT ABUSES OF THE SHELLFISHERIES.

Not only has this survey shown by specific examples the alarming but
actual decline of the natural shellfish supply (in spite of deceptive pro-
duction statistics), but it has brought to light numerous evils of various
kinds. These abuses have 'developed gradually with the rise of the
shellfisheries, until at the present day they cannot be overlooked or con-
sidered unimportant. So closely are these connected with the present
status of our shellfishery that upon their abolition depends its future
success or failure. Some need immediate attention; others will require
attention later. After a thorough and competent investigation, reme-
dies for the correction of each evil should be applied.

In the future Massachusetts will have to utilize all her wealth of
natural resources, to keep her leading position among the -other States
of the Union. To do this she should turn to her sea fisheries,
which have in the past made her rich, and hold forth prospects of
greater wealth in the future. Untold possibilities of wealth rest with
her shellfisheries, if obsolete methods and traditions can be cast aside.
In any age of progress the ancient and worthless must be buried be-
neath the ruins of the past, while the newer and better take their place.
There is no more flagrant example of obsolete methods and traditions
holding in check the development of an industry than with the shell-
fisheries, and it is time that Massachusetts realized these limitations.

The shellfisheries of Massachusetts are in a chaotic state, both legally
and economically. The finest natural facilities are wasted, and thou-
sands of acres of profitable flats are allowed to lie barren merely for a
lack of initiative on the part of the general public. This chaotic and
unproductive state will exist until both the consumer and the fishermen
alike understand the true condition of affairs, and realize that in the
bays, estuaries and flats of Massachusetts lies as much or more wealth,
acre for acre, as in the most productive market gardens.

In Rhode Island the clam and scallop fisheries have almost disap-
peared. Five or ten years from now the shellfisheries of Massachusetts
will be in a similar condition, and beyond remedy. Now is the time for
reform. The solution of the problem is simple. Shellfish farming is the
only possible way in which Massachusetts can restore her natural supply
to its former abundance.

I. The Shellfish Laws. — The first evils which demand attention are
the existing shellfish laws. While these are supposed to wisely regulate
the shellfisheries, in reality they do more harm than good, and are
direct obstacles to any movement toward improving the natural re-

26 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

sources. Before Massachusetts can take any steps toward cultivating
her unproductive shellfish areas, it will be necessary to modify the worst
of these laws.

A. Fishery Rights of the Public. — The fundamental principle
upon which the shellfish laws of the State are founded is the so-called
beach or free fishing rights of the public. While in other States prop-
erty extends only to mean high water, in Massachusetts the property
holders own to extreme low-water mark. Nevertheless, according to
further provisions of this ancient law, the right of fishing (which in-
cludes the shellfisheries) below high-water m'ark is free to any inhabitant
of the Commonwealth.

(1) Origin. — The first authentic record of this law is found under
an act of Massachusetts, in 1641-47, by which every householder was
allowed " free fishing and fowling " in any of the great ponds, bays,
coves and rivers, as far " as the sea ebbs and flows," in their respective
towns, unless " the freemen " or the General Court " had otherwise
appropriated them." From this date the shellfisheries were declared
to be forever the property of the whole people, i.e., the State, and have
been for a long period open to any inhabitant of the State who wished
to dig the shellfish for food or for bait.

(2) Early Benefits. — In the early days, when the natural supply
was apparently inexhaustible and practically the entire population re-
sided on or near the seacoast, it was just that all people should have
common rights to the shore fisheries. As long as the natural supply
was more than sufficient for the demand, no law could have been better
adapted for the public good.

(3) Present Inadequacy. — Two hundred and fifty years have passed
since this law was first made. The condition of the shellfisheries has
changed. No longer do the flats of Massachusetts yield the enormous
harvest of former years, but lie barren and unproductive. The law
which once was a benefit to all has now become antiquated, and incapable
of meeting the new conditions.

(4) Evil Effects. — If this law were merely antiquated, it could be
laid aside unnoticed. On the contrary, as applied to the present con-
ditions of the shellfisheries it not only checks any advancement, but
works positive harm. From the mistaken comprehension of the so-called
beach rights of the people, the general public throughout the State is
forced to pay an exorbitant price for sea food, and the enterprising
fishermen are deprived of a more profitable livelihood. The present
law discriminates against the progressive majority of fishermen in
order to benefit a small unprogressive element.

(5) Protection. — If shellfish farming is ever to be put on a paying
basis, it is essential that the planter have absolute protection. No man
is willing to invest capital and labor when protection cannot be guaran-
teed. What good does it do a man to plant a hundred bushels of
clams, if the next person has a legal right to dig them? Since the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 27

law absolutely refuses any protection to the shellfish culturist, Massa-
chusetts can never restock her barren flats and re-establish her shell-
fisheries until this law is modified to meet the changed conditions.

(6) Who are the Objectors? Objectors to any new system are al-
ways found, and are not lacking in the case of shellfish culture. These
would immediately raise the cry that the public is being deprived of
its rights. To-day the public has fewer rights than ever. The present
law causes class distinctions, and a few are benefited at the expense of
the public. The industrious fisherman suffers because a few of the
worthless, unenterprising class, who have no energy, do not wish others
to succeed where they cannot. In every seacoast town in Massachusetts
the more enlightened fishermen see clearly that the only way to preserve
the shellfisheries is to cultivate the barren areas.

Hon. B. F. "Wood, in his report of the shellfisheries of New York, in
1906, clearly states the case.1

There is, unfortunately, in some of the towns and villages upon our coast
an unprogressive element, composed of those who prefer to reap where they
have not sown ; who rely upon what they term their " natural right " to rake
where they may choose in the public waters. They deplete, but do not build
up. They think because it may be possible to go out upon the waters for a
few hours in the twenty-four (when the tide serves) and dig a half peck of
shellfish, that it is sufficient reason why such lands should not be leased by
the State to private planters. It might as well be said that it is wrong for
the government to grant homestead farms to settlers, because a few black-
berries might be plucked upon the lands by any who cared to look for them.

The following is taken from the report of the Massachusetts Com-
missioners on Fisheries and Game for 1906 : 3 —

There are at least four distinct classes within our Commonwealth, each
of which either derive direct benefits from the mollusk fisheries of our
coast, or are indirectly benefited by the products of the flats: —

(1) The general public, — the consumers, who ultimately pay the cost,
who may either buy the joint product of the labor and capital invested
in taking and distributing the shellfish from either natural or artificial
beds, or who may dig shellfish for food or bait purposes for their own
or family use.

(2) The capitalist, who seeks a productive investment for money or
brains, or both. Under present laws, such are practically restricted to
distribution of shellfish, except in the case of the oyster, where capital may
be employed for production as well, — an obvious advantage both to capi-
tal and to the public.

(3) The fishermen, who, either as a permanent or temporary vocation,
market the natural yield of the waters; or, as in the case of the shellfish-
eries, may with a little capital increase the natural yield and availability by
cultivating an area of the tidal flats after the manner of a garden.

1 New York Shellfish Report, p. 7. 2 Report on the Shellfisheries, pp. 33-35.

28 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

(4) The owners of the land adjacent to the flats, who are under the pres-
ent laws often subjected to loss or annoyance, or even positive discomfort,
by inability to safeguard their proper rights to a certain degree of freedom
from intruders and from damage to bathing or boating facilities, which
constitute a definite portion of the value of shore property.

All of these classes would be directly benefited by just laws, which would
encourage and safeguard all well-advised projects for artificial cultivation
of the tidal flats, and would deal justly and intelligently with the various
coincident and conflicting rights of the fishermen, owners of shore prop-
erty, bathers and other seekers of pleasure, recreation or profit, boatmen,
and all others who hold public and private rights and concessions.

That any one class should claim exclusive "natural valid rights," over
any other class, to the shellfish products of the shores, which the law states
expressly are the property of " the people," is as absurd as to claim that any
class had exclusive natural rights to wild strawberries, raspberries, cran-
berries or other wild fruits, and that therefore the land upon which these
grew could not be used for the purpose of increasing the yield of these
fruits. This becomes the more absurd from the fact that the wild fruits
pass to the owner of the title of the land, while the shellfish are specifically
exempted, and remain the property of the public.

The class most benefited by improved laws would be the fishermen, who
would profit by better wages through the increased quantity of shellfish they
could dig per hour, by a better market and by better prices, for the reason
that the control of the output would secure regularity of supply. More-
over, when the market was unfavorable the shellfish could be kept in the
beds with a reasonable certainty of finding them there when wanted, and
with the added advantage of an increased volume by growth during the
interval, together with the avoidance of cold-storage charges. Thus the dig-
gers could be certain of securing a supply at almost any stage of the
tide and in all but the most inclement weather, through a knowledge of
" where to dig ; " moreover, there would be a complete elimination of the
reasoning which is now so prolific of ill feelings and so wasteful of the
shellfish, viz., the incentive of " getting there ahead of the other fellow."

B. All the shellfish laws should be revised, to secure a unity and
clearness which should render graft, unfairness and avoidable economic
loss impossible, and be replaced with a code of fair, intelligent
and forceful laws, which would not only permit the advancement of the
shellfish industry through the individual efforts of the progressive shell-
fishermen, but also protect the rights of the general public.

C. The majority of the shellfish laws of the State are enacted by
the individual towns. In 1880 the State first officially granted to each
town the exclusive right to control and regulate its own shellfisheries,
as provided under section 68 of chapter 91 of the Public Statutes. This
was slightly modified by the Acts of 1889 and 1892 to read as fol-
lows (now section 85 of chapter 91 of the Revised Laws) : —

SECTION 85. The mayor and aldermen of cities and the selectmen of
towns, if so instructed by their cities and towns, may, except as provided in

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 29

the two preceding sections, control, regulate or prohibit the taking of eels,
clams, quahaugs and scallops within the same; and may grant permits pre-
scribing the times and methods of taking eels and such shellfish within such
cities and towns and make such other regulations in regard to said fisheries
as they may deem expedient. But an inhabitant of the commonwealth, with-
out such permit, may take eels and the shellfish above-named for his own
family use from the waters of his own or any other city or town, and may
take from the waters of his own city or town any of such shellfish for bait,
not exceeding three bushels, including shells, in any one day, subject to the
general rules of the mayor and aldermen and selectmen, respectively, as to
the times and methods of taking such fish. The provisions of this section
shall not authorize the taking of fish in violation of the provisions of sec-
tions forty-four and forty-five. Whoever takes any eels or any of said
shellfish without such permit, and in violation of the provisions of this sec-
tion, shall forfeit not less than three nor more than fifty dollars.

Responsibility has thus been transferred from the State to the towns,
and they alone, through their incompetence and neglect, are to blame
for the decline of the shellfisheries. The town laws are miniature copies
of the worst features of the State laws. While a few towns have suc-
ceeded in enacting fairly good laws, the majority have either passed no
shellfish regulations at all, or made matters worse by unintelligent and
harmful laws. It is time that a unified system of competent by-laws
were enacted and enforced in every town.

The ill-advised features which characterize the present town laws are
numerous, and are best considered under the following headings : —

(1) Unintelligent Laws. — One of the worst features of our town
shellfish laws is their extreme unfitness. Numerous laws which are ab-
solutely useless for the regulation and improvement of these industries
have been made by towns, through men who knew nothing about the
shellfisheries. These laws were made without any regard for the prac-
tical or biological conditions underlying the shellfish industry. It is to
be expected that laws from such a source would often be ill-advised
and unintelligent, but under the present system it cannot be avoided.
Until sufficient knowledge of the habits and growth of shellfish is ac-
quired by the authorities of State and town, Massachusetts can never
expect to have intelligent and profitable shellfish laws. While the ma-
jority of these unintelligent laws do no harm, there are some that work
hawlship to the fishermen and are an injury to the shellfisheries.

(2) Unfairness; Town Politics. — Town politics offers many chances
for unscrupulous discrimination in the shellfish laws. Here we find one
class of fishermen benefiting by legislation at the expense of the other,
as in the case of the quahaugers v. oystermen. In one town the oyster-
men will have the upper hand; in another, the quahaugers. In every
case there is unfair discrimination, and a resultant financial loss to
both parties. The waters of Massachusetts are large enough for both

30 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

industries, and every man should have a " square deal/' which is fre-
quently lacking under the present regime.

Besides party discrimination, there is discrimination against certain
individuals, as illustrated in giving oyster grants. Town politics plays a
distressing part here. Favoritism is repeatedly shown, and unfairness
results. All this shows the unpopularity and impracticability of such
regulations and the method of making them.

(3) Present Chaotic State. — The present town laws are in a chaotic
condition, which it is almost impossible to simplify. No one knows
the laws, there is merely a vague impression that such have existed.
Even the selectmen themselves, often new to the office and unacquainted
with the shellfisheries, know little about the accumulated shellfish laws
of the past years, and find it impossible to comprehend them. The only
remedy is to wipe out all the old and replace them with unified new
laws.

(4) Unsystematic Laws. — The present laws are unsystematized.
Each town has its own methods, good and bad, and the result is a
heterogeneous mixture. Often there are two or three laws where one
would definitely serve. To do absolute justice there should be a definite
system, with laws elastic enough to satisfy the needs of all.

(5) Nonen for cement. — The worst feature of allowing town control of
the shellfisheries is the nonenf orcement of the laws already passed. We
find in many towns that good by-laws have been made, but from inat-
tention and lack of money these have never been enforced and have
become practically nonexistent. The l^-inch quahaug law of several
towns is an instance of this. In but one town in the State, Edgartown,
is any effort made to enforce this excellent town by-law, although sev-
eral of the other towns have passed the same. The proper enforcement
of laws is as important as the making, as a law might as well not be
made if not properly enforced. The only way that this can be remedied
is either to take the control completely out of the hands of the town, or
else have a supervisory body which would force the town to look after
violators.

Besides the town by-laws there are other evils which result from the
present system of town control.

II. Lack of Protection in Oyster Industry. — In no case is the man-
agement by towns more inefficient and confusing than in the case of
the oyster industry. As this subject will be taken up in the oyster re-
port which follows, it is only necessary here to state that there is great
need of a proper survey of grants, fair laws, systematic methods, etc.
Protection is necessary for the success of any industry, and is especially
needed for the oyster industry. The oyster industry of Massachusetts
will never become important until adequate protection is guaranteed to
the planters. Under the present system, uncertainty rather than pro-
tection is the result.

III. Town Jealousy. — The evil of town jealousy, whereby one

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 31

town forbids its shellfisheries to the inhabitant of neighboring towns,
is to-day an important factor. It is fair that a town which improves
its own shellfisheries should not be interfered with by a town which
has allowed its shellfisheries to decline. While this is true perhaps
of the clam, quahaug and oyster, it does not hold true of the scallop.
The result of this close-fisted policy has resulted in the past in a great
loss in the scallop industry. The town law in regard to scallops is all
wrong. The scallop fisheries should be open to all the State, and no
one town should " hog the fishing," and leave thousands of bushels to
die from their dog-in-the-manger attitude.

IV. Sectional Jealousy. — Another evil, which in the past has been
prominent, but is becoming less and less as the years go by, is the
jealousy of the north shore v. the south shore, Cape Cod v. Cape Ann.
In the past this has been a stumbling block against any advance, as any
plan initiated on the south shore would be opposed from sheer prejudice
by the north shore representatives, and vice versa. The cry of " entering
wedge " has been raised again and again whenever any bill was intro-
duced for the good of the shellfisheries by either party. Merely for
political reasons good legislation has been defeated. However, the last
few years have shown a decided change. The jealous feeling has in a
large measure subsided; the shellfisheries need intelligent consideration,
and all parties realize that united effort is necessary to insure the future
of these industries.

V. Quahaugers v. Oystermen. — On the south shore the worst evil
which at present exists is the interclass rivalry between the quahaugers
and oystermen. This has caused much harm to both parties, through
expensive lawsuits, economic loss, uncertainty of a livelihood, as well as
retarding the proper development of both industries.

VI. Waste of Competition. — At the present day the utilization of
waste products in all industries is becoming more and more important.
In this age material which was considered useless by our forefathers
is made to play its part in the economic world. Through science indus-
trial waste of competition is being gradually reduced to a minimum,
although in any business which deals with perishable commodities, such
as fish, fruit, etc., there is bound to be a certain amount of loss.

Under the present system the shellfisheries suffer from the effects of
waste resulting from competition. Both the fisherman and the con-
sumer feel the effects of this, in different ways, — the fisherman through
poor market returns, the consumer through poor service. As long as
the shellfisheries are free to all, there is bound to be that scramble to
get ahead of " the other fellow," which not only results in the destruc-
tive waste of the actual catch, but also causes a " glutted " market,
which gives a low return to the fisherman. Thousands of dollars are
thus lost each year by the fishermen, who are forced to keep shipping
their shellfish, often to perish in the market, merely because the present
system invites ruthless competition. The fishermen in this respect alone

32 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

should be the first to desire a new system, which would give to each a
shellfish farm and the privilege of selecting his market.

VII. At the present moment there are two evils which demand
attention, and which can be lessened by the passage of two simple
laws : —

(1) During the past three years many thousands of bushels of
quahaugs under 1% inches have been shipped out of the State, merely
passing into the hands of New York oystermen, who replanted, reaping
in one year a harvest of at least five bushels to every one "bedded."
Through the inactivity of town control, the incentive to get ahead of
the other fellow and the ignorance that they are wasting their own
substance have caused many quahaugers in the past to do this at many
places.

The IMj-ineh quahaug law has been for years a law for many towns
in the State. It has been practically a dead letter in all but Edgartown,
where it is enforced thoroughly. There should be a State law restrict-
ing the size of the quahaugs taken.

(2) The enforcement of a IV^-nich clam law, especially in the towns
of Fall River and Swansea, where the digging has reduced the clams
to a small size, likewise deserves immediate attention.

All the present evils have each contributed their share toward the
ruin of the shellfisheries, and can be best summed up under one head,
i.e., the abuse of nature. All the above evils have either directly or
indirectly worked towards this end. This " abuse of nature " has re-
sulted in several ways: (1) indiscriminate fishing, restricted by no laws,
augmented by unwise laws; (2) overfishing in certain localities until
the supply is exhausted, as, among other instances, with the Essex
clam flats and the natural oyster beds of the Weweantit River; (3)
exploiting and wasting the natural resources, so that nature cannot
repair the inroads. Nature cannot cope with despoiling man, — man
must assist nature.

In the past there has been much feeling, especially among the clam-
mers of the north shore, against the Fish and Game Commission. It
therefore is necessary to correct a mistaken impression, which has
arisen among the clammers, that " the State is going to take the clam
flats away from us." This idea is on the face of it absurd. The Massa-
chusetts Fish and Game Commission is seeking only to have this question
solved in such a manner as to yield the most satisfactory results for
the public good. At the present time it would be highly undesirable to
take the complete control of the shellfisheries from any town, as long as
that town shows itself capable of regulating them wisely. At the pres-
ent day but few towns show any signs of this. What is necessary and
desirable is to have an intelligent supervisory body, with power to com-
pel each town to take proper care of its shellfisheries. It is advisable
that there be a central power, co-operating with the town control in all

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 33

matters pertaining to the shellfisheries, whether it be regulations or the
restocking of barren areas. A board of arbitration, a committee of
appeal for any grievance under the town control, and a commission
that would act for the interests of the whole State, are what is most
desirable at the present time. Such an arrangement would not be
changing radically the present system of town control, but it would
free it from its existing evils, place it on a firm and just basis, and give
the shellfisheries a chance for improvement.

THE FISHERMAN AND LAWS.

The fisherman of to-day, though nominally his own master, is in
reality subject to the demands of the market. To gain a living he is
forced to work in all kinds of weather, at cold, disagreeable work.
Under the present system he is oppressed by useless special town laws,
which merely increase his daily labors without benefiting the fishery in
the least. A few good laws only are necessary for the shellfisheries. It
is time that the fisherman, one of the great factors in the commercial
supremacy of Massachusetts, should be freed from all unnecessary
burdens through a new system of satisfactory laws.

THE REMEDY.

In spite of all the existing evils of the town shellfisheries, the outlook
is far from hopeless. To-day the shellfisheries of Massachusetts, owing
to great natural resources, are as good or better than those of any
other coast States, and only await development under proper methods
to ensure a bright future. The Commissioners on Fisheries and Game
can only point the way of reform; the result lies in the hands of the
intelligent voters of this Commonwealth, whose action decides the
future success or failure of the shellfisheries. It should be the object
of every thinking voter, whether he be fisherman or consumer, to see
that the right action be taken in regard to the shellfisheries.

As shown in the preceding pages of this report, the attempted remedy
has been based upon the false economic basis of attempting to check
the demand by prohibiting digging for certain periods (closed seasons),
limiting the amount to be legally dug by any one person, etc. It would
be quite as logical for a town or city to prohibit by by-laws the use or
digging of potatoes or any other food crop, when the supply was short,
rather than to attempt to increase the supply. An increasing demand
cannot be checked by any such ill-advised measures, but can be met only
by a corresponding increase in the natural production. The only rem-
edy that can be applied successfully is shellfish culture, which means
the utilizing of thousands of acres of barren shore area for the planting
of farms which will furnish harvests of shellfish. In this way the
latent potentialities of nature, which it is criminal to neglect, will be
utilized for the good of the entire population of the State.

34 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

We learn from the dictionaries that a farm is denned to be a tract of
land under one control, devoted to agriculture, etc.; and that agriculture is
the cultivation of the soil for food products or other useful or valuable
growths. All this is very familiar knowledge, as applied to the dry land;
but that there may fairly be brought within these definitions the operations
of an industry in which lands covered by the salt waters of our bays and
harbors are tilled, cultivated, raked, harrowed and planted with seedling
bivalves, and harvests of a valuable product garnered, constituting a superb
food for the masses, is less familiar, and to many may seem quite astonish-
ing. It is within a comparatively few years that this unique style of farm-
ing has had its growth and development, until now many thousands of acres
of land under water have been carefully surveyed, and the boundaries
marked by buoys and stakes.1

To bring the shellfisheries of Massachusetts to their maximum pro-
duction will take years, but within five years the production can be
nearly doubled, if work in the right direction is begun at once. Pa-
tience will be required to overcome the obstacles which must be met,
and the change must necessarily be gradual.

Every year the difficulties of reform increase. Owing to a steadily
increasing demand, the natural supply is becoming smaller, and con-
sequently the difficulty of increasing it becomes so much the harder.
Soon the line of possibility will be crossed, and the shellfisheries will
become an industry of the past. A few shellfish will always remain,
but as an important industry, the shellfisheries, if no remedy is ap-
plied, in twenty-five years will be commercially extinct. While there is
still time, let action be taken.

The utilization of the barren shellfish areas, wise laws, good regula-
tions and systematic methods of culture are necessary, in order to
obtain the maximum production from these sea farms. The sea farm
possesses one advantage over the ordinary farm, — the soil never be-
comes exhausted, as the shellfish derive their sustenance from the
water, utilizing indirectly the waste nitrates of the land. To do this it
is necessary that shellfish culture be at once begun, either by indi-
viduals or by towns.

Three methods of shellfish culture offer ways of approach towards
the utilization of the waste areas : —

(1) To leave the matter wholly in the hands of the town. This is
the poorest way, as has been shown in the past. Unless the town offi-
cials were well informed about the shellfisheries, it would be an absurd
farce to entrust the future of this important industry wholly in their
hands.

(2) Place all power with the State, instead of with the town.
Have a unified and simplified system, whereby shellfish farms and
grants can be leased by the individuals. This plan, much better than

* Forest, Fish and Game Commission Bulletin, Shellfish Culture in New York, 1905. By
B. Frank Wood.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 35

the first, and possibly the final solution, is, however, not practical of
application to the existing conditions. Later, when these conditions
are removed, it may prove the best solution of the problem.

(3) The present system of town control to remain. The appoint-
ment of the Fish and Game Commission, or a similar commission, to
have complete advisory power over the towns, and power to force each
town to properly protect its shellfish. A State law would be passed,
legalizing grants to individuals and dividing the flats into two equal
parts, — public and private. The leasing of grants would be in the
hands of the town authorities, but subject to appeal for any grievance
to the Fish and Game Commission.

In the chapter relating to each shellfish will be given the practical
methods of cultivation for reclaiming the waste areas. These methods
have been proved by the experimental work of this commission, the
results of which may be published in a subsequent scientific report upon
the shellfish. The commission has definitely shown that shellfish culture
in Massachusetts is a possibility, and, moreover, a remunerative pos-
sibility.

WHO WOULD BENEFIT?

(1) Under the proposed system of practical shellfish culture, many
classes of people would be benefited. The person who would be pri-
marily benefited is the fisherman. In the following ways the condition of
the industrious fisherman would be bettered: (a) his work would be
steady, not uncertain; (b) he would know his exact annual income, and
could govern his living expenses accordingly; (c) he would receive more
money, with less hardship; (d) he would ensure steady market returns,
which under the present system are very uncertain; (e) he would be his
own master, and not forced to work for poor pay, under the stress of
wasteful competition.

(2) The shellfisheries are not for any particular class, but should ben-
efit all, and any improvement in the industry affects all people. A sec-
ond class would also be benefited by an increase in the shellfish
industries. This class can be divided into two groups: (a) those directly
influenced; (b) those indirectly. In the first group are the middlemen,
— dealers. By an increased trade, more firms enter the business, more
men are hired, etc. Comprising the second group are teamsters, coopers,
shop owners, sailors, transportation lines, — an indefinite list, which
would be indirectly benefited by an increase in the shellfish industry.

(3) Thirdly, the consumer would receive the benefit of improved
quality of goods, reasonable prices, etc. Through increased trans-
portation facilities the inland consumer would have the pleasure of
partaking of sea food, and what were once the luxuries of the rich could
be had by all.

36 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

CAPITAL.

Capital is needed for the best success of any business. In a broad
sense, the tools, implements, etc., of the shellfisherman are capital. In
the future, if the shellfisheries are to become a great industry, money
as working capital is indispensable. Blind objection to the employ-
ment of capital on the part of the fishermen works against the best
interests of the shellfisheries.

SHELLFISH MONOPOLY.

For years the fishermen have feared that the shellfisheries would fall
into the hands of a few companies or trusts, and the individual fisher-
man thereby lose his independence. As the present age tends toward
the formation of monopolies in all business, the fears of the fishermen
are not altogether groundless in this respect; nevertheless, while there
are certain chances of monopoly in the shellfisheries, these chances are
very small. In the first place, a monopoly of a raw edible product,
such as shellfish, is hardly possible. Never can it be possible for any
one company to control all or the majority of a shellfish supply, which
possesses unlimited possibilities of expansion.

Secondly, there are but two ways in which a monopoly of the shell-
fisheries can be obtained: one is the control of the market by buying
up all the shellfish, — a thing far easier under the present conditions ;
the other, by buying through contract the rights of the individual
planters. The success of such an enterprise would depend wholly
upon the personnel of the shellfishermen, and such a result could never
become possible if each shellfisherman would refuse to sell his rights.

SUMMARY.

This survey has shown (1) that the shellfisheries have declined (an
established fact) ; (2) that the causes of the decline are overfishing
and unwise laws; (3) that the remedy is, not to check the demand, as
has been previously attempted, but to increase the production by the
utilization of vast areas of barren flats, which have been experimentally
proved capable of yielding a great harvest; (4) that the present
chaotic laws render this impossible; (5) that there is a nee"d of reform,
or else the shellfisheries will soon disappear; (6) that the first step is
the removal of these laws to permit the application of proper cultural
methods.

QUAHAUG (Venus mercenaria).

Inhabiting common waters with the scallop, the northern range of
the quahaug (the hard-shell clam or " little neck ") in Massachusetts is
Plymouth. Commercially it is found both on the north and south
side of Cape Cod and in Buzzards Bay, the principal fisheries
being at Wellfleet, Orleans, Edgartown, Nantucket and in Buzzards Bay.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 37

The quahaug, while essentially a southern and warm-water form,
being found in the United States along the Atlantic seacoast as far
south as the Gulf of Mexico, practically reaches its northern range in
Massachusetts. In a few sheltered bays on the Maine coast quahaugs
are sometimes found, but in small quantities. However, at Prince
Edward Island there is said to be an abundance.

Along the coast of Massachusetts north of Boston very few quahaugs
are found, although they were formerly taken near Salem. The black
quahaug (Cyprina islandica), so called from its dark epidermis, is often
caught in the trawls, but this is a deep-sea form, and by no means a
true quahaug. In Essex and Ipswich rivers and on Plum Island ex-
perimental beds have shown that quahaugs grow in these waters, but no
spawn has yet been noticed, though ripe eggs were developed in the
planted quahaugs. Owing to the swift currents, which carry the
spawn perhaps for miles, it is impossible to determine accurately
whether any set has taken place.

During the past three years, as outlined by chapter 78, Resolves of
1905, the Fish and Game Commission has conducted a series of experi-
ments upon the quahaug, designated to furnish sufficient data concerning
the growth of this mollusk under a variety of conditions, to demonstrate
the possibilities and value of practical quahaug farming. The results of
these investigations upon the life, habits and culture of the quahaug
are to be published in a later scientific report. It is necessary here to
say that all statements in this report concerning the growth and culture
of quahaugs have been proved by experiments, the results of which are
on file at the office of the department of fisheries and game.

It is the object of this report to present both to the fishermen and
consumers (1) actual statistical figures of the industry of the State for
1907; (2) a biological survey of the quahauging areas, outlined by
maps and descriptions; (3) a description of the industry. This survey
should furnish a basis for determining any decline or advance in the
quahaug industry of the future, as well as affording comparison with
the United States Fish Commission survey of 1879, made by Ernest
Ingersoll.

Massachusetts, situated at the northern limit of the quahaug industry
of the United States, is handicapped in comparison with other States,
as only the southern waters of the State are given to this industry.
Nevertheless, though possessing only a partial industry, Massachusetts
ranks the fourth State in quahaug production, according to the 1906
report of the United States Fish Commission.

The same natural conditions which suit so well the shallow-water
scallop are also adapted to the growth of the quahaug. In nearly all
the sheltered bays, inlets and rivers of the southern coast of Massa-
chusetts the quahaug can be found in varying abundance. Technically,
there is more territory which admits the possibility of quahaug growth
than of any other shellfish. The bathymetric range of the quahaug

38 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

is extensive, as the quahaug is raked in all depths of water up to 50
feet. In spite of .the vast territory nature has provided for the quahaug
in the waters of Massachusetts, the commercial fishery is found only
in small parts of this large area. Scattered quahaugs are found over
the rest of the area, but in paying quantities only in limited places.

The possibilities of developing this great natural tract of quahaug
ground are especially alluring, — far more so than any of the other
shellfisheries. The quahaug has a greater area, greater possible ex-
pansion and a more profitable market. Nature has equipped southern
Massachusetts with numerous bays with remarkable facilities for the
production of quahaugs; it only remains for man to make the most of
these.

Method of Work. — The method of work used in preparing this por-
tion of the report varied but little from that relating to the other shell-
fish, though several features made it harder to obtain accurate informa-
tion. There is a more general obscurity about the. history of the quahaug
than about any of the other shellfish, even though the quahaug industry
is commercially the youngest of all. This is due, perhaps, to the gradual
rise of the industry through the discovery of new territory. The only
historical record obtainable is E. Ingersoll's report on the quahaug, in
1879, in which he deals briefly with the industry in Massachusetts.
Town records help but little in determining the history of the industry,
as only of late years have the towns required the taking of permits.

In making the biological survey, the difficulty arises of defining what
constitutes quahaug ground, since scattering quahaugs are found over
vast territories, but only limited areas are commercially productive. The
estimates of the quahaugers, both historically and in regard to produc-
tion and areas, are often erroneous and vary greatly. By the use of
market reports, express shipments, estimates of dealers, estimates of
several reliable quahaugers, and all methods at our command, the facts
of the industry were compiled and errors eliminated as far as possible.
The home consumption is hard to determine, and is merely an esti-
mate. The area of the quahaug territory was plotted on the map, and
calculations made from the plots. Whenever personal inspection was
not possible, as in Falmouth, the estimates of several quahaugers were
taken.

Results.

1. 7s the Quahaug Fishery declining? — The decline of the quahaug
fishery is well recognized. Even the production figures, which, when
stimulated by high prices, usually give a deceptive appearance of pros-
perity to a declining industry, since more men enter the fishery, show
a decline in the last few years. When such a point is reached, —
when, in spite of higher prices and more men, the annual production
becomes less and less, — not many years will pass before the industry
will collapse completely.

Increased prices show either an increase in demand or a falling off

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 39

of the supply. Both are perhaps true of the quahaug industry. The
demand, especially for " little necks," has been steadily on the increase,
and a broad inland market is gradually opening, since the quahaug is
capable of long transportation without perishing. So the increased
prices are a sign of the diminution of the supply, as well as of an in-
creased demand, the undeterminal factor being what ratio the one bears
to the other.

The only way to determine accurately the decline in the natural sup-
ply is to compare the amount the average quahauger could dig ten or
twenty years ago with the amount dug to-day. Even this comparison
is unfair, as the better rakes, improved methods, etc., of the present
time tend to increase the daily yield of the quahauger.

This decline can best be shown by taking special localities : —

(1) Buzzards Bay. — The quahaug industry in Buzzards Bay has
shown a great decline in the past ten to twenty years, and the industry
is now at a low ebb, especially in the towns of Marion and Matta-
poisett. Ware^am, Bourne and Fairhaven still manage to ship about
27,000 bushels annually, employing over 200 men ; but this is hardly up
to their former standard. To-day at Wareham the daily catch per man
is one-fifth of what it was twenty years ago; in 1887 a man could dig
5 bushels to a catch of 1 bushel now. Buzzards Bay perhaps has shown
the greatest quahaug decline.

(2) South Side of Cape Cod. — While not so marked a decline has
taken place as in Buzzards Bay, every quahauger agrees that the in-
dustry is gradually failing. In Bass River, at Hyannis, and in Chat-
ham, there is a marked decrease, while at Cotuit and Osterville the
industry has remained stationary.

(3) North Side of Cape Cod. — The best quahaug fishery of Massa-
chusetts, except at Edgartown, is found on the north side of Cape Cod,
in the towns of Wellfleet, Eastham and Orleans. These three towns
give an annual yield of 75,000 bushels. Only about fifteen years old
commercially, the industry has passed its prime and is on the decline.
This decline is shown both by production figures and by the gradual
moving to deeper water. As the quahaugs were thinned out in shallow
water, the fishermen moved farther and farther out, using long rakes,
until 60-foot rakes are now used at a depth of 50 feet. Probably the
60-foot limit will never be exceeded, unless a method of dredging is
devised; and it will be only a question of years when the industry will
become extinct.

(4) Nantucket. — The industry here has generally declined, though
in the last few years there has been a slight increase in production.

(5) Edgartown. — The quahaug industry at Edgartown has declined
little, if any, while the fishery has been carried on for many years. The
natural resources have not been seriously impaired, owing to the effi-
cient town management; and Edgartown can be congratulated on being
the only town in the State that can boast of a protected industry.

40 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Although the quahaug industry has not openly shown the tendency
to decline that the soft clam has manifested in southern Massachusetts,
the danger is nevertheless very great, and the disaster would be far
worse. The fishermen of Cape Cod realize that the clam industry has
practically gone; but they are blind to the fact that a far more im-
portant one — the quahaug industry — is in as grave danger, and only
when it is too late will they wake to a realization of the situation.

The clam industry on Cape Cod and Buzzards Bay will never assume
the importance it possesses on the north shore, owing to lack of ex-
tensive flats. Rather the quahaug industry is the main shellfish industry
of the south shore, as it is more valuable, more important, and capable
of vast expansion. The development of the quahaug industry should
bring many hundred thousand dollars to Cape Cod.

II. Causes of the Decline. — The direct cause is overfishing. The
quahaug is hardy, little harmed by climatic changes, and has but few
natural enemies. Man alone has caused the decline of the natural
supply. Not satisfied with taking the mediums and ^large quahaugs,
but spurred on by the high prices offered for the " little neck," the
quahaug fisherman has cleaned up everything he can get, and the natural
supply has suffered greatly. If the market demands the capture of the
" little neck," it is necessary to leave the large quahaugs as " spawners."
At the present time, by the capture of both the industry is being ruined.

The Remedy. — Quahaug Farming.

There is only one way in which the present decline can be checked,
and that is, to increase the natural supply by cultural methods to meet
the demands of the market. The only way to accomplish this increase
is to plant and raise quahaugs, — in fact, have a system of quahaug
farming for the whole south shore of Massachusetts. In considering
quahaug farming, many questions naturally arise: (1) Is quahaug
farming an established fact, or a mere theory? (2) Possibilities of
quahaug farming. (3) What is the growth of the quahaug, and how
long does it take to raise a crop? (4) What .is the value of a quahaug
farm? (5) What benefits would the quahaug industry receive from
such a system?

(1) Quahaug Farming an Established Fact, — not a Theory. — It is
not the object of this report to go into a scientific treatise upon experi-
ments in quahaug culture. For the past three years the Commission
on Fisheries and Game has been conducting experiments upon the
growth and culture of quahaugs, the results of which will be published
in a subsequent report. These experiments have shown that quahaug
farming is no theory, but an established fact, and that, if taken up, it
will make the quahaug fishery the most important shellfish industry
of the State. These experiments, consisting of small beds one one-
thousandth of an acre in area, were located at different places along
the coast. Various conditions in regard to food, current, tide, soil, etc.,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 41

were tested. The results from nearly every bed were excellent, and
showed £he ease of culture and the great profit which would result if
larger areas were thus worked.

The results obtained from the experiments of the commission alone
are sufficient to prove the practicability of quahaug farming, even if
there were no other proofs. As it is, there have been many tests made
by the oystermen, both outside and inside the State. Some years ago
the oystermen near New York realized the possibilities of raising qua-
haugs on their oyster grants, and to-day Massachusetts ships many
barrels of " seed " quahaugs out of the State to these far-sighted busi-
ness men, who reap large returns by replanting these small " little
necks." The Massachusetts oystermen have not been slow to realize
the large returns afforded by quahaug culture, and some have planted
many bushels of the " seed," thus turning their grants into partial
quahaug farms. These men have proved that this style of farming is
practical, and that as a money-making proposition the quahaug is far
ahead of the oyster.

As affairs exist to-day in Massachusetts, a few men alone have the
privilege of raising quahaugs, while the rest stand idle. Theoretically
and legally, no one has the right to plant and raise quahaugs in the
State; but practically and secretly it is done with great success. Who
can blame the oysterman for raising quahaugs with his oysters, in
view of the fast-declining quahaug industry? Rather by so doing he
is helping perpetuate the natural supply. The objection to this pres-
ent system of secret quahaug farming is its unfairness. *A few men
are enjoying the privileges that many others should likewise enjoy.
There is plenty of room, and quahaug farming might as well be carried
on openly, to the benefit of all.

While the oystermen have made a move toward general quahaug farm-
ing, and have shown the great possibilities that this system possesses,
the quahaugers have also exhibited a tendency in a similar direction.
The originators of the town law in Eastham, Orleans and Wellfleet,
which provides for the leasing of 5,625 square feet of flat for bedding
the catch, and thus makes possible the advantage of a favorable market,
probably did not imagine that this was the first great step on the part
of the quahaugers towards shellfish farming. The success of this scheme
has here opened the eyes of the intelligent quahaugers to the even
better possibilities of quahaug culture, and any well-devised scheme
of shellfish farming will be favorably received.

The main impulse that makes people turn to quahaug culture is the
steady decline of the industry, especially during the last few years. In
the previous pages of this report there have been shown: (1) the
actuality of the decline; (2) the causes of this decline. The proof of
the decline is so generally apparent that it has created a popular de-
mand for a fair system of quahaug farming, to check the diminution
of the present supply.

42 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

(2) Possibilities of Quahaug Farming. — The quahaug has a wide
range; it is found in all depths of water, from high tide line to sixty
feet, and in various kinds of mud and sand bottom. This natural
adaptability gives the quahaug a wider area than any other shellfish,
as it will live in nearly any bottom, although the rate of growth de-
pends essentially upon its location in respect to current. This permits
the utilization of vast areas which to-day are unproductive, and which
can all be made into profitable quahaug farms. Quahaugs will grow
on thousands of acres of flats, such as the Common Flats of Chatham,
if they are planted. There are indefinite possibilities of expansion in
quahaug farming through the reclamation of this unproductive sea
bottom.

(3) Rate of Growth of Quahaug. — The rate of growth of the qua-
haug varies greatly in regard to its location in respect to the current.
The quahaugs which have the better current or circulation of water
show the faster growth. The fastest growth recorded by the experi-
ments of the Department on Fisheries and Game was a gain of 1 inch
a year; i.e., IV^-mch quahaugs attained in one year a length of 2^
inches. The average growth is between % and % inch a year, or a
yield of 3 to 5 bushels for every bushel planted, or the return in one
year of $4 for every $1 invested. In the more favorable localities there
would be the enormous gain of $8 for every dollar invested. All this
can be done in six months, as the quahaug grows only during the six
summer months. The above figures are taken from experiments which
have been conducted on Cape Cod, in Buzzards Bay and at Nantucket.

(4) Value of a Quahaug Farm. — An acre of " little-neck " quahaugs
has a high market value. A conservative estimate of 10 per square foot
gives the yield in one year of 21/^-inch quahaugs as 600 bushels per
acre: This means that 120 bushels of 1%-inch quahaugs were planted
to the acre. The price paid for the same would be $600, at the high
price of $5 per bushel. The price received for the same, at $3 per
bushel, would bring $1,800, or a gain of $3 for every $1 invested. This
is a conservative estimate on all sides. Quahaugs could be planted
two or three times as thick, seed might be purchased for less money,
more money might be received for private shipments, and faster growth
can be obtained. The only labor necessary is gathering the quahaugs
for market. The quahaug farm requires no such care as the agricul-
tural farm, and offers far more profit.

(5) Advantage of Quahaug Culture. — The quahaug is the most
remunerative of any of our shellfish. It possesses several advantages
over the oyster: (1) it is hardier, — less influenced by climatic condi-
tions; (2) it has fewer enemies, as it lies protected under the sand;
(3) it possesses a market the whole year; (4) there is more money
for the planter in raising "little necks" than in raising oysters. If
oyster culture has succeeded in Massachusetts, there is no question that,
given a proper chance, quahaug culture can be put on a firm basis, and

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 43

made the leading shellfish industry of Massachusetts. The value of
the present quahaug industry lies chiefly in the production of "little
necks." Under a cultural system of quahaug farms, this could be made
a specialty. Old quahaugs would be kept as " seeders," and " little
necks" alone raised for the market. The advantage of furnishing
" little necks " of uniform size would lead to increased prices ; steady
customers would be obtained and certainty of production guaranteed.
All the advantages lie with quahaug farming, as opposed to the present
method of " free-for-all " digging.

The quahaug industry of the future, if put on a cultural basis, will not
only check the decline of a valuable industry, but will increase the pres-
ent production many fold. A far larger supply, work for more men
and better prices for the consumer will result.

(6) Spat Collecting. — The main obstacle that stands in the way of
permanent quahaug culture is a lack of sufficient young "seed" qua-
haugs. While several heavy sets have been recorded, the " seed "
quahaugs are never found in vast quantities, as are the young of the
soft clam (Mya arenaria). The set of quahaugs is usually scattering
and slight. A method of spat collecting, i.e., catching the spawn and
raising the small quahaugs, is alone necessary for the complete success
of quahaug culture. While nothing of practical importance has yet
been found, indications are favorable that some means will be devised
in the next few years, and that quantities of young quahaugs can be
raised. Experiments have already shown that as many as 75 can be
caught per square foot in box spat collectors; but a more practical
method than this must be found to make the business profitable.

The Quahaug Industry.

Methods of Capture. — Several methods of taking quahaugs are in
vogue in Massachusetts, some simple and primitive, others more ad-
vanced and complex, but all modifications of simple raking or digging.
These methods have arisen with the development of the industry, and
record the historical changes in the quahaug fishery, as each new fishery
or separate locality demands some modification of the usual methods.

(1) "Treading." — The early settlers in Massachusetts quickly
learned from the Indians the primitive method of " treading " quahaugs,
which required no implements except the hands and feet. The " treader "
catches the quahaug by wading about in the water, feeling for them
with his toes in the soft mud, and then picking them up by hand. No-
where in Massachusetts is it used as a method of commercial fishery.

(2) Tidal Flat Fishery. — Often quahaugs are found on the exposed
tidal flats, where they can sometimes be taken by hand, but more often
with ordinary clam hoes or short rakes. Owing to the scarcity of qua-
haugs between the tide lines, this method does not pay for market fish-
ing, and is only resorted to by people who dig for home consumption.

44 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

(3) Tonging. — In most parts of Buzzards Bay and in a few places
on Cape Cod quahaugs are taken with oyster tongs. This method is
applicable only in water less than 12 feet deep, as the longest tongs
measure but 16 feet. Four sizes of tongs are used, 8, 10, 12 and 16
feet in length. Tonging is carried on in the small coves and inlets,
where there is little if any rough water. A muddy bottom is usually
preferable, as a firm, hard soil increases the labor of manipulating
the tongs, which are used in the same manner as in tonging oysters.

(4) Raking. — The most universal method of taking quahaugs is with
rakes. This method is used in every quahaug locality in Massachusetts,
each town having its special kind of rake. Four main types of rakes
can be recognized : —

(a) The Digger. — In some localities, chiefly in Buzzards Bay, the
ordinary potato digger or rake, having four or five long, thin prongs, is
used. Usually it has a back of wire netting, which holds the quahaugs
when caught by the prongs. As the digger has a short handle of 5
feet, it can be used only in shallow water, where the quahauger, wading
in the water, turns out the quahaugs with this narrow rake. This method
yields but a scanty return, and is more often used for home consumption
than for market.

(b) The Garden Rake. — The ordinary garden rake, equipped with
a basket back of wire netting, is in more general use in shallow water,
either by wading or from a boat, as it has the advantage of being wider
than the potato digger.

(c) The Claw Rake. — This type of rake varies in size, width and
length of handle. It is used chiefly at Nantucket. The usual style has a
handle 6 feet long, while the iron part in the form of a claw or talon
is 10 inches wide, with prongs 1 inch apart. Heavier rakes with longer
handles are sometimes used for deep water, but for shallow water the
usual form is the short-claw rake.

(d) The Basket Rake. — The greater part of the quahaug production
is taken from deep water, with the basket rake. These rakes have han-
dles running from 23 to 65 feet in length, according to the depth of
water over the beds. Where the water is of various depths, several
detachable handles of various lengths are used. At the end of these long
handles is a small cross-piece, similar to the cross-piece of a lawn mower ;
this enables the quahauger to obtain a strong pull when raking. The
handles are made of strong wood, and are very thin and flexible, not
exceeding 1% inches in diameter. The price of these handles varies
according to the length, but the average price is about $2. As the long
handles break very easily, great care must be taken in raking.

Three forms of the basket rake are used in Massachusetts. These
rakes vary greatly in form and size, and it is merely a question of
opinion which variety is the best, as all are made on the same general
principle, — a curved, basket-shaped body, the bottom edge of which
is set with thin steel teeth.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 45

The Wellfleet and Chatham Eake. — This rake is perhaps the most
generally used for all deep-water quahauging on Cape Cod, and finds
favor with all. It consists of an iron framework, forming a curved
bowl, the under edge of which is set with thin steel teeth vary-
ing in length from 2 to 4 inches, though usually 2V2-inch teeth are the
favorite. Formerly these teeth were made of iron, but owing to the
rapid wear it was found necessary to make them of steel. Over
the bowl of this rake, which is strengthened by side and cross pieces
of iron, is fitted a twine net, which, like the net of a scallop dredge,
drags behind the framework. An average rake has from 19 to 21
teeth, and weighs from 15 to 20 pounds.

Edgartown Basket Rake. — The basket rake used at Edgartown and
Nantucket is lighter and somewhat smaller than the Wellfleet rake.
The whole rake, except the teeth, is made of iron. No netting is re-
quired, as thin iron wires % inch apart encircle lengthwise the whole
basket, preventing the escape of any marketable quahaug, and at the
same time allowing the mud to wash out. This rake has 16 steel teeth,
11/2 inches long, fitted at intervals of 1 inch in the bottom scraping bar,
which is 16 inches long ; the depth of the basket is about 8 inches. Much
shorter poles, not exceeding 30 feet in length, are used with this rake,
and the whole rake is much lighter. The price of this rake is $7.50,
while the poles cost $1.50.

The third form of basket rake is a cross between the basket and
claw rakes. This rake is used both at Nantucket and on Cape Cod, but
is not so popular as the other types. The basket is formed by the curve
of the prongs, which are held together by two long cross-bars at the top
and bottom of the basket, while the ends are enclosed by short strips
of iron. This rake exemplifies the transition stage between the claw
and basket types, indicating that the basket form was derived from the
former. Handles 20 to 30 feet long are generally used with these rakes.

Shallow v. Deep Water Quahauging. — Two kinds of quahauging
are found in Massachusetts, — the deep and the shallow water fisheries.
This arbitrary distinction also permits a division of localities in regard
to the principal methods of fishing. Although in all localities there
exists more or less shallow-water fishing, the main quahaug industry of
several towns is the deep-water fishery. In all the Buzzards Bay towns
except Fairhaven and New Bedford the shallow-water fishery prevails;
this is also true of the south side of Cape Cod. On the north side of
Cape Cod the opposite is true, as the quahauging at Wellfleet, Eastham,
Orleans and Brewster is practically all deep-water fishing. At Edgar-
town and Nantucket, although there is considerable shallow-water dig-
ging, the deep-water fishery is the more important.

The deep-water fishery is vastly more productive than the shallow-
water industry, furnishing annually 118,500 bushels, compared to
23,227 bushels, or more than 5 times as much. The deep-water fishery,
i.e., the basket-rake fishery, is the main quahaug fishery of the State,

46 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

and each year it is increasing, because of the opening of new beds.
On the other hand, the shallow-water grounds are rapidly becoming
barren from overfishing.

The deep-water quahauging is harder work, requires considerable
capital but has fewer working days. Naturally the earnings from this
fishery should surpass those of the shallow-water industry. The deep-
water quahauger averages from $5 to $8 for a working day, while the
shallow-water fisherman earns only from $2 to $3 per day.

Deep-water Quahauging. — Both power and sail boats are used in
deep-water quahauging, though power is gradually replacing the old
method of sailing, because of its increased efficiency and saving of time.
When the quahaug grounds are reached, the boat is anchored at both
bow and stern, one continuous rope connecting both anchors, which are
from 500 to 600 feet apart, in such a way that the bow of the boat is
always headed against the tide. A sufficient amount of slack is required
for the proper handling of the boat, which can be moved along this
anchor " road " as on a cable, and a large territory raked. The rake
is lowered from the bow of the boat, the length of the handle being
regulated by the depth of the water, and the teeth worked into the sandy
or muddy bottom. The quahauger then takes firm hold of the cross-
piece at the end of the handle, and works the rake back to the stern of
the boat, where it is hauled in and the contents dumped on the culling
board or picked out of the net. In hauling in the net the rake is turned
so that the opening is on top, and the mud and sand is washed out be-
fore it is taken on board. The long pole passes across the boat and
extends into the water on the opposite side when the rake is hauled in.
This process is repeated until the immediate locality becomes unprofit-
able, when the boat is shifted along the cable.

The usual time for quahauging is from half ebb to half flood tide,
thus avoiding the extra labor of high-water raking. Deep-water raking
is especially hard labor, and six hours constitute a good day's work.

Boats. — Nearly all kinds of boats are utilized in the quahaug fishery,
and are of all values, from the $10 second-hand skiff to the 38-foot
power seine boat, which costs $1,500. The shallow-water industry re-
quires but little invested capital. Dories and skiffs are the principal
boats, costing from $10 to $25. Occasionally a sail or power boat
may be used in this fishery. The deep-water industry requires larger and
stronger boats. These are either power or sail boats, often auxiliary
"cats," and their value runs anywhere from $150 to $1,500. The
average price for the sail boats is $250, while the power boats are
assessed at $350. At Orleans several large power seine boats, valued at
about $1,500, are used in the quahaug fishery. These seine boats are
30 to 38 feet over all, have low double cabins, and are run by 8 to 12
horse-power gasolene engines. The ordinary power boats have gaso-
lene engines from 2 to 6 horse-power. In this way each method of
quahauging has its own boats, which are adapted for its needs.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

47

Dredging. — So far as known, dredging is never used in quahauging
in Massachusetts, although it is sometimes used on sea-clam beds. It has
been tried, but without success, chiefly because of the uneven nature of
the bottom. The invention of a suitable dredge is necessary, and there
can be little doubt that in the future, if this difficulty is overcome,
dredging will be used in the quahaug fishery. In 1879 Mr. Ernest
Ingersoll reports in Rhode Island the use of a quahaug dredge similar
in structure to our rake. Evidently this form was never especially
successful, possibly because these dredges could not be dragged by
sail boats.

Outfit of a Quahauger. — The implements and boats used in qua-
hauging have already been mentioned. The outfit of the average
quahauger in each fishery is here summarized : —

Deep-water Quahauging.

Boat,

2 rakes

3 poles

$300
20

Shallow-water Quahauging.

Boat,

Tongs or rakes, ....
Baskets

$25

Season. — The quahaug fishery is essentially a summer fishery, and
little if any is done during the winter. The season in Massachusetts
lasts for seven months, usually starting the last of March or the first
of April, and ending about the first of November. The opening of the
spring season varies several weeks, owing to the severity of the weather ;
and the same is true of the closing of the season.

As a rule, the Buzzards Bay industry, where digging is done in the
shallow waters of protected bays and coves, using short rakes and tongs,
has a longer season than the quahaug industry of Cape Cod, where the
fishery is carried on in deep and open waters. With the former, the
cold work and hardship alone force the quahaugers to stop fishing, a
long time after storms and rough weather have brought the latter in-
dustry to an end.

The actual working days of the deep-water quahauger number hardly
over 100 per season, while those of the shallow-water fishermen easily
outnumber 150. The deep-water quahaugers daily earnings are two or
three times the daily wages of the shallow-water quahauger, but the
additional number of working days in part make up this difference.

The quahaug season can be divided arbitrarily into three parts: (1)
spring; (2) summer; (3) fall. The spring season lasts from April 1
to June 15, the summer season from June 15 to September 15, and the
fall season from September 15 to November 1. These seasons are
marked by an increase in the number of quahaugers in the spring and
fall. The men who do summer boating quahaug in the spring before the
summer people arrive, and in the fall after the summer season is over.
The opening of the scallop season, in towns that are fortunate enough
to possess both industries, marks the closing of the quahaug season.

48 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

These two industries join so well, scalloping in the winter and qua-
hauging in the summer, that a shellfisherman has work practically all
the year.

The Principal Markets. — The principal markets for the sale of
Massachusetts quahaugs are Boston and New York. In 1879 the Boston
market, according to Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, sold comparatively few. At
the present time the Boston market disposes of many thousand bushels
annually, but nevertheless the greater part of the Massachusetts qua-
haugs are shipped to New York. This, again, is due to the better market
prices offered by that city. Besides passing through these two main
channels, quahaugs are shipped direct from the coast dealers to various
parts of the country, especially the middle west. This last method
seems to be on the increase, and the future may see a large portion of
the quahaug trade carried on by direct inland shipments.

Shipment. — Quahaugs are shipped either in second-hand sugar or
flour barrels or in bushel bags. The latter method is fast gaining popu-
larity with the quahaugers and dealers, owing to its cheapness, and is
now steadily used in some localities. When quahaugs are shipped in
barrels, holes are made in the bottom and sides of the barrel, to allow
free circulation of air and to let the water out, while burlap is used
instead of wooden heads.

" Culls." — Several culls are made for the market. These vary in
number in different localities and with different firms, but essentially
are modifications of the three "culls" made by the quahaugers: (1)
"little necks;" (2) "sharps;" (3) "blunts." The divisions made by
the firm of A. D. Davis & Co. of Wellfleet are as follows: (1) "little
necks," small, 1V2-21A inches; large, 2^4-3 inches; (2) medium
"sharps," 3-3% inches; (3) large "sharps," 33/4 inches up; (4) small
"blunts;" (5) large "blunts."

Price. — The prices received by the quahaugers are small, compared
with the retail prices. " Little necks " fetch from $2.50 to $4 per bushel,
sharps and small blunts from $1.10 to $2, and large blunts from 80
cents to $1.50, according to the season, fall and spring prices necessarily
being higher than in summer. The price depends wholly upon the
supply in the market, and varies greatly, although the " little necks "
are fairly constant, as the demand for these small quahaugs is very
great. To what excess the demand for " little necks " has reached can
best be illustrated by a comparison between the price of $3 paid to the
quahauger per bushel, and the actual price, $50, paid for the same by
the consumer in the hotel restaurants.

Bedding Quahaugs for Market. — By town laws in Orleans, Eastham
and Wellfleet, each quahauger may, upon application, secure from the
selectmen a license, giving him not more than 75 feet square of tidal
flat upon which to bed his catch of quahaugs. While no positive pro-
tection is guaranteed, public opinion recognizes the right of each man
to his leased area, and this alone affords sufficient protection for the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 49

success of this communal effort, which is the first step by the people
toward quahaug farming.

The quahauger needs only to spread his catch on the surface, and
within two tides the quahaugs will have buried themselves in the sand.
Here they will remain, with no danger of moving away, as the quahaug
moves but little. The quahauger loses nothing by this replanting, as
not only do the quahaugs remain in a healthy condition, but even grow
in their new environment.

The result of this communal attempt at quahaug culture is beneficial.
While the market price for " little necks " is almost always steady, the
price of the larger quahaugs fluctuates considerably, and the market
often becomes " glutted." This would naturally result in a severe loss
to the quahauger if he were forced to keep shipping at a low price. As
it is, the fortunate quahauger who possesses such a grant merely re-
plants his daily catch until the market prices rise to their proper level.
An additional advantage is gained by the quahauger, who at the end of
the season has his grant well stocked, as higher prices are then offered.
As many as 1,000 barrels are often held this way at the end of the
season.

Food Value. — See food value table in scallop report.

Uses. — Besides its many uses as a food, raw, cooked and canned, the
quahaug is of little importance in Massachusetts.

(1) For bait the soft clam (My a arenaria) is generally preferred,
and but few quahaugs are used for this purpose.

(2) The shell was once prized by the Indians for their wampum; now
it is occasionally used for ornamental purposes.

(3) Oystermen use it for cultch when they can get nothing better;
though more fragile shells are usually preferred, so that the masses of
oyster "set" can be easily broken apart.

(4) Shell roads are occasionally made from quahaug shells. Pos-
sibly lime could be profitably obtained.

History of Quahaug Industry in Massachusetts.

South of Plymouth harbor quahaugs have always been plentiful along
the shores of Cape Cod, Buzzards Bay and the islands of Nantucket and
Martha's Vineyard. Frequent shell heaps show that the Indians were
accustomed to use this mollusk as a food, and even indulged in an occa-
sional clam bake. Colonial records show us that the early colonists
were not slow in learning to "tread out" this mollusk from the mud
flats. The shells of the quahaug were much prized by the Indians for
wampum beads, because of their purplish color.

Although reckoned inferior by many to the soft clam (Mya arenaria},
the quahaug was dug for home consumption for years in Massachusetts,
and but little attempt was made to put it on the market. The com-
mercial quahaug fishery started on Cape Cod, about the first of the
nineteenth century, growing in extent until about 1860. From 1860

50

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

to 1890 the production remained about constant. The production in
1879 for Massachusetts, as given by A. Howard Clark, totaled 11,050
bushels, valued at $5,525. It is only in the last fifteen to twenty years
that the actual development of the quahaug fishery has taken place.
The present production of Massachusetts is 144,044 bushels, valued
at $194,687. To the popular demand for the "little neck" can be
attributed the rapid development of the quahaug industry during the
last ten years. This development has furnished employment for hun-
dreds of men, and has given the quahaug an important value as a sea
food. What it will lead to is easily seen. The maximum production
was passed a few years ago, constant overfishing caused by an exces-
sive demand is destroying the natural supply, and there will in a few
years be practically no commercial fishery, unless measures are taken
to increase the natural supply. Quahaug farming offers the best solu-
tion at the present time, and gives promise of permanent success.

The following statistics, taken from the United States Fish Com-
mission reports, show the rapidity of the development of the quahaug
fishery : —

DATE.

Bushels.

Value.

Price (Cents).

1879

11,050

$5,525

50.0

1887,

35,540

21,363

60.0

1888,. .•

26,165

14,822

56.5

1898

63,817

50,724

79.5

1902

106 818

131 139

124.0

1905

166,526

288,987

155.0

Not only has there been an increase in production, but also an in-
crease in price, as can be seen from the above table, which shows that
the price has more than doubled between 1888 and 1902. This increase
in price has alone supported a declining fishery in many towns, making
it still profitable for quahaugers to keep in the business, in spite of a
much smaller catch. The advance in price is due both to the natural
rise in the value of food products during the past twenty-five years and
also to the popular demand for the " little neck," or small quahaug.

State Laws. — There are no State laws governing the quahaug fishery,
except the regulations of the State Board of Health in regard to sewage
pollution in Acushnet River and Boston Harbor.

Town Laws. — Regulation of the quahaug fishery was given to each
town by the State under the general shellfish act of 1880; the industry
is therefore entirely governed under the by-laws of the town.

An interesting comparison can be made between the quahaug regu-
lations of the different towns. Good, useless and harmful laws exist
side by side. One town will pass excellent regulations, and enforce
them; another town will make the same, but never trouble to see that

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

51

they are observed. Edgartown enforces the IV^-inch quahaug law;
Orleans, Eastham and Wellfleet have the same law, but fail to enforce
it. Many towns allow the small seed quahaugs to be caught and
shipped out of the State, thus losing $4 to every $1 gained. These
towns refuse to make any regulation, such as a simple size limit,
which would remedy this matter, and have no thought for the future of
their quahaug industry. All that can be said is that the quahaug laws
are the best of the town shellfish regulations, and that is but faint
praise.

Statistics of the Quahaug Fishery.

In the following table the towns are arranged in alphabetical order,
and the list includes only those towns which now possess a commercial
quahaug fishery. In giving the number of men, both transient and
regular quahaugers are included. In estimating the capital invested,
the boats, implements, shanties and gear of the quahauger are alone
considered, and personal apparel, such as oil-skins, boots, etc., are not
taken into account. The value of the production for each town is based
upon what the quahaugers receive for their quahaugs, and not the price
they bring in the market. The area of quahaug territory given for
each town includes all ground where quahaugs are found, both thick
beds and scattering quahaugs.

TOWN.

Number
of Men.

Capital
invested.

Number
of Boats.

Number
of
Dories
and
Skiffs.

' 1907 PRODUCTION.

Area in
Acres.

Value
of Yield
per
Acre.

Bushels

Value.

Barnstable,

25

$850

-

25

2,500

$3,700

950

*3 95

Bourne,

46

1,000

-

46

5,400

8,400

2,500

3 36

Chatham, .

50

5,750

25

25

6,700

10,000

2,000

5 00

Dennis,

15

150

-

10

500

950

200

4 75

Eastham, .

25

8,000

12

-

10,000

11,500

4,000

2 87

Edgartown,

70 '

12,000

42

18

20,000

32,000

1,800

17 77

Fairhaven, .

115

5,000

11

100

15,000

16,500

3,000

5 50

Falmouth, .

-

-

-

-

100

115

400

29

Harwich, .

7

200

-

7

1,500

2,550

100

25 50

Marion,

19

250

-

19

800

1,500

400

3 75

Mashpee,

7

70

-

5

250

285

400

71

Mattapoisett,

28

500

-

28

800

1,500

750

2 00

Nantucket, .

48

6,750

30

10

6,294

8,487

5,290

1 60

Orleans,

75

25,000

30

25

33,000

41, 350

1,500

27 56

Wareham, .

50

1,000

-

50

6,000

10,500

1,300

8 08

Wellfleet, .

145

27,500

100

-

33,000

41,350

2,500

16 54

Yarmouth, .
Totals, .

20

240

-

10

2,200

4,000

1,000

4 00

745

94,260

250

378

144,044

194,687

28,090

Average
$6 93

52 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Barnstable.

Barnstable, with its extensive bays both on the north or bay side
and on the south or Vineyard Sound side, offers great possibilities for
quahaug production. Although the quahaug ranks, in productive value,
the third shellfish industry of Barnstable, the natural resources permit
an expansion under cultural methods which would place the quahaug
ahead of the oyster, which at the present time is the leading shellfish
industry of the town.

In Barnstable harbor, on the north coast of the town, a few quahaugs
are found scattered in isolated patches. (See Map No. 9.) These are
relatively of small importance commercially, and no regular fishery is
carried on. In the future the vast barren flats of this harbor may be
made productive of quahaugs as well as clams, although at present the
total area of quahaug grounds is hardly 5 acres.

The greater part of the quahaug industry of Barnstable is conducted
on the south shore of the township, which is especially adapted, with
its coves and inlets, for the successful growth of this shellfish. The
principal fishery is in Cotuit harbor and West Bay, and is chiefly shared
by the villages of Osterville, Marston's Mills and Cotuit, which lie on
the east, north and west sides, respectively, of the bay.

While the greater part of Cotuit harbor is taken up by oyster grants,
there are certain parts, though limited in area, which are set aside for
quahauging. The principal area for quahauging is the flat which runs
along Oyster Island. This was originally an oyster grant taken out
by Wendell Nickerson, and thrown open to quahaugers to protect the
quahaug interests from the oyster planters. This territory, which com-
prises 70 acres, is mostly hard sand. Directly west in the center of
the harbor lies a strip of 80 acres of mud and eel grass, where both
quahaugs and scallops abound. The depth of water on quahauging
grounds varies from 1 to 14 feet.

Scattering quahaugs are found also in Osterville harbor, West Bay,
Popponesset River and East Bay. This bottom is practically all sand,
and comprises a total of 1,650 acres. This cannot all be considered
good quahaug ground, although quahaugs can occasionally be found.

At Hyannis the quahaug grounds are confined to Lewis Bay, where
they cover an area of 800 acres. The quahaugs lie in scattered patches
over this area, but in no place is there especially good quahauging.
The bottom is hard, usually sandy, with patches of eel grass, while
the average depth of water is hardly more than 6 feet.

In Osterville Bay about 20 men, in Lewis Bay about 5, using the
same number of dories, make a business of quahauging in the summer
months. Three styles of implements are used: (1) oyster tongs, vary-
ing from 8 to 16 feet, according to the depth of water; (2) large
basket rakes, with 30-foot handles; (3) ordinary garden rakes, with
wire basket, for shallow-water digging.

At Cotuit the quahaugs run one-third "little necks," one-third

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 53

mediums and one-third large. Here several men, using long-handled
rakes, make from $3 to $5 per day in favorable weather. The markets
are principally New York and Boston, where the quahaugs are shipped,
mostly in sacks, which is a cheaper and better way than shipment in
barrels. Here the quahaug season lasts from April 1 to November 1,
most of the work being done in the summer, when the oyster business
is at a standstill.

There are no town laws governing the quahaug fishery, other than
forbidding a non-resident of the town the right of quahauging; and
no licenses are required.

No records of the history of the quahaug industry at Barnstable
can be found. A. Howard Clark in 1879 makes the following brief
statement, which is the only record obtainable : —

Both soft clams and quahaugs are found in the harbor [Osterville harbor],
but no considerable fishing for them is carried on.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Area of quahaug territory (acres), ....... 950

Number of men, ........... 25

Number of boats,

Value of boats,

Number of dories, .......... 25

Value of dories, . . . $500

Value of implements, .......... $350

Production.

" Little necks " : -

Bushels, 800

Value, $2,000

Qnahaugs: —

Bushels, 1,700

Value, $1,700

Total : —

Bushels, 2,500

Value, $3,700

Bourne.

The town of Bourne was formerly included in the town of Sand-
wich, and many old laws relating to shellfish, such as oyster regulation
in Barlow River, were enacted by the town of Sandwich. Situated at
the head of Buzzards Bay, and separated from the adjacent town of
Wareham by Cohasset Narrows, Bourne has many advantages for
a profitable quahaug industry. It possesses nearly twice as much qua-
haug territory as Wareham, but, as most of this lies unproductive,
has a smaller annual output. The territory includes over 2,500 acres of
ground, most of which consists of flats of mud, sand and eel grass,
covered with shallow water. It is very sparsely set with quahaugs.
Outside the oyster grants practically the entire stretch of coast from

54 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Buttermilk Bay to Wings Neck is quahauging ground, as can be seen
on Map No. 17. Other quahaug grounds lie between Basset's Island,
Scraggy Neck and Handy's Point. It is our opinion that this large
territory, which to-day yields on the average less than $3.50 per acre,
in the future, under cultivation, can be made to yield an average of
$100 per acre, thereby bringing into the town of Bourne a yearly
income of at least $250,000, and furnishing labor for hundreds of men.

About 46 men are engaged in the quahaug fishery of Bourne, using
the same number of skiffs and dories, which represent approximately
an investment of $875. The fishery lasts usually seven months during
the summer, April 1 to November 1, while the winter digging is of
small account. Practically all the digging is done in comparatively
shallow water, with short-handled rakes or tongs. Rather more than
a third of the quahaugs appear to be " little necks," while the mediums
constitute one-tenth of the total catch. " Blunts " are of little conse-
quence.

The selectmen issue permits for the taking of quahaugs and clams.
In 1906, 46 permits were issued, entitling the holder to 10 bushels
of clams and 10 bushels of quahaugs per week.

There is little to be said concerning the history of the Bourne quahaug
industry, as no early records exist. Its development has been similar
to that of the industries of the other Buzzards Bay towns. During
the last few years the Bourne fishery, unlike most of the towns on
Buzzards Bay, has shown signs of increasing. This is not due, how-
ever, to any increase in the natural supply, but to the decline of the
oyster industry, which gives more opportunity to the quahaugers. The
same antagonistic feeling that is prevalent in Wareham exists here
between the oystermen and quahaugers.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 2,500

Number of men, ........... 46

Number of boats, ...........

Value of boats,

Number of skiffs, 46

Value of skiffs, $875

Value of implements, . . . . . . . . . . $125

Production.

" Little necks " : —

Bushels, . " , . . . . ' . . . . . ... 2,000

Value, . . . . . . . . . . . . $5,000

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, ... . ; ' *•""•. . . r. . 3,400

Value, . . v . . -'. •-•••-» .->V : '-.-..• *-*.-". .$3,400

Total : —

Bushels, . . '%.••.:••• • • »_ ". .... 5,400

Value, . .-.•;•: -. . . . *- '. .', * .$8,400

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 55

Chatham.

Chatham is favorably situated in regard to the quahaug fishery, as
this shellfish is found in the waters on the north and south sides of
the town. The grounds are extensive, covering about 2,000 acres,
the greater part of which consists of the vast area south of the town
known as the " Common Flats."

The quahauging grounds are in four localities: (1) Pleasant Bay;
(2) Mill Pond; (3) Stage Harbor; (4) Common Flats.

(1) Part of the waters of Pleasant Bay belong to the town of
Chatham. In afti arm of this bay, known as Crows Pond, the best
Pleasant Bay fishery is carried on in water varying from 6 to 16 feet
in depth.

(2) An excellent " little neck " fishery is carried on in the upper
part of the Mill Pond, in comparatively shallow water, comprising
an area of 3 acres. On these bars in 1905 there was a very heavy set of
small quahaugs, which were rapidly taken up before they had a chance
to attain to a fair size.

(3) Quahaugs are raked on the west side of Stage Harbor in 5
to 15 feet of water, in an area of 4 acres of muddy bottom.

(4) The Common Flats comprise 1,700 acres, and are covered at
low tide by a depth of only 1 to 2 feet of water. Quahaugs are found
throughout this territory in scattering quantities, but practically all
is good quahaug ground except the shifting outer part of the flat.
The soil varies from a pure sand to a sandy mud, and in parts is
thickly covered with eel grass, which makes raking hard. This area
offers one of the best opportunities for successful quahaug planting in
the State. The area is large, seed can be obtained easily and quahaugs
grow well in this locality. If it were not for the lack of protection,
Chatham could establish one of the best quahaug industries in the State
by leasing out the Common Flats for planting purposes.

Quahaugs are taken at Chatham only with rakes. In the deep water
in Crows Pond and in Stage Harbor basket rakes are used; but in the
shallow water on the Common Flats and in the Mill Pond the usual
implement is an ordinary garden rake, with wire netting basket. Handles
from 20 to 25 feet in length are used with the basket rakes.

The quahaug industry has existed in Chatham for the past twelve
years.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 2,000

Number of men, ........... 50

Number of boats, 25

Value of boats, $5,000

Number of dories, 25

Value of dories, $350

Value of implements, „ - . . . $400

56 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, . . 2,200

Value, $5,500

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 4,500

Value, $4,500

Total: —

Bushels, ........... 6,700

Value, . $10,000

Dartmouth.

The quahaug industry of Dartmouth is of little consequence. In
1907, 320 permits were granted, mostly to New Bedford fishermen for
" bait."

Dennis.

The quahauging grounds of Dennis are practically all in Bass River,
where Dennis has equal fishery rights with Yarmouth. The area of
these grounds is 200 acres, with a maximum depth of 6 feet of water
over the beds. The history of the industry is the same as that of
Yarmouth, as the two industries are closely associated, and a similar
decline has resulted. The laws for both towns are the same.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 200

Number of men (transient), 15

Number of boats, . . . . .

Value of boats,

Number of skiffs, 10

Value of skiffs, $100

Value of implements, $50

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 300

Value, $750

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, ....'.. 200

Value, $200

Total: —

Bushels, . . . . 500

Value, . . . . . . . , . . •*". .. $950

Eastham.

Eastham is similar to Orleans in situation, possessing a good coast
line on both the east and west, which affords excellent opportunities
for the quahaug fishery.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 57

On the west or bay side are extensive beds of quahaugs, for the
most part blunts, extending into deep water for nearly 3 miles. This
quahauging territory comprises about 4,000 acres, which is open to the
quahaugers of both Wellfleet and Orleans. While scattering quahaugs
are found over approximately all this territory, the fishery is conducted
in only certain definite places.

In Kauset harbor on the east side during the season of 1906 numerous
beds of " little necks," about the lV2-mcli size, were discovered. It is
thought that these came from the spawn of certain quahaugs which the
life savers were accustomed to bed in the harbor for their own use.
These quahaugs were torn up and scattered by the ice during a severe
winter, and in this way the nucleus of a new fishery was formed. Two
men who discovered the best of these beds cleared $60 in one week.

On the west coast of the town 25 men commonly dig with long-
handled rakes. These fishermen work at quahauging about 100 days in
the year, and average from 5 to 6 bushels per day. Power boats are
used for the most part, although the boats are not so large or expensive
as those of the Orleans fishermen, for the Eastham quahauger digs in
the more sheltered waters of Wellfleet Bay.

The production for 1906 was 10,000 bushels, but this does not give
the true yield of the Eastham flats, as the Wellfleet and Orleans fisher-
men rake to a great extent in Eastham waters, and so many more
bushels are actually taken within the town limits.

The town laws of Eastham are the same as those of Wellfleet. (See
Wellfleet.) The history of the Eastham quahaug industry is so closely
connected with that of Orleans and Wellfleet that no additional features
require mention.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 4,000

Number of men, 25

Number of boats, 12

Value of boats, $7,375

Number of dories,

Value of dories,

Value of implements, $625

Production.

" Little necks " : —

Bushels, 1,000

Value, $2,500

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 9,000

Value, $9,000

Total : —

Bushels, . f 10,000

Value, . . '. ' . $11,500

58 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Edgar town.

The finest " little neck " fishery in Massachusetts is found in Katama
Bay, in the town of Edgartown. Two-fifths of the entire catch are
" little necks." The most productive grounds are situated in the lower
part of Katama Bay, while quahaugs are also found in Edgartown
harbor and in Cape Poge Pond, the total area of these localities com-
prising 1,800 acres.

The fishing is mostly done from power dories or sail boats with
basket rakes. Poles from 20 to 25 feet long are used, as the water over
the beds is less than 20 feet deep. Some quahaugs are taken in the
shallow water with small claw rakes. The catch is shipped to the New
York and Boston markets.

The quahaug industry of Edgartown is the best-regulated shellfish
industry in Massachusetts. If excellent care had not been taken of the
" little neck " fishery of Katama Bay by enforcing a size limit of la/2
inches, through the employment of a special shellfish warden, the qua-
haug fishery of Edgartown would have been ruined long ago by the
exportation of small " seed " quahaugs. To-day the number of small
quahaugs which are returned to the water greatly exceeds the amount
of marketable quahaugs taken. This is the only case in Massachusetts
where the quahaug fishery, by careful regulations of the town, has
maintained an undiminished supply. If other towns had taken similar
care of their quahaug fisheries in the past, the general decline of the
industry in this State would never have become so serious.

The following is a copy of the shellfish permit, which every Edgar-
town quahauger is required to take out, at the cost of $2, before he
can rake quahaugs for market. Any man over sixty years old obtains
his permit free. This permit should serve as a model for other towns.

SHELLFISH PERMIT.
TOWN OF EDGARTOWN, SELECTMEN'S OFFICE, 190 .

In consideration of having received from of Edgartown the

sum of $2, permission is hereby granted to him to take from any of the
waters of this town daily, between sunrise and sunset, twenty-five bushels of
scallops or clams, including shells, and four bushels, including shells, of
quahaugs j of these four bushels, not more than two bushels are to be of the
size known as "little necks."

The acceptance of this permit constitutes an agreement by the holder
thereof that he will, and that any other person who for the time being has
or shall have in his custody or possession any building, boat, barrel, box, tub,
crate or other vessel or receptacle containing or suitable for or capable of
containing shellfish, and belonging to or under the control of the holder
of this permit, shall, at any time or place when requested so to do by either
of said selectmen or by their authorized agent, or by any constable or fish
warden of said town, or by any other officer authorized to enforce the laws
relating to shellfish or shellfisheries in said town, open any such building,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 59

boat, barrel, box, tub, crate or other vessel or receptacle, and fully expose
to them or either of them the contents thereof for inspection; and if the
holder of this permit or such other person as aforesaid, when so requested,
refuses or neglects so to do, said selectmen may revoke this permit or sus-
pend the same for any stated time, at their discretion.

The holder of this permit is subject to the regulations for the taking of
eels and shellfish as made and posted by the selectmen, and also to any
additional regulations which said board may hereafter make and publish.

If the person having this permit for the taking of shellfish violates any
law of the Commonwealth or any regulation now or hereafter made by said
selectmen, relating to shellfish or shellfisheries in said town, said selectmen
may revoke said permit, or suspend the same for any stated time at their
discretion.

No person is allowed by law to take from the waters of said town, or to
sell or offer for sale, or to have in his possession, any "little neck" clams
or quahaugs measuring less than one and one-half inches across the widest
part. Any person violating this provision of law is liable to a fine of not less
than ten nor more than one hundred dollars.

This permit will expire April 1, 190 , unless sooner revoked.

Selectmen of Edgartown.

Ernest Ingersoll in 1879 makes the following statement concerning
the quahaug fishery of Martha's Vineyard: —

Martha's Vineyard used to be bordered by good quahaug ground, but I am
not aware that many are caught there now. In an old book I find the fol-
lowing allusion to it: "The poquau (Venus mercenarid) is found in Old
Town Harbor, at Cape Poge, and in Menemsha Pond: great quantities are
exported."

A. Howard Clark in 1879 says : —

Soft clams and quahaugs are abundant in the harbor, and are used by the
fishermen for bait. . .-. Three hundred bushels of quahaugs and sea clams,
valued at $150, were taken during the year 1879.

If such were the conditions in 1879, the industry has had a great
development. To-day Edgartown is one of the best quahaug towns
of the State, and produces the finest "little necks." Comparing the
production figures of 1879 and 1907, a great increase is noted :-

Production, 1879.

Bushels, 300

Value, $150

Production, 1907.

Bushels, . . 20,000

Value, . . . _ .' • , ... .; ... . .- . .$32,000

60 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 1,800

Number of men, ........... 70

Number of boats, 42

Value of boats, $10,500

Number of dories, .......... 18

Value of dories, $450

Value of implements, .......... $1,050

Production.

" Little necks " : —

Bushels, 8,000

Value, . .$20,000

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 12,000

Value, $12,000

Total: —

Bushels, 20,000

Value, $32,000

Fairhaven.

At Fail-haven the quahaug industry is of considerable importance,
and the output from this town alone is nearly half the entire production
of Buzzards Bay.

Some 3,000 acres are more or less bedded with quahaugs. Of this,
probably not more than one-tenth is very productive. The best
quahauging is in Acushnet River, where digging for market has been
forbidden because of sewage pollution (see New Bedford), and in
Priests Cove as far as Sconticut Neck. In these grounds " little necks "
are numerous. The grounds around West Island and Long Island, once
very productive, are now largely dug out. Little Bay and the east
coast of Sconticut Neck are fairly productive, while the west coast
yields only a small amount. Most of the quahaugs now dug come
from the deep water west-southwest of Scontieut Neck. Here, with
rakes having handles from 40 to 60 feet long, the quahaugers dig
in water 7 fathoms or more in depth. The quahaugs, mostly large
sharps, are in bluish mud or sticky bottom, and are all large. A number
of blunts are found with these large sharps. In the Acushnet River,
owing to the enforced closed season, there are a large number of " little
necks."

About 115 men are employed now in quahauging. Before the Acush-
net River was closed by law, over twice that number are reported to
have been engaged in the business. Six power boats and five cat boats,
besides a considerable number of skiffs and dories, are used in the
fishery.

No permits are required for ordinary quahauging except in the pre-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 61

scribed territory of Acushnet River, where permits to catch a certain
amount for bait are given as in New Bedford.

The production for 1879, as given by A. Howard Clark in " The
Fisheries of Massachusetts," was 3,000 bushels, which is just one-fifth
of the present production. The supply of quahaugs has decreased the
last few years, though new territory is constantly being opened up,
as the quahaugers go out further into the deeper water. The increased
price, however, probably more than counterbalances the decline in
production.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug grounds (acres), 3,000

Number of men, 115

Number of boats,

Value of boats, $2,600

Number of skiffs, . . 100

Value of skiffs, $1,500

Value of implements, $900

Production.

" Little necks " : —

Bushels, 1,000

Value, $2,500

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 14,000

Value, . $14,000

Total : —

Bushels, 15,000

Value, $16,500

Falmouth.

There is practically no quahaug industry in Falmouth. Hardly 100
bushels are dug annually, and those only for home consumption. A
few quahaugs are perhaps shipped by the oystermen.

This town, with its numerous inlets, bays and brackish water ponds,
offers perhaps as fine an opportunity for shellfish culture, especially
for quahaugs, as exists in Massachusetts. There is no reason why
the water of Waquoit Bay and the other brackish ponds should not
produce a great supply of quahaugs, if properly worked.

Quahaugs are found mostly in scattering quantities over a large area
in Waquoit Bay and in small quantities on the north and west side
of Great Pond, comprising a total of nearly 400 acres. Not all this
ground, which is the greater part mud, is capable of producing qua-
haugs, but many parts could produce good harvests. On the bay
side of the town small patches of good quahaugs are found at North
Falmouth, Squeteague Pond, West Falmouth harbor on the southeast
side, and a few are found in Hadley harbor, Naushon. These, together

62 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

with the small patches in Great Pond, comprise about 1 acre of good
quahaug ground, and are mostly dug by summer people.

In the past twenty-five years there has been a great decline in the
quahaug industry, especially in Waquoit Bay, which to-day barely pro-
duces 50 bushels. A. Howard Clark states, in 1879 : * —

Quahaugs are plenty in Waquoit Bay, and are gathered and eaten by the
villagers, but none are shipped. It is estimated that about 500 bushels of
quahaugs are annually consumed by the people of Falmouth town.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Area of quahaug territory (acres), ....... 400

Number of men,

Number of boats,

Value of boats,

Number of dories,

Value of dories,

Value of implements,

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 10

Value, $25

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 90

Value, $90

Total : —

Bushels, 100

Value, v $115

Harwich.

The quahaug fishery of the town of Harwich is carried on in that
part of Pleasant Bay which lies within the town limits. In the
southern waters of the town, on the Sound side, scattering quahaugs
are found in certain localities, but are not of any commercial impor-
tance. The most important of those localities are off Dean's Creek
and in Herring River, where quahaugs are dug for home consumption.

Harwich shares with Chatham and Orleans the quahaug fishery of
Pleasant Bay, but has a more limited territory, as only a small portion
of Pleasant Bay lies within the town limits. Practically all this terri-
tory, comprising 100 acres, is quahauging ground, though the com-
mercial quahauging is prosecuted over an area of 10 acres only. Scat-
tering quahaugs are found over an area of 100 acres.

As the waters of Pleasant Bay are sheltered, the fishing is all done
from dories, with basket rakes having 20 to 25 foot poles. The depth
of water over the quahaug beds is from 6 to 16 feet.

1 " The Fisheries of Massachusetts," United States Fish Commission Report, Section II.,
p. 253.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 63

In regard to the quahaug fishery in Pleasant Bay, Mr. Warren J.
Nickerson of East Harwich, who has been acquainted with the industry
for many years, says : —

Pleasant Bay is and has been a very valuable quahaug ground. Some
fifty years ago there were shipped in vessels to New Haven and other places
13,000 bushels in one year from its waters. Since then there has been more
or less taken from these waters by fishermen from the towns of Orleans,
Chatham and Harwich. During the last few years there have been 25 regu-
lar fishermen and perhaps 12 transient. Probably 8,000 bushels a year for
the last five years would be a fair estimate of the catch. Thirty per cent,
of these were " little necks."

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 100

Number of men, ............ 7

Number of boats, ..........

Value of boats,

Number of dories, .......... 7

Value of dories, $100

Value of implements, $100

Production.

" Little necks " : —

Bushels, 700

Value, $1,750

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 800

Value, $800

Total : —

Bushels, 1,500

Value, $2,550

Marion.

The town of Marion, situated on the western side of Buzzards Bay,
possesses a spacious harbor, the waters of which furnish excellent qua-
haug grounds.

This territory, comprising a total of 400 acres, is chiefly confined to
Marion harbor, running in a narrow strip parallel to the shore from
Aucoot Cove all along the coast to Planting Island. Almost all the
head of the harbor and all of Blankinship's and Planting Island Cove
is quahaug area. Small grounds are also found at Wing's Cove and
in the Weweantit River.

The town law requires each year the possession of a permit costing
$1 before a person is entitled to dig quahaugs for sale. Nineteen of
these licenses were issued in 1906, but not more than 2 or 3 of these
went to men who depend upon quahauging for a living. The re-
maining 16 engage in the fishery to a greater or lesser extent in the
summer season.

64 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The annual production for 1906 was 800 bushels, valued at $1,500,
as about half were " little necks." Mediums are not numerous, and are
bought by the quahaug dealers at $1.25 per bushel and sold by them
at so much per hundred.

In Marion the quahaug industry once flourished to a marked degree,
but at present is very much on the decline. The coves, which once were
bedded with " little necks " and quahaugs, are now nearly exhausted.
No reasons exist for this condition of affairs, so far as known, except
overdigging. Gradually for many years the supply has perceptibly
declined, until now it is at a very low ebb. Where a thousand barrels
were formerly produced, it is doubtful if a thousand bushels are now
dug during the entire season, and the overworked beds are becoming
each year more depleted. A. Howard Clark, in his report on the
fisheries of Marion, estimates the quahaug production in 1880 as 2,000
bushels. The yield for 1906 is only 800 bushels, which shows an alarm-
ing decline in production. If once the waters of Marion could produce
a large amount of quahaugs, there is no reason why they cannot again
be made to produce the same, or more.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Area of quahaug territory (acres), . . . . . . 400

Number of men, ........... 19

Number of boats,

Value of boats,

Number of skiffs, .......... 19

Value of skiffs, $200

Value of implements, $50

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 400

Value, $1,100

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 400

Value, $400

Total : —

Bushels, . 800

Value, $1,500

Mashpee.

The quahaug industry at Mashpee is at a low ebb. Natural facilities
are favorable, but a lack of initiative on the part of the inhabitants
causes a small production. The best grounds are found in Poppones-
sett Bay and River, where a territory of 200 acres includes several
oyster grants which are worked but little. On the east side of Waquoit
Bay scattering quahaugs are found in Mashpee waters.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 65

There are 3 regular and 4 intermittent quahaugers, with an invested
capital of $70, who are obliged by the town laws to have a permit cost-
ing $1. The quahaug industry of the town has remained about the
same for the last twenty-five years, and now a good quahauger can
scarcely average V/z to 2 bushels per day.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 400

Number of men, 7

Number of boats,

Value of boats,

Number of skiffs, 5

Value of skiffs, $50

Value of implements, $20

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 25

Value, $60

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 225

Value, $225

Total : —

Bushels, 250

Value, $285

Mattapoisett.

The town of Mattapoisett, situated to the west of Marion, receives
but little income from her shellfisheries, as the waters are for the most
part too open and exposed for shellfish culture. The quahaug fishery
is the most important shellfish industry of the town, but even this,
when compared with the quahaug fishery of other towns, is rather un-
important, as most of the suitable territory is nonproductive.

Quahaugs are very unevenly distributed over 800 acres. The best
quahaugs are found in Aucopt Cove and at Brants. In the main harbor
quahaugs are found, though scattering, as indicated on the map.

No licenses or permits are required of the 28 men and boys who add
to their income from time to time by quahauging. Most of these de-
pend on other sources of employment for their main support. The
industry as a whole is gradually declining, as overfishing has made it
impossible for the natural supply to perpetuate itself.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), * 750

Number of men, 28

Number of boats, . . . . . . ... *

Value of boats, ... *

66 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Number of skiffs, 28

Value of skiffs, $425

Value of implements, $75

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 400

Value, $1,100

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 400

Value, $400

Total: —

Bushels, 800

Value, $1,500

Nantucket.

The quahaug industry of Nantucket ranks second to the main shell-
fish industry, the scallop fishery, and brings annually about $8,000 to
the island. Nantucket is especially adapted for quahaugs, as Nan-
tucket harbor, Maddequet harbor and the Island of Tuckernuck possess
extensive territory. In spite of these natural advantages, which are
as fine as any in the State, Nantucket produces only 6,000 bushels
annually, whereas her resources, under proper cultural methods, war-
rant an annual production exceeding even that of Wellfleet, which is
at present shipping 33,000 bushels.

The quahauging territory of Nantucket is divided into three sections :
(1) Nantucket harbor; (2) Maddequet harbor; and (3) Tuckernuck.

In Nantucket harbor quahaugs are found over an area of 2,290 acres,
both scattering and in thick patches. The principal areas are situated
as follows : —

(1) Near the town between Monomoy Heights and the wharves is
a territory of 240 acres. In the deep water directly out from the
wharves there has been good quahauging although the bed was dis-
covered only a few years ago.

(2) On the east side of the harbor, between Abram's Point and Po-
como Head, including Polpis harbor, are extensive grounds, comprising
about 900 acres, of scattering quahaugs.

(3) On the opposite side of the harbor lies a strip of quahaug terri-
tory of 250 acres, which extends between Third Point and Bass Point.

(4) At the head of the harbor on both sides quahaugs are found over
an area of 900 acres.

Maddequet harbor on the western end of the island has approxi-
mately 300 acres suitable for quahaugs, running from Broad Creek to
Eel Pofht.

On the eastern end of Tuckernuck Island is a bed of quahaugs cov-
ering about 200 acres; while on the west side, between Muskeget and

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

67

Tuekernuck, is a large area of 2,500 acres, which is more or less pro-
ductive. The Tuekernuck fishery is largely " little necks," and it is from
here that the shipment of small " seed " quahaugs has been made.

In the spring and fall men who have been boatmen during the sum-
mer work at quahauging. While 48 men work irregularly, about 18
men are engaged in the fishery during the entire summer, though prob-
ably never more than 30 are raking at any one time.

The production in 1906, from April 1 to November 1, was 2,159
barrels, or 6,477 bushels; value, $7,557.

PRODUCTION, 1907.1

MONTHS.

QUAHAUGS.

"LITTLE NECKS."

Barrels.

Average
Price
per
Barrel.

Bushels.

Value.

Barrels.

Average
Price
per
Barrel.

Bushels.

Value.

April, .

138

$3 50

414

$483

-

-

-

-

May,

257

4 00

771

1,028

4

$14 00

12

$56

June,

460

4 00

1,380

1,840

13

14 00

39

182

July,

355

3 00

1,065

1,060

33

14 00

99

462

August, .

312

3 50

936

1,092

20

15 00

60

300

September, . '

302

3 42

906

1,032

22

10 00

66

220

October, .

123

4 00

369

492

9

10 00

27

90

November,
Total,

50

3 00

150

150

-

-

-

1,997

83 r,u

5,991

$7,177

101

$12 97

303

$1,310

"Little necks,"
Grand total, .

101

303

1,310

2,098

6,294

$8,487

i Returns of Special Agent \Vm. C. Dunham.

The month of June shows the largest production, as the summer
people do not arrive in any numbers until July. The men who do
the summer boating are engaged in the quahaug fishery during this
month, naturally increasing the production.

The principal method is raking from a boat or dory with a long-
handled basket rake, very similar in form to the rake used on Cape
Cod. The second method, applicable only in shallow water, employs
the use of a claw rake with a much shorter handle. The quahauger uses
this rake in the shallow water, where he can wade at low tide. The
largest claw rakes are often wider than the basket ralfes, and are much
cheaper.

At Nantucket about 5 per cent, of the entire catch is " little necks,"
which are found mostly at Tuekernuck. The quahauger usually makes
three culls of his catch: (1) "little necks"; (2) medium; (3) large.
A few blunts are obtained. The quahaugs are shipped chiefly to New

68 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

York and Boston markets, either directly by the quahaugers or through
Nantucket firms.

The boats used in the industry, numbering 24 sail, 6 power and 10
single dories, and approximating $6,150 in value, are in a way transi-
tory capital, and are used in the winter for scalloping and other fishing.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to class them as capital used in the qua-
haug fishery.

No special town laws are made for the regulation of the Nantucket
quahaug fishery, although at any time by vote of the town suitable
regulations and by-laws can be made.

Quahaugs have probably always been abundant at Nantucket, as over
fifty years ago they were reported as plentiful. It is only of late years
that the fishery has assumed any great importance, when the increasing
prices, especially for the " little necks," made it profitable for men to
enter the business. As it is, many men now quahaug only when they
have nothing else to do.

From the statistics of the United States Fish Commission for 1879
we find that the annual catch for that year amounted to 150 bushels,
valued at $75. As a striking contrast to this, the present production
of 6,294 bushels, valued at $8,487, shows the great development of the
fishery, which has been caused by more men entering the business, the
opening up of new beds, such as the " little neck " beds of Tuckernuck,
and the improved methods of raking in the deep water.

It is rather difficult to state definitely, from lack of past statistical
figures, whether Nantucket industry is declining or improving. Between
1879 and 1906 no records are obtainable. The production figures for
1906 show 6,477 bushels, as compared with 6,144 bushels in 1907.
Whether there was merely a sudden temporary increase in the supply
by the opening up of new beds in 1906, or whether there is a steady
decline, can only be determined by the production of future years.
Many indications point to the latter, in spite of the assurance of the
quahaugers that 1907 was a good season, because of high market prices.

The last few years have witnessed a change in the quahaug fishery, —
a realization that there is more money in planting and raising qua-
haugs than in oyster culture. The out-of-State oystermen, especially
in New York, have been the first to realize this, and have been
buying, at the rate of $4 to $5 per bushel, all the small quahaugs they
can procure, merely replanting, to reap the following year a yield of
3 to 6 bushels for every bushel planted.

Under the stimulus of the high prices offered, many bushels of small
quahaugs have been shipped from the town, which thus lost what the
planters gained. There is much feeling against such a practice, but
so far nothing has been done by the town to stop this shipping of
" seed " quahaugs. As the town has full control of its shellfisheries,
it has only to pass a simple law allowing no quahaugs under 2 inches

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 69

to be taken, and see that it is properly enforced. Such a matter should
be attended to at once, as not only is the actual value of the catch
diminished, but the industry is seriously impaired by the capture of
these small quahaugs before they can spawn.

The only other way to remedy this difficulty is to grant licenses allow-
ing the replanting of these small quahaugs on the barren parts of the
harbor until they have obtained a proper size. The results obtained
from the experiments of the commission in Polpis harbor show that qua-
haugs will grow rapidly when thus replanted in suitable places, and
that a gain of ^2 to % of an inch, or 3 to 6 bushels for every bushel
bedded, can be obtained during the six summer months (May to
November).

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Area of quahaug territory (acres), ....... 5,290

Number of men, 48

Number of boats, 30

Value of boats, $5,800

Number of dories, ' 10

Value of dories, $350

Value of gear, $600

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 303

Value, $1,310

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 5,991

Value, $7,177

Total: —

Bushels, 6,294

Value, $8,487

New Bedford.

The quahaug industry of New Bedford" was practically annihilated
by the law of 1905, which closed the Acushnet River and Clark's Cove
to both clammer and quahauger. Good beds of quahaugs, particularly
" little necks," exist in both these waters, but can- be taken only for
bait. As several sewers run into the Acushnet River, and the public
health was endangered by the consumption as food of the quahaugs
taken from the river and the waters near its mouth, nearly 400 acres of
quahaug territory were closed by the State Board of Health. What
little available territory there is outside the prescribed area, off Clark's
Point, is free to all.

A license is required to dig quahaugs for bait in this territory, and
such is issued free of charge. The maximum amount permitted to be
dug is 2 bushels per week of clams or quahaugs, or of both. Some

70 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

320 permits have been issued since the law was passed, in 1905. Eleven
of these have been since revoked for unlawful conduct on the part of
the possessors. For the first offence the license is merely revoked, for
the second a fine of $10, and for the third $100 is imposed.

Orleans.

Although Orleans is well represented by all four main types of shell-
fish, the quahaug fishery is the leading industry of the town. A favor-
able coast line, fronting on the west the waters of Cape Cod Bay and
bounded on the east by Pleasant Bay, provides excellent facilities for
the quahaug fishery.

The main quahauging territory is in Cape Cod Bay. While the west
coast of Orleans is only about a mile long, the privileges which allow
the citizens of Orleans free fishing in Eastham waters, according to
the act of incorporation in 1792, " whereby the benefits of the shell-
fishery were to be mutually shared," opens up an extensive tract of
quahaug territory, from 2 to 3 miles in width, extending north as far
as Billingsgate Island and the Wellfleet line. The actual Orleans qua-
haug territory consists only of 1,000 acres, which furnish but poor
quahauging, while the water is several fathoms deep.

On the east side an entirely different condition prevails. Here in
the waters of Pleasant Bay is a bed of quahaugs which, though
worked for a long time, is still in excellent condition. The proportion
of " little necks " is larger than on the west side, running about one-
half the entire catch; neither is the water as deep here, rarely having
a greater depth than 12 feet, and by no means as rough as the more
exposed waters of Cape Cod Bay. The quahauging grounds here com-
prise 500 acres.

Although there are 1,500 acres of quahaug territory in the town of
Orleans, only a small part of this is commercially productive, and the
larger part of the fishery is carried on in Eastham waters.

The possession of two entirely different quahaug grounds, one on the
east, the other on the west coast, makes practically two different indus-
tries, each of which will have to be considered separately.

(1) Cape Cod Bay Industry. — In Cape Cod Bay 50 men rake qua-
haugs whenever the weather will permit. Owing to the great depth of
water, the work is difficult, requiring rakes with handles often 60 feet
long. Two men generally go in one boat, the usual type being an
elongated dory, some 30 to 32 feet over all, carrying from 4 to 12 horse-
power gasolene engines. These boats are built to stand rough weather,
and cost from $700 to $1,000 apiece. Thirty boats are employed in this
business in the bay.

The qtiahauger averages perhaps 100 working days in a year, as in
a strong wind and choppy sea it is impossible to rake in the deep water.
A good fisherman expects to rake from 2 to 3 barrels of quahaugs a

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

71

day. Five to ten years ago as many as 15 barrels were dug in a day by
one man, but this is impossible now. Even as it is, the profits are large.
The best quahauger in Orleans cleared in 1906 over $1,600, while sev-
eral others made nearly $1,400. As at Wellfleet, the Orleans quahaugers
receive licenses to replant their quahaugs along the shore, and it is cus-
tomary to thus keep them until the New York or Boston markets offer
suitable prices. Nearly two-thirds of these deep-water quahaugs are
blunts, and perhaps one-tenth of the catch is " little necks."

(2) Pleasant Bay Industry. — About 25 men dig here from ordinary
dories, using short rakes and tongs. The average wages are $2 to
$3 per day, which is considerably less than the high wages of the Cape
Cod Bay fishery; but many more days can be utilized during the year,
while the work is much easier and the necessary outlay of capital is
slight. Here the quahaugs run about one-half " little necks," and the
proportion of blunts is small.

Little evidence of decline can be seen in Pleasant Bay, where the
bed of quahaugs, although raked for a long time, still shows few signs
of decrease. On the Cape Cod Bay side the reverse is true, and the
supply is gradually diminishing.

The same town laws for regulation of the quahaug fishery apply
for Wellfleet, Eastham and Orleans. (See Wellfleet.)

The main historical features of the quahaug industry at Orleans have
been similar to Wellfleet, the industry lying practically dormant until
1894, when it rapidly reached its present production. Unfortunately,
but little data can be obtained for comparison of the industry of 1879
with 1907. Ernest Ingersoll reports, in 1879 : -

At Orleans, some few men who go mackereling in summer stay at home
and dig clams in winter, getting perhaps 50 barrels of quahaugs among
others, which are peddled in the town.

Comparing the two years by table, we find : —

1879.

1907.

Annual production, .

150 bushels, .

33,000 bushels.

Value of production,

$82.50, ....

$41,350.

Number of men,

A few, ....

76.

Location, quahaug beds, .

Pleasant Bay,

Cape Cod Bay and Pleasant Bay.

Market,

Home consumption, .

New York and Boston.

72

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Cape Cod Bay.

Pleasant Bay.

Total.

Area (acres),

1,000

500

1,500

Number of men

50

25

75

Number of boats,

30

-

30

Value of boats,

$23,000

-

$23,000

Number of dories, ... .

-

25

25

Value of dories

•

$500

$500

Value of implements,

$1,250

$250

$1,500

Production.

" Little necks ": —

Bushels,

2,700

3,000

5,700

$6,750

$7,000

$13,750

Quahaugs : —

Bushels,

24,300

3,000

27,300

$24,300

$3,300

$27,600

Total: —

Bushels, .... ....

27,000

6,000

33,000

Value,

$31,050

$10,300

$41,350

Provincetown.

No commercial quahaug fishery is carried on at Provincetown. A
few quahaugs, chiefly " little necks," are found in the tide pools among
the thatch on the northwestern side of the harbor.

Swansea.

A quahaug fishery existed in Swansea until three years ago. Since
that time there has been no commercial fishery, though a few quahaugs
are still dug for home consumption.

Truro.

Occasionally a few scattering quahaugs are found on the bars, which
extend out one-quarter of a mile from shore on the bay side. No
quahaug fishery is carried on.

Wareham.

The town of Wareham, situated on the northeast side of Buzzards
Bay and separated from the adjoining town of Bourne by Cohasset
Narrows, has a coast line indented with numerous small inlets, bays
and rivers, which afford excellent opportunities for the growth of the
quahaug. The villages of Onset, Wareham and part of Buzzards Bay
enjoy the privileges of this fishery.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 73

Quahaugs are found over practically the entire territory, and com-
prise a total area of about 1,300 acres. Although much of this area
is barren, the commercial fishery is maintained by small isolated beds
which occur here and there.

The two principal centers of the industry are in the Wareham River
and in Onset Bay. At Onset the whole bay, except the oyster grants,
as included between the southeast end of Mashnee Island and Peters
Neck, is used for quahauging. A few quahaugs are found in Broad
Cove, and fair digging is obtained in Buttermilk Bay and Cohasset
Narrows. The Wareham River, outside the oyster grants, and a narrow
shore strip from Weweantit River to Tempe's Knob, comprise the
rest of the territory. In Onset Channel a fine bed exists in deep water,
2 to 4 fathoms, but the ground is so hard that not much digging is
done.

It will be seen from the map that practically 75 per cent, of the
quahaug territory is taken up by oyster grants, especially in the Ware-
ham River and Onset Bay. Town sentiment is in a chaotic state over
the oyster and quahaug deadlock, and much friction naturally exists
between the opposing factions, the quahaugers and oystermen. The
struggle between these two parties was at its height several years ago,
and the enmity still continues, though not so openly, owing to the decline
of the quahaug industry. Rightly managed, affairs ought to be so
arranged that prosperity might be brought to both factions; but town
customs and town laws, poorly enforced at the best, are hardly able
to cope with this evil, which has resulted in much expense legally and
financially to both parties, and both industries are badly crippled in
consequence, — the oyster industry by lack of protection and the qua-
haug industry by loss of grounds. It is hoped that in the future suit-
able arrangements can be made for both industries, and that the quahaug
industry, which is at present declining, can be put on an equal footing
with the oyster industry, by granting licenses to plant and grow qua-
haugs. •

Most of the digging is done with garden rakes, potato diggers or
by hand. Some tongs are used, but 'few if any long-handled basket
rakes, since the digging is chiefly confined to the shallow water, not
more than 10 feet deep, except in Onset Channel, where it ranges from
12 to 24 feet.

No information or statistical records of the quahaug fishery of Ware-
ham can be obtained, and it is therefore impossible to draw any com-
parison between the present industry and the industry of twenty-five
years ago.

The decline of the quahaug fishery in Wareham is an established
fact. The production of 6,000 bushels for 1906 is far less than the
production of five years ago. Since 1901 the output has steadily de-
clined, and where the quahauger once was able to rake 5 bushels at a
tide, to-day he can rake scarcely 1 bushel in the same time. It is only

74 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

a question of a few years when the natural supply will be completely
exterminated. The only salvation of the industry in Wareham is to
increase the natural supply by quahaug farming.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 1,300

Number of men, ........... 50

Number of boats, ..........

Value of boats,

Number of dories, .......... 50

Value of dories, $750

Value of implements, .......... $250

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 3,000

Value, $7,500

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 3,000

Value, $3,000

Total: —

Bushels, 6,000

Value, $10,500

Wellfteet.

The town of Wellfleet possesses the finest quahaug industry in Massa-
chusetts. More men are engaged in the business and the annual pro-
duction is larger than that of any other town of the State.

In colonial days the towns of Orleans, Eastham and Wellfleet were
incorporated as one town, — the town of Eastham. In 1763 an act
was passed incorporating the North Precinct of Eastham into a district
by the name of Wellfleet, " Reserving to the inhabitants of said town
the privileges by them heretofore enjoyed of all ways to and of erecting
houses on the beaches and islands for the convenience of the fishery
of all kinds, and of anchorage and of landing all goods or wares at
any of their common landing places in any of the harbors of said
Eastham in like manner as they might have done if this act had never
been made and passed." By this act were created the two independent
towns of Eastham and Wellfleet, which held in common all fisheries,
thus giving the mutual right of the shellfisheries to both towns.

In 1797 another act of incorporation, separating Orleans from East-
ham, was enacted, which provided that the benefits of the shellfisheries
of these two towns were to be mutually enjoyed.

The result of these two acts was to give Eastham and Wellfleet and
at the same time Eastham and Orleans mutual rights of the shellfishery,
but forbidding mutual shellfisheries between Wellfleet and Orleans.
While this may seem to give theoretically the advantage to Eastham,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 75

actually the town gains nothing in the quahaug fishery, as Orleans has
practically no productive grounds on the bay side, and the Orleans
quahaugers fish in the Eastham waters.

The quahaug territory of Wellfleet comprises about 2,500 acres, and
approximately takes up all the harbor, wherever there are no oyster
grants, running from the " Deep Hole " between Great Island and In-
dian Neck southward to the Eastham line. Outside of these limits a
few quahaugs are found on the flats of Duck Creek and along the shore
flats of the town. They are more abundant on the north side of Egg
Island, where they are taken in shallow water with ordinary hand
rakes. The best quahauging is found in the channel extending from an
imaginary line between Lieutenant's Island and Great Beach Hill south
to Billingsgate. The greatest depth at low tide is 4^/2 fathoms and the
general average is about 3 fathoms. In this channel are found most
of the " little necks," small blunts and small sharps.

Outside of the oyster grants, quahaugs are found south of Great
Island, north of Billingsgate Island on the west side of the harbor, on
Lieutenant's Island bar and at the mouth of Blackfish Creek. A few
quahaugs, both sharps and blunts, are raked with 25-foot rakes in the
shallow water 6 to 8 feet near the beach, usually on a sandy bottom.

The principal market for Wellfleet quahaugs is New York, though
many are sent to Boston and other parts of the country, even to the
middle west. Quahaugs have been shipped from Wellfleet to Mil-
waukee and arrived in good condition after ten days.

The annual production is 33,000 bushels, one-sixth of these, 5,500
bushels, being " little necks." There were 140 men engaged in the
fishery in 1906, and 145 permits were granted in 1907. The average
yield for a day's raking is 4 bushels, although an exceptional quahauger
can sometimes rake 7 bushels.

Practically all the raking is done in deep water, with rakes the
handles of which are often 47 feet long. Each quahauger has a set of
handles of various lengths for different depths of water. Both power
boats and " cats " are used here in quahauging, the power boats possess-
ing considerable advantage over the sail boat. Thirty-eight power boats
and 62 sail boats, both single and double manned, are used at Wellfleet.

At present there is every indication of a declining fishery. Until
the last three years the industry has been steadily on the increase since
1894. The maximum production .was reached a few years ago, and the
industry is slowly on the decline, unless the opening up of new beds
gives it a fresh start. Unfortunately, all the quahaugers do not realize
the possibility of this seemingly inexhaustible supply giving out, and
believe it will continue forever; but any one can see that it is impos-
sible for the natural supply to continue when such inroads are yearly
made, and that it is only a question of time when the best business
asset of the town will become extinct.

For years there has been an antagonistic feeling between the qua-

76 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

haugers and the oystermen, due to the conflicting interests of these
industries. Although the quahaug territory has been narrowed down
by the giving of oyster grants in the harbor, the quahaug fishery has not
suffered severely, as the poorer quahaug grounds were alone granted,
with the idea that more money could be made by using these for oyster
culture. Although these grants were laid out in good faith, injustice in
many instances has been done the quahaug industry; but on the whole
the change has been for the benefit of the town. In the broad waters of
Wellfleet harbor there is room for both industries, and there is no rea-
son why both should not prosper if wisely regulated, without the inter-
vention of town politics. At present this antagonism has hurt the
interests of both, and it is manifestly unfair that either should drive
the other out while there is room for both to prosper.

Wellfleet is the only town that can boast of a quahaug club. This
club was formed in 1904, and had an enrollment of practically all the
quahaugers.

Permits are required of every man engaged in the quahaug fishery.
These cost $1 apiece, and are granted on application to any one who
has been a resident of the town for six months. These permits are to
be obtained each year, on or before May 1, after which date an addi-
tional charge of 50 cents is made for collecting. No person without a
regular permit is allowed to catch quahaugs for market. Permits were
first issued in 1904.

Section 2 of chapter 269 of the Acts of 1904 is as follows : —

SECTION 2. No inhabitant of said towns shall sell or offer for sale little
neck clams or quahaugs which measure less than one and one-half inches
across the widest part, and no person shall in any of said towns sell or offer
for sale little neck clams or quahaugs which measure less than one and
one-half inches across the widest part.

This excellent law was passed for the towns of Eastham, Orleans
and Wellfleet, but has never been enforced. Although enacted and
technically lived up to, no measures are made for its enforcement, which
would necessitate a shellfish inspector. This furnishes an example of
the non-enforcement of one of the few good town laws.

Section 4 of chapter 269 of the Acts of 1904 is as follows : —

SECTION 4. The selectmen of the said towns may, in their respective
towns, grant licenses or permits for such periods, not exceeding two years,
and under such conditions as they may deem proper, not however covering
more than seventy-five feet square in area, to any inhabitants of the town
to bed quahaugs in any waters, flats and creeks within the town at any
place where there is no natural quahaug bed, not impairing the private
rights of any person or materially obstructing any navigable waters. It
shall be unlawful for any person, except the licensee and his agents, to take
any quahaugs in or remove them from the territory covered by any such
license. .•

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 77

The above should receive well-deserved praise, as it is one of the
most useful town laws ever enacted in Massachusetts. Each quahauger
is thus enabled to stake off a little plot 75 feet square on the flats,
whereon he can bed his catch whenever the market price is too low for
shipment. This not only makes steadier work for the quahaugers, since
a dull market does not stop digging, as before, but also enables him
to obtain a better price for his quahaugs, and he is not forced to lose
through the wastes of competition.

Quahaugs have always been abundant at Wellfleet. Forty years ago
about 15 men were engaged in the business, and shipped their catch to
Boston by packet boats, quahaugs then wholesaling at 50 cents per
bushel.

In 1879 (report of the United States Fish Commission) Ernest Inger-
soll gives the following account of the quahaug industry at Wellfleet,
which furnishes such an excellent comparison with the present industry
that it is given here : —

The early productiveness of Cape Cod is shown by the presence of numer-
ous shellfish heaps, particularly in Wellfleet and Barnstable harbors, filled
up by the Indians, and consisting almost wholly of the shells of this mol-
lusk. Though in greatly depleted numbers, the quahaug still survives along
the inside of the Cape, and at Wellfleet has been raked from early times
by the settlers. Mr. F. W. True contributes some notes on this place, from
which I learn that the quahaug fishery as a business there dates from the
beginning of the nineteenth century. It grew in extent until 1863, and
from that time until 1868 the trade was at its height, since when it has
diminished year by year, owing to lack of good market rather than failure
of the supply. Between 1863 and 1869 the average catch each year was
not less than 2,500 bushels. Of this amount a comparatively small part
was consumed at Wellfleet, and the rest were shipped to Boston, Province-
town, Salem, Newport, Manchester and a few other New England ports.
From 1870 to 1876 the quantity of quahaugs taken per year decreased from
2,500 bushels to 1,800 bushels, and this latter amount has remained constant
to the present year. Of the total catch in 1878, fully one-half, or 900
bushels, was consumed in Wellfleet, and the remaining 900 bushels were
shipped to Boston and other neighboring towns. For three years, beginning
with 1876, 75 bushels of quahaugs have been annually shipped to New
York City.

Quahaugs are found in all parts of Wellfleet Bay except in a small spot
near the wharves, called the "Deep Hole," and a similar one on the west
side of the bay. Both of these places are covered with a thick, soft mud.
It is not usual, however, to fish in parts of the bay where the average depth
at low water exceeds 8 feet. Most of the raking is done on the western side.
In ordinary years, quahaug raking is begun the last of March and con-
tinues until the first of October. As a general thing, no raking is done
through the winter months, although in some years a small amount has been
done through holes cut in the ice. The fishermen rake about four tides per
week, beginning at half -ebb and raking to half -flood. The boats used are
either cat boats or yawls rigged with two sails. Each boat carries 1 man.

78

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The rake employed at Wellfleet is described by Mr. True as similar in form
to an oyster rake, but made of steel instead of iron. In former days this
instrument was of iron, the tips of the teeth only being of steel. An
average rake has seventeen teeth, and weighs about 12 pounds. The handle
or tail is of wood, and is about 23 feet long. The baskets in which the
quahaugs are collected and measured are of ordinary manufacture, and hold
about a bushel each ; and the whole outfit of a quahaug fisherman does
not cost over $150, and the total amount of capital invested in apparatus
at the present time in Wellfleet does not exceed $800. This amount is
about evenly divided between 5 men, none of whom are engaged in this
fishery more than a part of their time.

Quahaugs are sent to market always in the shell, and packed in second-
hand flour or sugar barrels. The wholesale price of quahaugs for many years
averaged 60 cents per bushel, but in 1879 it fell to 55 cents. One dollar
and seventy-five cents is the average wholesale price per barrel. Quahaugs
retail in Wellfleet at 80 cents per bushel. The usual method of transporta-
tion is by packet, at a cost of 25 cents per barrel.1

COMPARISON OP 1879 WITH 1907.

1879.

1907.

1,800 ....

33 000

Annual value

$990, ....

$41,250.

Average price per bushel,

55 cents,

$1.25.

Number of men,

5,

145.

Capital,

$800

$25,950.

Market,

Boston and New York,
April 1 to October 1

New York, Boston, and other
cities.
April 1 to October 1

Boats,
Deepest water

5 sail boats, .
8 feet, .

100 boats, one-third power, two-
thirds sail.
40 feet.

Longest rake, ....

23 feet

47 feet.

Best quahaug beds, .

West side of harbor, .

Channel.

From the account of Mr. Ingersoll the above table has been formu-
lated, showing the vast increase in the quahaug business of Wellfleet
since 1879, as well as certain changes in the industry. This by no means
proves that the quahaug industry is on the increase; it merely shows
that it has taken a tremendous development since 1879, and the fact
that the quahaug industry of Wellfleet has passed its maximum produc-
tion a few years ago and is now on the decline should not be overlooked
in consulting this table, which otherwise would give an erroneous
impression. The changing of the quahaug grounds from shallow to
deeper water alone is a sign of the decline of the industry. The qua-
haug industry has developed to its present extent only since 1894, and is

1 " The Oyster, Scallop, Clam, Mussel and Abalone Industries," by Ernest Ingersoll.
United States Fish Commission Report, Section V., Vol. 2, p. 603.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 79

comparatively recent. By the opening of the great beds of " little
necks " and quahaugs in the channel and deep water the industry
suddenly became important.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 2,500

Number of men, 145

Number of power boats, ......... 38

Value of power boats, $14,000

Number of sail boats, 62

Value of sail boats, $10,300

Value of implements, $3,200

Production.

« Little necks": —

Bushels, 5,500

Value, $13,850

Quahaugs: —

Bushels, 27,500

Value, $27,500

Total: —

Bushels, 33,000

Value, $41,350

Yarmouth.

The quahaug grounds, which lie mostly in Bass River, are free to
the inhabitants of Dennis and Yarmouth, as these two towns have com-
mon fishery rights. Quahaugs are found in four localities: (1) Bass
River; (2) Mill Creek; (3) Barnstable Bar on the north shore; and
(4) Lewis Bay. The total area is 1,000 acres, which includes all grounds
where there are any quahaugs, as there are now no thick beds. The
average depth of water over the quahaug grounds is 4 feet.

The town law governing the quahaug fishery reads thus : —

All persons other than the inhabitants of the towns of Dennis and Yar-
mouth are prohibited from taking clams and quahaugs from the shores and
waters of the town of Yarmouth. Inhabitants of the Commonwealth not
residents of Dennis and Yarmouth may obtain permits of the selectmen to
take sufficient quantity of said shellfish for their family use.

The history of the quahaug industry of Yarmouth is one of decline.
The industry has existed for fifteen years, starting in 1892. Mr. Edgar
N. Baker, who has been interested in the business ever since it started,
says : —

In the last ten years it is safe to say that the catch has fallen off fully
75 per cent., and nothing but the constant advance in prices and lack of
profitable employment has prompted men to give their attention to this
method of obtaining their "bread and butter." The most conservative
estimate would not put it below 50 per cent.

80 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Area of quahaug territory (acres), 1,000

Number of men (transient), 20

Number of boats,

Value of boats, ...........

Number of skiffs, 10

Value of skiffs, $100

Value of implements, $140

Production.

"Little necks": —

Bushels, 1,200

Value, $3,000

Quahaugs : —

Bushels, 1,000

Value, $1,000

Total: —

Bushels, 2,200

Value, $4,000

SCALLOP (Pecten irradians).

The common shallow-water scallop is unknown commercially on the
north shore, occurring only south of Boston. It is usually found in
abundance along the southern shore of Cape Cod, in Buzzards Bay,
and about the islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.

For the past three years investigations in regard to its growth, habits
and culture have been carried on by the Commissioners on Fisheries
and Game. These investigations are now practically completed. In
another report the whole life history of this bivalve will be given, show-
ing the application of this scientific study to the existing conditions of
the industry. ,

The scallop fishery in Massachusetts is only a partial industry, as
it does not concern the whole coast line, but merely the Vineyard Sound
and Buzzards Bay shore. Compared with other States, the production
of Massachusetts is favorable, New York alone exceeding it in out-
put. The southern coast of Massachusetts is especially adapted for this
shellfish. Its bays, sheltered harbors and inlets afford excellent ground
for the scallop, which requires protection against the heavy seas. Thou-
sands of acres of eel-grass flats from 1 to 60 feet under water were
formerly covered by beds of scallops, and in parts are still thickly set.
While the extent of the scalloping area is large, only portions are ever
productive at any one time. A set may be in one part this year, and the
next year's spawn may catch in a different place. Thus, while all the
ground is suitable for scallops, only a small part is in productive
operation each year.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 81

While the possibilities of future development are not as alluring as
in the other shellfisheries, yet much can be done to assist nature and
help preserve the supply. Wise laws and well-directed efforts can save
many bushels of the young scallops which yearly die on the exposed
flats where they have set in unfavorable places.

Scope of the Report. — The object of this report is to present certain
information concerning the scallop industry which will be of use to the
scallop fishermen, and of interest to the general public and the con-
sumers. While the scallop is well known as an article of food, the
majority of people know little about the animal. It will therefore be
necessary in the following report to give brief descriptions of the vari-
ous methods used in the capture of this bivalve, in order to make clear
the more technical portions.

The first part of the report considers the general results of the sur-
vey, the history of the industry, the scallop laws, the methods of scal-
loping and the statistics of the industry. The second part gives a more
detailed description, the following points being considered under each
town: (1) survey; (2) statistics of industry; (3) town laws; (4)
history.

Methods of Work. — Several difficulties stand in the way of procur-
ing exact information concerning the scallop industry, especially in re-
gard to historical data which should show the improvement or decline
of the fishery. The town records are incomplete, lost, or furnish but
slight information. Little has been written about this industry, and
we were thus forced to rely upon the scallopers for information con-
cerning the history and former production of each town. Fortunately,
the scallop industry is of recent origin (thirty years), and the infor-
mation is very nearly correct. By the use of town records, market
reports, records of express shipments, personal surveys and estimates
by the various scallopers, and by all other methods at our command, the
facts of the last few years have been obtained in an approximately
correct form.

The area of the scallop territory was obtained by personal inspection
and calculated by plottings on the maps. In designating the area suit-
able for scallops in any town by a certain number of acres or by plot-
1 tings on the map, it does not mean that scallops are found each year
over all this territory. Allowances must be made for the uncertainty
of the scallop supply. Some years there will be no scallops; in other
years, plenty. Even when scallops are plentiful, they rarely cover the
whole territory, but are found only in certain parts in different years.
The designation of an area as scallop territory means that scallops have
been found in the past over this territory, and that the natural con-
ditions of the territory appear favorable for scallops.

82 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The Decline.

The most important questions which first come to mind when con-
sidering the scallop industry of to-day are these three: (1) Has there
been any decline in the industry? If so, how extensive? (2) What
are the causes of the decline? (3) How can the fishery be improved?

I. Extent of the Decline. — There is no question but that the indus-
try as a whole has declined. This decline has made itself manifest,
especially in certain localities, e.g., Buzzards Bay, where until
1907 the entire fishery, except at New Bedford and Fairhaven, had
been totally extinct for the past seven years.

Along the south side of Cape Cod, at Edgartown and Nantucket,
the supply has on the average remained the same. Of course there is
varying abundance each year, but as a whole the industry in these lo-
calities can hardly be said to have declined.

On the other hand, on the north side of Cape Cod we find a marked
decline. A scallop fishery no longer exists at Plymouth, Barnstable
harbor, Wellfleet and Provincetown, though twenty-five years ago these
places boasted of a valuable industry.

So we have to-day in Massachusetts three localities, two of which
show a marked decline in the scallop fishery, while the other shows
some improvement. Of the two depleted areas, the one (north of the
Cape) may never revive the industry; the other (Buzzards Bay) gives
indications that the industry can once more be put on a very profitable
footing. The only thing necessary is perpetual precaution on the part
of the fishermen, in order to prevent this decline. Massachusetts must
not allow the industry to become extinct, as in Rhode Island.

II. Causes of the Decline. — The causes of the decline of this in-
dustry can be grouped under three heads: (1) natural enemies; (2)
overfishing by man; (3) adverse physical conditions.

The natural enemy of the scallop which works the greatest mischief
is the starfish, or "five finger," as it is often called. The starfish
destroys the scallop in the same manner as it attacks the oyster. The
decline of the scallop fishery in Buzzards Bay is attributed by the
fishermen to the inroads of this pest. Undoubtedly the starfish was the
chief apparent cause, since, according to report, dredges full of star-
fish could be hauled up. In other localities in Massachusetts the star-
fish has not been so plentiful.

While the main cause of the decline of the natural clam, quahaug and
oyster beds is overfishing by man, the decline of the scallop fishery
cannot be so considered. The scallop has a short life, hardly 25 per
cent, passing the two-year limit; so it does no harm to capture the
marketable scallops which are over sixteen months old, as the scallop
spawns when one year old, and dies a natural death usually before it
reaches a second spawning season. When only old scallops are taken,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 83

as is generally the case, it is probably impossible for man to exterminate
the scallops by overfishing. Unfortunately, in certain localities in the
past there has been a large capture of the " seed " scallop, viz., the
scallop less than one year old, which has not spawned. This has worked
the ruin of the scalloping in these localities. The capture . of the
spawners for another year merely makes the next year's set so much
smaller, and causes a rapid decline.

As a rule, it is hardly profitable to catch the " seed " scallop, owing
to its small size. But a direct relation can be established between a high
market price and the capture of seed. When the market price is high
and scallops scarce, it becomes profitable to catch the young " seed."
The present scallop law now defines a " seed " scallop, and forbids its
capture. By protecting the " seed " scallop the State has done all that
at present appears expedient to insure the future of the industry; the
rest lies in the hands of the towns.

So, while the scallop has declined in certain localities, and the decline
has been hastened by unwise capture of the " seed " scallop, the main
decline of the fishery cannot be attributed to wholesale overfishing, as
it is impossible to overfish if only the old scallops (over one year old)
are taken; for, unlike most other animals, the scallop usually breeds
but once, and its natural period of life is unusually brief. These
scallops, if not taken, will die, and prove a total loss; so every fisher-
man should bear in mind that, as long as the " seed " scallops are pro-
tected, severe fishing of large scallops is not likely to injure the future
scallop industry.

The principal causes of the decline of the fishery, besides the inroads
of man, are best termed " adverse physical conditions." Severe winters,
storms, anchor frost, etc., work destruction upon the hapless scallop.
The "infant mortality" is especially great.

As the scallop dies before reaching its second birthday, only one set
of scallops spawn in any one season. There are never two generations
of scallops spawning at one time. I quote from Ernest Ingersoll in
this connection : —

This represents a case where the generations follow one another so rapidly
that there are never two ranks, or generations, in condition to reproduce
their kind at once, except in rare individual instances, since all, or nearly
all, of the old ones die before the young ones have grown old enough to
spawn. If such a state of affairs exists, of course any sudden catastrophe,
such as a great and cold storm during the winter, or the covering of the
water where they lie for a long period with a sheet of ice, happening
to kill all the tender young (and old ones, too, often) in a particular dis-
trict, will exterminate the breed there; since, even if the older and tougher
ones survive this shock, they will not live long enough, or at any rate,
will be unable to spawn again, and so start a new generation.1

1 E. Ingersoll, " The Scallop Fishery," United States Fish Commission report, 1881.

84 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The set of young scallops is abundant in shallow water upon the
eel-grass flats, which often, as is the case of the Common Flats at
Chatham, are exposed at extremely low tides. A severe winter often
kills off all the " seed " thus exposed. In this case no spawn is ob-
tained the following summer, causing the suppression of the scallop
fishery in that locality for at least a few years, and possibly its per-
manent extinction.

III. Improvement; restocking Barren Areas. — The scallop indus-
try, unlike the clam and quahaug, offers but little inducement to private
enterprise. For successful private culture smallbays or coves would
be needed, and suitable areas are very scarce. The scallop offers better
opportunity for communal culture, i.e., by towns.

There is but one way now known of artificial propagation for the
scallop industry, and that is by transplanting in the fall the abundant
set from the exposed places to the deeper water before the seed is killed
by the winter. It is merely assisting nature by preventing a natural
loss, and in no sense can properly be termed propagation. It is merely
a preventive, and money used in this way to preserve the scallops is
well expended. Usually the set is abundant, and can be transferred
in large numbers. This is the only practical method now known of
increasing our scallop supply, though it is hoped in the future that
other methods may be devised.

In connection with the above comes the question, if we can thus
preserve scallops doomed to destruction, will it not be profitable to
transplant scallops to places where the scalloping has been exterminated
by various causes, and by means of these " seeders " furnish succeeding
generations which may populate the barren areas? This plan is prac-
tical and feasible, and should be given due consideration. Why should
not scallops be transplanted to our Buzzards Bay harbors, to again
restock these areas? Often the attempt might fail, but there is bound
to be success if there is perseverance. The best time to plant these
scallops is in the fall, as a double service will be given: (1) preserva-
tion from destruction of the seed scallops; (2) furnishing spawn and
young in the barren locality. Ingersoll speaks of the restocking of
Oyster Bay in 1880 : —

In the spring of 1880 eel grass came into the bay, bringing young scal-
lops [the eel grass carries the scallops attached to it by the thread-like
byssus] ; thus the abundance of that year was accounted for, though there
had not been a crop before in that bay since 1874.

If such a restocking can be accomplished by nature, it can be done
with more certain effect with man's assistance.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 85

The Industry.

I. The Methods. — The methods of scalloping follow the historical
rise of the fishery. As the industry grew more and more important,
improvements became necessary in the methods of capture, and thus,
parallel with the development of the industry, we can trace a corre-
sponding development in the implements used in the capture of the
scallop.

(a) Gathering by Hand. — When the scallop was first used as an
article of food, the primitive method of gathering this bivalve by hand
was used. This method still exists on the flats of Brewster, and often
in other localities after heavy gales wagons can be driven to the beach
and loaded with the scallops which have been blown ashore.

(b) Scoop Nets. — This hand method was not rapid enough for the
enterprising scallopers, and the next step in the industry was the use
of scoop nets, about 8 inches in diameter, by which the scallops could
be picked up in the water. These nets were attached to poles of vari-
ous lengths, suitable to the depth of water. " This method," writes
Ingersoll, " was speedily condemned, however, because it could be
employed only where scallops are a foot thick and inches in length,
as one fisherman expressed it."

(c) The Pusher. — The next invention was the so-called "pusher."
The " pusher " consists of a wooden pole from 8 to 9 feet long, at-
tached to a rectangular iron frame 3 by IVfe feet, upon which is fitted
a netting bag 3 feet in depth. The scalloper, wading on the flats
at low tide, gathers the scallops by shoving the " pusher " among the
eel grass. When the bag is full, the contents are emptied into the dory
and th« process repeated. The scallopers who use the " pusher " go
in dories, which are taken to the various parts of the scalloping ground
and moved whenever the immediate locality is exhausted. This method
is in use to-day, but is applicable only to shallow flats, and can be
worked only at low tide, where dredging is impossible. It is hard
work, and not as profitable as the better method of dredging. This
method of scalloping is used chiefly at Chatham, Dennis and Yar-
mouth; occasionally it is used at Nantucket and other towns.

(d) Dredging. — The greater part of the scallop catch is taken by
dredging, which is the most universal as well as the most profitable
method. The dredge, commonly pronounced " drudge," consists of
an iron framework about 3 by l1/^ feet, with a netting bag attached,
which will hold from one to two bushels of scallops. Cat boats, carry-
ing from 6 to 10 dredges, are used for this method of scalloping. These
boats, with several " reefs," cross the scallop grounds pulling the
dredges, which hold the boat steady in her course. A single run with
all the dredges overboard is called a "drift." The contents of all
the dredges is said to be the result or catch of the " drift."

86 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

When the dredges are hauled in they are emptied on what is known
as a culling board. This board runs the width of the boat, projecting
slightly on both sides. It is 3 feet wide, and has a guide 3 inches
high along each side, leaving the ends open. The scallops are then
separated from the rubbish, such as seaweed, shells, mud, etc., while
the refuse and seed scallops are thrown overboard by merely pushing
them off the end of the board. Each catch is culled out while the dredges
are being pulled along on the back " drift," and the board is again
clear for the next catch. The culled scallops are first put in buckets
and later transferred either to bushel bags or dumped into the cockpit
of the boat.

Two men are usually required to tend from 6 to 8 dredges in a large
cat boat, but often one man alone does all the work. This seems to
be confined to localities, as at Nantucket nearly all the cat boats have
two men. At Edgartown the reverse is true, one man to the boat,
though in power dredging two men are always used.

Several styles of dredges are used in scalloping, as each locality has
its own special kind, which is best adapted to the scalloping bottom
of that region. Four different styles are used in Massachusetts, two of
which permit a subdivision, making in all six different forms. Each
of these dredges is said by the scallopers using them to be the best;
but for all-round work the " scraper " seems the most popular.

(1) The Chatham or Box Dredge. — As this dredge was first used in
Chatham, the name of the town was given to it, to distinguish it from
the other styles. At the present time its use is confined to Chatham and
the neighboring towns of the Cape. With the exception of a very few
used at Nantucket, it is not found elsewhere in Massachusetts.

The style of the box dredge is peculiar, consisting of a rectangular
framework, 27 by 12 inches, of flat iron 1 by ^4 inches, with an oval-
shaped iron bar extending back as a support for the netting bag, which
is attached to the rectangular frame. To the side of the rectangular
frame is attached a heavy iron chain about 4 feet long, to which is
fastened the drag rope.

(2) The Scraper. — As can be seen by the illustration, this style
of dredge consists of a rigid iron frame of triangular shape, which
has a curve of nearly 90° at the base, to form the bowl of the dredge.
Above, a raised cross bar connects the two arms, while at the bottom
of the dredge a strip of iron 2 inches wide extends from arm to arm.
This strip acts as a scraping blade, and is set at an angle so as to dig
into the bottom. The top of the net is fastened to the raised cross bar
and the lower part to the blade.

The usual dimensions of the dredge are: arms, 2% feet,- upper
cross bar, 2 feet; blade, 2*/2 feet. The net varies in size, usually
holding about a bushel of scallops, and running from 2 to 3 feet in
length. Additional weights can be put on the cross bar when the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 87

scalloper desires the dredge to scrape deeper. A wooden bar, 2 feet
long, buoys the net.

Two styles of this dredge are in use. At Nantucket the whole net
is made of twine, while at Edgartown and in Buzzards Bay the lower
part of the net is formed of a netting of iron rings, the upper half
of the net being twine. The iron rings are supposed to stand the wear
better than the twine netting. This difference seems to be merely a
matter of local choice. The "scraper" is perhaps the dredge most
generally used, as, no matter what style is in use, a scalloper generally
has a few " scrapers " among his dredges.

(3) The " Slider." — The principle of the "slider" is the reverse
of the " scraper," as the blade is set either level or with an upward
incline, so the dredge can slide over the bottom. This dredge is used
on rough bottom and in places where there is little eel-grass. In some
dredges the blade is rigid, but in the majority the blade hangs loose.

The "slider" used at Edgartown differs from the "scraper" by hav-
ing perfectly straight arms and no curved bowl, the blade being
fastened to the arms in a hook-and-eye fashion. The dimensions of
this dredge are the same as those of the " scraper," although occa-
sionally smaller dredges are found.

(4) The " Roller" Dredge. — This style of dredge is used only in the
town of Mattapoisett, where the scallopers claim it is the most success-
ful. The dredge is suitable for scalloping over rough ground, as the
blade of the dredge is merely a line of leads, which roll over the surface
of the ground gathering in the scallops.

The dredge consists of an oval iron frame, 32 by 20 inches, which
acts as the arms, and is attached to another iron frame, 32 by 3 inches.
The blade of the dredge consists of a thin rope with attached leads.
The net is made wholly of twine, and is about 2^2 feet long.

Scalloping with, Power Boats. — The season of 1907 has witnessed
in Massachusetts the first use of auxiliary power in the scallop fishery.
At Edgartown the main part of the scalloping is now done by power,
which, in spite of the additional expense of 5 gallons of gasolene per
day, gives a proportionately larger catch of scallops. The Edgartown
scallopers claim that their daily catch, using power, is from one-third
to one-half better than under the old method of dredging by sail. Not
only can they scallop when the wind is too light or too heavy for suc-
cessful scalloping by sail, but more " drifts " can be made in the same
time. A slight disadvantage of scalloping with power is the necessity
of having two men, as the steering of the power boat demands much
closer attention than the sail boat, which is practically held to a fixed
course by the dredges. A power boat for scalloping possesses only the
disadvantage of additional cost ; but it is only necessary to look forward
a few years, when expedition rather than cheapness will be in demand,
to a partial revolution in the present methods of scalloping, whereby

88 THE MOLLUSK .FISHERIES

the auxiliary cat boat will take the place of the sail boat in the scallop
fishery.

II. Preparing the Scallop for Market. (1) The " Eye." — The
edible part of the scallop is the large adductor muscle. The rest of
the animal is thrown away, though in certain localities it is used as
fish bait and in others for fertilizer. Why the whole of the animal
is not eaten is hard to say. Undoubtedly all is good, but popular
prejudice, which molds opinion, has decreed that it is bad, so it is
not used as food. This is perhaps due to the highly pigmented and
colored portions of the animal. Nevertheless, there is a decided possi-
bility that in the future we shall eat the entire scallop, as well as the
luscious adductor muscle.

The adductor muscle is called by the dealers and fishermen the " eye,"
a name given perhaps from its important position in the animal, and
its appearance. The color of the " eye," which has a cylindrical form,
is a yellowish white.

(2) The Shanties. — The catch of scallops is carried to the shanty
of the fisherman, and there opened. These shanties are usually grouped
on the dock, so the catch can be readily transferred. Inside of these
shanties, usually 20 by 10 feet or larger, we find a large bench 3
to 3*72 feet wide, running the length of the shanty, and a little more
than waist high. On these benches the scallops are dumped from the
baskets or bags, and pass through the hands of the openers. Under
the bench are barrels for the shells and refuse.

(3) The Openers. — The openers are usually men and boys, though
occasionally a few women try their hand at the work. Of late years
there has been a difficulty in obtaining sufficient openers, and the scal-
lopers often are forced to open their own scallops. The openers are
paid from 20 to 30 cents per gallon, according to the size of the
scallops. One bushel of average scallops will open 2Vfe to 3 quarts
of " eyes." An opener can often open 8 to 10 gallons in a day, making
an excellent day's work. The price now paid is more than double that
paid in 1880, which was 12^ cents per gallon. Some openers are
especially rapid, and their deft movements cause a continual dropping
of shells in the barrel and " eyes " in the gallon measure.

(4) Method of opening the Scallop. — The opening of a scallop re-
quires three movements. A flat piece of steel with a sharp but rounded
end, inserted in a wooden handle, answers for a knife. The scallop
is taken by a right-handed opener in the palm of the left hand, the
hinge line farthest away from the body, the scallop in its natural rest-
ing position, the right or smooth valve down. The knife is inserted
between the valves on the right-hand side. An upward turn with a cut-
ting motion is given, severing the " eye " from the upper valve, while
a flirt at the same moment throws back the upper shell. The second
motion tears the soft rim and visceral mass of the scallop and casts
it into the barrel, leaving the " eye " standing clear. A third move-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 89

ment separates the "eye" from the shell and casts it into a gallon
measure. Frequently the last two movements are slightly different.
The faster openers at the second motion merely tear off enough of the
rim to allow the separation of the " eye " from the shell, and on the
third movement cast the " eye " in the measure, while the shell with
its adhering soft parts is thrown into the refuse barrel. These last
two motions can hardly be separated, so quickly are they accomplished.

(5) " Soaking." — The "eye" is then usually put through the fol-
lowing course of treatment before marketing; the treatment is what
is familiarly known as " soaking." It has been noticed that whenever
salt water products are allowed to soak in fresh water, an increase
of bulk is found. This is due to a change, called osmosis, which causes
the swelling of the tissues. The " eye " can be increased, by the process
of osmosis, to a gain of more than one-third its natural size; that is,
4^/2 gallons of scallop " eyes " can be increased to 7 gallons by judicious
"feeding" with fresh water. Also, a change has taken place in the
scallops after a few hours* soaking. No longer do we find the poor
yellow-colored small " eye " of the freshly opened scallop, but a beau-
tiful white, plump " eye," which at once tempts the purchaser. While
these changes have added to the salable properties of the scallop by
beautifying its appearance and increasing its size, the scallop has lost
much of its sweet flavor and freshness.

Practically every scallop sold in the markets or shipped from any
scalloping center is soaked, as the "soaking," if not already done by
the fishermen, is administered by the retail dealers. There are scallopers
who are ready to ship the unsoaked scallops at a proportionate price
the moment the market demands them ; but the consumer, through ignor-
ance, demands the large, nice-appearing " eyes," and thus unwittingly
favors the practice. However, as long as pure water is used and other
sanitary precautions taken, no actual harm may arise from soaking
scallops.

Two methods of swelling scallops are in use. When the scallops
are shipped in kegs, which usually contain 7 gallons, the following
method is applied : 4% to 5 gallons of " eyes " are placed in each keg,
and are allowed to stand over night in fresh water; in the morning
before shipment more water is added and the keg closed, and by the
time of arrival to the New York or Boston market the scallops have
increased to the full amount of 7 gallons.

The second method of "soaking" is slightly more elaborate. The
eyes are spread evenly in shallow wooden sinks 5 by 3 feet, with just
enough fresh water to cover them, and left over night. In the morning
a milky fluid is drawn off, and the " soaked " scallops are packed for
market in kegs or butter tubs.

(6) Shipment. — The kegs in which the scallops are shipped cost
30 cents apiece, and contain about 7 gallons. A full keg is known
as a " package." The butter tubs are less expensive, but hold only

90 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

4 to 5 gallons. Indeed, anything which will hold scallops for shipment
is used to send them to market.

When the scallops get to the market they are strained and weighed,
9 pounds being considered the weight of a gallon of meats. In this
way about 6 gallons are realized from every 7-gallon keg. With the
improved methods of modern times scallops can be shipped far west
or be held for months in cold storage, for which purpose unsoaked
scallops are required. Certain firms have fried this method of keeping
the catch until prices were high, but it has not been especially suc-
cessful.

(7) Market. — One of the greatest trials to the scallop fisherman
is the uncertainty of market returns when shipping. He does not
know the price he is to receive ; and, as the price depends on the supply
on the market, he may receive high wages or he may get scarcely any-
thing. The wholesale market alone can regulate the price, and the
fisherman is powerless. While this is hard on the scalloper, it does
not appear that at the present time anything can be done to remedy
the uncertainty of return. The scallop returns from the New York
market are usually higher than from the Boston market. The result
of this has been to give New York each year the greater part of the
scallop trade, and practically all the Nantucket and Edgartown scallops
are shipped to New York.

Either from a feeling of loyalty, or because the market returns are
sooner forwarded, or because the express charges are less, Cape Cod
still ships to the Boston market, in spite of the better prices offered
in New York. Why so many Cape scallopers should continue to ship
to Boston, and resist the attractions of better prices, is impossible to
determine, and appears to be only a question of custom.

(8) The Price. — The price of scallops varies with the supply. The
demand is fairly constant, showing a slight but decided increase each
year. On the other hand, the supply is irregular, some years scallops
being plentiful, in other years scarce.

The Maine or Deep-sea Scallop. — In the Boston market the shallow-
water scallop has a formidable rival in the giant scallop of the Maine
coast, which is nearly twice as large. Nevertheless, the Cape scallop
maintains its superiority and still leads its larger brother in popular
favor, wholesaling at 50 to 70 cents more a gallon. There is no doubt
that this competition has had a tendency to lower the price of the Cape
scallop, possibly accounting for the higher market price in New York.

Outfit of a Scalloper. — While we have traced the scallop from its
capture among the eel-grass to its final disposition, we have not con-
sidered the equipment of the scalloper. The average capital invested
in the business can best be summed up under these two heads, — the
boat fisherman and the dory fisherman.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

91

Boat Fisherman.

Boat,

$500 00

Dory,

20 00

Six dredges,

25 00

Eope and gear, .

25 00

Culling board,

2 00

Incidentals,

3 00

Shanty, .

50 00

Total, .

$625 00

Dory Fisherman.

Dory, $20 00

Oars, 1 50

Pusher, . . . . 2 50

Shanty, . . . . 25 00

Total,

$49 00

III. The Scallop Season. — There is considerable diversity of opin-
ion among the scallopers as to when the scallop season should open.
Some advocate November 1 as the opening date, instead of October 1,
as the present law reads; and many arguments are put forth by both
sides.

The class of fishermen who desire November 1 are those who are
engaged in other fishing during the month of October, and either have
to give it up or lose the first month of scalloping. Naturally, they wish
a change, putting forth the additional argument of better prices if
the season begins later. The scalloper who is not engaged in other
fishing of course desires the law to remain as it is at the present time,
claiming that the better weather of October gives easier work, more
working days, and allows no chance of loss if the winter is severe.

Under the present law, the town can regulate the opening of its
season to suit the demands of the market and the desire of the in-
habitants. This does away with the necessity of any State law on this
point, which, under the present system of town control, would be
inadvisable.

The general opinion of the fishermen is in favor of the present date,
October 1. As nearly as could be determined, about 75 per cent, favor
October 1 and 25 per cent. November 1. This sentiment is divided by
localities, as more men were in favor of November 1 at Nantucket
and Edgartown than on Cape Cod and Buzzards Bay, where very few
favored a change.

IV. The Utilization of Waste. — While it seems an enormous waste
that out of a bushel of scallops only 21/2 to 3 quarts of edible meats
are obtained, it is not all absolute loss. Oyster growers buy the shells
for cultch to catch the oyster seed, paying from 3 to 5 cents per bushel.
Other uses are found, such as ornaments and in making shell roads.
The refuse is used for fish bait, and often barrels of it are salted for
this purpose. It is also used in some places for manure for agricul-
tural purposes.

In the last year a new use for scallop shells has developed. Similar
to the souvenir postal card, scallop shells bound together with ribbon

92

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

and containing miniature photographic views have been put on the
market. Three firms near Boston make a business of this, and use only
the lower or bright valve of the scallop. Certain scallopers furnish
these scallop shells, cleaned of meat, at the rate of $6 per barrel ; and,
though it takes considerable time to separate the shells when opening,
the excellent price makes this new industry pay. The question of the
future is to find new and more important uses for our waste sea prod-
ucts. Some day what is now waste in the scallop industry may be
utilized for the benefit of the public.

V. Food Value. — As a food the scallop stands ahead of all the
other shellfish, containing much more nourishment than the oyster. The
following figures are from the tables of Professor Atwater, rearranged
by C. F. Langworthy : * —

36, Bone, Skin, 1
(Per Cent.).

Per Cent.).

r (Per Cent.). 1

in (Per Cent. ). 1

Per Cent.).

I

ral Matter (Per 1
t.). 1

Nutrients 1
r Cent.).

!«

> a^

II

*j

1

1

¥

8 a

is

||

16

5£|

cc

^

PH

n

5

«

H

^

Oysters, solids, .

-

-

88.3

6.1

1.4

3.3

.9

11.7

235

Oysters, in shell,

82.3

-

15.4

1.1

.2

.6

.4

2.3

40

Oysters, canned,

-

-

85.3

7.4

2.1

3.9

1.3

14.7

300

Scallops, ....

-

-

80.3

14.7

.2

3A

1.4

19.7

345

Soft clams, in shell, .

43.6

-

48.4

4.8

.6

1.1

1.5

8.0

135

Soft clams, canned, .

-

-

84.5

9.0

1.3

2.9

2.3

15.5

275

Quahaugs, removed from

_

_

80.8

10.6

1.1

5.2

2.3

19.2

340

shell.

Quahaugs, in shell, .

68.3

-

27.3

2.1

.1

1.3

.9

4.4

65

Quahaugs, canned, .

-

-

83.0

10.4

.8

3.0

2.8

17.0

285

49.3

42.7

4.4

.5

2.1

1.0

8.0

140

General average of mol-

60.2

34.0

3.2

.4

1.3

.9

5.8

100

lusks (exclusive of

canned).

The Laws.

The State laws regulating the fishery were made for the benefit of
the industry and for the preservation of the " seed " scallop, which
is the only requirement necessary for insuring the future supply.

Each town has charge over its scallop fishery, under the general
shellfish act of 1880, which entrusted all regulation of the shellfisheries
to the selectmen of the towns. The town laws governing the scallop
fishery are by far the most satisfactory of the shellfish laws of the
towns. Although in many respects beneficial, they have certain dis-

united States Depaitment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 85, 1898.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 93

The main disadvantage of the town laws is found in the jealousy
of neighboring towns. One town may make a law to oppose another
town, and will often injure its own interests thereby. In this connection
the condition at Dennis, during the winter of 1904^05, was an instance.
As scallops were remarkably abundant, the town made by-laws in-
tended to exclude from its scallop fisheries the residents of other towns.
At the close of the scalloping season, when the ice came, the scallops
were still abundant. The inhabitants of the town thought they could
get the rest next season. They did not know that the scallop does not
live two years. The next year not a single scallop of that set was to
be found; they had died. If other scallopers had been allowed to
go there, thousands of dollars could have been saved, and many scal-
lopers given employment. This one case illustrates the disadvantages
of town jealousy; and Dennis is by no means to blame, as it merely
protected itself against the similar restrictions of neighboring Cape
Cod towns.

The town laws which benefit the scallop industry are made each year
according to the condition of the industry. Edgartown and Nantucket
have perhaps the best-governed scallop industries. Laws requiring
licenses, regulating the opening of the season and restricting at proper
times the catch, so as to get the best market prices instead of over-
stocking the market when the prices are low, are to be recommended
on account of their benefit to the scallopers.

History.

In considering the rise of a fishing industry, it is often difficult to
state exactly the year when the industry started, as there are differences
of opinion as to how large a fishery should be before it could be justly
considered an industry. The scallop fishery has existed for years, but
did not become an established industry of the State before the year
1872. At that time there was hardly any demand for scallops, and the
catch was with difficulty marketed. Since then the market demand
for the scallop has steadily increased, until the supply can hardly meet
the popular demand. It seems almost incredible that the scallop as
an article of food should once have been scorned and practically un-
known.

During the years of 1876 and 1877 the industry took a sudden spurt.
At this time the introduction of the dredge on Cape Cod revolutionized
the industry, and made it possible to open up the deep-water fields.
The industry on Cape Cod first started at Hyannis, where a number
of men entered the new business; and for several years the production
increased rapidly, with the opening of new territories and improved
methods of capture. While the natural supply has remained the same
or declined in certain localities, as has been shown in a previous part
of this report, the value of the industry, in regard to the number of
men engaged and capital invested, has steadily increased.

94

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SCALLOP PRODUCTION TOE MASSACHUSETTS.1

YEAR.

Bushels.

Value.

Gallons.

Price
per Gallon.

1879

10,542

$3,514

7,028

$0 50

1887,

41,964

38,933

27,976

1 39

1888,

26 168

43 202

17 446

2 48

1898

128,863

85,383

85,908

0 99

1902

66,150

89,982

44,100

2 04

1905

43,872

98,712

29,248

3 37*

1 Statistics taken from the United States Fish Commission reports.

These figures show that the price of scallops varies greatly, de-
pendent largely upon the amount caught that season; also that there
has been, in spite of the irregularity of the catch, a gradual rise in
prices since 1879, due to a more extensive market.

In considering the scallop industry the following points should be
noted: (1) It has been necessary to record as scallop area any grounds
where scallops have ever been found, in spite of the fact that only
a portion of this total area is in any one year productive. (2) The
boats engaged in the scallop fishery are but transitory capital, which
is utilized, outside of the scallop season, in other fisheries. (3) The
quahaug and scallop fisheries in many towns supplement each other,
as the same men and boats are engaged in both industries. (4) The
length of the season varies in the different localities. In New Bedford
and Fairhaven the scallops are mostly caught in a few weeks, as many
boats enter the business temporarily. This necessarily gives an excess
of invested capital and a small production. In these two towns the
number of scallop licenses are recorded as showing the number of men
engaged in the fishery, while as a fact but a small part of these are
steadily engaged in the industry.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

95

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96 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Barnstable.

The principal scalloping grounds of the town of Barnstable are
found in Hyannis bay and at Cotuit. Scallops are said to have once
been abundant in Barnstable harbor, on the north side of Cape Cod.
At the present day the scallop is unknown commercially in this lo-
cality, and few are found on the sand flats of the harbor. A. Howard
Clark, in his report on the fisheries of Massachusetts, in 1880, makes
the following statement concerning this industry in Barnstable har-
bor:—

Scallops are abundant along the shores of the harbor, and in 1876 a
party of men from Hyannis established themselves here for the purpose
of gathering them. In 1877 the price of scallops declined very greatly,
forcing these men to abandon their enterprise. The fishery was continued,
however, by two men of Barnstable. In the winter of 1877-78 the latter
shipped 40 half -barrels of " eyes," and during the winter of 1878-79 only
6 half -barrels. They were sent to Boston and New York.

This furnishes a concrete example of the extinction of the produc-
tive scallop beds in certain localities. The chances are that a severe
winter or other adverse physical conditions killed all the scallops in
the harbor, and rendered impossible any future supply. Although
Barnstable harbor, with its swift tides, is not suitable for scallops in
all parts, yet there are certain localities where they should thrive. In
no way is it visionary or impossible that by the proper transplanting
of young scallops from the waters on the south side of the Cape, these
" seeders " might furnish other generations of scallops, and revive an
extinct industry. At any rate, the chances for success in this line look
favorable, and should be carefully considered.

Hyannis. — Although the scallop industry on the north coast of the
town is extinct, it still flourishes as of old on the south coast. The
bulk of the business is carried on here, and nearly all the shipments
are made from this town. The scallop territory comprises 2,700 acres,
in the following localities: (1) Lewis Bay; (2) near Squaw's Island;
(3) Hyannisport harbor; and (4) the shore waters. At Hyannisport
small scallops are taken with " pushers " in the shallow water, while
large scallops are taken by dredging in the other three localities. Scal-
lops are found in different parts and in varying abundance each year.
Practically all this territory as outlined on the map is suitable for
scallops.

. Two methods of scalloping are in use at Hyannis: (1) the hand
" pusher," used in shallow water, especially in the harbor at Hyannis-
port; (2) dredging. These two methods cover different territories, and
it is possible that one year scallops may be found only on the flats
where it was impossible to dredge with a boat, and another year be
all in the deep water where the " pusher " cannot be used. However,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 97

in most years both methods are in use. The dredge most commonly
used is the " scraper/' although the Chatham style is found here. Six
to nine are carried by each boat.

Hyannis claims the distinction of shipping the first Cape Cod scallops
to market. This was in 1874, and was the start of a considerable in-
dustry which employed 80 men. There has been more or less scalloping
ever since that time. Ernest Ingersoll, in his report on the scallop
fishery of the United States, in 1880, says in reference to scallop fishing
at Hyannis from 1876 to 1878 : -

The most northerly locality at which such a fishery exists, as far as I
am informed, is at Hyannis, Mass., and during the winter of 1877 many
persons of all ages and conditions were employed in it there. One firm
fitted up a large house expressly for the business, and employed a large
number of openers. Skiffs, cat-rigged yawl boats, dories and punts, 200
in number, and of every size, shape, form and color, were used; most
of them were flat bottomed, shaped like a flatiron, and therefore very
" tender " when afloat. Each boat carried two dredges, locally termed
" drags." In that year, according to Mr. F. W. True, each of the 200 boats
averaged 120 bushels, or 100 gallons, during the season, which would give
a total of 24,000 bushels, or 20,000 gallons for the fleet. The scallops were
sent to New York and also to Boston, and an average price of $5 per half-
barrel was received. In 1876 the price was $7, and in 1878 only $3.50.
Further inquiries show that this spurt at Hyannis had no precedent, and
has completely died away, so that at present there is no catch there, or at
least no shipments.

The 1904-05 fishery was very successful, while the season of 1905-06
proved the reverse. The production for 1905-03 was 1,350 gallons,
valued at $3,200; while the 1906-07 season furnished 1,000 gallons,
worth $2,000. The following notes, made in November, 1905, give the
situatiqn of the industry for that year : —

The scalloping areas this season have been at Squaw's Island and in
Lewis Bay, 'the first locality furnishing the better fishing. By the middle
of November both areas were practically exhausted and the season over.
The production to November 12 was 900 gallons. After that time the
shipments to the Boston and New York markets were small and irregu-
lar, in spite of the high price of $3 to $3.50 per gallon.

Cotuit. — In the report of Mr. Ingersoll we find no mention of scal-
loping at Cotuit. Either there was none in 1879, or it was too small
to be of any importance. To-day the scalloping is of slight importance,
and practically all is used for home trade. Undoubtedly there has been
but little change in the past twenty-five years. Side by side with the
pigmy scallop industry has grown the oyster industry, which has made
Cotuit famous. Undoubtedly the latter has sapped the strength of the
former by encroaching on its area; but it has always been for the best
interests of the people, as the oyster industry here is far more valuable
than the scallop fishery.

98

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The grounds of Cotuit are quite small, extending over an irregular
strip of 100 acres. The bottom is mostly muddy, and covered with
patches of eel grass. All the rest of the bay, where the bottom is more
suited for oyster culture, is taken up by grants. This scalloping area,
although small, is free to the scallopers of Osterville, Cotuit, Marston's
Mills and Hyannis, and even where heavily set it is soon fished out.

In the years previous to 1904-05 exceptionally fine scalloping had
been reported by the fishermen. The season of 1904-05 was excep-
tionally poor, and in 1905-06 hardly any scallops were obtainable. In
1907 scalloping began October 1, and by December 15 all the boats
were hauled up, as the scallops became too scarce for profitable fishing.
Dredging is the only important method employed in the Cotuit fishery,
although a few scallops were picked up on the flats.

A town law forbidding the capture of scallops for market before
December 1 was passed in 1899. This, nevertheless, permitted any resi-
dent of Barnstable, between October 1 and December 1, to catch scallops
for his family use, and for this reason could never be strictly enforced.
In 1907 this law was repealed, as many believed that it was detrimental
rather than helpful to the Cotuit interests, as it gave the Hyannis
scallopers, after they had fished for two months in Hyannis Bay, the
cream of the Cotuit fishery.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

TOWN.

Number
of
Men.

BOATS.

Value
of
Gear.

PRODUCTION, 19O7-O8.

Value.

Number.

Gallons.

Value.

Hyannis

16

$3,200

8

$200

1,130

$1,480

Hyannisport, .

14

2,800

7

200

100

131

Cotuit, ....
Total

9

2,000

8

175

300

393

39

$8,000

23

$575

1,530

$2,004

Bourne.

The villages of Buzzards Bay, Monument Beach and Cataumet share
the scallop fishery of the town of Bourne, and have had during 1907-08
a successful season for the first time in eight years.

The available scallop territory of the town covers approximately
3,000 acres, extending from Buttermilk Bay along the whole coast of
the town to Cataumet.

The fishing is mostly done by dredging with cat boats, carrying from
six to ten dredges per boat, although a few scallopers dredge with power.
The dredges are generally of the " scraper " type, with the chain bot-
tom, similar to the dredges used at Edgartown. The scallopers both
open their own catch and hire openers to assist them. Thirty boats,
8 carrying 2 men, and 22 with 1 man, totalling 38 men, are employed
in the scallop fishery.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 99

The industry lasted until Jan. 1, 1908, when the boats were hauled
up for winter. The total estimate for the season is 20,000 bushels, or
12,000 gallons (unsoaked), valued at $15,720. The largest daily catch
recorded for one boat was 72 bushels.

The principal market is New York, though part of the catch is sent
to New Bedford. The price varied from $1.15 to $3 per gallon. The
scallopers claim that they do not soak the scallops, as the " eye " is large
enough to sell well without increasing its size. Undoubtedly soaking
is done to some extent. The scallops are large, opening about 3l/2
quarts per bushel.

Twelve hundred dollars are invested in gear and $15,000 in boats,
which vary from $300 to $1,300 in value.

Licenses costing $1 are required by the selectmen of every scalloper.

Here again we find the old tale of the decline of a once prosperous
industry, and new enthusiasm in the success of the 1907-08 season.
The 1906-07 season was an improvement over the previous one, when
eight licenses were issued, allowing a maximum of 1,605 bushels to be
taken. In previous years no licenses were given, as there were no
scallops.

Brewster.

Scalloping at Brewster can hardly be called an industry. Here the
primitive method of picking up the scallops on the exposed flats at
low tide is alone used. The scallops are washed by the heavy seas on
the flats, and can be gathered by men, women and children when the
tide goes down. Somewhere in the deeper water is a bed of scallops,
but in 1905 no one had been able to locate it. In 1905 only one man
made a business of gathering and shipping these scallops. He averaged
2 bushels per tide, going down with a team and carting them to his
house, where he opened them. All shipments were made to Boston,
at an average price of $1.75 to $2. The people pick up many for home
use.

Chatham.

The town of Chatham, situated at the elbow of Cape Cod, possesses
abundant facilities for all the shore fisheries. For the past twenty-five
years the scallop fishery has held almost equal rank with the lobster
and cod fisheries, for which Chatham is noted, and has in many years
furnished employment when other fishing had failed.

Scallops are found only in the southern waters of the town. Between
Inward Point and Harding's Beach many acres of eel-grass flats, shel-
tered from the open ocean by Monomoy Island, furnish excellent
grounds for scallops. The entire area of these grounds is approximately
2,000 acres, although this whole territory is never completely stocked
in any one year. During the season of 1907-08 the following places
constituted the scalloping grounds : —

(1) Island Flats in Stage Harbor, on the east side of the channel,
opposite Harding's Beach, furnished a number of scallops, which

100 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

were rapidly caught the first of the season, as these flats were near the
town. Here the water is not more than l1^ to 2 feet deep at low tide,
and thick eel grass covers the greater part except near the channel.
The first of the season a man could obtain S bushels per day, but later
a catch of 2 bushels was considered good.

(2) Directly south of Harding's Beach lies John Perry's flat, com-
monly known as " Jerry's," where there has been good scalloping for
many years.

(3) The western half of the Common Flats furnished the best scal-
loping in 1907-08, as the scallops, though small (6 pecks to a gallon),
were plentiful. These flats run nearly dry on low course tides, and
are covered with eel grass. Nearly every year there is a heavy set of
scallop seed, which, because of the exposed nature of the flats, is
wholly or partially destroyed. The entire set was destroyed in the win-
ter of 1904^05, while 30 per cent, was lost in 1906-07.

(4) On the flats just south of Inward Point was another bed of
scallops.

(5) In the bend north of Inward Point scallops were plentiful.

(6) On the northwest edge of the Common Flats scallops can be
dredged over an area of 160 acres at a depth of 5 fathoms. These
are of good size, opening S1/^ quarts to the bushel.

Two methods of obtaining scallops are employed: (1) by the use
of the "pusher;" and (2) by dredging. As the "pusher" is used on
the flats at low water where the boats cannot sail, the boat man pos-
sesses the advantage of "pushing" at low tide and dredging at high
water. Sixty per cent, of the scallopers at Chatham go in dories and
use "pushers," as the Common Flats afford excellent opportunity for
this sort of fishing; the remaining 40 per cent, scallop in boats, using
" pushers " to a limited extent. Four to six box dredges are used for
each boat, the smaller boats carrying four, the larger six.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . , . . . . . 107

Dory men ("pushers"), .. . '. . , . . , . 62

Boat men (dredgers), . . ..-• ... . . . . . . 45

Number of boats, . . - . , ... ... . . », . ., . 35

Single-manned, . ,. . . . . ... • • '. 26

Double-manned, . . . .f ,. . »...-. . . 9

Value of boats, . .' . .».,•' •• , •• . . . .$10,650

Number of dories, ... . " . . . . . . 61

Value of dories, $1,430

Value of scallop gear for dories, 135

Value of scallop gear for boats, 1,050

Total value of scallop gear, 1,185

Last season 34,615 gallons, valued at $45,345, were shipped to Boston
and New York. Shipments are made in butter tubs, containing 4 to
6 gallons each.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.- 101

The larger scallops in the deep water are from 2V2 to 2% inches in
length, taking 5 pecks to open a gallon of " eyes." On the flats are
smaller scallops, from 2 to 21/4 inches in length, of which Ql/2 pecks are
required to make a gallon. About 4,000 gallons were bought in Chat-
ham by two dealers, paying $1.30 per gallon; the rest were shipped to
Boston and New York by the individual scallopers, shipments being
made semiweekly to New York. The scallops were shipped in butter
tubs containing from 4 to 6 gallons, on which the express charges were :
to New York, 65 cents; to Boston, 35 cents. The 1907-08 production
was 20,000 gallons, valued at $40,000.

In 1905-06 practically all the catch were "seed" scallops of the
set of 1905; only about 5 per cent, of the catch were scallops of the
1904 set. Owing to the exceptional cod fishing, only 15 men made a
business of scalloping, going mostly one man to a boat, and averaging
31/2 bushels per day after the scalloping " struck in," Dec. 1, 1905. The
high prices alone made it profitable to catch these small scallops, which
gave only 3 pints of " eyes " to a bushel of shells, — just one-half the
amount yielded by a bushel of large scallops. The fishermen were all
from South and West Chatham. The entire catch was estimated at
2,800 gallons.

Dennis.

The scallop grounds of Dennis and Yarmouth are common property
for the inhabitants of both towns, while other towns are excluded from
the fishery. The West Dennis scallopers fish mostly on the Yarmouth
flats at the mouth of Parker River, and between Bass and Parker rivers
on the shore flats. There is also scalloping along the shore on the
Dennis grounds. These grounds are for the " pushers." Dredging is
carried on at Dennisport, and the boats cover a wide territory at some
distance from the shore. The town possesses a large area, which either
has scattering scallops or is well stocked one year and barren the next.
Nearly 2,250 acres of available territory is included in the waters of
the town. The flats, which are of sand with thick or scattering eel
grass, according to the locality, afford a good bottom for scallops.
Were it not for the eel grass, the scallops would perish by being washed
on the shore by southerly winds.

Thirty men make a business of scalloping in the town of Dennis, 22
from Dennisport and 8 from West Dennis. At Dennisport scalloping
is practically all done by dredging, while at West Dennis scallops are
all taken by the use of " pushers." At Dennisport 9 boats, 3 sail and
6 cat boats, with power, carrying 18 men, are employed in the business.
Here also are 4 dory scallopers. At West Dennis the scallopers go
mostly in pairs, using only 5 dories.

The dredges used at Dennisport are similar to the Chatham dredge.
At Dennisport the scallopers open the scallops and also employ openers,
while at West Dennis the scallopers do the entire work.

In 1907-08 the production was 2,950 gallons, valued at $3,865. Seal-

102 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

lops were shipped to the New York and Boston markets, although the
greater part of the catch went to New York.

The scallops taken at Dennisport are large, opening 3 quarts to
the bushel. At West Dennis, where the fishing is done in the shallow
water, the scallops are somewhat smaller, yielding only 2l/2 quarts to
the bushel.

During the month of November large quantities of scallops were
blown ashore at Dennisport, and it is said that as many as 72 bushels
were gathered by one man in a day.

CAPITAL INVESTED.
Value of boats : —

Sail, . $1,230

Power, 3,000

Dories, 180

Total, ' . . . $4,410

Value of gear : —

Boat, . 350

Dory, 18

Total, $368

Permits are required for scalloping, but are issued free of charge
by the selectmen. Dennis and Yarmouth have common scallop fishery
rights, the town scallop regulation reading as follows : —

All persons other than the inhabitants of the towns of Dennis and Yar-
mouth are prohibited from taking scallops from the shores and waters of
the town of Yarmouth excepting for their family use, and in no case without
a permit.

During the season of 1904-05 there existed off Dennisport one of
the largest beds of scallops ever known in Massachusetts. Not only
was it extensive, but the scallops were very numerous. An enormous
yield was the result, affording great profit to a large number of scal-
lopers, and bringing into the town thousands of dollars. It was stated
by the scallopers that when the scalloping ceased because of the severe
winter and ice the number of scallops appeared in no way diminished.
During the season the catch averaged over 25 bushels per boat. Pros-
pects looked good for the following season, as the fishermen expected
the scallops to live until the next year. Unfortunately, the life of a
scallop is less than two years, and before spring practically the whole
of this large bed was dead, — a heavy loss to the fishing interests of
the town and of the State.

In cases like this the exclusion of seallopers from the neighboring
towns, through the present system of town laws, has resulted in severe

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 103

economic and financial loss to the State, as many more scallops could
have been captured without injury to the future supply if more fisher-
men had been given an opportunity to enjoy this fishery.

The following season, 1905-06, presented a marked contrast to that
of 1904—05. Some adverse conditions had injured the set of 1905r
and as a result there were scarcely any adult scallops. By January 1
the scallops of the 1906 set had become large enough in certain locali-
ties to permit capture. Owing to the high prices, these scallops, less
than eight months old ("seed" scallops), were profitable to catch,
and the season's catch at Dennisport after January 1 consisted of these
young scallops. At that time the present " seed " scallop law was not
in force, so the capture of these scallops was entirely legal.

About 6 men were engaged during 1905-06 in scalloping at Dennis-
port. The scallops were obtained by dredging in the deeper water. The
average catch was 3 to 4 bushels per day. The 1906-07 season was
hardly above the average. At West Dennis 8 men were engaged in
scalloping on the flats with " pushers." The scallops were small, aver-
aging about 2 inches in width. It is only once every three or four years
that West Dennis scallops are in the deep water where it is necessary
to dredge them ; usually the scallops are found on the shallow-water flats.
The 1907-08 season is the best season the town has had since 1904^05.

Dartmouth.

A few scallops are occasionally found in Slocum's River and other
places, but in no quantity to furnish any commercial fishery.

Eastham.

The scalloping grounds are on the west side of the town, about half
a mile out. During the season of 1906-07, 6 men, working at intervals
during the winter, managed to take a total of 500 bushels from these
flats.

Edgartown.

Edgartown, situated at the eastern end of Martha's Vineyard, pos-
sesses extensive scallop grounds, and is one of the leading towns in the
production of this shellfish. This fishery, even more important than
the quahaug industry, furnishes steady winter employment for a large
number of the inhabitants.

The important grounds are in Cape Poge Pond and in Edgartown
harbor, while occasionally beds of scallops, especially " seed," are found
in Katama Bay. These grounds comprise an area of 2,000 acres, chiefly
of grass bottom.

At Edgartown scalloping is done both with sail and with power boats,
which are generally auxiliary cat boats, though power dories are used
to some extent. All but two of the power boats are doubly manned,

101 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

while the sail boats carry but one man. Eleven sail and 15 power boats,
employing 39 men, are engaged in the fishery.

Two kinds of dredges are used, the " scraper " for scalloping in the
eel grass and the "slider" for clean surface. The depth of water
over the scallop beds is not more than 18 feet, necessitating 10V2 fathoms
of rope. The price of a dredge, including rope, is about $3, which is
cheaper than in the Buzzards Bay towns. Each power boat uses six
to eight, which are held out by " spreaders," poles extending from the
sides of the boat, in order that the dredges may cover more ground
and not trail behind one another.

The greater part of the scalloping is done by power, and, in spite
of the extra cost of nearly 90 cents per day, the proportionate increase
makes this method more profitable; it is claimed to increase the catch
about one-third. Scalloping with power necessitates the services of
two men, as one man has to cull while the other steers. At the end
of the " drift " the boat is stopped, and both men cull. With sail,
culling can be done when dredges are overboard. When two men scal-
lop, the owner of the boat takes three-fifths while his partner shares
two-fifths of the profit.

Twenty-five to 30 openers prepare the scallop for market during
the afternoons and evenings. These are paid at the rate of 25 cents
per gallon, and average about $1.50 per day, a good opener cutting
out a gallon of " eyes " in an hour. Small scallops open 700 " eyes "
per gallon; the larger ones, 500.

The 1907-08 season was successful, as the scallops were plentiful, the
daily catch per boat running between 5 and 50 bushels. About 17,000
•gallons, valued at $22,270, were shipped between Oct. 1, 1907, and
April 1, 1908.

Shipments are made mostly to the New York market; a very few to
Boston market. The freight charges on a keg, which weighs about 70
pounds, is 55 cents. In warm weather scallops are sent by express,
the charges being 80 cents. The scallops are packed in butter tubs
of large size, averaging from 6 to 7 gallons, and costing 8 cents apiece.
These are obtained second hand from the grocery stores at New Bed-
ford. The tubs are packed full and closed tightly. By the time the
scallops arrive at market they are reduced in quantity by the jarring,
in warm weather from 7 to 6 gallons, and in cold from 7 to G1/^. Re-
turns from the market are made in about a week. Scallops can be held
back for better prices three to four days in warm weather, and about
seven in cold.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of power boats, $5,250

Value of sail boats, 2,750

Value of gear, 550

Total, ............ $8,550

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 105

By vote of the town, the season for several years has been open one
month later than the State season. Shellfish permits costing $2 are
required of every scalloper. The daily catch for one man is restricted
to 25 bushels.

Edgartown was one of the pioneer towns in the State in the scallop
fishery, and as early as 1875 scallops were shipped to the market. The
industry has maintained a steady supply, and has not shown the great
variation of the Cape and Buzzards Bay fisheries. This is due per-
chance to the natural conditions, which render favorable the mainte-
nance of an extensive industry.

The last four seasons have been very successful, as when scallops
were scarce the increased price more than made up for the diminished
supply. The 1904-05 season was favorable, but, owing to the severe
winter, fishing ceased about January 1, although scallops were plentiful
both in Cape Poge Pond and Edgartown harbor. In 1905-06 scallops
were found only in Cape Poge Pond, as the previous severe winter
had killed all the harbor " seed." This season was most successful, as
Nantucket and Edgartown, owing to the scarcity of scallops in other
localities, received very high market prices. Scallops were more abun-
dant in 1906-07, but the lower prices made the industry less prosperous
than in the previous season.

COMPARISON OP 1879 WITH 1907-08 PRODUCTION.

1879.

1907-08.

500

17 000

Value

£•'."><)

$22 270

Fairhaven.

Fairhaven possesses, with New Bedford, the scalloping grounds of
the Acushnet River, and in addition a much larger territory around
Sconticut Neck and West Island. The scalloping territory comprises
about 2,500 acres, most of which is unproductive or productive only at
intervals.

The town charges $1 for the license to each scalloper. Seventy-three
licenses were issued in 1906-07. This is a larger number than has been
issued in recent years. The highest number ever issued was 80.

The capital invested is transitory, for the season, as in New Bedford,
usually lasts only three weeks. Possibly $14,000 is invested in this way
in boats and gear.

In a good season as high as 2,000 gallons have been shipped in a
week. The average season hardly produces this amount in the whole
three weeks. In the season of 1907-08, 1,300 gallons were shipped.
Some years ago the starfish was a source of damage to the fishery, but
of late years it has attracted little notice.

106 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

We find the following account of the scallop fishery of Fairhaven
written by A. Howard Clark in 1879 : —

Ten boats took 2,100 bushels of scallops in 1880. Fourteen men with 10
boats dredge for scallops from the middle of October to the middle of
January. Great quantities are found in the Acushnet Kiver, as well as
along the western shore of the bay. A small dredge, holding about a
bushel, is used. It is made with an oval-shaped iron frame, 3^ feet in
length. Wire netting is used in the front part and twine at the back.
Small sail boats, each with two men, fish with from one to twelve of these
dredges in tow, sailing with just enough sheet to allow a slow headway. As
soon as a dredge is filled, the men "luff up," haul in, empty, and go on.
These little boats take from 10 to 75 bushels a day. If the breeze be
unfavorable, one man takes the oars while the other tends the dredges.

The amount of production at the present time is about the same,
or even more, than the figures given for 1879. In all other respects
the industry has changed. Five times as many men now work at the
business, while more boats and capital are invested. This looks as if
the industry had improved. The industry as regards the methods of
capture has improved, but the actual production has remained the same.
Now the season lasts barely three weeks, whereas twenty-five years ago
with few men it lasted four months.

Fall River District.

No scallop fishery exists in these waters at the present time. In
1879, 800 gallons were taken from this region. This furnishes an ex-
cellent illustration of the total decline of the scallop fishery in certain
localities.

Falmouth.

The town of Falmouth cannot be said to support any scallop indus-
try of importance. Each year in Squeteague Pond, Wild Harbor, North
Falmouth and in West Falmouth harbor a few scallops can be found;
but these are used only for limited local consumption, and usually are
very scarce. Scallops are occasionally present in small quantities in
Waquoit Bay.

Harwich.

The scallop territory of Harwich covers an extensive area on the
south side of the town, and in some places extends for a distance of
from 2 to 3 miles out from shore. Usually the scallops are found, as
in the last season (1907-08), outside the bar, at a distance of 3 miles
from shore, where they can be taken only by dredging from sail or
power boats. The intervening- body of water sometimes contains a few
scallops in a quantity to make a commercial fishery. The total area
of the scallop grounds is about 3,200 acres. The bottom is mostly
sandy, with patches of eel grass.

All the scallops are caught by dredging, as the water is too deep for

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 107

any other method. Twelve men were engaged in the fishery during the
1907-08 season. The boats, 7 in number, consisted of 3 power and
4 sail ; 5 were manned by 2 men, 2 were sailed singly. The dredges
used here are the same style as the Chatham dredge.

The 1907-08 production was 2,170 gallons, valued at $2,843. The
scallops were shipped to the Boston and New York markets, the greater
part being shipped to New York, at an average price of $1.30 per
gallon. The scallops taken in 1907-08 were large, opening 3l/2 quarts
to the bushel.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, $2,350

Value of gear, 280

Value of shore property, 400

Total, $3,030

For the last two years there has been practically no scallop fishery.
The 1904-05 season was the last successful season, when the large bed
of scallops was found off Dennis. The 1907-08 season, however, has
been fairly good, and it is thought that the following year may be as
successful.

Marion.

Marion was included in the general revival of the scallop fishery
which came to Buzzards Bay during the past season of 1907-08, and
for the first time in eight years has had a successful scallop season.

The scallop grounds of the town extend over an area of 1,500 acres,
situated on both sides of Great Neck, and extending from the Ware-
ham line to Aucoot Cove.

All scalloping is done by dredging. The fishery can be divided into
two classes: (1) the boat fishery; (2) the skiff fishery. Under the
first class comes the cat boat and sloop, carrying six dredges; while
the second class consists of the small sail skiffs, with one dredge. The
skiff scalloper rows or sails, as the wind permits, and with his one
dredge makes an average catch of 3 bushels per day. Forty-four men,
using 16 sail and power boats and 24 skiffs are engaged in the fishery.
The business likewise requires the services of nearly 24 openers.

About two-thirds of the dredges are of the "scraper" type, with
chain netting; the rest "sliders," with loose blades. A very few
"roller" or "lead" dredges are used.

The production for 1907-08 was 7,000 gallons, valued at $9,170.
The scallops were mostly sent to the New Bedford market. The scal-
lops are of two sizes : the smaller, which are taken in the shallow water,
open only 2% quarts per bushel, while in the deeper water the larger
scallops yield about 3l/2 quarts. The rest of the body of the scallop,
after the removal of the eye, is saved for bait at Marion, the scalloper
receiving 30 cents per bucket.

108 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, . . •- . » ,
Value of skiffs, . . . . . .

Value of gear, •„ . * . ,

Total, . • .. .

The three towns of Marion, Mattapoisett and Rochester have common
fishery rights, as all three were included in the original town of Roches-
ter. In 1852 Marion became an independent town, and in 1857 Matta-
poisett was likewise separated from Rochester. Until 1893 Marion and
Mattapoisett had separate fishery rights, Rochester having mutual rights
with both. Since then the fishery of these towns has been common to all
three. Every scalloper is required to have a permit, the boatmen pay-
ing $2, the skiff scallopers $1, respectively.

The scallop industry supplanted the waning oyster industry at Marion
some twelve years ago, and for a time it flourished greatly. The abun-
dance of scallops and extent of the grounds furnish excellent scalloping.
After a few very successful years the industry suddenly died out and
became practically extinct. The direct cause is claimed by the scal-
lopers to have been the starfish, which came in the harbor in great
abundance at the time of the decline of the industry. Up to this
season but little scalloping had been done for several 'years, and not
a single permit was issued for the season of 1906-07.

Haslipee.

The scallop territory of Mashpee lies in the Popponesset River and
Bay, comprising at most 200 acres. For the last six years there has
been no scallop industry in the town. A few scallops are occasionally
taken for home consumption.

Mattapoisett.

The scallop territory of Mattapoisett, comprising an area of 1,200
acres, much of which is open and exposed, is in general confined to the
following localities: Nasketucket Bay, Brant Bay, Brant Island Cove,
Mattapoisett harbor, Pine Neck Cove and Aucoot Cove. The location
and extent of these grounds are indicated on Map 8.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . "22

Number of boats: —

Sail, 13

Power, 6

Total, i. 19

Boats, how manned : —

Single, 16

Double, 3

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 109

Dredging is the only method of scalloping used in Mattapoisett.
Small cat boats and a few power boats are employed in the fishery.
The " roller " dredge is the most popular style with the Mattapoisett
scallopers, who claim that on the uneven bottom this dredge is the most
successful. This town is the only locality in the State where this kind
of dredge is used. The cost of a dredge completely rigged with rope,
which is often 15 fathoms long, is $4.50, and 8 to 10 dredges are used
for each boat.

During the 1907-08 season the production was 5,000 gallons, valued
at $6,550. These were mostly marketed at New Bedford, where they
were purchased unsoaked by the New Bedford Fish Company. At the
first part of the season it was not uncommon for a boat to catch 25
bushels per day, but as the season progressed the size of the catch
gradually diminished. The scallops were large, opening 3 quarts to
the bushel.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, $6,900

Value of gear, 760

Total, $7,660

The scallop industry at Mattapoisett, though once important, was
extinct for several years. The present season has shown a revival, and
the industry has again assumed a commercial value.

Nantucket.

Nantucket is one of the leading towns of the State in the scallop
fishery. The grounds lie both in Nantucket harbor and in Maddequet
harbor on the west end of the island. The former of these is the larger
and more important, as the fishery is near the town. When the
scallops, become scarce in Nantucket harbor, the scallopers adjourn
to the fresher beds of Maddequet. Nantucket harbor contains approxi-
mately 3,000 acres of scallop territory; Maddequet and Muskeget, 1,500
acres.

Practically all the scalloping is done by dredging from sail boats,
employing about 99 men in the fishery. The dredges are of the " slider "
and the " scraper " types, the iron frames of which cost $1.50 and the
netting bags 30 cents. From 6 to 10 of these are used per boat, and
are dragged by 7 fathoms of 15-thread rope. Five regular openers are
hired, who receive from 20 to 25 cents per gallon, according to the size
of the scallops. A few scallops are taken in the shallow water by
the dory fishermen with " pushers," which are locally known as " scoops."
These differ from the Cape Cod " pusher," being more rounded and
smaller in size.

110

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of boats: —

Power, .

Sail,

Dories, .
Boats, how manned : —

Single, .

Double,

Single dories,

10
37

20

15
32

20

In 1906-07 the production was 9,820 gallons, valued at $12,875.

1907-08.1

Gallons.

Price
per Gallon.

Value.

October,

o (539

$1 25

$3 298 75

November,

4,160
5 430

1 00
1 00

4.J60 00
5 430 00

January

5 910

1 50

8 865 00

February,

960

2 00

1 920 00

March . .

1 146

2 50

2 865 00

Total

20,245

$1 31

$26,538 75

1 Return of Special Agent William C. Dunham.

Shipments were made by express to New York and Boston, the
charges to New York being 95 cents, to Boston 55 cents per keg. The
greater part was shipped to New York market. The scallops were
shipped mostly in 7-gallon kegs, which cost 33 cents apiece. About
30 New York and 20 Boston firms receive shipments from the Nan-
tucket scallopers.

Two kinds of scallops, the large "channel" and the small or "eel
grass," are obtained. The small scallops are more numerous than the
large, but are naturally less desirable.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of power boats,
Value of sail boats, .
Value of dories, .
Value of gear,

$4,000

9,250

500

700

Total, $14,450

Of late years the scallopers have taken an interest in protecting the
scallop. Many scallopers when fishing in shallow water " cull out "
the small " seed " scallops, and, instead of returning them to the shallow
water, transplant them to the deep water of the channel, where they

OF MASSACHUSETTS. Ill

are not only protected in case of severe winter, but produce a larger
scallop the following year. This is the only attempt at protecting
the scallop ever made in Massachusetts, and shows how important the
industry is to the town.

For the two seasons previous to 1907-08 every scalloper was required
to have a license. In 1905-06 the price was 50 cents, while the follow-
ing year, 1906-07, 190 licenses, costing $1 each, were taken out. No
licenses were required in 1907-08. Special by-laws, either limiting
the catch or enforcing a close season to meet the demands of the fishery,
are made by the town each year.

Scallops have been always plentiful, but fifty-five years ago they
were not caught, as they were considered poisonous. The present in-
dustry started in 1883, and since that time, in spite of its ups and
downs, it has remained a constant source of revenue to the island.
Notwithstanding a scarcity of scallops, the high prices of 1905-06
enabled the fishermen to have a fairly successful season. Both the
1906-07 and the 1907-08 seasons have been very prosperous, as scal-
lops have been plentiful.

New Bedford.

The scallop industry at New Bedford has been in existence since
about 1870, and has furnished a livelihood for an average of 15 men
ever since. Of late years the industry has shown a marked decline.

In 1879 A. Howard Clark says:-

Scallops are plentiful in the Acushnet River, and large quantities are
taken with dredges from October through the winter. The business of late
years has greatly increased.

About the same time Ernest Ingersoll also writes : —

In the Acushnet River and all along the western shore of Buzzards Bay
these little mollusks abound, and their catching has come to be of con-
siderable importance in that locality. Mr. W. A. Wilcox, who sends me
notes on the subject, says that it is only eighteen years ago that a fisher-
man of Fairhaven (opposite New Bedford) was unable to sell 5 gallons
that he had caught. But the taste has been acquired, and a local market
has grown up to important proportions, so that in 1880 14 men and 10
small boats (dories) were dredging for scallops in Buzzards Bay from
the middle of October to the middle of January. Mr. Wilcox says : " These
small boats will take from 10 to 75 bushels a day." These men are not
willing to work every day, however, since the tautog and other fishing calls
their attention, and there is danger of overstocking the market. It there-
fore happens that the total catch reported for both New Bedford and
Fairhaven men will not exceed 6,400 gallons, valued at $3,864, 60 cents
being a fair price in this and the Boston market. The value of the invest-
ment devoted to this business at Fairhaven is about $120.

The scallop industry of 1907 cannot be compared with that of former
years. The amount of scallops taken is not one-third of the former

112

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

production. More men are engaged in the business than twenty-five
years ago, but the beds are raked clean in a shorter time. The annual
yield has sadly fallen off, in spite of improved methods of capture and
increased number of fishermen. This decline cannot here be attributed
to either of the natural enemies of the scallop, as neither the starfish
nor oyster drill are abundant. Severe climatic conditions and over-
fishing by man are the direct causes of this decline.

The scallop area of New Bedford comprises approximately 400 acres,
principally in the Acushnet River and in Clark's Cove.

In 1906-07, 38 licenses were issued by the city for scalloping. This
is a marked decrease over former years. Probably not all these men
fish regularly. In the last few years the season has been rather short,
lasting between three and four weeks, as the scallops were practically
all caught in that time.

The capital required for the business, consisting of eat boats, skiffs,
dredges, shanties, etc., amounts to about $5,600; but this is merely
transient, and is only employed for three or four weeks, and then de-
voted to other fisheries.

ANNUAL PRODUCTION.

YEAE.

Bushels.

Gallons.

Value.

1905-06,

1,000

1,000

$3,000

1906 07, ....

1 900

1 200

3 000

1907-08, ...

700

700

917

All scalloping is done by dredging from either cat boats or dories.
Since 1879 improvements have been made, and cat boats instead of
dories, each manned by one man with six dredges, now do the work
once wholly performed, as Ingersoll says, by dories. All the scallop-
ing takes place in deep water.

When the law of 1905 made the Acushnet River and Clark's Cove
forbidden shellfish territory, because of the sewage pollution of the
harbor, the capture of scallops in season was still allowed. This was
based on the principle that there is no danger in eating the clean
"eye" of the scallop, although as a matter of fact there is actual
danger of typhoid infection to those handling anything from sewage-
polluted waters.

The following notes were made Nov. 21, 1905, upon the fishery of that
year : —

At the opening of the season a bed of scallops was discovered just
outside the harbor beyond the light. Twenty-five boats set to work
immediately, but there was not a sufficient supply of scallops to keep
them long employed, and one by one they dropped out, until by No-
vember 21 only two or three boats were still engaged in the fishery.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 113

The scallops of this year were of large size, 2y2 to 2% inches, and
turned out a gallon of " eyes " per bushel, — an excellent yield, as the
average scallops only shuck out 2^2 to 3 quarts to a bushel 'of shells.
If a man could obtain a gallon per day by November 21 he was lucky,
and owing to the high retail price, he made a fair day's wages.

Orleans.

On the flats about l/2 to 1 mile from the west shore scallops are
occasionally found. Six years ago there was a fairly good season, but
since that time there have been very few scallops, and these are taken
only for home consumption. .

Provincetown.

Scallops are obtained on the flats in the east bend of the harbor
toward the Truro shore, where they are blown by a southwest wind.
Evidently there must be a bed of scallops in the deep water from
which the scallops are washed on the flats. In 1905—06 from 2 to 6
men were engaged in picking up these scallops and retailing them for
home trade. About 1894 or 1895 scallops were numerous, and it was
not uncommon for a man to pick up 5 bushels on the flats at one tide.
Since 1900 but few scallops have been found.
/

Tisbury.

The scalloping grounds of Tisbury are in the harbor at Vineyard
Haven. Only Vineyard Haven fishermen make a business of scallop-
ing here. The scallop grounds comprise an area of 800 acres.

Most of the scallops are obtained by dredging from cat boats, which
are nearly all equipped with power. With two exceptions the boats
are singly manned. Fourteen men go in 8 boats, using from six to
eight dredges per boat. Six men scallop in skiffs, using one dredge.
The dredges are similar to those used at Edgartown.

During the season of 1907-08, 3,000 gallons of scallops, valued at
$3,930 were captured. The fishermen ship chiefly to the New York
market. The scallops are of an exceptionally large size, opening, it
is said, 4 quarts to the bushel. The proportionate size of the "eye"
to the shell is much greater than with the ordinary scallop.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, . . .'"".. $3,000

Value of skiffs, . .'..... . . . . 90

Value of gear, . . .' " . . .... . . . 300

Total, . . . . . .... . . . . $3,390

No licenses or permits are required for scalloping. The last season
(1907-08) is the second season that scallops have been abundant in this
locality.

114 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Wareham.

Situated at the head of Buzzards Bay, the town of Wareham pos-
sesses a considerable water area which is suitable for scallops. The
entire territory, embracing approximately 2,500 acres, extends in a
southwesterly direction from Peter's Neck, including Onset Bay, to
AbiePs Buoy and from there to Weweantit River. Scallops are also
found in the Wareham River. Scallops are mostly found in the deeper
water, which makes dredging the only profitable method of scalloping
in this locality.

Scalloping is practically all done by. dredging either from sail or
power boats, only 3 power boats being in use during the 1907-08 sea-
son. Three men from the village of Wareham use " pushers," but the
yield from this style of fishing is very small. The style of dredge in
most common use is the " scraper." This year the price paid for the
frame of the dredge is $3.50. These dredges have the blade set down-
ward firmly, and have a chain bottom of iron rings. The usual number
per boat is eight, but at Onset any number from four to fourteen are
used, according to the size of the boat and the individual choice of the
scalloper. Nearly all the boats are cat boats, averaging in value about
$300.

About 30 regular openers have been engaged off and on by the scal-
lopers. When the catch was large at the first of the season more
openers were engaged, — often as many as 3 to a scalloper. One-
tenth of the number are women.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of scallopers, 45

Number of boats: —

Power, 3

Sail, . . 33

Total, 36

The quantity of scallops taken during 1907-08 was approximately
10,000 bushels, valued at $13,100. During October the catch was about
15 bushels per day for the average scalloper, but later became con-
siderably less. The greater part of the scallops were sold to the New
Bedford Pish Company, the representatives of which bought them
unsoaked from the fishermen. Certain of the fishermen, however, pre-
ferred to ship their catch to the Boston and New York markets.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, . . .$10,800

Value of gear, . . . 1,300

Value of shore property, . . 7,000

Total, . $19,100

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 115

No permits were issued in 1907-08. Previous to this year, permits
were required from every scalloper. Wareham has a fish committee,
the duty of which is to enforce the fish laws.

The first scalloping started in Wareham in 1879, when several boats
from New Bedford commenced dredging in Wareham waters. From
that time the industry rapidly developed, until it assumed considerable
importance as a winter occupation. Since 1899 the industry has been
practically dead until the present season of 1907-08. The Wareham
scallopers to a man attribute this decline to the inroads of the destruc-
tive starfish. While the scallops have been so exterminated that no
profitable fishery has been conducted the last seven years, they have
not been wholly extinct, as a few could be found each year. Lately
the number has been increasing, until in 1907-08 the season was very
profitable. In connection with this it is said that the starfish were less
numerous than usual. The prospects of another good season in 1908-09
are excellent, as " seed " scallops are said to be plentiful in many places,
especially in the deep water, which furnishes protection in case of a
severe winter.

Wellfleet.

At the present time in Wellfleet Bay there is no commercial scallop
fishery, although scattering scallops are found in various parts of
the harbor.

Yarmouth.

The scallop grounds of Yarmouth are on the south side of the town,
on the flats which border the shore from Bass River to Lewis Bay.
Part of the waters of Lewis Bay belong to the town of Yarmouth,
and scallops are found over all this territory. The nature of the bot-
tom is the same as at Dennis and Barnstable. The total area of scallop
territory is estimated at 2,250 acres. The scallop grounds of Dennis
are open to Yarmouth scallopers.

Both dredges and " pushers " are employed in the scallop fishery of
the town. The method depends upon the location of the scallops,
whether in shallow or deep water, as well as the means of the individual
scallopers. Both the Chatham dredge and the " scraper " are used.
Forty-one men were engaged in the 1907-08 fishery, using 15 boats and
ten dories.

The production for 1907-08 was 8,000 gallons, valued at $10,480.
Scallops were shipped to New York and Boston markets.

CAPITAL INVESTED.

Value of boats, . . . ^ . . . . . . . $3,750

Value of dories, . . . . . . ..,'... . . 200

Value of gear, . . . . . . . . , 475

Total, • .... . . $4,425

116 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The same laws as were quoted for Dennis, the two towns having
common fishery rights.

The 1904-05 season was prosperous, as Yarmouth seallopers had the
privilege of scalloping in the large bed off Dennis. The two following
years were very poor, and even the last season has not been up to the
average.

OYSTER (Ostrea Virginiana}.
Introduction.

EESOLVES OF 1905, CHAPTER 73.

Resolved, That the commissioners on fisheries and game are hereby
authorized and directed to make a biological investigation and report as
to the best methods, conditions and localities for the propagation of oysters
under the conditions found in Massachusetts waters. The commissioners
may expend for the purposes of this resolve a sum not exceeding five hun-
dred dollars a year for a period of three years.

As authorized by the above act, the Commissioners on Fisheries and
Game have conducted experiments of a biological nature upon the
oyster. At the start of the investigations, for a proper understanding
of the various conditions in the different localities, it was necessary to
make a survey of the oyster industry of the State. Recently this survey
has been supplemented by sending printed questions to the oystermen,
and the whole put in the form of a report, which gives an account of
the industry. This first report on the oyster is merely a broad survey
of the whole industry of the State, and is preliminary to future reports
of a more scientific character.

The Need of a Survey. — In 1879 Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, in his " Mon-
ograph on the Oyster," * gave an excellent account of the oyster industry
of Massachusetts. Since that time no complete account, either statisti-
cal or biological, has been written. Meanwhile, the oyster industry
of the State, owing to its steady improvement, has changed in the past
twenty-eight years, and what was true of 1879 is not true of 1907.
Not only have localities changed and new areas been opened up, but
also the whole industry has expanded through the enterprise and busi-
ness ability of the oystermen, and to-day Massachusetts possesses an
oyster fishery which more than doubles the production of 1879. Thus
a survey of this fishery, by comparison with that of 1879, shows the
changes that have taken place, and gives some idea of the growth of
the industry.

It is hoped that this report will furnish sufficient data to give actual
knowledge of the conditions of oyster culture in the State, show the
success of this industry, and indicate what is essential for its future
improvement. It is necessary, in view of the conflict between the qua-

1 The Oyster Industry in the United States. Tenth Census of the United States.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 117

haug and oyster fisheries, that the public understand the exact situation,
and this is possible only through a published account of each industry.

Scope of the Report. — The object of the report is to furnish infor-
mation which will be of value both to the oysterman and to the con-
sumer. Primarily the report is for the oysterman, showing the extent of
the industry in his own locality and in other parts of the coast, where
perhaps he is unacquainted with the conditions. While exact facts are
presented for the benefit of the oysterman, this report at the same time
tries to give a general description of the industry for the consumer, who
perhaps knows nothing of the oyster except as an article of food.

The first part of the report has been arranged under the following
headings: (1) the natural oyster beds; (2) results of the survey; (3)
history of the industry; (4) the oyster laws; (5) the oyster industry;
(6) general statistics. The second part considers separately the in-
dustry of each town or section.

Methods of Work. — The statistical figures for the oyster industry
are reasonably complete as the oyster fishery is on a more systematic
business basis than any of the other shellfisheries. Nevertheless, on cer-
tain points it was impossible to obtain absolutely correct information, as,
for instance, the area of grants, since no survey is made of the grants
when leased, and the oysterman himself does not know the exact area of
his granted territory. Thus an estimate has to be made by each oyster-
man of his granted area, and, while this is approximately correct, it
cannot be considered as absolutely true.

The statistical returns were compiled by sending to each oysterman
in the State a blank form, containing a series of questions, with the
request that he would co-operate with the commission by answering.
Many oystennen responded with complete answers, thus permitting the
commission, through their aid, to publish an extended report on the
oyster fishery. However, it was found impossible to obtain complete
information from several towns, as a number of oystermen neglected
to return these blanks. The return of each oysterman is filed at the
office of the Commission on Fisheries and Game, and only the total
for each town is published, thus treating as confidential the private
business of individuals. The commission expresses a most cordial
acknowledgment to the oystermen for their co-operation in this matter.

The other parts of the report were obtained by personal inspection
of the oyster beds as to their biological conditions, by means of town
records, and interviews with the oystermen. Town records, which
should have given the location, number and areas of the grants, proved
nearly worthless in most cases, owing to incompleteness, loss and con-
fusion. Owing to the frequent change in selectmen, little if any infor-
mation could be obtained from this source, as the new selectmen were
generally unacquainted with the work of their predecessors concerning
the leasing of oyster grants. The grants were often incompletely de-
scribed, bounds uncertain and the acreage unknown.

118 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The interviews with the individual oystermen furnished more and
better information both in regard to the present condition of the indus-
try and the general history for each town.

Personal inspection of the oyster grounds was made, the biological
conditions noted and the area of the grants plotted on the accompany-
ing maps. Not all these grants are worked, and parts of the cultivated
grants are unfit for oyster raising. The charted area includes all
grants, cultivated or uncultivated.

In reviewing the history of the industry, information was obtained
from town records, oystermen who had been in the business for years,
and various newspapers and periodicals. For a comparison of the
oyster industry of 1879 and 1907 the excellent report of Mr. Ernest
Ingersoll upon the " Oyster Industry," published in the tenth census
of the United States, was used for comparison, and in many places
directly quoted. Were it not for this work and the report of A. Howard
Clark on the " Fisheries of Massachusetts," it would have been impos-
sible to draw any reliable comparison with the oyster industry of
twenty-eight years ago.

Massachusetts as an Oyster State. — Massachusetts is perhaps not so
well adapted for oyster culture as it is for clam or quahaug farming,
and does not equal other seacoast States in the extent of its oyster
industry. Nevertheless, the oyster industry is on a much firmer footing
than the other shellfisheries, and is an important adjunct to the wealth
of the southern Massachusetts towns.

All the oyster grants, except in the towns of Wellfleet, Eastham and
Orleans, are found south of Cape Cod, as the southern shore of Massa-
chusetts alone is adapted for the oyster industry. Along the south side
of Cape Cod and in Buzzards Bay the numerous inlets and estuaries
afford with their brackish water excellent ground for the cultivation of
this bivalve, and many acres which otherwise would be barren have been
made productive through the grant system; while the shores of Massa-
chusetts which adjoin the waters of Narragansett Bay possess, in the
Taunton, Cole and Lee's rivers, excellent waters for the growth of seed
oysters. Thus Massachusetts possesses good facilities for oyster culture,
which are capable of a far greater expansion than present conditions
indicate.

However well developed the oyster industry is at present, there is
plenty of room for improvement. It is the consensus of opinion among
the oystermen that the business is developing every year, — a fact
that speaks well for its future. Improvements in the oyster industry
can arise in three ways: (1) investment of more capital in the business,
which will allow more extensive operations; (2) more intensive culti-
vation of the present grounds; (3) the opening of new areas for oyster
culture and the utilization of waters at present useless. Everything
indicates that the oyster industry will take advantage of opportunities
as soon as they are given.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 119

The Oyster Grant System. — Oyster culture in Massachusetts is the
logical result of the failure of the natural oyster beds. When these
beds became destitute of oysters through overfishing, it was necessary
that means should be used to perpetuate the stock. Oyster planting
had been successfully carried on in the States south of Massachusetts,
and it was merely a question of experiment whether the oyster would
respond to the same methods in Massachusetts. Thus oyster culture
arose in this State at first as an experiment, later as an established
industry. Grants were given, as through this way only could oyster
planting become a success, and the " free fishery " people were forced
to bow to public opinion, which decreed that grants should be leased.
Thus oyster grants arose from necessity, as in no other way could
Massachusetts preserve her oyster supply.

The system of oyster grants and oyster culture, in spite of its many
failings, has shown what can be done to preserve and increase a natural
shellfish industry if the proper methods are used. Planted beds have
furnished enough spawn to maintain the natural beds, which would
have long ago been depleted through the inroads of overfishing. They
have preserved a fishery which would have disappeared almost com-
pletely, and established a better and more extensive industry, not only
benefiting the oystermen, but also those indirectly associated with the
business, such as teamsters, transportation companies, etc.

In the following report various abuses of the present system of
oyster culture will be enumerated, and it is only necessary to state
that many evils must be eliminated before the oyster industry can
obtain its maximum expansion. Such evils as town politics, disputes
with quahaugers, etc., will have to be remedied. The greatest obstacle
which now checks the oyster industry is the lack of protection. Until
complete protection is given to the oysterman, the industry will never
attain to its full development. The removal of the abuses by the or-
ganization of the oyster industry of the State under a unified system
is the best way to secure proper regulation and improvement of the
oyster industry.

The Natural Oyster Beds.

While there has been much discussion whether oysters were ever
native in Massachusetts Bay, or merely the result of southern " plants,"
the consensus of opinion is that there were natural oyster beds in
existence when the first settlers came to this coast. Not only do his-
torical records show this, but the remains of the natural beds at the
present time indicate that oysters have existed for centuries. Thus
there seems to be no reasonable doubt that the northern coast of Massa-
chusetts, as well as the southern, once possessed extensive natural oyster
beds.

I. Location of the Natural Oyster Beds. — (1) Parker River. — A
natural bed of oysters once existed in the Parker River at Newbury,
and even fifty years ago it is said that oysters could still be obtained

120 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

from this natural bed. About 1882 the experiment of fattening oysters
for market was made, and many bushels were bedded on the flats during
the summer by an oyster firm at Newbury. These oysters not only
grew well, but threw considerable spawn, furnishing a good set in the
river. Oyster raising was then tried, but the result was a failure, as
the oysters which were planted in too shallow water were killed during
the winter.

(2) Mystic and Charles Rivers. — Mr. Ernest Ingersoll states that:
" In 1634 William Wood, in his ' New England's Prospect,' speaks of
4 a great oyster bank ' in Charles River, and another in the l Mysticke/
each of which obstructed the navigation of its river." He locates the
Charles River beds as either off Cambridgeport or near the site of the
Boston Museum of Natural History.

Dr. G. W. Field, chairman of this department, in his report in 1902
as biologist to the Charles River Dam Commission, makes the following
statement about the Charles River oyster : —

The oyster (Ostrea), formerly abundant, is no longer living, and, from
what indications I have been able to gather, probably became extinct
within twenty-five years. Their dead shells are brought up by dredging
operations. Their peculiar elongated shape is the result of growth being
concentrated at the upper end, as a result of their closely crowded position
in the bed, or of an attempt to keep the opening above the accumulating
mud, and thus avoid being smothered. The fact that there are few signs of
small " seed oysters " tends to prove that the bottom was so muddy that
they found few places to " set." Prom the elongated shape of the shells
may be inferred that the amount of sedimentation going on in that particu-
lar region was rapid during the life of the group of oysters whose shells are
to be found in quantities in the material dredged between Harvard and
Brookline bridges. This sediment need not necessarily have been sand or
clay, or any material which is persistent, but it might have been flocculent
organic debris, which remained but a short time and left little or no evi-
dence, beyond its effect upon the shape of the oyster shells.

In the above account Dr. Field not only locates the original oyster
beds of Charles River, but also furnishes evidence which indicates the
cause of their extinction, i.e., the debris and sewage, or waste poisonous,
polluting materials, of a large city emptying into the river. This is not
only true of the Charles, but also of the Mystic and Taunton river beds,
which have been destroyed in like manner.

(3) Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, in his report on the " Oyster Industry of
the United States," in 1880 mentions that natural oyster beds were once
at Weymouth, Ipswich, Barnstable and Rowley. Nothing further can
be learned concerning these places.

(4) Wellfleet. — An extensive oyster bed was found at Wellfleet Bay,
which not only furnished a sufficient supply for the first settlers, but
enabled the inhabitants of Wellfleet to carry on a considerable trade by
shipping them to Boston and other ports, until it was finally destroyed

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 121

in 1775. Its destruction was due to overfishing and the utilization of
the shells for lime, which soon destroyed the natural bar.

(5) Chatham. — A natural oyster bed once existed in the Oyster
Pond, but no trace of it now remains.

(6) Harwich. — Herring River in the town of Harwich still pos-
sesses the remnants of a natural oyster bed, as occasionally a few
oysters can be gathered along its banks. This bed once comprised a
stretch of three-quarters of a mile along the river.

(7) Yarmouth. — The town of Yarmouth once possessed a natural
oyster bed in Mill Creek, but this was fished out by 1895 and then
granted for oyster culture,

(8) Barnstable. — There is a natural oyster bed at Centreville.

(9) Martha's Vineyard. — 'Native oysters are said to have existed in
the brackish ponds on the south side of the island; a few are found
there at the present time.

(10) Falmouth. — A few native oysters are to be found in the salt
ponds on the south coast of the town. In Squeteague Pond and Wild
Harbor oysters were once native.

Buzzards Bay comprises the best natural oyster territory in the
State. At the present time the natural oyster industry has been sup-
planted by oyster culture, which gradually took the place of the de-
clining natural oyster fishery. While natural beds still exist to some
extent, they are, to all practical purposes, extinct. Where once there
were extensive areas, now there are only scattering oysters. In many
cases the beds have been so completely destroyed that the ground has
been granted for oyster culture. That Buzzards Bay is a " natural set
area " can be readily seen by the amount of " seed oysters " that are
caught by the oystermen who plant shells for the purpose.

(11) Bourne.— (a) Bed Brook Harbor. — In 1879 Ernest Ingersoll
says : —

On the southern shore of this harbor, about a mile from its head, exists
a living bed of natural oysters some 7 acres in extent, under the protection
of the town for public benefit. The oysters growing on it are reported to
be large, but not of extraordinary size, scalloped and roundish, differing in
no respect from aged oysters grown after transplanting to another part of
the bay.

In 1907 this natural bed had been reduced to 3 acres, and the unpro-
ductive part granted.

(b) Barlow River. — In 1873 an act was passed to protect the oyster
fishery in Barlow River, by ordering a closed season of one and one-
half years. The passage of this act shows that a natural bed of im-
portance existed in this river, and that even in 1873 the effects of over-
fishing were apparent. At the present time there are but few native
oysters in Barlow River, or, as it is sometimes called, Pocasset River.

(c) Monument Biver. — A natural bed also existed in Monument

122 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

River, which became so depleted that about 1875 the river was surveyed
and divided into small grants.

(12) Wareham. — (a) Wareham River. — Natural oysters are found
in the Wareham or Agawam River, which has been one of the most
productive natural beds in the State, and still furnishes a scant living
for two or three men. In view of the overfishing, it is surprising that
any of the natural oysters have survived, except on reserved areas of
the town, which are opened every three or seven years for the capture
of " seed."

( b ) Weweantit Eiver. — The Weweantit River, which lies between
the towns of Wareham and Marion, has a larger and better natural
oyster bed than the Wareham River, but this has also been depleted by
overfishing, except on the reserved areas of the town of Wareham.

(13) Dartmouth. — A few oysters are found in Slocum's River.

(14) West port. — Westport River has also a few oysters.

(15) Taunt on River, Coles River and Lee's River. — These rivers
once had extensive beds of natural oysters, but now are wholly devoted
to growing oysters. Old records and laws show how important these
natural beds were, and also furnish an excellent illustration of the
effects of overfishing combined with water pollution from manufacturing
sources.

II. Decline of the Natural Oyster Beds. — The above-mentioned
examples furnish abundant proof that the natural oyster beds of the
State, which once were sufficient to supply the wants of our fore-
fathers, have declined to such an extent that at the present time but few
natural oysters are tonged for the market. Where there were formerly
many acres of excellent native oysters, to-day there is scarcely an acre
that can be called good oyster fishing, except in a few cases where the
towns maintain a nearly perpetual closed season. No proof of the
decline is necessary; it is an established fact.

There have been two principal causes which have ruined the natural
oyster beds; besides these two, — (1) water pollution and (2) over-
fishing, — certain geographical changes have doubtless occurred, which
have accelerated the decline.

(1) Water Pollution. — The effect of water pollution through the
sediment deposited by sewage and manufacturing waste on the natural
oyster beds is well illustrated by the destruction of the Charles River
beds. This is also shown in a less degree in the Taunton River.

(2) Overfishing. — The primary cause of the decline of the natural
oyster beds was overfishing. This is particularly true of the beds
south of Cape Cod and in Buzzards Bay, which were of large extent,
and unpolluted by manufacturing wastes or sewage. This overfishing
has not been the result of the last few years, since records show that
as early as 1824 Harwich passed an act to preserve the oyster fishery
of the town; and that Sandwich, in the part which is now the town
of Bourne, in 1832 passed regulations protecting the natural oyster

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 123

fishery in Monument River; while at Wellfleet the natural oyster bed
was completely exterminated by the year 1775. Overfishing has affected
the natural beds in several ways, all of which have worked toward the
general decline of the native oyster.

(a) The first settlers took the large oysters from the natural beds,
which under normal conditions had all they could do to keep up the
supply. In this way the beds were deprived of the spawning oysters,
with the result that in spite of the closed seasons, which gave little if
any benefit, a gradual decline set in.

(b) At the same time that the oysters were being taken from the
beds, the early oystermen through ignorance were making an economic
blunder by not returning the shells to the waters. The oyster shells
furnish naturally the best surfaces for the collection of " seed," as
spat will set only on clean surfaces. By taking the large oysters and
with them the shells and other debris from the bed, the natural oyster
bars were destroyed and less space given for the spat to catch. So
both the taking of the large oysters in excessive amounts and the de-
struction of the natural spat collectors, either for lime, as was done at
Wellfleet, or for other purposes, were sufficient in the early days to
cause the decline of the natural oyster beds.

(c) In more recent times the destruction of the natural beds has
been hastened by the taking of the small oysters. This practice was due
to two reasons: (1) the supply of large oysters was exhausted; (2)
oyster culture became important, and the natural beds were raked clean
for " seed " which the oystermen obtained for planting on their grants.
Thus the oyster grant system has been the chief cause of the destruc-
tion of the natural beds in the last forty years. It was only when the
natural beds failed that grants were given, and so oyster culture can-
not be considered the primary cause of the destruction of the natural
beds, but only a later agency in their total extermination. The natural
beds in Buzzards Bay all bear testimony to these three means of over-
fishing, and in recent years particularly to the last.

It has been a most fortunate thing for Massachusetts that the oyster
grant system was inaugurated as soon as the decline of the natural
fishery became manifest, else at the present time there would be no
oysters in the State, for it is recognized that the present natural beds
are perpetuated by the spawn which comes from the various oyster
grants. Foresight has indeed provided an excellent oyster industry,
which is rapidly improving. It is only necessary to apply similar
methods of culture to the other shellfish industries of the State to insure
their future also; otherwise the decline, which is following the same
steps as the destruction of the natural oyster beds, will lead to the com-
mercial extinction of these valuable fisheries.

124 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Results of the Survey.

The survey of the oyster industry has shown several interesting facts
which should be brought to the attention of the fishermen and con-
sumers. In the first place, it has shown that the oyster fishery is a
larger and more important industry than it has been commonly con-
sidered, and that the welfare of the shore fisheries of southern Massa-
chusetts depends upon its maintenance. Secondly, the oyster industry
is to-day in a position where it cannot reach its full development for
the reason merely that the present laws do not encourage the expansion
of the industry. Thirdly, the oyster industry is trammeled by certain
abuses, chiefly of a legal nature, which hinder its development, and upon
the abolition of which depends its future success. Fourthly, the oyster
industry under present conditions encroaches to some extent upon the
other shellfish rights, especially in relation to the quahaug fishery, and
has caused much jealous feeling; but if properly regulated there should
be room for both industries.

In order to obtain the opinion of the oystermen concerning the
present abuses of the oyster industry, and how these could be best
remedied, the following question was asked of the individual planters:
" What measures or laws would, in your opinion, be best adapted for
the improvement of the oyster industry? " Although many neglected
to answer this question, forty-three opinions were offered, dealing with
the problems which the oystermen consider as needing attention and
upon which the welfare of the industry depends. These answers have
been arranged in tabular form, showing the number of oystermen who
advocate certain measures.

MEASURES SUGGESTED.

Present laws satisfactory, 11

Direct State control of oyster industry, ... . . . .11

Town control, with right of appeal to the department of fisheries and

game, 1

Longer length of lease, . . . . . . . . .4

More certainty of re-leasing grants if improved, 7

More protection for industry, ......... 4

Eight to grow all kinds of shellfish, . . . , . . . . . 1

More ground for cultivation, . - . ? . . . . . . , 1

State to forbid marketing of oysters from contaminated waters, . .1
Provision for destruction of starfish, . ' . ' > . . . .'8

Total, 43

While these answers show a diversity of ideas, about 75 per cent, urge
that something be done to improve the present system, and, while many
are in favor of placing the industry under State control, the majority is
definitely of the opinion that the present system of town control is

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 125

proving a serious drawback to the oyster industry. The best interests
of the oysterman and the consumer demand a better method of regula-
tion of this industry. As long as town politics, partiality and care-
lessness enter into the leasing of oyster grants, and thus deprive certain
people of their rights, it is safe to say that the oyster industry can
never get beyond its present state of development. One solution of the
difficulty might be full State control of leasing the grounds for the
oyster industry. This is possibly too radical a step at present, and
the system can perhaps be so adjusted as to remedy its defects without
taking the control of the fishery entirely away from the hands of the
town. Another solution is to continue the system of town control, but
to have a State commission which would act as a board of appeal for
all who felt aggrieved at the judgment of the selectmen.

The advisability of ten-year grants has caused much comment among
the oystermen. Practically all grants are now given for this period
of time. As a system it is deservedly unpopular, since it does not help
the quahaug interest, and it checks the development of the oyster in-
dustry. The oyster business, unlike the other branches of shellfish
culture, requires a considerable capital. This system of ten-year grants
operates directly to discourage the outlay of capital. If the oysterman
were sure of reaping the benefits of his labor and capital, it would be
to his selfish interest to develop his own grant to its maximum capacity.
But what far-sighted business man will invest money in a business
which stands a good chance of being completely "wiped out" in a
few years'? Again, this system makes three years out of the ten prac-
tically worthless. The oysterman usually " seeds " his grant about three
years before he expects to reap his harvest; but when his grant has
run for seven years, it is evident that he will plant no more oysters
because of the uncertainty of obtaining a second lease, and naturally
does not desire to invest his labor and money for the benefit of an
unknown successor.

The remedy for this is not difficult. If a grant were rented annually
as long as the planter desired to hold it, to be forfeited if not improved
to a certain standard (to be decided upon), or for non-payment of
rent, the difficulties above enumerated would disappear. Much of the
territory now held unimproved would either be brought up to a standard
of excellence or given over to the quahaugers, and in either case direct
benefits would result. If legislation were so arranged that any man
might take, by the payment of a nominal rent, a small piece of ground,
which he could hold as long as he improved it, the oyster industry could
be put on a firmer footing; a man confident of enjoying the fruits of
his labors could thus improve his grant, and, as he acquired skill and
knowledge, could add other land and ultimately expect to build up a
successful business.

A third important suggestion relates to the marketing of oysters in
a sanitary condition. The oyster industry of the State has suffered

126 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

severely because of the scare resulting from the marketing of oysters
from contaminated waters. The Cape and Buzzards Bay oysters are
in general free from all sewage contamination, and should not be con-
sidered on the same basis as the impure varieties from outside the State.
Naturally, the Massachusetts oystermen desire that there be some guar-
antee for the purity of the oysters marketed, as their interests suffer
because this impure stock is often sold under the name of the Cape
oyster. If laws were passed requiring the inspection and certification
of marketed oysters in regard to healthful conditions under which they
have been produced, both the oyster planter and the consumer would
be benefited.

There is but little doubt that the oyster industry can be still further
developed by opening waste territory which at this time does not ap-
pear available, since under existing conditions proper capital cannot
be induced to enter the business. The oyster industry demands more
attention than it has hitherto received, and must be considered an im-
portant asset of the Commonwealth.

History of the Industry.

Although the oyster laws are the mile-stones which mark the prog-
ress of the oyster industry, and any consideration of the development
of these laws naturally gives many historical features, it is neverthe-
less necessary, at the risk of repetition, to give a separate account
of the history of the oyster fishery. The Massachusetts oyster fishery
can be divided historically into three distinct periods: (1) the free
fishing period; (2) the period of bedding southern oysters; (3) the
period of oyster grants.

(1) The Free Native Fishery (1620-1840). — In the early colonial
days the oyster fishery was considered in the same way as the other
shellfisheries are now looked upon, i.e., held to be the common property
of the inhabitants of the Commonwealth. The natural supply was abun-
dant enough to meet the needs of all the inhabitants, and for many
years no signs of decline were manifest. In 1775 the natural beds of
Wellfleet gave out, furnishing the first record of unmistakable decline.
.Prom that time there arose an extensive series of protective laws, with
the one object of preserving the natural supply by limiting the demand.
This policy of protective laws, though perhaps temporarily beneficial,
was based on an erroneous principle. It was preventive, but not con-
structive, and did not build up the demolished fishery.

(2) Oyster Bedding (1840-70). — With the decline of the natural
beds, the practice of bedding southern " plants " became an important
part of the oyster trade. The southern oysters were bedded on the
flats in the spring and taken up for market in the fall. Salem, Well-
fleet and Boston were the leading places in this new phase of the oyster
industry, and many thousand bushels were annually planted.

(3) Oyster Grants (1870-1908). — So successful was this summer

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

127

bedding of southern oysters that experiments were soon made in rearing
oysters. This proved successful from the start, and within a few years
the extensive grant system which is now in vogue was inaugurated on
Cape Cod and Buzzards Bay.

These three methods, although separated by definite periods in which
each have been the leaders, remain to a greater or less extent at the
present day. The natural beds are still in existence, and, as at Ware-
ham, are opened once in three or seven years, according to the discre-
tion of the selectmen, for catching " seed." The summer bedding of
oysters still continues, as certain planters find it more profitable to
fatten than to grow oysters, and the oyster grant system is now in full
operation.

A comparison of the industry of 1907 with that of 1879 shows several
changes. These changes are for the most part improvements which
have arisen with the development of the industry. In some cases the
changes have been detrimental, and a few localities have shown a de-
cline. New fields have opened to the oysterman both in new localities
and through the extension of the present beds. On the whole, there
has been a great increase in the grant system of oyster culture, while
the " bedding " of southern " plants," which in 1879 employed many
men, boats and extensive capital, has practically disappeared. The
annual production has increased gradually, and for 1906-07 is approxi-
mately five times as large as in 1879. The following figures, except
for 1907, are taken from the United States Fish Commission's reports,
and show the gradual increase in production : —

YEAR.

Bushels.

Value.

YEAR.

Bushels.

Value.

1879, ....

36,000

$41,800

1898

101,225

$156,235

1887

43,183

64,115

1902, ....

103,386

133,682

1888, .....

45,631

66,453

1907,1

161,182

176,142

1 Returns of the Massachusetts department on fisheries and game.

The Oyster Laws.

In submitting a complete report upon the oyster industry, the oyster
laws, which have played an important part in the development of the
fishery, cannot be totally neglected. However, so important a subject
demands separate investigation, and offers excellent opportunities for
legal research. Therefore it is not the purpose of this report to give
more than a brief account of the present oyster laws and their history.

The shellfish laws of Massachusetts constitute the foundation of the
oyster industry, as they have taken a practically extinct native fishery
and have built up the present extensive business. So closely are they
connected with its welfare that the future of this growing industry
depends upon the proper expansion of these laws to meet the new
conditions.

128 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

A survey of these oyster laws, with an analysis of their merits and
defects, is needed. Their defects have brought about the present un-
satisfactory situation in certain localities, and should be remedied.
Their merits should be strengthened and amplified, as the basis of
future expansion. They have come into being from time to time, in
response to the immediate need of the hour; consequently they have
no unity, and are, indeed, but imperfectly understood. An insight
into their perplexing details should bring out many inconsistencies.
Again, no comprehensive knowledge of the history of the industry is
possible without a study of the laws. The errors once committed need
not be repeated to further embarrass the industry, and the lessons
learned by experience would be well applied to its future development.

Protective and Constructive Laws. — The oyster laws can be divided
into two classes: (1) protective; and (2) constructive. The early
laws, which were passed to save the natural supply, were of the first
class; while the laws establishing the present system of oyster culture
come under the second heading. The beginnings of all legislative enact-
ment arose in the treatment of the natural oyster beds. These beds
were fast becoming exhausted, when laws were passed to protect their
important natural resources. This measure was only partially success-
ful. It did succeed in preserving the remnant of those old beds from
destruction, but it was powerless to build up an industry of any extent.
When it became clearly evident that no possible fostering of native
resources could supply the growing demands of the market, legislation
quite logically directed itself toward the artificial propagation of oysters.
From this step arose a series of problems which long proved baffling,
and still engross a great deal of public attention. The artificial propa-
gation of oysters necessitated the leasing of grants in tidal waters.
This giving up of public property to private individuals aroused the
opposition of rival shellfish industries, who saw in this measure a cur-
tailment of their resources. Numerous other difficulties of minor sig-
nificance arose from time to time, all demanding attention at the hands
of the Legislature.

Apart from the general supervision of the oyster industry, there
have been two other sources of legislative enactment. First, special
laws have been called for to regulate the fishery in certain waters under
the oversight of the State Board of Health. Secondly, during the past
few years the attention of the Legislature has been directed towards
the development of the oyster fishery as an important asset of the
Commonwealth, and laws authorizing various experiments, both scien-
tific and practical, have been passed in order to devise methods of in-
creasing and developing the industry.

I. Protective Laws. — The history of the oyster laws of Massachu-
setts is a history of the industry itself. The rise and decline of the
fishery are distinctly traceable in the development of the legal ma-
chinery which regulates it. From the time of the Pilgrims the oyster

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 129

beds of the coast had been regarded as inexhaustible mines. The fallacy
of this view gradually became apparent, as these beds began to be
depleted through overfishing. As early as 1796 a general law, entitled
" An act to prevent the destruction of oysters and other shellfish," was
passed by the Legislature. Prior to 1869 the town of Harwich adopted
this old law. Shortly after, Swansea followed suit, and restricted the
exploitation of her native oyster beds in the Lee and Cole rivers. In
1870 Wellfleet inaugurated an innovation, in the nature of a permit
to take oysters, which was required of all citizens of the town. The
idea of this permit was to regulate the fishery, centralize control in
the hands of the selectmen and add to the income of the town. In
1873 Sandwich passed a law enforcing a close season on all her native
beds, to last for a period of one year. In 1875 Brewster followed
the lead of Wellfleet, in demanding permits of all outsiders and also
from all citizens taking more than 3 bushels at any one time, although
an unlimited amount might be taken for food.

The aim of all this legislation was not to develop the industry di-
rectly, but indirectly by preserving and fostering the native beds. This
theory, while excellent in motive, did not work out well, as the native
beds could not by any possible protection be brought to produce an
annual yield at all adequate to the growing demands of the market.

The utilization of purely natural resources proving unequal to the
demands of the occasion, the creation of other resources became neces-
sary, and an entirely new epoch in the history of the oyster fishery
was inaugurated. This epoch marked the beginning of the production
of oysters by artificial means, and the establishment of this new indus-
try and the perplexing complications which grew out of it have been
the source of legislative strife for many years.

II. Constructive Laws. — The first legislation authorizing the pres-
ent system of oyster culture was instituted at Swansea, in 1869. This
was the beginning and the foundation of a broad movement of oyster
culture which spread rapidly along the southern coast of the State.
This curious law allowed the selectmen to sell, by public or private
sale, the oyster privilege of Swansea outright to any person or per-
sons who were citizens of the town. The measure, although apparently
designed to restrict the exhaustion of the native resources, did not
tend to develop the industry. It possessed one element of value, i.e.,
it increased the revenue of the town. Apart from its interest as the
forerunner of artificial propagation of oysters, this old law is note-
worthy, as it forms the basis of the system which to-day regulates the
industry in that section of the country. The custom of selling an
extensive oyster privilege, as apart from the system of leasing grants,
first clearly outlined in the law of 1869, still holds throughout this sec-
tion. It remains the usual custom to sell either the whole of a town-
ship's available oyster territory, or else an extensive part of it, to one
man for a lump sum per year.

130 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

In 1874 an important step occurred in the evolution of the oyster
industry. Swansea and Somerset were given the privilege of granting
any of their bays, shores, banks and creeks for the propagation of
oysters. This act was far more sweeping and advanced than any of
its predecessors, but it was in one respect too sweeping. It interfered
with the rights of the property owners along the shore, and was there-
fore contrary to the general underlying principle of the State law,
which allows the cultivation of oysters only in so far as such cultiva-
tion does not interfere with the vested rights of all citizens alike. The
measure proved untenable, and was promptly repealed. Its repeal
was on general principles a thing to be desired, but nevertheless a blow
to the industry. The tidal waters along the coast have always been
the most valuable part of the oyster territory, as they have proved
to be the best adapted for obtaining " oyster set." This measure was
therefore designed to aid the oyster growers, and give them valuable
privileges which belonged originally to the adjoining property owners.
Even to the present day the dividing line between the rights of property
owners and oystermen has remained an unsettled question.

It was about this time that the close season proved a failure in
Buzzards Bay, and the towns of Wareham, Bourne and Marion turned
their attention toward the establishment of an oyster industry. This
attempt became a settled policy of these towns about 1875.

In 1878 a peculiar act was passed, making it unlawful for any per-
son to remove oysters from any grant, even his own, between the hours
of sunset and sunrise. This act was necessary for the protection of the
oyster planters, by preventing the stealing of oysters from the grant
at night. Various efforts had been made to protect grants from such
attacks, but the extreme difficulty of detection was always an insupera-
ble obstacle to proper enforcement, and it was deemed expedient to
prohibit all fishing at night. That this problem had become an im-
portant one is shown by the title of the law, which was styled " An
act for the better protection of the oyster fisheries in this commonwealth.

In 1884 an important act was passed, enlarging the limits of that
territory which might lawfully be used for the cultivation of oysters.
Practically all communal waters outside the jurisdiction of adjacent
land owners was thrown open for oyster grants.

In 1885 the institution of a public hearing was inaugurated. This
was a concession to the hostile quahaug element, and allowed the public
the opportunity of protesting against the granting of territory for
oyster culture ; nevertheless, the final power really remained in the hands
of the selectmen. A further concession to this element was the Jaw
which called for the revoking of grants within two years if unimproved.
The interests of the oystermen were also kept in sight, and legislation
passed which was designed to protect grants still more from the depre-
dations of outsiders. Provision was likewise made for the proper en-
forcement of these laws, and the penalties attached were increased.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 131

In 1886 an act was passed which was designed to do away with all
possible outside monopoly. The danger of organized capital acquiring
control of a large tract and excluding small individual planters had
become apparent, and this means was taken to guard against it. The
act prohibited the transfer of grants in any township to any person
not a citizen of that township ; thus, if any monopoly did exist it would
be restricted to only one township. The limits during which fishing
on grants might be carried on was lengthened two hours, so that it read
from " one hour before sunrise to one hour after sunset."

In 1892 the town of Yarmouth obtained a law requiring a permit
for citizens to take oysters from native beds, not exceeding 2 bushels
per week, from September 1 to June 1. This is now the only town in
the Commonwealth to require such a permit from citizens.

In 1895 legislation was passed relative to the proper definition of
the boundaries of grants. This was rendered necessary because of the
haphazard methods hitherto pursued in giving grants with very in-
definite boundaries. Mean low-water mark was fixed as the shoreward
boundary of grants, while mean high-water mark was defined as the
limit to which shells might be placed to catch the set. This, however,
was dependent upon the owners of the adjacent property, and their
consent was held necessary before this territory between high and low
water could thus be utilized.

In 1901 special legislation was passed, restricting the catching of
oysters in contaminated waters except for bait.

In 1904 authority was granted to proper officials to develop the
oyster industry by planting shellfish, or by close season.

In 1905 the Fish and Game Commission was authorized to expend
a sum not exceeding $500 per annum for the investigation of the oyster,
by experiment or otherwise, with a view to developing the industry.

The development of the oyster laws has been by a process of evolu-
tion. They have kept pace with the growth of the industry, and have
been in fact the logical outcome of that expansion. The various acts
which go to make up the bulk of this legislation have been passed from
time to time to fill the immediate demands of the hour, and consequently
lack that unity and consistency which might otherwise characterize
them. Changing conditions have called for alterations in the legal
machinery, as the industry has expanded, to meet new requirements.
These additions have frequently been dictated by shortsighted policy,
and the Commonwealth as a whole has often been lost sight of in the
welfare of the community.

Of all the shellfisheries, the oyster industry is most hampered by
unwise legislation. It is the most difficult to handle, because it presents
many perplexing phases from which the others are free. Clams, qua-
haugs and scallops flourish in their respective territories, and legisla-
tion merely tends to regulate their exploitation or marketing. With the
oyster, however, other problems have arisen. The areas in the State

132 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

where oysters grow naturally are few in number and relatively of small
importance. The clam, quahaug and scallop grounds are to be com-
pared with wild pastures and meadows, which yield their harvests with-
out cultivation; while the oyster grants are gardens, which must be
planted and carefully tended.

With this distinction arises another question, of far-reaching signifi-
cance,— the question of private ownership. The quahaug, clam and
scallop fisheries demand that the tidal flats and waters be held in com-
mon as communal interests, and freely open to all citizens of the town;
the oyster fishery requires that certain portions of these flats and waters
be set aside for private ownership. With the economic questions in-
volved in this discussion it is not the purpose of this report to deal.
There is one fact, in -any case, which cannot be argued away. The
oyster industry is dependent solely upon private ownership of grants.
If, therefore, the oyster industry is to be encouraged at all, — and it
certainly has very great possibilities, — this fact of private ownership
must be accepted at once. If, as some assert, it is an evil, it is a neces-
sary evil, and it has come to stay. The questions remaining for legis-
lation on this subject are the proper regulation of this private ownership,
so as to give the maximum of encouragement to the oyster fishery, and
the minimum of danger to the rival shellfish industries.

The oyster and quahaug industries openly clash. This is an unfor-
tunate occurrence, but it cannot be avoided, since the ground suitable
for the culture of oysters is almost always the natural home of the
quahaug. Therefore, when portions of this ground are given out to
private individuals for the production of oysters, the available quahaug
territory is necessarily reduced. Over this question endless disputes
have arisen. The problem is undoubtedly one requiring delicate ad-
justment; but there is no reason why these two industries should not
flourish side by side, as there would be plenty of room for both if all
the available territory were properly utilized.

There is one important feature of this problem, however, which the
present laws have wholly failed to recognize. Wherever practicable,
the best of the quahaug territory should not be granted; and as far as
possible, the oystennen should utilize only those tracts of territory which
are not naturally very productive of quahaugs.

The Oyster Industry.

For the benefit of those who perhaps are not familiar with the methods
employed in the oyster industry, the following brief account is given : —

I. Selecting the Grant. — The oysterman, in selecting a grant, has
to consider first the nature of the soil; and secondly, the location as
influencing the growth of the oyster. Not less important is the quality
of the oyster, which means not only a good price, but also readiness
of sale, as the oysters produced in certain localities are especially de-
sirable in appearance and flavor.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 133

As the oyster will not grow on all kinds of bottom, but demands a
firm soil, free from soft mud and shifting sand, the oyster area of the
State is naturally limited. Usually but part of an oysterman's grant
is suitable for the cultivation of oysters, and he is forced to let the
rest of the territory lie idle, unless he can, with shells or gravel, arti-
ficially change this waste area into suitable ground. Shifting sand per-
haps can never be made suitable for oysters; but many acres of soft
mud can be made productive, if the oystennan only has a reasonable
guarantee that he would receive the results of his labor.

While the oyster culture is limited by the nature of the bottom, it
is also restricted by other conditions. The salinity of the water has
much to do with the rapidity of growth, and the oysters seem to thrive
in localities where a slight amount of fresh water enters. The amount
of food in the water is the principal factor in the rate of growth, and
to this is due the fact that the rate of growth varies considerably in
different localities. As a rule, the beds with good circulation of water
(i.e., currents) show the more rapid growth.

II. Collecting the "Seed." — The term "seed" is applied to one,
two, three and even four year old oysters which the oystermen plant
on their grants. These grants are in reality salt-water gardens, requiring
constant supervision; and the obtaining of the "seed" for planting
is a most important consideration. The gathering of the oyster " seed "
is a simple process, but one which requires much research.

Early in the summer, usually during the months of June and July
in these waters, the Massachusetts oyster spawns. Both sperm from
the adult male and the eggs from the adult female oysters are extruded
in considerable quantities into the water, and there the eggs are ferti-
lized. As fertilization is somewhat a matter of accident, undoubtedly
the great majority of eggs never develop. The fertilized eggs pass
rapidly through various changes in the course of a few hours, and
emerge as microscopic embryos, with thin, transparent coverings. At
this period these forms are free swimming, and are found in great
numbers in the water. They are extremely delicate, and great quanti-
ties are destroyed by natural agencies, such as cold storms, sudden
changes in temperature, etc. They likewise are subject to the depreda-
tions of all sorts of marine creatures, and comparatively few in pro-
portion survive. The survivors, after leading this free-swimming
existence for several days, settle to the bottom, where they attach them-
selves by a calcareous fixative to stones, shells, pieces of wood, etc.
Here, unless buried by silt and soft mud or killed by exposure, poison-
ous pollution, etc., the young oyster rapidly becomes of a size suitable
for planting.

The economic utilization of this scientific knowledge is as follows:
shells offer a very good surface for the attachment of the young oyster,
and many thousand bushels are annually strewn over the bott.om pre-
vious to the spawning season. Considerable judgment is needed in

134 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

choosing the right time to plant these shells, which after a few weeks
in the water become so coated with slime that fixation of the " spat "
becomes impossible. In Massachusetts the area between high and low
water mark has been found by experiment to be the most valuable
territory for this purpose, as shells planted here collect the heaviest
set and can be handled with the least expense. A projecting sand bar
or point with a current is also well adapted for catching oyster spat.

The scallop shell is the most serviceable in spat collecting, because it
is more brittle, and the clusters of oysters when attached are readily
broken apart. After the oysterman has obtained a successful set, he
allows the young oysters to obtain a suitable growth before he makes
a final planting, either in the spring or fall.

III. Size of the " Seed " used for Planting. — While many oysters
are raised from native spat in the Buzzards Bay district, the greater
part of the seed is purchased in Connecticut and Long Island, and is
carried in schooners or steamers to Massachusetts waters. The usual
price ranges from 35 cents to $1 per bushel, according to size and qual-
ity. The oystermen cannot always choose the size of " seed " they desire
for planting, as the set of any one year is very uncertain, and several
seasons may pass before a large quantity of " seed " can be obtained.
Thus the oyster planters are forced to take whatever size they can ob-
tain, whether it be two, three or four year old " seed." As a rule, the
small " seed " is most in demand, as it means relatively faster growth
and less money invested. Often, when the ground is most favorable for
fattening, large oysters are preferred for planting, and certain oyster-
men make this line of work a specialty. Certain localities where there
is plenty of lime in the water are well adapted for growth, and yet
produce poor-" meated " oysters, while in other grounds the reverse
is true. The oystermen occasionally by a double transfer utilize both
grounds, planting oyster " seed " for the first few years in the rapid-
growing localities, and then transplanting the large oysters to the
" fattening " ground six months before marketing.

IV. Preparing the Grant. — The first step in preparing the grant
is to remove all debris. In the deep water, this is usually done by dredg-
ing; in the shallow water, by whatever means is the easiest. If the
bottom is of firm soil, the grant is then ready for planting; however,
if the soil is soft mud, it is necessary to shell the bottom in order to
give it greater firmness. The oysterman continually has to keep a sharp
lookout in order to protect his grant from enemies such as the starfish
and the oyster drill, and to keep it clear of seaweed and other matter
which would interfere with the growth of the oyster.

V. Sowing the "Seed." — The "seed" oysters are planted on the
.prepared bed by scattering them with shovels or scoops from the boats

and scows. The oysterman, knowing the maximum amount of " seed "
the bed will grow to the best advantage, plants the required number,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 135

taking care that the oysters are properly scattered, as for the best
growth oysters should lie separate and not in crowded masses. The
amount of " seed " that can be planted on a given area depends upon
the natural conditions of the locality.

VI. Enemies. — The oyster, having passed through the countless
dangers of his embryonic career, is still harassed by several enemies.
Of these, the most destructive is the starfish. This animal, commonly
known as the " five-finger," occurs along the entire Massachusetts
coast, and is especially abundant in Buzzards Bay. Occasionally whole
oyster beds are wiped out by this pest, which sweeps over the ground
in vast armies. The method of attack of the starfish is unique. By
exerting with its tube feet a steady pull in opposite directions on both
valves of the shell of the victim, the starfish tires the contracted muscle
of the oyster, and the shells open. The starfish then extrudes its
stomach so as to enwrap the prey, and in this curious manner devours
the oyster.

A close second to the starfish in amount of damage is the oyster
"drill" or "borer" (Urosalpinx cinerea). This little mollusk with
its rasping tongue drills a small hole through the shell of the oyster,
and then sucks out the contents.

A third enemy, according to the oyster planters, is the " winkle "
(Fulgur carica and F. caniculatus) . The method of attack is somewhat
obscure.

Besides this dangerous trio of living enemies, the oyster is subject
to constant peril from inanimate agencies. Probably the greatest of
these is shifting bottom. Where oysters are grown on sandy soil, the
violent waves of winter storms frequently tear up the bottom, or else
the force of currents is such as to kill the oysters by completely bury-
ing them in the sand. Again, if the oysters are growing in very
muddy bottom they are constantly liable to be smothered in the slimy
ooze. Ice in winter frequently tears oysters from their beds and bears
them to some unfavorable environment, where they soon die.

VII. Harvesting the Oysters. — The oysterman completes his plant-
ing about June 1. During the summer months, the growing period
of the oyster, the grants remain idle except for the care and super-
vision of the oyster-men. As the oyster takes from three to five years
to attain its growth, the oysterman practically harvests but one-fourth
to one-third of his entire stock each year, beginning about September
1 and continuing through the winter as the weather permits.

In winter the oysterman, to keep up the market supply, beds " culled "
oysters near the shore, where he can tong them through the ice when-
ever it is impossible to obtain oysters from his grant.

The implements used in gathering the oyster harvest are of three
kinds: tongs, dredges and rakes. Tongs are employed principally by
the smaller oyster growers, and on ground where the water is com-

136 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

paratively shallow. A pair of tongs is really a pair of long-handled
rakes, fastened together like a pair of shears. The pole, corresponding
to the blade of the shears, varies from 8 to 16 feet in length. The
rakes, some 2 to 2l/2 feet broad, are so fitted to the end of the poles
that when extended by spreading the handles they rest upon the bottom
parallel to each other. These tongs are usually worked from skiffs
or flat-bottomed boats, the oystermen first separating the tips of the
handles and then bringing them together, thus causing a corresponding
movement of the two rakes, which with their 2-inch iron teeth gather
in all the intervening oysters. The tongs with their burden of oysters
are then lifted into the boat, emptied, and the process repeated.

Dredging is a much faster and less laborious method of oystering
than tonging, and can be carried on over a much larger territory.
The oyster dredge consists of a bag of woven iron rings attached to
an iron framework. From each corner of the framework iron rods
extend, converging at a point some feet away. At this point the rope
is attached, by which the dredge is dragged from either a sail or
power boat. The blade, resting horizontally on the surface, is armed
with teeth which rake the oysters into the bag. When this bag, which
holds from 3 to 8 bushels, is full, the dredge is raised, usually by a
windlass worked by steam, gasolene or hand power, as the case may
be, its contents dumped out and the dredge lowered for another haul.

Rakes, the third implement in general use, are not employed as
extensively as tongs or dredges, but are used in still water, where the
bottom is suitable.

VIII. Marketing. — The " catch " as soon as it is dredged or tonged
is brought in boats to the oyster houses, where men with hatchets or
similar implements break apart the clustered oysters and cast aside
the empty shells, bits of rock, etc. Three different varieties of mar-
ketable oysters are usually sorted out, according to size: (1) large, (2)
medium and (3) small. The respective sizes vary somewhat with the
locality, demands of the market and the season; but the large oysters
commonly count about 900 to the barrel, the medium 1,000 or more,
while the small run 1,200 or over.

The different sizes as they are sorted out are packed in barrels and
are then ready for shipment. The principal markets are of course
New York and Boston, though the demand farther inland is increasing,
and shipments to Chicago or places even farther west are frequently
made.

General Statistics.

The following facts concerning the oyster industry have been com-
piled from the written statements of the different oystermen. Com-
plete returns have not been received from Wareham, Barnstable, and
Falmouth, while possibly a few oystermen in the other towns have
been overlooked. Falmouth raises but few oysters for the market and

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

137

these returns have been recorded, the remaining oystermen merely
planting for their own use. In the towns of Barnstable and Ware-
ham about four-fifths of the oystermen have made returns. The facts
given in the following tables are based only on the returns at hand,
and therefore do not give a complete report for these two towns.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY.

TOWN.

NUMBEB OP GRANTS.

AREA OF WORKED GRANTS

(ACRES).

Number
of
Men.

Total.

Worked.

Total.

Suitable.

Un-
suitable.

Wellfleet,

35

23

mi

810

157

14

Chatham,

21

21

65

55

10

20

Dennis- Yarmouth, .

4

2

10

10

-

3

Barnstable, ....

29

29

188

121

67

33

Falmouth, ....

22

6

44

23

21

5

Bourne,

135

42

100

83

17

21

Wareham, ....

125

70

196

159

37

26

Fall River district, .

14

14

810

510

300

36

Nantucket
Total,

2

1

20

3

17

1

387

208

2,400

1,774

626

159

CAPITAL INVESTED.

TOWN.

Boats.

Im-
plements.

Shore
Property.

Bedded
Oysters.

Total.

Wellfleet,

$10,115

$575

$1,200

$19,500

$31,390

Chatham,

1,695

313

1,225

23,300

26,533

Dennis- Yarmouth,

25

50

100

5,000

5,175

Barnstable, ....

5,269

1,139

4,300

28,850

39,558

Falmouth, . . . . .

1,525

105

1,000

450

3,080

5,515

483

150

18,300

24,448

Wareham, . . . . .

9,355

1,120

2,420

27,725

40,620

Fall River district, . . .

19,840

2,000

6,200

68,500

96,540

Nantucket, . . . •

518

15

25

800

1,358

Total, . ... .

$53,857

$5,800

$16,620

$192,425

$268,702

138

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

PRODUCTION OF 1906-07.

TOWN.

MARKETABLE OYSTERS.

SEED OYSTERS.

Total
Value.

Bushels.

Value.

Bushels.

Value.

Wellfleet

22,500

$24,850

1,000

$1,000

$25,850

Chatham

14,550

23,987

-

-

23,987

Dennis- Yarmouth, .

1,000

1,500

-

-

1,500

Barnstable, ....

25,850
3,012
2,100

48,050
6,025
4,100

100
23,000

100
15,000

48,150
6,025
19,100

Bourne,

Wareham, ....

7,770

12,790

22,100

12,090

24,880

Fall Eiver district, .

38,000

26,250

-

-

26,250

Nantucket, ....
Total,

200

400
$147,952

-

-

400

114,982

46,200

$28,190

$176,142

SECTIONAL ARRANGEMENT OP TOWNS.

A. North side of Cape Cod: -

1. Wellfleet.

2. Eastham.

3. Orleans.

B. South side of Cape Cod : —

1. Chatham.

2. Harwich.

3. Dennis and Yarmouth.

4. Barnstable.

5. Mashpee.

6. Falmouth.

C. Buzzards Bay: —

1. Bourne.

2. Wareham.

3. Marion.

D. Pall Eiver district.

E. Nantucket.

Wellfleet.

For the past thirty years there has been an extensive oyster industry
at Wellfleet, and many grants have been taken out in the waters of
Wellfleet Bay, which possesses some of the best oyster ground in the
State. In spite of the success of the past years, the industry is de-
clining, indicating, possibly, that after 1910 no more grants will be
leased.

Four parts of the bay are taken up by oyster grants in the vicinity
of: (1) Mayo's Beach; (2) Great Island; (3) Indian Neck; (4) Lieu-
tenant's Island.

(1) Nine grants, covering an area of 176 acres of both flats and

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 139

deeper water, extend out from Mayo's Beach a distance of 1,500 feet.
These grants extend along shore from Commercial Wharf to Egg
Island, a distance of 3,500 feet. Seven of these grants have each a
shore extension of 200 feet, the other 2 having 600 and 1,500 feet
respectively. The principal planting on these grants is done by D.
Atwood & Co.

(2) On the west side of the bay, along the shores of Great Island
and Beach Hill, there are 7 grants which are now worked. Originally
there were 12 grants in this locality, but 5 of them expired some time
ago. The area included in these 5 grants is 500 acres, while the entire
granted area covers 708 acres. Wright & Willis, R. R. Higgins and
L. D. Baker have done most of the planting on these grants in the
past few years.

(3) On the east side of the bay, near Indian Neck, are 5 grants,
comprising 224 acres. J. A. Stubbs does all the planting here. A
single grant of 11 acres of flats is held in Duck Creek Cove by J. C.
Wiles. These grants extend along the shore for 2,000 yards and run
out into the bay for 1,000 yards.

(4) Off Lieutenant's Island are 8 grants, comprising a total area
of 1,062 acres. Only 3 of these, comprising 559 acres, are now worked.
Joseph Crosby of Osterville is the principal planter on these grants.

From the statistical returns of the oyster planters it is found that
23 grants are now held for oyster planting, comprising an area of
967 acres; 810 acres, or 83 per cent, of this area, is suitable for oyster
culture. There is very little soft mud bottom, only 82 acres, while
the shifting sand area is 75 acres.

The total area of grants ever leased at Wellfleet comprises 2,182
acres, of which 1,473 are now held. The average depth of water over
these grants at mean low tide is 4 feet, the extremes running from
1 to 12 feet.

Capital invested, $31,390

Power boats, 4

Value of power boats, $9,250

Sail boats, 4

Value of sail boats, $750

Dories and skiffs, .......... 8

Value of dories and skiffs, $115

Implements: —

Dredges, 14

Tongs, 12

Value of implements, . . $575

Value of shore property, . . . . . . . . . $1,200

Value of oysters on grant, . " . . . . . . . $19,500

Most of the oystering is done by dredging, two large gasolene oyster
boats, the " Cultivator " and the " Marion," being employed for this

140 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

purpose. Tongs are also used extensively. Fourteen men are engaged
from six to twelve months each year in the oyster business.

The production for 1906-07 was 22,500 bushels of marketable oysters,
valued at $24,850; and 1,000 bushels of "seed," worth approximately
$1,000. Most of the planted "seed" is obtained from Long Island
and Connecticut.

The damage from the natural enemies of the oyster is reported as
very slight.

The Wellfleet oyster has a peculiar salty flavor not possessed by other
oysters. For some trade this is preferred, while for others it is not
so desirable. Before marketing the extreme saltiness is sometimes re-
moved by floating the oysters in Duck Creek, where the water is less
salt, using large, scow-like floats, 30 by 15 feet.

Several Boston firms are engaged in oyster culture at Wellfleet, in-
cluding D. Atwood & Co., J. A. Stubbs and R. R. Higgins.

For years there has been a conflict between the quahaugers and the
oystermen at Wellfleet. This is very natural, owing to the rivalry
between the two industries and the rapid rise of the quahaug fishery
in the last fifteen years. Owing to their greater number, the qua-
haugers have obtained the upper hand in town affairs, with the result
that in 1910, when all the oyster leases run out, it is said that no more
will be granted, and the oyster business of Wellfleet will come to an
end. This is especially unfortunate for the town, as there is room
for both industries, and the destruction of either one would be a great
financial loss. It is hoped that some means can be devised to straighten
out the difficulties between the opposing factions before either indus-
try is ruined.

But little oyster spat has ever been caught in Wellfleet Bay. That
oysters will set there is evidenced by the young " seed " caught on
the piles of the wharves and on stones and rocks around the harbor. It
is noteworthy that at Wellfleet the spat sets only between the tide
lines, and does not catch where water is constantly over the ground.
This is directly contrary to the conditions in Long Island Sound, where
the set is caught in deep water. E. P. Cook and J. A. Stubbs have tried
spat collecting in Herring River for several years, with the results
of one or two good sets, the best being caught by Mr. Cook in 1906.
The other years have proved failures in this line. There is no question
but that oyster spat can be profitably caught if sufficient interest is
taken in the matter.

The early laws were as follows : —

In 1772 a law having been enacted by the General Court, regulating the
taking of oysters in Billingsgate Bay, an amendment to that act was now
asked by the town, namely, that during the summer months oysters shall
not be taken to market, nor fished by the inhabitants of the town for their
own use during the months of July and August.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 141

In 1773 : —

That, inasmuch as the oyster fishery, which is of great value to the town
and of great advantage to the Province, has received detriment from per-
sons taking young oysters, the enactment of more stringent regulations are
necessary to prevent their destruction.

These early laws show that the natural oyster beds were highly prized
by the ^inhabitants in colonial days, and that measures, even then, were
necessary to prevent their extinction. At the present time Wellfleet
has no other regulations than the general oyster laws of the Common-
wealth.

The history of the oyster industry of Wellfleet can be divided into
three periods: (1) the natural oyster fishery; (2) the "bedding" of
southern oysters; (3) oyster planting.

(1) The Natural Oyster Beds of Wellfleet. — The first settlers found
a natural oyster bed near Hitchin's Creek, or Silver Spring, in 1644,
and it is said that oysters were very abundant at that time. Old
shells are occasionally dredged or raked up at the present day from
these beds. The Rev. Enoch Pratt, in his " History of Eastham, Well-
fleet and Orleans," gives the following account of this early oyster
industry : —

Oysters were found in great abundance on the flats at the first settle-
ment [1644], but at this time [1770] the inhabitants had so increased and
such quantities were taken for consumption and for the Boston market,
that it became necessary, to prevent their entire destruction, for the dis-
trict to take measures to preserve and propagate them. . . . Shops and
stands were opened in Boston, Salem, Portland and other places, where
the oysters were sold in quantities to suit the purchaser.

In 1775 all the oysters in the bay died. What caused their destruction
is not certainly known, but it is supposed that as, at this time, a large
number of blackfish died and came on shore, where their carcasses remained,
producing a very filthy condition of the water, it caused this mortality.

A more probable explanation is given by Mr. E. P. Cook of Wellfleet.
The early inhabitants, not knowing the value of the natural shell beds
for catching the spat, greedily took every shell and burned them into
lime as a fertilizer for their farms and plaster for their houses. There
was once a fine strip of woods near this original oyster rock, but this
was cut down, and the sand gradually washed over the beds, killing
the young oysters. To these two causes can be attributed the final de-
struction of the natural beds in 1775.

(2) The Bedding of Southern Oysters. — After the destruction of
the natural beds, an important industry arose in the " bedding " of
southern oysters for northern trade. Privileges for bedding oysters
on the flats were granted to a number of oyster firms. These men
hired schooners in the latter part of the winter or the early spring,
which went to the southern oyster grounds and brought back loads

142 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

of oysters. These oysters were spread or bedded over the leased flats
of the harbor, where they remained until the following fall, when they
were taken up for market. In this way the oysters gained in size by
the summer's growth, and were fattened for market. Considerable trade
sprang up in the carrying of oysters, and many vessels were engaged
in this traffic. In 1841 Mr. Gould, the conehologist, states that 120 men,
with 30 vessels of about 40 tons each, were employed for three months
of the year, and brought to the town an annual revenue of $8,0f)0.

In 1841 Capt. William Dill is credited with bringing into Wellfleet
the first cargo from Virginia, which started a large trade in Chesapeake
oysters. Mr. Ernest Ingersoll makes the following statement concerning
the Virginia trade: —

Nevertheless, it was not until about 1845 or 1850 that the business began
to confine itself to Virginia oysters, and a large business to be done. At
its height, about 1850, it is probable that more than 100,000 bushels a
year were laid down in the harbor; some say 150,000. . . . The favorite
ground was at the mouth of Herring Eiver.

The Rev. Enoch Pratt writes, in 1844:-

The inhabitants of the town tried the experiment of bringing oysters
from the south and laying them down on the flats, which succeeded well.
In the course of a year they doubled their size and their quality was much
improved. This soon became a large business, and a number of vessels
have been employed in the spring of every year in bringing them here.
The number of bushels which are now [1844] annually brought is about
60,000. Nearly all the oyster shops and stands in Boston, and other cities
and towns in this State, are supplied from this place, and are kept by
persons belonging to the town. This business affords a living for many
families.

Mr. Ernest Ingersoll thus describes the decline of the oyster trade
in 1870:-

The war of the rebellion, however, interfered somewhat with the oyster
trade, and it began to decline so far as Wellfleet was concerned. Then the
various dealers in northern ports, having learned something, began to bed
near home in their own harbors, and so saved freightage. Finally, the
steamers from Norfolk and the railways entered into so serious a compe-
tition that fully ten years ago [1870] Wellfleet Bay was wholly deserted by
the oystermen as a bedding ground, though her vessels still continue to
carry cargoes in winter from Virginia to Boston, Portland, Salem, Ports-
mouth and the Providence River, to supply the active trade and fill the
new beds, which the dealers at these various ports had learned could be
established at home. The reader thus discovers how important a part
Wellfleet has played in the history of the oyster trade of New England. A
hundred thousand bushels of the bivalves once grew fat along her water
front, and thousands of dollars were dispensed to the citizens in the indus-
try they created. Now [1880] a little experimental propagation, to the
value of a few hundred dollars, and about 6,000 bushels of bedded oysters

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 143

from Virginia, worth perhaps $5,000 when sold, form the total active busi-
ness. The oyster fleet, however, remains, though greatly diminished, and
carrying its cargoes to Boston, Portland and elsewhere, instead of bringing
them to be laid down in the home harbor. It will be long before Wellfleet,
and its neighbor, Provincetown, lose the prestige of old custom as oyster

(3) Oyster Raising. — In 1876 the first attempt to raise oysters from
" seed " at Wellfleet, is said to have been made by E. P. Cook, who
obtained a grant from the town of about 30 acres, on which were
planted 500 bushels of "seed" from Somerset, Mass. The "Oyster-
man " of Dec. 20, 1906, gives the following account of oyster planting
at Wellfleet: —

In 1876 our informant, Mr. E. P. Cook, conceived the idea that these
waters could grow "seed" oysters as well as fatten big stock. He went
to Somerset, Mass., and got a carload of 500 bushels and planted them.
A few had previously been planted but with ill success. The people laughed
at him for dumping his good money overboard. He was the first man to
lease a piece of oyster ground from the State, and of course had his pick,
which was 600 feet on the shore next to the Silver Spring, the original spot
of the natural rocks. Mr. Cook 'here showed his acumen as a culturist. The
next spring they had made a remarkable growth, and all had lived. Then
there was a stampede of the fellows who laughed, to get some ground, too.
Soon every inch of available ground had been taken up. We mention the
following who took up plats: Solomon Higgins, I. C. Young, Benjamin
Oliver, Daniel Oliver, Edward Oliver, Cornelius Rogers, William Smith, S. B.
Eich, Theodore Brown, Stephen Young. These men did not all plant. The
next year Mr. Cook bought 500 bushels more, and now he had 1,000 bushels
on his grounds. These were two-year-old plants, and when they had laid
there three years he sold these primitive beauties for $5 per barrel. Some
time after this he bought Mr. Eich's plot. Subsequently Mr. Cook sold
400 of his 600 feet to E. E. Higgins, the founder of the famous oyster-
packing house by that name. This same man bought the 200 feet of
Solomon Higgins. Now this house had 600 feet of shore ground. E. B.
Higgins was the first wholesaler with capital invested in the culture of the
Cape Cod oysters. Finally, this house absorbed all the ground Cook had.
Eight years after this the Wright & Willis firm came on the scene; that
period had elapsed since the first cargo of " seed " had been freighted here.
They bought the remainder of the Solomon Higgins grant. Then Mr. Cook
took out another grant below Smalley's Bar. Capt. Albert Harding and
Capt. D. A. Newcomb took out leases. In 1892 Mr. Cook sold his lease to
the D. Atwood Company. Then Mr. Cook bought the Capt. Albert Harding
lease and sold the right to plant on it, the law then not allowing the lessee
to turn over the grant in toto. Then H. & E. Atwood became interested
here. About this time some friction between the planters and clammers
existed, but it should be remembered that the planters occupied only about
200 of the 2,400 acres involved in this dispute. Then it was that J. A.
Stubbs came on the stage of activity, and Mr. Cook secured a lease for this
wholesale concern.

144 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Eastham.

The oyster industry of Eastham is closely associated with the Well-
fleet industry, and practically all the business is carried on by Well-
fleet firms.

The grants extend along the western shore from the Eastham- Well-
fleet line south, running out into the bay a distance of 1 mile. The
average width of these grants is 900 feet. Twenty-four grants have
been given out by the selectmen, but only 12 of these are in existence
at the present time, the others having lapsed for non-payment of dues.
(The town charges $3 for the original grant, and $1 each year there-
after). The area of the grants is 800 acres, of which only 125 acres
are under cultivation. As all the business, which is but small, is done
by Wellfleet firms, the statistics of the industry are included in the
Wellfleet report. All the grants, as at Wellfleet, expire in 1910.

Orleans.

There are 5 grants on the west coast of the town, but practically
nothing is done in the oyster business. The oyster industry of Orleans is
a dead issue, and quahaugers dig at will over all the granted territory.

The grants are all eight to nine years old, and will not be renewed,
as they are said to be unconstitutional, since the waters of Eastham
and Orleans are common, and the consent of Eastham was not ob-
tained when they were granted. The real reason for not renewing
them will be because they are not profitable. The sand shifts on
a good deal of the territory, and where the water is too deep for
shifting, oyster culture does not seem to pay.

Four years ago 15,000 bushels of two-year-old "seed" was sent
here from Connecticut. The greater part of this " seed " died in
transportation, and much of the remainder was killed by the shifting
sand. Two years ago (1905) 3,000 bushels of marketable oysters were
shipped from Orleans; but little has been done since then. No set
has ever been caught here, although spat catches readily on the rocks
which lie between the tide lines.

Chatham.

The oyster furnishes an important industry for the town of Chat-
ham, which ranks next to Wellfleet and Cotuit in the production of
" Cape " oysters.

The oyster grants are all situated in Oyster Pond and Oyster Pond
River, covering an area of 65 acres of excellent bottom. Of this, 55
acres is hard bottom; 6 acres, soft mud; and 4 acres of coarse shifting
sand. The whole of Oyster JPond River and the most of the shore
waters of Oyster Pond are taken up by grants. The central part of
Oyster Pond possesses a soft bottom, and is therefore unsuited for

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 145

oyster culture. The depth of water over the grants varies from dry
to 6 feet at low tide.

Records show that a natural oyster bed once existed in Oyster Pond,
as in 1802 " excellent oysters, but scarce," were reported. Even now
old shell heaps are found, which contain extremely large oyster shells,
and indicate that the Indians used these oysters for food. Indeed,
the name, Oyster Pond, was given long before grants were issued,
and doubtless received this name because of these natural oysters.

No natural oysters remained in 1877, when the first grants were
issued to George S. Atwood, John Vanhise, Jonathan Small, Stephen
Gould and Frank Lanpier. The last three named held together one
grant in Oyster Pond River; Atwood's grant was in Oyster Pond;
while Vanhise's grant was partly in Oyster Pond and partly in Stage
harbor, where oyster culture was a failure. The planting was not very
successful at first, owing to a lack of proper methods.

These grants were issued in 1874 for a term of twenty years. The
next series of grants were issued for ten years, and in 1893 the first
grants were renewed for the same length of time. Since the period
of the twenty-year grants there have been two ten-year leases, and
the present leases will expire in 1911.

A town regulation restricts the oyster grants to the southern waters
of the town, and allows no grants to be given in the waters of Pleasant
Bay, where there is considerable territory which might be suitable for
oyster raising. As all the available territory is now taken up in Oyster
Pond, no more grants can be issued.

The method of obtaining a grant by a resident of the town is to
choose the locality, stake out the grant and report the same to the
selectmen, who will grant a license if the bounds are satisfactorily
described, and no part of another grant is included. The price of the
license, which runs for a period of ten years, is $2, and 50 cents is
charged for recording it. No regular survey of the grant is made.
Taxes are paid yearly on stock and working capital.

Capital invested, $26,533

Power boats, ........... 1

Value of power boats, ......... $300

Sail boats, 2

Value of sail boats, $500

Dories and skiffs, 8

Value of dories and skiffs, ........ $105

Scows, 12

Value of scows, . $790

Implements : —

Dredges, 10

Tongs, 34

Value of implements, ......... $313

Value of shore property, $1,225

Value of oysters on grant, . $23,300

146 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Owing to the shallow water, most of the work is done by tonging.
Flat scows, 25 by 10 feet, are generally used for this work, as they
afford excellent footing for the oysterman in tonging and plenty of
room for the oysters. These scows, which have a capacity of 100
bushels, can be anchored by stakes or iron piping, and definite areas
covered by the tonger. In the fall the oystermen make their " culls "
on these scows. Chatham is the only town in Massachusetts where
scows are in general use. Dredging is done only to a limited extent
by 3 oystermen, the others all using tongs. Twenty men are engaged
from four to six months of the year in the oyster business at Chatham.

The production for 1906-07 was 14,550 bushels, valued at $23,987.
The oyster industry has been increasing every year, the production for
1906-07 being one-third more than the 1905-06 output. The oystermen
are unanimous in saying that the oyster business of Chatham is steadily
improving.

No "seed" oysters are raised in Chatham, as no large set has ever
been caught, and all attempts in this line have proved unsuccessful.
All the " seed " oysters are brought from Greenport, L. I. These run
from two to four years old, the larger oysters being preferred. As a
rule, oystermen are forced to take what they can get when they buy seed.

The only natural enemy which infests the Chatham oyster is the
oyster drill (Urosalpinx cinerea). The damage done by this pest is
slight, amounting to nearly $800 annually.

Harwich.

No oyster industry is now carried on in the town of Harwich. A
natural oyster bed once existed in Herring. River, and occasionally a
few oysters can be picked up at the present time; but the bed is prac-
tically fished out. This bed once extended a distance of three-quarters
of a mile in the lower part of the river.

In 1824 an act was passed to prevent "the wilful destruction of
oysters and other shellfish in the town of Harwich," which shows that
even as early as 1824 the natural bed in Herring River was on the
verge of depletion.

Dennis and Yarmouth.

The oyster industries of Dennis and Yarmouth are so connected
that they will have to be considered as belonging to one town.

Four grants have been leased in the two towns, but only 2 of these
are worked. Three grants are situated in Bass River, while the fourth,
which is not operated, owing to the shifting sand, lies outside Dog
Fish Bar. The 2 grants which are worked are situated in Bass River,
and comprise an area of 10 acres of hard bottom, all of which is suit-
able for oyster culture. The Bass River grants, which are taxed at
the valuation of $1,000 apiece, expire in 1914.

Mill Creek, in West Yarmouth, one of the most valuable shellfish
areas in the town, originally contained a natural oyster bed which
extended from the mouth of the creek up for 1,000 feet, comprising

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 147

an area of 2% acres. Nevertheless, this was granted in 1895 for a
period of ten years. Two years ago the lease expired, and it is said
that the oysters have come in again in abundance.

All along the south shore of the two towns " seed " oysters, which
have been washed out of Mill Creek, can be picked up. A small amount
of " seed " is raised on the grants, but this is not enough to furnish
the requisite amount required for planting purposes, so about 2,500
bushels is annually brought into the town from Oyster Bay, L. I.

No damage is done in these waters by the natural enemies of the
oyster, as both the starfish and oyster drill are very scarce.

One thousand bushels of marketable oysters, valued at $1,500, were
shipped in the season of 1906-07.

Three men are engaged for a period of seven and one-half months
in the oyster industry.

Capital invested, $5,175

Dories, 2

Value of dories, . . . . . . . . . . $25

Tongs, 5

Value of implements, ......... $50

Value of shore property, ......... $100

Value of bedded oysters, $5,000

The oysters are taken by tonging from dories, as the water is com-
paratively shallow. No dredging is done.

Yarmouth is the only town in the State which requires a license for
taking oysters from a natural bed.

Barnstable.

Barnstable is the great oyster town of the Commonwealth, as it
has the twofold distinction of possessing the most extensive industry
and producing the finest quality of oysters. The causes which have
brought the cultivation of oysters in this town to so flourishing a
condition have been fourfold: first, Barnstable has a long coast line,
much cut up by bays and rivers, which give it a very large available
area; secondly, this area is remarkably suited for the cultivation of
oysters, as it is for the most part hard, clean bottom, in comparatively
shallow water and well sheltered from storms; thirdly, there is little
damage from the enemies of the oyster, — the starfish, winkle and
drill, fourthly, the waters of the township are notably pure, free from
contamination, and well adapted for the production of a rapid-growing
oyster of excellent quality.

Barnstable township contains several villages, three of which, Cotuit,
Marston's Mills and Osterville, are prosperous centers of the oyster
fishery. Hyannis, a fourth village, once maintained a business of this
nature, which proved unprofitable and has now practically disappeared.
Oyster grants are scattered along the shores of Popponesset River and
Bay, in Cotuit harbor, Bluff Channel, South Bay, Osterville Narrows

148 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

and at Marston's Mills. In addition, a large but indefinite territory
along the southern shore, as indicated on the map, is maintained as
experimental grants.

Cotuit is by far the most important center of the industry. Here
the fishery is conducted on an extensive scale. The white, clean sandy
bottom and the remarkably pure waters of the bay produce an oyster
with a bright, clear shell, which distinguishes it from oysters grown
elsewhere. This Cotuit oyster is much sought for by hotels and fancy
dealers, and is universally considered par excellence among Massa-
chusetts oysters.

Barnstable, though supporting an immense industry, has by no means
exhausted her latent resources. Extensive experiments to increase the
productive area of the town have been carried on for the past few
years. A strip of territory along the southern coast, some 4 miles
long and 3 miles wide, has been granted. This territory is of doubtful
utility, as the bottom is largely shifting sand exposed to the full force
of southerly gales. These grants have hardly been in force long enough
to demonstrate their possibilities, but it is probable that a large terri-
tory may be thoroughly suitable for the future expansion of the oyster
industry.

Unfortunately, several oystennen did not make statistical returns,
thus rendering a complete record for the Barnstable oyster industry
impossible. The majority of the oystermen willingly responded, and
the present report comprises only those returns which have been sent in.

The total area comprised by the grants, 29 in number, is 188 acres,
of which 121 acres are of hard bottom, suitable for oyster culture.
There is very little shifting bottom. The usual Cotuit bottom is a clear
sand, which is especially favorable for the production of fine oysters.

Thirty-three men are employed from six to eight months each year
in the industry, which gave in 1906-07 a production of 25,850 bushels
of marketable oysters, valued at $48,050. Except for a small natural
oyster bed at Centerville, no "seed" is caught in Barnstable, and is
all brought from Long Island and Connecticut. Several firms plant
only large oysters, bedding them in the spring and taking them up
the following fall, when they have acquired the Cotuit flavor.

Capital invested, . . ,. *v,, $39,558

Power boats, . . *. * - • .......> 4

Value of power boats, . ,, - ... ./••».' . ... «,,-,. $3,900

Sail boats, . . . . . .... . f ; V • 3

Value of sail boats, . ..... . . . , . $800

Dories, . . ... . . . . . . . 22

Value of dories, $413

Scows, . -.'; ;'' 7

Value of scows, , . » - $156

Implements: —

Dredges, . . . . . . ?-. ^-v/ > . -• ; 23

Tongs, 45

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 149

Value of implements, ......... $1,139

Value of shore property, $4,300

Value of oysters on grant, $28,850

Mashpee.

The oyster industry of Mashpee is rather limited. Five grants
exist in the west channel of Popponesset River, covering practically
all the territory. Only about 5 to 10 acres of this territory is suitable
for oyster culture. The ground granted for oysters is used indis-
criminately for quahauging and scalloping, and seems to be almost
public property.

But one man is engaged in the oyster business, and he rarely ships
any, but peddles them around the community. No " seed " is caught.
Starfish and oyster drills are very scarce. A cat boat, dory and tongs
constitute the capital invested, which is valued at $200. The annual
production is valued at $100.

Falmouth.

The oyster industry of Falmouth is conducted on the south side of
the town, in the waters of Waquoit Bay. There are no oysters on
the Buzzards Bay side of the town.

According to the town records, there are 22 grants in existence.
These grants are mostly small, not averaging more than 2 to 10 acres,
and are but little cultivated. Returns from 6 of these grants, which
comprise all the territory worked for market, are alone used for the
statistical figures.

The best oyster territory is in Waquoit Bay and Child's River. In
Waquoit Bay 6 acres are granted, 4^/z acres of which is hard bottom,
suitable for oyster culture. In Child's River the grants comprise 20
acres, two-thirds of which, or 13 acres, is hard bottom. Altogether,
some 44 acres are granted, and, although a good deal of the surface is
muddy, there are 23 acres of very fair oyster ground.

No business is made of raising " seed," but from two to three year
old " seed " is shipped from Greenport, L. I., and replanted.

In 1906-07, 3,012 bushels of marketable oysters, valued at $6,025,
were shipped. Many of the grants are leased to men who raise oysters
for their own use only, while but few make a business of shipping
oysters.

The only enemy is the oyster drill, which does but slight damage here.

Three men are engaged for nine months each year in the oyster in-
dustry at Falmouth; while 5 or more run grants for their own use.

Capital invested, . . . . .' . . ^ .. . $3,080

Power boats, . . . . . . .... . . • f 1

Value of power boats, . . . . . . . .•• $800

Sail boats, . . ^.," . ;• . .... ... 1

Value of sail boats, / . . . . V I . .... $250

Dories, . . . . -.- .' . . ,,*; . . _ - - 4

Value of dories, . ... , $75

150 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Scows, . . . . . . . . . .... 1

Value of scows, $400

Implements: —

Dredges, 2

Tongs, . . . . . . . . . . . • 6

Value of implements, $105

Value of shore property, $1,000

Value of bedded oysters, $450

Buzzards Bay District.

The Buzzards Bay oyster industry .is in a state verging on chaos.
In some specially favored localities it is in a flourishing condition; in
others hardly less favorable it is almost completely stagnant. Great
natural advantages exist, which if properly utilized would create a
business of immense proportions. These resources are for the most
part but poorly improved, and in many cases are neglected altogether.
A spirit of uncertainty, which discourages confidence and checks initia-
tive, seems to pervade the business atmosphere. Amid this uncertainty
and conflicting forces, one fact, at once the starting point of the whole
difficulty and at the same time the sole solution of the problem, stands
out vividly clear. This is the need of proper legislation.

The troubles which beset the Buzzards Bay oyster industry are
directly traceable to defects in the present legislative system. These
defects are both active and passive. In some cases unwise and illogical
laws are in operation, which hamper business activity; in other cases
laws for which there is a crying need are laid aside or neglected. A
reform in certain aspects of town supervision is the demand of the
hour. Until the present system receives an overhauling, it is doubtful
if the industry will ever experience full prosperity.

In order to gain a clear insight into the difficulties which darken
the immediate outlook in this region, it will be necessary to take a
brief survey of the history and present status of the industry.

The beginnings of the oyster fishery in Buzzards Bay arose from the
exploitation and subsequent depletion of the natural beds. These beds,
of which there are several scattered along the coast from Bourne to
Mattapoisett, furnished for a long time a large annual output of
oysters. In the early '70's the supply began to decrease rapidly, and
the fear of total extermination caused the selectmen of Marion, Ware-
ham and Sandwich (Bourne) to attempt a strict supervision of the
fishery. These attempts were in all cases unsatisfactory, and about 1875
the artificial culture of oysters began almost simultaneously in the
three towns by the issue of licenses or grants to private individuals.
The measure was popular from the first. Almost all the available land
was speedily appropriated, and a flourishing but exotic industry, stimu-
lated by a considerable outlay of capital, burst into life.

At Marion the new business lasted precisely fifteen years. The in-
dustry was largely a losing venture. The oysters did not grow well,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 151

and were of inferior quality. In time, doubtless, when the causes which
produced these effects had been studied, a stable and well-ordered in-
dustry would have resulted. It is but natural to assume that where
oysters grew in a " wild " state, cultivated ones could likewise be grown.
Such an outcome, however, was not destined to follow. The grants
had been so given that they all expired at the same time. When this
date arrived, the majority of the inhabitants of Marion were of the
opinion that the oyster grants would yield far better returns if utilized
merely for the quahaugs which grew naturally on them, and the
whole harbor was consequently thrown open as common ground. From
that date the quahaug fishery has waned almost to the point of ex-
tinction, but no efforts have been made to resurrect the old oyster
industry, which has practically disappeared.

At Bourne the industry began with bright prospects. The present
business, though somewhat impoverished, still possesses those inherent
resources which are capable of developing a more extensive industry.

At Wareham the business was of slower growth and more logical
development, and it has continued to increase, until at present the
town possesses an important industry. It has struggled with many
problems which have retarded its growth, and which still embarrass it.
These are primarily problems of legislation, as the industry stands in
need of better regulations before it can attain its maximum develop-
ment.

In all these difficulties, which have been briefly outlined and hinted
at, the main source of annoyance has been the strife between two rival
factions, — the oyster and quahaug interests. These interests have ever
been at war, and the result has been almost fatally destructive to both.
The questions at stake in this controversy have been broad in their
general interest. The quahaug industry is essentially democratic, repre-
senting roughly labor as against capital, and demands that tidal flats
and waters be kept as common property for general use. The oyster
industry, on the other hand, is essentially exclusive, representing or-
ganized capital, and maintains that oyster grants are as much the sub-
ject of private ownership as farms and city lots. The whole aim of
legislation has been to reconcile these wholly opposite theories. The
problem has been complex and many-sided, and it is not strange that
the selectmen of the towns in question have been unable to harmonize
the two factions or pass regulations suitable to both parties. Certain
it is that in trying to benefit both they have benefited neither, and the
present confusion has resulted.

The matter is one certainly of sufficient importance to merit attention
from the State. It is not merely local. The whole Commonwealth is
interested vitally in the development of its industries, and it is unwise
to allow so important an industry as the oyster fishery to remain solely
in the hands of local authority, especially when local authority has
shown itself unable to cope with the problem.

152 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

«

The present system in vogue in the Buzzards Bay district is perhaps
unfair to both parties in its policy. The selectmen may lease an
unlimited number of grants, of an unlimited area, to any citizen or
number of citizens of the town in question. Theoretically at least they
may grant all the available area in sight to one man. There must
of course be the formality of a hearing, and sufficient pressure may
be and is frequently brought to bear upon the selectmen to retard them
from exercising the full extent of their authority; but nevertheless
the system is unjust to the majority, and it is small wonder that the
quahaug fishermen feel aggrieved that some of their former privileges
are thus curtailed. Furthermore, the clause which demands that these
grants should be used for the cultivation of oysters is oftentimes openly
evaded, and a good portion of the granted area, though not used for
oysters, is closed to the quahaugers.

On the other hand, the oystermen, while apparently enjoying great
privileges, in reality are severely handicapped. An oysterman obtains
a grant perhaps with great difficulty, owing to opposition from the
quahaug men. He can carry on no extensive business without the
expenditure of considerable capital. If he " seeds " his grant, the first
two or three years are spent in the maturing of the first harvest. The
grant is given only for ten years; consequently, when it has run for
seven or eight years the owner is in doubt whether to plant any more
" seed," as he does not know that his license will be renewed and
naturally does not wish to plant a bed for his unknown successor.
Again, if he is fairly successful and wishes to expand his business,
he cannot without great risk invest in the costly equipment necessary
for such an enterprise, as he has no certainty of getting a sufficient
amount of territory or of keeping it any length of time. Furthermore,
additional complications arise from the disputes with owners of ad-
joining shore property. This is particularly unfortunate, as this tidal
area along the shore is most valuable for the collection of oyster set
or " seed."

From the foregoing statements it appears that the oyster and qua-
haug factions are in the position of two combatants who continue
to fight, while the object of the strife is lost to both. It is impossible
to handle so grave a problem by merely theorizing, but a few ideas
might be suggested as bearing favorably on the subject. It would
seem wise to refrain as far as possible from granting the best portions
of quahaug territory, for there is sufficient room for both industries
to flourish. Then, too, grants might be rented at so much per acre
as long as the owner desired within certain time limits, assuming that
he paid his annual rental and improved his grant. These and other
suggestions might be made which would seem an improvement over
the present circumstances; but it is doubtful if conditions can be much
bettered until some motive force and centralized authority is supplied
by proper legislation.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 153

Bourne.

Bourne has long supported a promising oyster industry. In some
respects it has greater advantages for the extension of this business
than "Wareham, but the invested capital, the annual product and the
resulting revenue are all overshadowed by those of its neighboring rival.
The great natural resources which Bourne possesses, its extensive avail-
able area, its multiplicity of bays, inlets, islands and rivers, — these and
a variety of other causes combine to make it a most favorable locality
for the growth of oysters; and it is indeed an unfortunate circumstance
both for the shellfish interests of the community and the broader inter-
ests of the State that so great a source of economic wealth should be so
little improved. The vexing questions which harass the oyster planters
of Wareham and hamper their efforts are present here in even greater
force. In many places where a flourishing business was once carried on
the industry is at a standstill, while nowhere does it evince that life
and activity which its decided advantages warrant.

The town books contain records of 135 grants in force to-day. No
accurate system of charting is in vogue except in the Monument River,
and no absolutely reliable data concerning the total area is available,
but the combined territory comprised in these grants aggregates nearly
600 acres. Of this territory, however, only a portion, and a relatively
small portion, is really improved; the remainder is either allowed to lie
dormant or is worked merely for the quahaugs which it produces. The
oyster territory of Bourne is divided into five distinct sections: the
Monument River section, the region about Mashnee Island, Toby Island
and vicinity, Basset's Island and the neighborhood of Wing's Neck, and
Pocasset and the Red Brook harbor or Cataumet district. Of these
five regions, the Monument River ranks first, both in the total area and
also in importance, and it is here that most of the business is carried on.

The statistical returns of the Bourne oystermen show that only 42
grants comprising 100 acres are worked. Of this 83 acres is hard
bottom suitable for oyster raising while the remaining 17 acres is mostly
soft mud.

Capital invested, $24,448

Power boats, ........... 3

Value of power boats, $3,000

Sail boats, 8

Value of sail boats, $1,900

Dories and skiffs, .......... 29

Value of dories and skiffs, $615

Implements: —

Dredges, . - 99

Tongs, 38

Value of implements, . . . . . . .» . . • $483

Value of shore property, . ... . . . . * $150

Value of bedded oysters, . . . . . . . $18,300

154 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Twenty-one men make a living from the industry. The production
for the year ending Aug. 1, 1907, amounted to 2,100 bushels of mar-
ketable oysters, valued at $4,100, and 23,000 bushels of " seed," worth
$15,000. The methods employed in oyster culture here are similar to
those in use at Wareham. Thousands of bushels of shells, preferably
those of the scallop, are strewn over the bottom to collect the set, which
is then taken up and transferred to the proper grant or shipped for
sale. The two great enemies of the oyster, the borer or drill, and the
starfish, flourish here. The borer seems more destructive in those sec-
tions which are comparatively sheltered, the starfish in more exposed
localities.

The history of the industry is one of picturesque variety. The
beginnings of the industry were bright with promise; the sudden growth
which followed was spectacular but erratic; and the difficulties which
soon arose plunged it into complications from which it emerged much
shattered and greatly declined. Originally there were three good
natural beds, — in Monument River, Barlow's River and Red Brook
harbor, respectively. These beds long supplied all the oysters pro-
duced, and when in 1834 they began to be depleted, legislation was
enacted regulating them until 1863, when the town surveyed a number
of grants in the Monument River, each with an average area of l1/^ to 10
acres, and allowed one of these grants to every citizen desiring it, on
the payment of $2.50. These old beds still linger as rather uncertain
assets of the communal wealth. The Monument River grounds still
supply a fairly large harvest, the Barlow River has declined much
more, while the Cataumet beds are nearly extinct.

The shellfish laws of this region are of vital importance, as it is their
province to inaugurate order from chaos, put a stop to wasteful meth-
ods, and take such steps as appear necessary for the proper develop-
ment of the industry. How greatly these laws fail in their mission is
abundantly shown by the present conditions of the fishery. The whole
situation is on the threshold of a change. What this change will be,
whether for better or worse, depends upon the legislation of the future.

Wareham.

Wareham is the second town in the State in the production of
oysters, being excelled in this respect by Barnstable alone. Its com-
manding position at the head of Buzzards Bay, the numerous indenta-
tions of its coast line, and the three rivers which lie partially within its
borders, give it a wide expanse of available territory exceptionally
favorable for the development of this shellfish industry.

The substantial success which has attended the oyster business at
Wareham has been attained by slow but steady growth. Many problems
have been encountered, — problems of local prejudice, opposition from
rival industries and the like; but these problems have simply hampered
the industry, — they have not sufficed to check its growth. At present

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 155

the business seems firmly established, and can enter on its future career
of prosperity as soon as the barriers which block its progress shall have
been removed.

The town records show a total of 125 grants in operation today.
These grants are poorly described and for the most part unsurveyed,
but their total area approximates 1,000 acres. According to the
statistical returns of the oystermen, 70 grants, comprising 196 acres,
are under cultivation. Of this, 159 acres are of hard bottom, suitable
for oyster planting, while the waste area is equally soft mud and
shifting sand.

Capital invested, $40,620

Power boats, 4

Value of power boats, $3,800

Sail boats, 17

Value of sail boats, $4,485

Dories and skiffs, .......... 50

Value of dories and skiffs, $820

Scows, 2

Value of scows, .......... $250

Implements: —

Dredges, 120

Tongs, 84

Value of implements, $1,120

Value of shore property, $2,420

Value of bedded oysters, $27,725

The catching of oyster " seed " at Wareham is more important than
the raising of marketable oysters; 22,100 bushels of seed, valued at
$12,090, were exported last year (1906-07). Thousands of bushels
of shells, chiefly those of the scallop, are planted yearly in shallow
water, to catch the set. The territory where these shells may be planted
to the best advantage is on the fringe of tidal flats which skirt the
coast. This area, however, which is consequently of considerable value,
is of doubtful ownership, being claimed both by the oystermen and also
by the owners of the adjacent shore property. The dispute arising
over this question has been most harmful to the industry.

The marketable oysters raised at Wareham are of very good quality.
There were 7,770 bushels of these oysters, valued at $12,790, produced
in 1906-07, and shipped mostly to New York and Boston. Altogether,
there are 26 men depending on this industry for a living.

Besides the grants, there are two native beds, one each in the Ware-
ham and the Weweantit rivers. These beds comprise nearly 80 acres,
and, though now greatly reduced, they still yield a considerable amount
of seed oysters.

The laws governing the industry here are similar to those at
Bourne. The ten-year grant prevails, with all its attendant evils to the

156 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

oysterman; while the quahaugers have abundant cause to complain,
from the fact that practically all the available territory has been
granted to the oystermen. While it is true that scarcely a third of this
land is utilized for the cultivation of oysters, it is likewise true that the
rights of the oystermen are by no means strictly observed by the qua-
hauger. There can be but one result of this policy, — endless wrangling
and confusion, and, in the end, loss to both parties. The unfortunate
thing about the whole matter is that most of this wastefulness is en-
tirely needless; but this is a problem for future legislation.

Marion.

The oyster industry at Marion is practically dead. The last grants
expired some ten or twelve years ago, and were never renewed. Of
the two original natural beds, that in Blankinship's Cove is now almost
entirely depleted, while the larger and more important bed in the
Weweantit River has greatly declined in importance. This bed, how-
ever, still supplies all the marketable oysters produced within the town,
though the annual • production is insignificant. From twenty-five to
thirty years ago the oyster industry had its beginning, and for a time
flourished. Almost all the available territory, both in the harbor and
in the Weweantit River, was granted. The older grants were leased
for fifteen years, and those of later date were arranged to run out at
the same time; so it followed that all the leases expired simultaneously,
and the industry came to an abrupt end. These old grants were not
renewed, for two reasons: first, they had not paid very well; and,
secondly, the growing quahaug industry promised more lucrative returns.
The scallops, too, began to be abundant, and the old oyster business
gave way before its newer and more prosperous competitors.

Fall River District.

The Fall River district, comprising the six towns of Fall River, Free-
town, Berkley, Dighton, Somerset and Swansea, may best be treated
as a geographical unit. The oyster industries of the individual com-
munities overlap to a considerable extent, and make distinct separation
difficult, while, as the same methods of culture everywhere obtain and
the same problems and difficulties are encountered, a brief survey of
this whole region may be comprehensively discussed in one article.

The beautiful shores of Mount Hope Bay and its tributary streams,
the Cole, Lee and Taunton rivers, furnish an extensive territory for
a large oyster industry. The best of this area is now included within
the confines of the bay itself, though the Cole and Lee rivers furnish a
small but valuable addition. The Taunton River, however, which thirty
years ago produced the finest oysters in the State, and was the main
source of supply for this district, has become utterly worthless for the
growth of marketable oysters. In fact, this river, with its curious

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 157

history, and the difficulties which it now presents to the carrying on
of an important and profitable industry, furnishes the most interesting
problem of this whole region. This river embraces the entire oyster
territory of Freetown, Berkley and Dighton and portions of Somerset
and Fall River, — certainly half of all the available territory of the
whole section; and yet it is an indisputable fact that this large and
formerly profitable area is now altogether unsuitable for the production
of edible shellfish.

The causes for this transformation of a river which once supplied
a large annual revenue to the prosperous communities which lined its
banks, into a stream unwholesome and unfit for the proper maturing
of its shellfish, have been much discussed. The prevailing opinion
seems to lay the blame to the impurities discharged into the river by
the Taunton factories. Other theories, ingenious but far less worthy
of weight, have been urged; but the burden of evidence strongly points
to the sewage of the city of Taunton as the probable main factor in
the decline of the industry.

While greatly impaired as a favorable territory for the propagation
of oysters, the river, however, is still largely utilized. Extensive grants
are sold by the towns of Dighton, Berkley and Freetown to oystermen,
who bed them with " seed," which is allowed to remain until it is from
two to three years old, when it is taken up and replanted in some other
locality where the waters are uncontaminated, and here left for a
certain time until it becomes " purified " and ready for shipment to
market. By this method the old grants are still worked, though greatly
declined in value, as oysters can no longer be sold to market direct,
and the process of transplanting entails considerable expense.

In the other towns of this region the industry is carried on much the
same as in Buzzards Bay or Barnstable. A great deal of attention is
paid to the enemies of the oyster, particularly the starfish. This animal
is combated chiefly with " mops " of cotton waste which are dragged
over the bottom, and the starfish, becoming entangled in the strands, are
removed and destroyed. As this fairly effectual warfare is being con-
stantly waged, the numbers of this pest are kept well reduced, and the
grounds maintained in very good condition.

By a peculiar local custom, which would be decidedly unpopular in
some coast communities, the towns of this section usually sell their
entire oyster privilege to some individual or company, ordinarily the
highest bidder. In this manner, aided by the fact that some persons
purchasing such rights re-sell them to others, the oyster industry of
this entire region is owned and controlled by a very few men. This
arrangement, however, does not seem to be unpopular, the only difficulty
arising from those clammers who are accustomed to dig clams under
water, and sometimes find a bed located on an oysterman's grant. In
such cases the owners usually waive their rights, and allow the clammers
to dig undisturbed.

158 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

As has been said, the oyster industry in this district, while it has by
no means attained its maximum development, has indeed reached very
considerable proportions. The entire amount of area granted aggre-
gates 810 acres. Of this total, some 510 acres are suitable for oyster
culture, the remainder being soft mud, shifting sand, or otherwise unfit
for utilization. The entire output for 1907 exceeded 38,000 bushels,
valued at $26,250. Thirty-six men depend partially upon the business
for a livelihood.

Capital invested, $96,540

Power boats, 9

Value of power boats, ......... $19,500

Dories and skiffs, 17

Value of dories and skiffs, $340

Implements: —

Dredges, 12

Tongs, 18

Value of implements, $2,000

Value of shore property, $6,200

Value of oysters on grant, . . . . . . . . $68,500

Nantucket.

The oyster industry of Nantucket is of recent origin, and the oysters
are as yet raised only for home consumption.

Two grants have been leased by the selectmen, but only one of these
is now planted. These grants are situated in the east and west bends
of Polpys harbor. The cultivated grant in the west bend comprises
some 20 acres, only 3 of which are of hard bottom and suitable for
oyster culture, the remaining 17 having a soft mud bottom.

The " seed " planted on the grant is obtained at New Haven. In the
last few years the oysters on this grant have thrown a large quantity
of spawn, which has caught on piles and stones at various places around
Nantucket harbor.

The only enemy to the Nantucket oyster is the oyster drill.

The production of marketable oysters for 1906—07 was 200 bushels,
valued at $400. These were sold for home trade on the island.

One man is engaged in the oyster business for a period of three
months each year.

The oysters are taken both by dredging and with tongs.

Capital invested, ..... . . . . . . $1,358

Power boats, . 1

Value of power boats, . . . . . . . . $500

Dories, . . ... 1

Value of dories, V, $18

Implements : —

Dredges, • . ' * v 2

Tongs, . , ' ~ ' '.' . . 1

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 159

Value of implements, ......... $15

Value of shore property, $25

Value of oysters on grant, $800

CLAM (Mya arenaria).

Mya arenaria, commonly known as the " soft " or " long-neck " clam,
is found along the entire Massachusetts coast, wherever there is afforded
a sufficient shelter from the open ocean. Exposed beaches with open
surf are never inhabited by this mollusk, which is usually found on
the tide flats of bays, inlets and rivers, and on the sheltered beaches
between high and low tide lines. The clam occurs in various kinds of
soil, from rocky gravel to soft mud, but grows best in a tenacious soil
of mud and sand, where it lies buried at a depth of from 6 to 12 inches.

As Cape Cod marks the dividing line between a northern and a
southern fauna, it also divides the clam flats of Massachusetts into two
distinct areas. The same clam is found both north and south of Cape
Cod, but the natural conditions under which it lives are quite different.
In comparing these two areas, several points of difference are noted.

(1) The clam areas of the north coast are mostly large flats, while
those of the south shore are confined to a narrow shore strip, as Buz-
zards Bay and the south side of Cape Cod for certain geological reasons
do not possess flats, but merely beaches.

(2) The rise and fall of the tide is much higher on the north shore,
thus giving an extent of available flats nearly six times the clam area
south of Cape Cod.

(3) Clam growth as a rule is much faster on the north shore. This
is due to the great amount of tide flow over the river flats of the north
shore. Current is the main essential for rapid clam growth, as it
transports the food. The average south shore flats possess merely the
rise and fall of the tide, and as a rule have not the currents of the north
shore rivers.

(4) The temperature of the northern waters is several degrees colder
than the waters south of Cape Cod. This affords, as has been shown
experimentally, a longer season of growth for the southern clam. The
north shore clam in the Essex region only increases the size of its shell
through the six summer months, while the south shore clam grows
slightly during the winter.

The present advantages lie wholly with the north shore district, as
through overdigging the less extensive areas of southern Massachusetts
have become in most parts commercially barren. Overdigging has not
occurred to the same extent on the north shore, owing to the vast extent
of the flats. Nevertheless, many acres of these, as at Plymouth,
Kingston, Duxbury, and even Gloucester and Essex, have become wholly
or partially unproductive. The only important clamming in Massachu-
setts today is found in the towns bordering Ipswich Bay. The south
shore and a good part of the north shore furnish but few clams for
the market.

160 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

In view of restocking the barren areas through cultural methods,
the north shore possesses two advantages over the south shore:
it has a larger natural supply at present, which will make restocking
easier; it has larger areas of flats, which can be made to produce
twenty times the normal yield of the south shore flats. Although,
compared with the north shore, the clam area of the south shore seems
poor, it is above the average when compared with the clam areas of the
other States south of Massachusetts, and when properly restocked the
clam flats of southern Massachusetts should furnish a large annual pro-
duction.

If the clam industry is not properly cared for, it will be totally
ruined before many years. The clammers do not realize this, because
of a mistaken impression that nature will forever furnish them with
good clamming, and they have little thought for the future; while, on
the other hand, the consumer is indifferent from lack of knowledge.

Scope of the Report. — The object of this report is to present in
brief form the condition of the clam fishery in Massachusetts. For this
purpose facts showing the present extent of the industry have been
compiled, with the view of furnishing both the clammer and consumer
with certain desirable* information.

The report will consider: (1) general conditions of the industry of
1907; (2) a survey of the clam-producing area, illustrated by maps;
(3) a plan of clam culture which will make productive many acres of
barren flats; (4) the history of the clam industry, a comparison being
made between the industries of 1879 and 1907; (5) a description of the
industry.

Methods of Work. — The same methods as used with the other shell-
fish were pursued in obtaining the statistical data for the clam industry.
The clam-producing areas were examined and the observations recorded.
Town records, which were of some assistance with the other shellfish,
furnished practically no clam data, compelling the Commission to rely
upon the estimates of the clammers and clam dealers. While this
method made it difficult to secure accurate detailed information, the
statistics for each town were checked up in a variety of ways, thus
furnishing as nearly correct figures as can be obtained.

In making an historical comparison of 1879 and 1907, the report
of Ernest Ingersoll on the clam fishery of the United States, and the
report of A. Howard Clark on the fisheries of Massachusetts, as pub-
lished in the United States Fish Commission Report, Section V,
volume 2, and Section II., respectively, were of great use, as practically
all of the statistics for 1879 were obtained from these two reports.

In making the survey of the clam areas, records were made of:
(1) soil; (2) food (a) in water, (b) on surface of soil; (3) rate of
currents; (4) abundance of clams and localities of set; (5) barren flats
that can be made productive. In the present report only the kind of
soil, abundance of clams and area of barren flats will be given, the
food problem being reserved for later publication.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 161

Summary. — In the following summary the seacoast towns are ar-
ranged in geographical order from north to south. The number of
men includes both regular and intermittent clammers who dig for the
market; all others are excluded. In determining the production of
any town it is impossible to obtain exactly correct figures, as the amount
dug for home consumption is an unestimable quantity, and the clams
are marketed in a number of ways, rendering it almost impossible to
get complete statistics. The production statistics have been obtained
in a variety of ways, and the final estimates have resulted from careful
consideration of all facts. The invested capital includes the clammer's
outfit and boat, but does not include personal apparel, such as boots and
oil skins.

The clam flats are divided into two main divisions: (1) productive;
and (2) barren. The barren areas are those where at present no clams
grow at all, not even scattering; and areas yielding even a few clams are
still considered productive flats, though to all practical purposes barren.
It was necessary to make the division thus, as otherwise no decisive line
could be drawn. The barren flats are divided into those sections that
can be made productive and those that can never be made to grow
clams. The productive flats, on the other hand, are divided into areas
of good clamming and areas of scattering clams which do not support
a commercial fishery. The normal production of the clam flats has been
carefully estimated, in view of the previous experiments of the Fish
and Game Commission, and the different classes of flats have each been
given a certain valuation in computing the total for each town. The
areas given of the clam flats are based upon calculations, as no engineer-
ing survey was made.

The price of clams varies in different localities, and chiefly depends
upon the quality of clams and the method of marketing. In certain
towns clams are "shucked" (removed from the shell), — a process
which greatly increases their market value; while in other places they
are sold only in the shell. These two facts account for the apparent
variation in the value of the production in different localities, as each
town is given its own market price.

The following production table does not include an important factor,
— the amount of clams dug by the summer people. An unestimable
quantity is annually taken from the flats in this way, and is not
included in the production statistics. Indeed, summer people have
affected the clamming interests of several towns, as the selectmen have
refused to place closed seasons, etc., on certain depleted flats in order
to cater to the summer residents, who desire free clamming near their
cottages. The total number of licenses issued by the boards of health
of Boston and New Bedford for taking shellfish in their respective
harbors are given as representing the number of clammers. In reality,
however, only a few of these licensees make a regular business of
clamming.

162

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

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OF MASSACHUSETTS. 165

Decline of the Natural Clam Supply. — The decline of the clam
supply is a matter of general knowledge. People who live along the
seashore realize that they can no longer gather the amount of clams
they once could dig with ease from the same flats. On the southern
shore of the State especially it is oftentimes difficult to obtain even
enough for family use. The consumer also realizes the loss of the
clam, as he is forced to pay higher prices.

If specific cases of this decline are demanded, the following instances
should show the exact depletion in the various localities. Even in the
best clam-producing town of the State, Newburyport, where the clam
production, according to statistics, has apparently increased during
the last twenty-five years (as a result of more men entering the fishery),
the supply has shown signs of failing. Essex now possesses many
acres of flats formerly productive which now lie in a practically barren
condition. Gloucester can no longer boast of her former clam industry,
as the flats in Annisquam River are in poor condition. Hardly 30 men
now make a business of clamming in that town, whereas 92 men were
engaged in the fishery in 1879. Passing south of Gloucester, we find
great evidence of decline in the Boston harbor flats. Even before the
edict closing the harbor from clammers was in force, the production did
not by any means equal that of 1879. Plymouth harbor, including the
three towns of Duxbury, Kingston and Plymouth, furnishes an excellent
illustration of this decline. Here an area of flats as extensive as all
the other flats of the State combined now lies practically barren,
whereas in former times great quantities of clams were taken. These
flats had already become depleted to a marked extent by 1879, and to-day
practically no clams are shipped to market from the Duxbury flats,
although you can still read " Duxbury clams " on the menus of the
hotels and restaurants, showing how important a clam industry this
town once possessed. Buzzards Bay district lies at present unproductive
except for supplying home consumption and the demands of the
summer people. The shores of Cape Cod no longer yield their former
supply of clams, and the most striking example of the extinction of a
flourishing fishery is found in the town of Chatham, which now does not
produce one-tenth part of its production in 1879. The Fall River or
Narragansett Bay district does not come up to its past productiveness,
and now chiefly yields clams which in former times would have been
considered as too small to use.

As can be seen by the following table, which gives a comparison
between the industry in 1879 and 1907, the localities south of Glouces-
ter all show a decline in their production, and there is no town on
the coast which has not shown some depletion in the natural clam
supply. The localities of the north shore, while indicating by their
statistics a gain in production, nevertheless have not their former
abundance, and the actual diminution of the supply is concealed by the
fact that more men have entered the industry.

166

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

1879.

1907.

LOCALITY.

Men.

Bushels.

Value.

Men.

Bushels.

Value.

Ipswich,

75

11,500

$4,600

136

25,000

$18,750

Salisbury and Newburyport,

60

28,800
11 500

11,520
4 500

241

50

70,500
15 000

77,500
12 750

Gloucester

92

13,978

5,200

31

6,000

8,000

Boston harbor

90

40,000

20,000

3501

7,500

6,000

Duxbury

_ 2

5,000

2,500

5

700

600

Plymouth

_ 2

5,000

2,500

6

3,000

2,500

Harwich

15

1,125

400

-

100

80

Chatham,

150

35,000

12,250

10

1,500

1,200

Nan tucket

-1

2,253

872

4

400

350

Edgartown,

_ 2

4,000

1,570

7

1,200

1,000

New Bedford district,

_ 2

5,800

2,900

3321

1,600

1,685

Fall River district,

_ 2

3,375

3,121

25

5,315

5,290

i Licenses. 2 Statistics of the number of men engaged were unobtainable.

I

Causes of the Decline. — The same cause which has been stated in
the general report has contributed to the decline of the clam supply,
i.e., the increasing demand which has led to overfishing. Thus the decline
can be directly attributed to the exploiting of natural clam resources
by man, although it must be admitted that natural Agencies, such as
geographical changes, destroy the clam flats of certain localities and
build up others.

This decline has become possible through the indifference of the towns
to the welfare of their clam fishery, and by not restricting, through
town laws, the extermination of the clams in time to allow nature to
replenish the flats. Some towns, such as Ipswich, have regulated this
matter by placing closed seasons on portions of the flats, which has
been the partial means of preserving their natural supply. Thus the
town laws have proved inadequate, as most towns have no laws at all,
or have such unwise ones that they often defeat their own object.

It is again necessary to emphasize the need of reform in the clam
industry. This Commonwealth once possessed an extensive supply of
clams, and still possesses part of its former abundance; but the present
supply is diminishing at such a rate that it will not be a quarter of a
century before the natural clam fishery will be commercially extinct.
On the south shore clams are now commercially extinct, and it is only
a question of time, if the present methods are allowed to remain, before
the north shore clams will also disappear. The experiments of the
Massachusetts department of fisheries and game and the work of men
who have planted this shellfish all show that thousands of dollars can
be brought into the State by utilizing the waste clam areas, and that

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 167

the production can be so increased as to even exceed that of former
years. Immediate action is necessary, if this important industry is to
be saved.

The Eemedy. — The remedy is comparatively simple, and abundant
proof of its success is at hand. By restocking the barren and unpro-
ductive areas of the Commonwealth the present production can be in-
creased many times. Experiments have shown that clams can be
readily, successfully and economically transplanted, and that it is
a completely practical undertaking. Not only can the ban-en areas be
restocked, but the yield of the productive areas can be much increased.
Clam farming is the only practical method of restocking these areas,
and only through such means can the clam flats be made to yield their
normal harvest.

Clam Farming.

The subject of clam fanning has received a good deal of attention
the past few years, and much has been said concerning the enormous
profits which would result from the cultivation of this shellfish. While
the newspaper statements have been for the most part correct, there has
been considerable exaggeration and many details have been inaccurate.
To remove any misapprehensions, the following account of clam farming
is given.

The value of clam farming has been perhaps overestimated. While
no fabulous returns are ever to be expected, the yield is large in pro-
portion to the labor, and steady returns are sure. The methods used
are simple, the capital required is small, the area suitable for raising
clams is extensive, and clam farming gives promise of becoming one
of the most prominent and remunerative shore industries. The profits
derived from such a system should furnish steady employment for
hundreds of men on the Massachusetts coast.

Massachusetts possesses thousands of acres of tidal flats which are
capable of producing clams. Most of these flats are practically barren,
i.e., produce no clams in paying quantities, and yet if planted with
small clams will yield in from one to two years large quantities of
marketable bivalves. This large area of barren flats should be divided
into small farms, which should be leased to individuals for the purpose
of planting and raising clams.

The Necessity of Clam Farming. — It is a well-known fact that the
natural supply of clams is becoming rapidly exhausted, and that this
important fishery will become commercially extinct unless steps are
taken to check its decline. The only practical means known at the
present time is clam farming. In the past, methods such as close
seasons and restricting the catch have been used, but with poor results,
as these have been economically wrong. The correct method in such
cases is not to restrict the demand, but to increase the supply. Clam
farming offers the only means of increasing the natural production,
and not only checking the decline, but establishing a large industry.

168 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Is Clam Farming Practical? — Clam farming is not a theory but
an established fact. Clams will grow if planted in suitable places,
and will yield large returns. For three years the Commission of
Fisheries and Game have made numerous experiments in clam farming
in many seacoast towns. They have not only proved its complete
practicability, but have also shown that large profits result from suc-
cessful planting. Records are on file at the State House showing the
exact results of these .experimental farms, which indicate the future
success of clam farming.

Besides the experiments of the Commission on Fisheries and Game,
successful clam farming is now being carried on in several towns of the
State. The leading town in this line is Essex, where at least 15 grants
are held by the clammers. The only protection given is based upon
public sentiment, which, however, is sufficient to insure the success of
the enterprise. All these grants were staked out on flats which were
producing no clams when granted, although part of this area was once
very productive. So far these grants have proved most successful, thus
proving by actual experience that clam farming is a worthy rival of
agriculture.

Historical Attempts at Clam Farming. — Clam farming has been in
existence for years. The first record of any legislation upon this sub-
ject is found in an act to regulate the clam fishery in and around the
shores of Plymouth, Kingston and Duxbury in 1870, whereby a license
was granted for a term not exceeding five years to any inhabitant of
these towns to plant, cultivate and dig clams. This license cost $2.50,
and gave the exclusive use of the flats and creeks described to the
licensee and his heirs during the time specified, and also the Tight in an
action of tort to recover treble damages from any person who, without
his consent, dug or took clams from said grant. Evidently nothing was
done to follow out this law, which was soon forgotten.

In 1874 an act was passed to regulate the shellfisheries (including
clams) in the waters of Mount Hope Bay and its tributaries. The
terms of this act were practically the same as the Plymouth act, the
only difference being the substitution of the word shellfish for clam.

In 1888 an act was passed by the town of Winthrop, authorizing the
planting of clams on the shores of that town. The grant was to consist
of not over 2 acres of barren flats, situated more than 500 feet from
high-water mark. The other provisions of this act were the same as
those of the Plymouth act of 1870.

The most important clam culture law was passed in 1888. This
authorized the planting of clams on the shores of Essex. Here the
provisions of the law were followed out, and the first energetic attempt
at clam farming started. The law, the provisions of which were nearly
the same as the previous laws, reads as follows : —

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 169

ACTS OF 1888, CHAPTER 198.

AN ACT AUTHORIZING THE PLANTING OF CLAMS, IN AND ABOUND THE SHORES

OP ESSEX.

Be it enacted, etc., as follows:

SECTION 1. The selectmen of the town of Essex may by writing under
their hands grant a license for such a term of years, not exceeding five,
as they in their discretion may deem necessary and the public good requires,
to any inhabitant of said town, to plant, cultivate and dig clams upon an<l
in any flats and creeks in said town now unproductive thereof, not exceed-
ing two acres to any one person, and not impairing the private rights of
any person.

SECTION 2. Such license shall describe by metes and bounds the flats
and creeks so appropriated and shall be recorded by the town clerk before
it shall have any force, and the person licensed shall pay to the selectmen
for the use of said town two dollars and to the clerk fifty cents.

SECTION 3. The person so licensed and his heirs and assigns shall for
the purposes aforesaid have the exclusive use of the flats and creeks de-
scribed in the license during the term specified therein, and may in an
action of tort recover treble damages of any person, who, without his or
their consent digs or takes clams from such flats or creeks during the
continuance of the license.

SECTION 4. Said town of Essex at any legal meeting called for the pur-
pose may make such by-laws, not repugnant to the laws of the common-
wealth, as they may from time to time deem expedient to protect and
preserve the shellfisheries within said town.

SECTION 5. Whoever takes any shellfish from within the waters of said
town of Essex in violation of the by-laws established by it or of the pro-
visions of this act shall for every offence pay a fine of not less than five
or more than ten dollars and costs of prosecution, and one dollar for even'
bushel of shellfish so taken.

SECTION 6. This act shall take effect upon its passage. [Approved
April d, 1888.

In the report of the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fish-
eries for 1894 Mr. Ansley Hall gives the following account of clam
culture under this act : —

During the first two years (1889-90) the people were slow to avail them-
selves of the privilege of planting, for fear that after they had spent their
time and labor they would not be able to secure protection from trespassers ;
but in 1891 and 1892 lots were obtained and planted. In 1892 there were
25 acres that were quite productive, about one-third of the entire catch
of the section being obtained from them. The catch from these lots is
not definitely known, but is estimated at about 2,500 barrels.

Cultivated clams possess some advantage over the natural growth, from
the fact that they are more uniform in size, and are as large as the best
natural clam. They bring $1.75 per barrel, while the natural clams sell
for $1.50 per barrel. This is the price received by the diggers. One acre
of these clams is considered to be worth $1,000, if well seeded and favorably

170 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

located so as not to be in danger of being submerged with sand. This
valuation would be too high for an average, since all the acres are not
equally well seeded and located. The clammers are generally impressed
that the industry can be extensively and profitably developed, and their
only fear is that they will not be able to secure lots permanently. The
greater part of the land available for this purpose is covered by the deeds
of people owning farms along the river, and the consent of the land owners
has to be obtained before lots can be taken up. It seems probable, how-
ever, that the business will continue to progress unless checked by com-
plications that may arise relative to the occupancy of the grounds.

The result of this first practical attempt at clam culture was a
complete failure, and after a few years' trial the clam farms were all
given up. The main reason for this failure was lack of protection
both from outsiders and from one another. Nevertheless, this attempt
proved that with proper protection a most successful industry could be
made of clam farming. The following statement by Prof. James L.
Kellogg, in the United States Fish Commission Bulletin for 1899,
describes the failure of clam culture at Essex : —

It is not difficult to determine the reasons for the failure of the culture
experiment at Essex. The areas upon which clams were planted were those
which were at the time unproductive. The beds still containing clams —
the " town flats " — were free to any native of Essex. The one thing which
was absolutely necessary to the success of any planter was that the clams
on his leased ground should not be disturbed by other diggers. This pro-
tection was apparently not given in any case by the town authorities, and,
as no person lived within sight of the majority of the beds, it was quite
impossible for any man to guard his property much of the time.

As to what followed it is not easy to obtain definite testimony from the
clammers themselves. Other citizens of the town, however, and some few
clammers, intimate that most of the men began to take clams from any
property but their own, and that in this way the full result of no man's
labor in planting was ever realized. Others who did not make clam digging
a regular business, but only dug occasionally, are said to have had no
respect for the rights of those who had leased property. It was said that
at times when vessel builders and the shoe factory released employees, many
of them, for lack of other occupation, turned their attention to clam dig-
ging, with the result that too many clams were at the time taken from
the flats.

Another reason for the failure of the Essex experiment is that a number
of short-sighted clammers began to fear, after the clams had been planted,
that the production might suddenly become so great as to glut their mar-
ket, and, as a consequence, force prices down. Some few individuals, in-
spired by this fear, are reported to have said and to have done everything
in their power to prevent the success of the experiment. In all cases, it
is said, the selectmen of the town, who issued the leases, refused their aid
in the prosecution of trespassers.

In spite of the fact, which had been demonstrated in the experiment,
that when properly planted the clams grew much more rapidly and became
much larger than on the natural beds, no applications for a renewal of the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 171

leases were made when the first ones expired. No change in the condition
at Essex may be hoped for until there is some evidence that a law pro-
tecting the planter will be strictly enforced. With proper protection, a
great industry might, and probably would, be quickly established, not
only in Essex, but in any region where clam flats are now unproductive
because of excessive digging.

Protection Necessary. — The same lack of protection which ruined
the Essex clam experiments has been the cause of similar failures in
other shore towns. As long as no protection is given, clam farming can
never become possible, as the whole success of the enterprise depends
wholly upon the planter's having complete control of his land. The
present law gives absolutely no protection, as according to the old free
beach law a person has a right to dig a mess of clams anywhere
between the tide lines, no matter whether natural or planted. This
practically discourages clam farming, however profitable, as no clammer
is going to the labor and expense of planting clams, if the next person
who comes along has a legal right to dig as many as he pleases. Until
a law is passed which gives to the clam planter absolute protection from
this sort of trespassing, and does away with the antiquated free fishing
law, clam culture can never become a successful industry.

Present Clam Culture. — In 1906 grants of barren flats were again
issued for the purpose of clam culture in Essex, and this time the
attempt seemed successful. Two things encouraged this: the excellent
results of the experiments in Essex River by the Commission on Fish-
eries and Game, and the possible results indicated by the experiments of
1888. The only protection for these clam grants is by public sentiment,
and the mutual agreement of all the clammers to respect the rights of the
individual. So far there has been no trouble from trespassing and the
lack of protection, which caused the failure of first attempts. It is
hoped that these clam farms will become permanently successful, despite
the lack of protection, as they will greatly increase the production of
the Essex clam flats.

Clam Farming and Agriculture. — The comparison between clam
farming and agriculture is very close, and both possess many common
features, though there are several points of difference. The clam obtains
its sustenance entirely from the water, while agricultural products
obtain their nourishment chiefly from the soil. The nitrogenous waste
products of the land washed into the streams furnish the nourishment
to the little marine plants (diatoms) on which the clams feed.

Eate of Growth of the Clam. — The report of the Commission on
Fisheries and Game for the year 1906 contains the following state-
ments : —

What is the natural growth of the clam per year?

There is great diversity in the growth of the clam, owing to the location
in respect to three essential conditions, — current, length of time submerged,
and soil. The following figures give briefly the general trend of results

172 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

from numerous experimental beds under great variety of conditions. For
simplicity, a 1-inch clam is taken as the standard.

A 1-inch clam will grow in one year to a size between 2 and 3 inches.
Under fairly favorable conditions, with a moderate current, a 1-inch clam
will increase to 2% inches, or a gain of 900 per cent, in volume. For
every quart planted, the yield in one year will be 9 quarts. For beds without
current, 1-inch clams average about 2 inches, or a gain of 500 per cent.;
i.e., five quarts for every quart planted. Beds under exceptionally fine con-
ditions have shown the amazing return of 15 quarts for every quart of
1-inch clams planted. Clams increased in these beds from 1 to 3 inches
in length. Therefore, by planting clams 1 inch or over, under favorable
conditions a marketable clam can be produced in one year.

What is the maximum production per square foot?

The number of clams per square foot that can be raised to the best
advantage depends upon the location of the flat in respect to natural con-
ditions. Clams thickly planted (15 to 20 per square foot) in favorable
locations may show a greater growth than when thinly planted (5 per
square foot) in less favorable locations; therefore, no definite statement
can be made which will apply in all cases. The only rule that can be
given is that a flat with a current will produce a greater number of clams
per square foot than one without a current. On good flats clams can be
planted conveniently and economically from 10 to 15 per square foot, or
even a larger number.

What results can be obtained by planting on barren flats?

There are two groups of flats which come under the term barren: (1)
flats which once produced clams in great numbers, but now are practically
barren, except for an occasional clam here and there; (2) flats which never
have produced clams, and on which for physical reasons clams can never
grow. The first group of flats is alone considered in this answer.

Experimental beds were planted on certain flats in the Essex Eiver which
come within the first group of barren flats. These once productive flats
had been cleaned out in the past, and for some reason had not seeded
naturally. Forty beds were laid out under all kinds of conditions, with
the object of finding a way to make these once more productive. Eesults
have been all that could be hoped for. Only 4 poor beds were found, out
of the 40 laid out; 36 beds were in thriving condition. It should be noted
that no attempt was made to choose the best places, but all conditions were
tried. Over two-thirds of the clams were re-dug, the increase averaging,
in terms of 1-inch clams, over 1,000 per cent., or 10 quarts for every quart
planted the year before.

If many acres of Massachusetts flat, idle at present, are capable of
such a yield, should such economic waste be allowed? Why should not
the towns, by the expenditure of a little money, restock flats such as these
for the benefit of their inhabitants? I do not say that all flats can be made
productive in this way, as I know of many cases where the mere sowing
of seed clams will not restock a flat;. but I do say that Massachusetts pos-
sesses enough flats of the former nature, which should be made a profit
to her clammers. Clam set occurs, as Mr. Stevenson shows in his report,
in large quantities; the transportation of seed clams is easy; planting re-
quires little labor, the practical way being to sow the clams, which burrow
readily; while the yield in proportion to the labor is enormous.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 173

What sized clams are best for planting?

The size best adapted must be determined for each flat. Shore flats with
little current will allow the planting of any size, from ^ inch up; flats
with a swift current necessitate a larger clam (1 to 1% inches), as the
smaller will be washed out of its burrow; soft mud also demands a larger
clam, as the smaller will be stifled by the oozy silt.

What are the physical conditions that influence the growth of clams?

There appear at least three essential conditions for rapid growth of clams :
(1) a good current; (2) low and level flat; and (3) a tenacious soil, rela-
tively free from decaying matter.

A low flat gives the clams longer feeding periods, as the water remains
over them longer, therefore there is a greater growth. This has been ex-
perimentally shown by Dr. A. D. Mead.

According to Prof. J. L. Kellogg, clams cannot do well in a soil which
contains much decaying organic matter, as the acids eat away the* shells.
Soils of this description also facilitate the spread of infection from one
clam to another.

Current is the chief essential for successful clam culture. The term
" current " does not imply a rapid flow of water, but rather a good circula-
tion of water over the flat. In the Essex and Ipswich rivers the clam flats
have a continuous current. On such flats the growth is more rapid than
on flats which have no circulation of water, in addition to the mere rise
and fall of the tide. The current performs the work of (1) keeping the
flats clean and carrying away all contamination, but its most important
work is as (2) food carrier.

Value of a Clam Farm. — The value of an acre of clam flats, if
properly cultivated, is about $450 per year for the average clam flat.
Many of the more productive flats will yield a far greater amount,
while others will not yield as much. It has been often erroneously
stated that an acre of clam flats would produce $1,000 per year. This
is a decided overestimation, as it would be hardly possible for the most
productive flat to yield that amount. It is possible, however, for a
good flat to yield about $750 per year, but this is only under the most
favorable conditions. Such yields as these are large for the clammer,
whose average yearly income is only $400 (a few of the more expert
clammers make possibly $700 to $750), and a man possessing a clam
farm of l1/^ to 2 acres would make a good living.

Method of operating a Clam Farm : choosing the Ground. — In
choosing a grant, the planter should have in mind three things: (1) the
accessibility of the grant, for his own convenience, and nearness to
the market, as much of the success of clam farming depends upon the
expense of marketing the product, and the ease with which it can be
disposed of; (2) the length of time allowed for labor by the exposure
of the flat (flats vary greatly in tke amount of time exposed each tide,
the low flats being submerged nearly all the time, and the high flats
having a much longer exposure), — a high flat possesses the advantage
of allowing a longer working period for the clammer; (3) the natural
facilities of the flat itself as regards the growth of clams. Moreover,

174 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

the flat should be chosen in regard to (1) soil; (2) current; (3) tide.
A good flat should have a soil which is tenacious and compact, affording
at the same time easy digging. Probably the best soil is a mixture of
fine sand and mud in a ratio of one-third mud to two-thirds sand, as this
amount of mud gives the right degree of tenacity.

The growth of a clam depends upon the circulation of water over the
flat, as the current carries the food, and, therefore, the more current
the more food for the clams. Current also keeps the bed clean, and
prevents contamination and disease from spreading among the clams.
Then, again, the growth of a clam depends upon the amount of water
over the bed ; i.e., length of time covered. The clam can only feed when
the tide is over the bed, and thus the feeding time is limited for the
higher flats. While experiments have shown that clams grow faster
when continually under water than when exposed part of the time, the
question of tide is not so great a factor as that of current in regard to
clam growth, and can be almost disregarded.

The best flat for clam planting is a fairly high flat with a good cur-
rent over it, as it gives nearly as rapid growth and a much longer period
to dig than a flat which is exposed only a short period. This flat must
have the right kind of soil, which must not be shifting sand or too soft
mud, but a compact, tenacious mixture.

The Seed Clams. — Nature has provided the means of stocking these
farms. The set of clams is usually restricted to certain localities,
which, however, vary from time to time, and heavy sets are found in
limited areas. These sets run as thick as 2,000 per square foot of
surface, occasionally covering an area of 3 acres. From these natural
set areas the natural clam flats are partially restocked by the washing
out of the small clams. More often these whole sets are wasted,
as the clams, instead of washing on the good flats, are carried to un-
productive places and consequently perish. Thus there are areas of
heavy set which are of no use to any one, as practically all the clams
perish before they become adults. These areas of heavy set occur in
nearly every harbor of the coast to a greater or less extent, and are
available for nearly every town.

The problem now is to make use of these large sets, and not allow
them to go to waste. It has been shown that these clams when trans-
planted will grow much faster, and will not perish; therefore, clam
farming offers both the possibility of saving these natural sets and
utilizing barren ground.

Methods of spat collecting have been constantly referred to in con-
nection with clam farming, especially by the Rhode Island Fish Com-
mission, and the impression has been given that clam farming can
never become a success until some practical method of spat collecting
has been found. With the soft clam there is no need of any method
of spat collecting, as the natural set is more than sufficient for restock-
ing the barren flats. All that is necessary is to utilize the enormous

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 175

natural sets. If this is done, the barren flats of Massachusetts can be
made productive.

The main difficulty is in devising some method of obtaining the small
clams with sufficient rapidity. As the nature of the soil and the size of
the clams vary, no one method can apply to every case, and it depends
upon the ingenuity of the clammer. The methods used at present are:
(1) digging with an ordinary clam hoe, which is slow work; (2) digging
in shallow Avater, so that the clams may be washed out; (3) digging
a series of trenches across the heavy set area, and scooping out the
clams washed in these trenches; (4) carrying both sand and clams by
the dory load; (5) by using a sieve, in the form of a cradle, which
washes the clams out in the water. This last method is the most suc-
cessful for small clams, and has been used by the commission in obtain-
ing seed clams for their experimental beds. By using a cradle 3 by 2
feet, covered with sand wire netting, clams which ran 3,000 per quart,
were obtained by 3 men at the rate of 2 bushels an hour, — an amount
sufficient to plant from ^5 to ^o of an acre.

Another problem of importance is the transportation of seed clams,
as in many instances the clams will have to be carried some distance.
The best method of shipping seed clams is to pack them dry in damp sea
weed, putting them in small packages, so they will not be crushed by
their own weight. The best though most expensive method is to pack
the clams in crates, such as are used for strawberries. It has been
found that clams kept in water are not in such good condition as those
shipped dry, and it is of the utmost importance that the clams be in
good condition when planted.

The length of time a clam will live out of its natural element depends
upon the temperature; in cold weather it will keep for several days,
and even weeks; while in warm weather the seed clam will be in poor
condition after one day's exposure.

Preparing the Grant. — Usually the ground needs no preparation,
and the clams can be planted at once. It is a good plan to remove any
mussels and any of the enemies of the clam from the grant.

Planting the Clams, — The planting of the seed clams is perhaps the
easiest work of the clam culturist, as it necessitates merely the sowing
of the seed on the surface of the flat. The small clams when left this
way burrow into the ground as soon as the water is over them, and
require no planting on the part of the culturist.

Working the Farm. — This style of farming requires no cultivation
for the growth of the clams. Once planted, the farmer has no further
work until the time when he is ready to dig them. The clams grow
better when undisturbed than when the soil is upturned by frequent
digging. Protection from man and the natural enemies of the clam
demand the attention of the owner at all times.

Harvesting the Clams. — The time of digging will vary as to the
size of clam desired and the rate of growth on the grant. The clam

176 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

farmer can cater to a particular trade by regulating the size of the
clams marketed. He may find it more profitable to market a small
clam after a short period of growth, or vice versa, on the same principle
that a farmer raises hogs for the market.

North of Boston, in localities favorable for fast growth, such as the
Essex and Ipswich rivers, by planting large seed of at least 1% inches
in the spring, marketable clams of 21/2 to 3 inches can be obtained in the
fall after six months' growth. Here the clams grow only during the
summer months, and nothing would be gained by leaving them over
winter. In this way a crop each year can be raised on these farms.
In other localities of slower growth it will take from eighteen to twenty-
four months to raise a crop. The clam farmer will have to regulate
the size of the seed and length of growth to best suit the needs of his
farm.

Advantages of Clam Farming. — Clam culture possesses several ad-
vantages over the old free-for-all digging: (1) steadier returns; (2)
easier work; (3) better pay; (4) more clams per man. If the clammers
of the Commonwealth only realized these facts they would make a
united effort toward clam culture.

History.

I. Early History. — The history of the Massachusetts clam industry
began in obscurity. Even before the time of the earliest settlers the
native Indians depended largely upon this abundant mollusk for their
food supply, as is clearly indicated by the scattered shell heaps which
mark their ancient camp fires. Upon the arrival of the Pilgrims, clam
digging was incorporated among the most time-honored industries of
the Commonwealtn, and in times of want the early colonists depended
largely upon this natural food supply. With the arrival of the colonists
really began the first epoch of the clam fishery as an economic factor
in this Commonwealth, a period which lasted nearly two hundred years.
This period marked the exploitation of clam grounds merely for home
consumption. Money was scarce, inland markets were practically un-
known, and the importance of this shellfish was confined merely to local
quarters.

II. Rise of the Bait Industry. — Early in the last century a growing
demand for clams as bait for the sea fisheries became apparent. Clams
had always been utilized for this purpose more or less, but an increased
demand called for the development of an important industry in this
line. Various centers of activity were established, particularly at New-
buryport, Essex, Ipswich, Boston harbor and Chatham. The clams
were mainly shucked, that is, removed from the shell, and shipped either
fresh or salted in barrels to the fishermen at Gloucester, Boston and
Provincetown. This industry opened up new fields of employment for
many men and boys, and brought considerable ready money into various
coast communities.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 177

III. The Development of Inland Markets. — The consumption of
clams for food in the coast towns continued throughout the rise and
gradual decline of the bait industry, but the creation of inland markets
did not begin to be an important factor until 1875. It was about this
time that the clam came to be generally looked upon throughout the
State as an article of food, and consequently an important industry
was gradually evolved to meet this growing demand. This step marked
the beginning of the extensive fishery of the present day.

The mistaken policy of the average shellfish community, which
regarded clam grounds as natural gardens of inexhaustible fertility,
still persisted even after the fallacy of this policy had long proved
apparent through the depletion of extensive tracts. The same ill-
advised methods were pursued to the ultimate ruination of much valuable
territory. All wise regard for the future was overshadowed by the
immediate needs of the present ; local legislation fostered the evil ; State
legislation was conspicuous by its absence; and, left to the mercy of
unsystematic overdigging, these natural resources rapidly wasted away.

The disastrous tendencies which have lurked in the ruling policy of
the clam fishery have been shown in the rise and fall of the industry in
certain localities. Forty years ago Duxbury and Plymouth ranked as
the greatest clam towns of the coast. Their supply has long since
become insignificant. Newburyport and Ipswich have become the chief
producers of the State clam harvest; but Essex and Gloucester, in the
same fertile regions, have greatly declined, and the industry at Rowley
has become nearly extinct. In the Fall River district the digging of
small seed clams for food has brought the fishery to the verge of ruin.
The few resources of Buzzards Bay have become nearly exhausted,
while on Cape Cod the industry has shown here and there a temporary
increase, overshadowed by a far more extensive decline, such as at
Chatham. Furthermore, the sewage contamination of coast waters in
the harbors of Boston and several other large cities have closed exten-
sive regions for the production of food.

IV. Attempts to develop the Industry. — Various efforts have been
made to restrain overdigging the clam flats, by local regulations, par-
ticularly by " close " seasons. These attempts have been productive of
little good. Other efforts, designed to develop extensive tracts made
barren by wasteful methods of fishing, have been put in operation.
These efforts have been along two independent lines : the first, an effort
on the part of the community to seed in common flats by the appro-
priation of money for that purpose, as in the case of Wellfleet; the
second, an attempt to arrive at the same end by 'leasing private grants
to individuals, as at Essex and Plymouth. These efforts, while tending
in the right direction, have not as yet yielded the results that might
be wished for. Within the past three years the State has taken hold
of the problem, and by an extensive series of experiments is endeavor-
ing to devise practical means of developing the great inherent possi-
bilities in this extensive industry.

178

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

CLAM PRODUCTION TABLE FOE MASSACHUSETTS, OBTAINED FROM THE EEPORTS
OF THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

YEAR.

Bushels.

Value.

Price per Bushel

(Cents).

1880, .......

158 626

$76 195

41 73

1887, . . . . - . ...

230,659

121,202

52.54

1888, . . ....

243,777

127,838

52.44

1889, . . . . : . . ' .

240,831

137,711

57.14

1892,

191,923

133,529

69.57

1898 . . .

147,095

102,594

69.74

1902, . . ...

227,941

157,247

68.98

1905 , . ...

217,519

209,545

96.19

The Clam Industry.'

Methods of Digging. — The ordinary method of taking clams is so
simple as hardly to need explanation. Although simple, clam digging
requires considerable skill, and it takes years of experience to become
a good clammer.

There are two methods of clam digging used in Massachusetts, —
the " wet " and the " dry " digging. Wet digging is carried on when
water is over the clam beds; dry digging, which is the common method,
takes place when the flats are left exposed by the tides. The only
places in Massachusetts where wet digging is carried on regularly are
Eastham, Chatham, Swansea, and in Katama Bay, Edgartown. In
the lower end of Katama Bay is found a submerged bed of clams
which is one of the most productive beds of this class in Massachusetts.
These submerged clams are taken with what is known locally as a " sea
horse/' which is an enlarged clam hoe, with prongs 12 to 14 inches
long, and a strong wooden handle four feet in length. This handle
has a belt attachment which is buckled around the clammer. Two men
are required for this work. The sea horse is worked deep into the loose
sand and is dragged along by one man, who wades in the shallow water
over these submerged flats, while his partner follows, gathering the
clams which the sea horse roots out. Another method of wet digging is
called " churning," and is based on the same principle as the above
method, only the clams are turned out under water by long forks or
hoes. This method is not used in Massachusetts to any extent. Excel-
lent results are usually obtained from wet digging.

The methods used in dry digging depend upon the nature of the soil.
The difference lies only in the kind of digger. The clam hoe of the
south shore, where the soil is either coarse sand or gravel, has broad
prongs, some even being 1*4 inches across. The usual number of prongs
is four, but occasionally three broad prongs suffice. The clam hoe of
the north shore, often called " hooker," has four thin, sharp prongs

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 179

and a short handle. The set of this handle is a matter of choice with
the individual clammers, some preferring a sharp, acute angle, and
others a right angle. This style of clam hoe is best suited for the hard,
tenacious clam flats of the north shore. At Essex spading forks are
used for clamming, but not as extensively as the hooker. For sand
digging the forks are said to be better, while for mud digging the
hooker is preferred.

Out-fit of a Clammer. — The outfit of a clammer does not require
much outlay of capital. A skiff or dory, one or two clam hoes and three
or four clam baskets complete the list. Occasionally, as at Ipswich,
where the clam grounds are widely scattered, power dories are used,
and this necessitates the investment of considerable capital; but the
investment of the average clammer does not exceed $26. Personal
apparel, such as oilskins and boots, are not considered under this head.

CLAMMING OUTFIT.

Skiff dory,

Two clam diggers,

Four clam baskets, . . .

Total, $25 50

The boats most often used by the north shore clammers are called
"skiff dories," and in construction are between a dory and a skiff.
These boats are especially adapted for use in rivers.

Marketing. — Clams are shipped to market either in the shell or
"shucked out." Two rules are followed by the clammers in making
this distinction : ( 1 ) small clams, or " steamers," are shipped in the
shell, especially during the summer months, while the large clams are
"shucked;" (2) the fine-appearing sand clam is usually sold in the
shell, while the unprepossessing mud clam is shucked, i.e., the shell
and the external covering of the siphon or neck are removed. This
causes on the north shore a division by locality. The Ipswich and
Essex clams, except for a few individual orders, are mostly shipped to
market in the shell, while the Annisquam River and Newburyport
clams are usually shucked in the winter. Little if any shucking is done
by the south shore clammers.

Shucking almost doubles the value, as a bushel of clams, worth in the
shell 75 cents, will furnish, when soaked, about 10 quarts of shucked
clams, which bring about 50 cents per gallon, or a total of $1.25 when
marketed. The shucked clams are put through a process of soaking in
the same way the scallop " eyes " are treated before marketing. They
absorb a sufficient quantity of fresh water, after soaking six hours, to
increase their bulk about one-third and give a plump appearance to
the clams.

While many clammers do not soak their clams, it seems to be a
universal tendency, wherever clams are shucked, to gain by this method.

180 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Soaking of any sort impairs the flavor of the clam, and for this reason
such a practice is to be deplored, but as long as the consumer is satis-
fied to take second-rate goods, this practice will continue, and it can
be stopped only by the united demand of the shellfish dealers.

Shipment. — Second-hand flour and sugar barrels are used for the
shipment of clams in the shell, while kegs and butter tubs hold the
shucked clams. In winter clams can be shipped inland without perish-
ing; but in hot weather they will spoil in a few days, unless iced.

Maine Clams. — Massachusetts annually consumes many thousand
barrels of Maine clams. If the demand of the Boston market were
not partially met by the influx of Maine clams, the clam flats of Massa-
chusetts would be subject to a greater drain.

Market. — The principal market for the clam industry of Massachu-
setts is Boston. Gloucester, Newburyport, Salem and Lynn draw part
of the clam trade of the north shore, but the greater portion goes to
Boston, whence it is distributed throughout the State. In recent years
shipments have been made from the Ipswich Bay region direct to New
York, Baltimore and Philadelphia.

Price. — The price of clams is fairly constant, varying but little in
summer and winter. Naturally, this seems curious, when winter and
summer clamming are compared. The production in winter is much
smaller than in summer, which is due to (1) fewer clammers, because
of the severe work in cold weather; (2) less working days, as the
clammer is often unable to dig for weeks, and even months, and also
cannot work early or late tides, as in summer. In spite of this diminu-
tion of supply, the winter price is practically no higher. This is due to
a smaller demand in winter, as well as to the influx of the Maine clams
at this season. In summer there is an increased demand for clams,
caused by the arrival of the summer people at the seashore; and large
quantities of this shellfish are used by hotels, cottages, etc. This increase
in demand is enough to offset the increase in supply, resulting in a sta-
tionary price.

The price varies as to the quality of the clams, whether soaked or
unsoaked, small or large, good or poor looking shells, and fresh or stale.
The average price as received by the clammer for clams in the shell is
75 cents per bushel; shucked clams, when soaked, 45-50 cents per
gallon.

Arrangement of Towns.

Owing to the peculiarities of the different localities, it has been
impossible to satisfactorily arrange the towns alphabetically. There-
fore, in order to present local comparisons, they have been arranged in
geographical order, starting at the northern boundary of the State.

Salisbury.

Salisbury, the most northerly town in the State, has a good clam
territory, very similar to that of Newburyport, though much smaller
in area.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 181

Almost all the clam ground, and practically all the very good digging,
is comprised in a single flat, which extends along the northerly bank of
the Merrimac for nearly 2 miles. This flat is about 900 feet wide, on
an average, and has a total area of 216 acres. On the eastern end, and
skirting the channel, it is sandy; but for the most part it is mud
throughout, varying from a hard, smooth surface in the middle portion
to a soft, scummy soil on the west.

About 100 acres in the central section of this flat are covered with
a thick set of clams, especially from 1 to 2 inches. This territory
furnishes the bulk of the good digging, and is being constantly turned
over and the larger clams sorted out. Roughly speaking, the main east
half of the flat is sandy, or hard mud, with very good clamming, the
western half softer mud, with fair or scattering clams. This is an
exceptionally fine natural clam flat, and if properly cultivated its pro-
duction would be immensely increased. At the eastern extremity of
the flat a long, narrow cove extends in a general northerly direction
into the main land. This cove, including the outer fringing bars,
contains some 34 acres of flats, for the most part sandy and rather
poorly productive, though no considerable area is anywhere strictly
barren. The combined clam flat territory of the town aggregates 250
acres, comprising 150 acres of good clamming and 100 acres of scatter-
ing clams ; of these, 216 acres are of mud and 34 acres of sand.

While the town records show 66 licensed clammers, only about 50
make clamming their chief occupation. The industry is carried on in
much the same manner as at Newburyport ; $625 is invested in boats and
implements, and some 15,000 bushels of clams, aggregating $16,500,
are annually produced.

The clam industry at Salisbury is largely stationary as regards
available territory, while the production varies considerably from year
to year. There is little or no town legislation affecting the industry,
except the issuing of permits by the selectmen. These permits cost 25
cents, and are required from every clammer.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 66

Capital invested, ........... $625

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . 15,000

Value, $16,500

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . ... . 34

Mud, . ... . . . . . . . . 216

Gravel, ............

Mussels and eel grass, . • .-, . . . . , . .

Total, . . ...«-... .- 250

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . * . . « . , » . 150
Scattering clams, 100

182 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . ....

Waste barren area (acres), .........

Possible normal production, $70,000

Newburyport.

Newburyport is pre-eminently the clam town of Massachusetts. It
produces the most clams, gives employment to the most men, and has
on the whole the finest flats.

The total clam-growing area of this town comprises about 1,080 acres ;
of this, some 800 acres are more or less productive, while the balance,
280 acres, is practically nonproductive. Scattering clams exist every-
where, so there are, properly speaking, no truly barren flats.

The flats of Newburyport, broad, level and continuous, are peculiarly
adapted to clam culture. The general type of soil is mud, varying from
a soft, sticky variety on the west coast, and also along the shores of
Plum Island, to a firm, hard surface in the great middle section north of
Woodbridge's Island, where clams flourish most abundantly and furnish
the best digging within the city limits. Here nearly 100 acres are
covered with a heavy set of 1 to 2 inch clams. Altogether there are
some 930 acres of this mud. Much of this, especially to the west and
south, is apparently unfavorable to clams, being soft and unwholesome,
but even here at certain seasons clams are dug extensively.

The sand flats include the shifting Hump sands that fringe the
Merrimac channel and the Cove on Plum Island. These and other
minor sections comprise about 150 acres. The Hump sands are quite
productive. The other sand flats are not entirely barren, but practi-
cally unutilized.

The clam industry at Newburyport furnishes employment for about
175 men, although over 200 depend upon it for some portion of their
income. The season lasts the year round, though on account of storms
and ice the winter's work is rather uncertain. A good fisherman will,
under favorable circumstances, dig several bushels of clams at a tide,
though the ordinary man will probably not average more than a bushel
and a half, taking the whole year into account.

The outlay of capital invested is comparatively small. A flat-bottom
boat or dory, a clam hoe or two, and three or four wire-bottom baskets,
constitute a clammer's outfit, costing altogether perhaps $15 or $20. As
two or more men frequently go in one boat, even this expenditure may
be reduced. The shore property in use, consisting of from 8 to 10
shanties, is also inconsiderable. Several power boats are used, however,
and their added cost brings the aggregate money invested up to about
$2,700.

The flats of Newburyport are a large factor in its economic wealth.
During 1907 they produced nearly 55,500 bushels of clams, exceeding
$61,000 in value. Nearly two-thirds of these clams were shucked, that
is, removed from the shell and sold by the gallon. In this form, usually

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

183

soaked to increase their volume, they retail for about 45 cents per
gallon. As clams in the shell, sold for " steamers," etc., will hardly
bring more than 65 cents per bushel, the process of shucking nearly
doubles the value to the fisherman, as a bushel of clams in the shell will
produce from 2 to 3 gallons of soaked clams. The income of the
average clammer will hardly exceed $350 per year, but a really ener-
getic and industrious fisherman may in the same time make from $500
to $700, or even more. Many of the men have individual orders from
dealers in Lynn, Haverhill and the neighboring cities, while the local
dealers ship largely to Boston.

The regulation of the industry by city ordinance is of very little
note. Practically the only legislation pertaining to it is the law which
requires every clammer to have a permit, but even this regulation is but
indifferently enforced. The Newbury flats are likewise free to the New-
buryport clammers, and part of the Newburyport production comes
from these outside flats.

The history of the clam industry at Newburyport is one of constant
change. Twenty years ago large areas on southwest Joppa were prac-
tically barren; now they are quite productive. The reverse is true of
Ball's flat on Plum Island, which, though once of great importance, is
now almost waste. Though no serious inroads have as yet been made,
a slow but steady decline in the industry is distinctly noticeable.

COMPARISON OP 1907 WITH 1879 (SALISBURY AND NEWBURYPORT).

YEAR.

Production
(Bushels).

Value.

Men.

Capital.

Price
per
Bushel.

1879

28,800

$11,520

60

$750

$0 40

1907

70,500

77,500

241

3,325

1 10

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 175

Capital invested, $2,700

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 55,500

Value, ... ". . $61,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, .....' 150

Mud, . ... 930

Gravel, . . .* . . . . ...

Mussels and eel grass, . . » . . . . .

Total, . . . . . . 1,080

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . , . . .•». . . 800

Scattering clams, ,.'.-•• . . . >. : • • • • 280

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . .

Waste barren area (acres),

Possible normal production, $250,000

184 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Newbury.

The town of Newbury has in itself no shellfish industry, although
there is an extensive area of suitable flats which are worked with equal
rights by the Newburyport clammers. These flats comprise some 360
acres, and extend along both sides of Plum Island Sound and Parker
River. Over 100 acres of scattering clams occur, though not in suffi-
cient quantities for the most part to make very profitable digging. The
remainder, some 260 acres, though almost all suitable for the produc-
tion of large quantities of clams, is practically barren.

The principal type of soil is mud, and the mud flats comprise about
250 acres. The flats of Parker River and those in its immediate neigh-
borhood, however, are largely sand, and altogether they aggregate about
110 acres. Of these, " the thoroughfare " is practically the only one
which furnishes clams in any quantity. Sections of the broad flats
which border on Plum Island Sound produce scattering clams of large
size. There is, however, no very good digging in town, and no con-
sistent effort seems ever to have been made to utilize the great wealth
which lies dormant in the clam flat territory. Six Newbury men dig
intermittently in the summer, and furnish some 300 bushels, worth
about $250, for town trade. However, this does not take into con-
sideration the amount taken from these flats by the Newburyport
clammers.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Number of men, .......... 6

Capital invested, . . . $75

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 300

Value, . • •. • v • • • • $250

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . . . , 110

Mud, 250

Gravel, . . . .

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 360

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ....'......

Scattering clams, ......... 100

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . . 260

Waste barren area (acres), •• . . . •

Possible normal production, . . . . ... . . $40,000

Rowley.

Rowley presents a more striking example of the decline in the shell-
fish industry than any other town in this region.

Four hundred acres of good flats border Plum Island and Rowley
River within the town limits, but of these only 20 at most are econom-
ically productive. Eighty acres more are not entirely barren, though

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 185

practically worthless, while the remaining 300, though almost all well
adapted for clam culture, are barren.

The main type of soil is sand, and the sand flats, for the most part
in Plum Island Sound, comprise some 250 acres. The remainder, 150
acres, is mostly mud in scattered sections along the Rowley River and
in patches on the main flats. The only really productive flats are the
little coves and creeks of Rowley River and the Knob Reefs in Plum
Island Sound. The Knob Reef clam grounds produce very large and
fine clams, which lie on the lower edge of the flat and are exposed only
a short time every tide. Knob Reefs also has the distinction of pos-
sessing probably the finest clam set of its size in the State, which would
furnish abundant opportunity for restocking all the barren Rowley
River flats, if the town authorities had taken proper measures to trans-
plant this seed. As it is, this extensive set, too thick for good growth,
is rapidly wasting away.

The history of the industry is one of steady decline. Reliable evidence
exists to show that almost all the flats of Rowley once produced clams,
and that large areas now waste were formerly productive. That these
immense barren areas, possessing such an enormous latent wealth, should
be allowed to remain thus unimproved, is a most conclusive argument
for the need of radical action. No settled attempt, however, except for
a single closed season in 1906, has ever been made by the clammers
or town authorities to better the conditions, or to check the decline in
the productive territory that remains.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 15

Capital invested, $800

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, 2,000

Value, $1,500

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 250

Mud, 150

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 400

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 20

Scattering clams, ......... 80

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 300

Waste barren area (acres), ........

Possible normal production, . . . ... . . $60,000

Ipswich.

Ipswich is second only to Newburyport in the production of clams,
and has perhaps even greater possibilities of development. The clam
territory of the two towns, while nearly equal in extent, is, however,

186 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

markedly different in general characteristics. The flats of Newburyport,
while few in number, are broad, continuous, and have a great degree
of similarity throughout. The flats of Ipswich, on the other hand,
are divided into a great number of relatively small sections, widely
diversified in character, and scattered along an extensive coast line. As
these flats are in many respects the most interesting and important of
any town in the State, it seems well to examine them in detail.

Four distinct divisions can be distinguished in the clam territory of
this town: Ipswich River, Plum Island, Green's Creek and Roger
Island, and Essex River flats.

Taken in the order named, the Ipswich River has in itself a great
variety of clam ground. Both sides of the river for nearly 3 miles are
fringed with bars, mainly of mud though sandy near the mouth. Some
of the mud flats are so soft that they are practically barren, or given
up largely to mussel beds; while much of the sand, as, e.g., the main
portion of the High Sands, is too shifting to be valuable. The larger
part of these river flats are, however, productive.

The Plum Island division comprises Lufkins, Point Peter, Appletons,
Foresides and several other minor flats. Of these, Lufkins is very
important. It occupies a semicircular depression on the coast of Plum
Island, and, owing to its peculiar location, the swift current which
flows past its outer edge makes a double eddy at both ebb and flood
tide. These eddies sweep gently over its broad surface, and deposit
a fine silt which has made the characteristic soil a hard, bluish clay.
This is the only important clay flat of this region. The total area of
Lufkins is 46 acres. The outer border to the north is mud, becoming
soft ; to the south, sandy. The portion near shore is, as has been stated,
a clayey soil, and it is here that clams are found abundantly. An ex-
ceptionally good set of 1 to 2 inch clams occupies from 3 to 4 acres
of this portion. Though clams are numerous, the exceeding hardness
of the soil makes digging rather difficult.

Point Peter, or " P'int " Peter, is also an important flat, comprising
altogether 28 acres, though about 7 acres of the outer portion extend
far into the current, and are of so shifting and sandy a nature as to
be practically worthless. Most of the remainder is mud, varying from
sand and hard mud on the outside to soft mud in the creeks that lead
into the main land. The central portion of the flat is peculiarly
adapted to the culture of clams, however, and is very productive.

Appleton's flat comprises about 6 acres of hard sand, verging into
mud, thickly strewn with old clam shells. It lies at the mouth of
Perkins and Pine Creeks, which run for about a mile into the main
land of Plum Island, and contain nearly 25 acres each of fairly pro-
ductive mud flats. Appleton's is a valuable flat, and the clams dug
here are large.

The Foresides is a thatch island a little over a mile in length, lying
in the mid channel of Plum Island Sound. The flats which surround it

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 187

on all sides are practically all sand, and comprise about 80 acres. The
whole western side is more or less productive, though the outer edge,
where the strong cross currents of the channel sweep over, is too much
rippled to be suitable for clam growth. The strip of sand along the
northern and northeastern sides, though rather narrow and limited in
area, is productive, while most of the southeastern portion, which
projects far into the channel, is barren and totally unadapted for soft
clams, though bedded with sea clams. The productive sections of this
flat are much dug, and altogether it is one of the most important of the
Ipswich clam grounds.

The west coast of Plum Island Sound, comprising the Green's Creek
and Roger Island territories, extends from the Ipswich to the Rowley
rivers. This division contains the bulk of the waste and barren flats
of the town, although there is exceptionally good clamming in Stacy's
Creek, Third Creek and the " Nutfield."

The Essex River region is rather remote for most of the clammers,
and hard to reach, but furnishes on the whole some of the very best
digging. The three main flats of this division are the Essex beach,
Vfheeler's, and the Spit. Essex beach has a very good set, evenly
sprinkled over the ridgy, shifting bars that skirt the channel.

Wheeler's is an irregular sand bar, occupying about 77 acres. Fully
one-half of this is very productive, and in the main portion occurs
another thick set very similar to that on Essex beach.

The Spit, mainly sand or sandy mud, lies in the three towns of
Ipswich, Essex and Gloucester. The whole area is some 300 acres,
about a third lying within the town of Ipswich. This whole bar is
so liable to change that any calculations based on its precise area or
location are decidedly unreliable. Very good digging occurs, however,
in limited areas on the north and west sides of the Ipswich territory.

These four divisions comprise the clamming territory of Ipswich, and
aggregate 970 acres, of which 390 acres is sand and 500 mud. This also
includes 15 acres of mussels scattered along Ipswich River, Plum
Island and Green's Creek region, and about 10 acres of eel grass in
various localities. Over 800 acres is more or less productive, about half
being good clamming.

About 50 regular clammers depend upon these flats for a living,
though 136 permits were issued in 1907. Here, owing to the greater
distances to be traversed, many power boats are used. Nearly $7,500
is invested in the industry, and 25,000 bushels of clams, at a valuation
of $18,750, are annually produced. The relative decrease in price as
compared with Newburyport is due to the fact that shucking is not so
extensively practised here.

The town laws merely require a permit from every clammer, for
which no charge is made. Such permit is issued at the discretion of
the selectmen, and requires of the recipient six months' residence in
the town and two years in the State. In past years the town has made

188 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

several by-laws for the protection of shellfish, chiefly in the nature of
partial closed seasons; but unfortunately considerable difficulty has
been found in enforcing these excellent laws, and the results have been
far from satisfactory.

Ipswich has jealously guarded the rights of its clam flats, and has
protected them in every way from the invasion of outsiders, which in
part accounts for the excellent condition of these flats, which were
originally deeded to the Commoners by the Crown, and from them to
the town. Ipswich is the only town in the Commonwealth which has
thus directly received its clam flats as its own property, and naturally
has done more to improve its natural clam resources than any other
town in the State.

The history of the industry shows little change; some few flats once
considered worthless have been opened and utilized; others once pro-
ductive have been dug out and allowed to become waste. On the whole,
the industry is following the trend of the shellfisheries everywhere, and
slowly but steadily declining.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . :» . . . . . 136

Capital invested. . . . -. , $7,500

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . . . . . .... 25,000

Value, . . . . . . $18,750

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . ... . ... . . 390

Mud, ............ 500

Gravel, ... . . . > . . . . 55

Mussels and eel grass, . .' . V .... 25

Total, 970

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ...» 400

Scattering clams, r . , . . . . . . 420

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 125

Waste barren area (acres), 25

Possible normal production, . . . . . . . . $200,000

Essex.

Essex, while still ranking as an important clam-producing town, has
a very imperfect development of her shellfish resources. The total
clam flat area comprises some 650 acres, and, though scarcely more than
25 acres can be considered as unfit for the growth of clams, and conse-
quently barren, only a little more than half the remainder is at all
productive, and of this probably less than 150 acres yields any financial
return. In other words, 325 acres of good clam flat is allowed to remain
practically barren.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

189

The main type of soil is sand, and nearly 500 acres may be properly
classed under this head. The remaining 150 acres are mud, and are
located in the creeks along the river and in the coves north of Hog
Island. The productive sections are scattered for the most part along
both sides of the Essex River, and well-developed areas are also
found at its mouth and on the Spit. There are several good locations
of seed clams. One section of about 25 acres occurs on the west side
of the Spit. This is composed of 1 to 2 inch clams, running 10 to 40
per square foot. At the mouth of the river on the north side occurs
another set of ^-mch clams, covering about 10 acres. On the flats
west of Cross Island is found a third set of VB to 2 inch clams, com-
prising about 30 acres. Other smaller patches of set are scattered
along the river almost up to its source.

About 50 men derive an income from these flats. Some $1,200 is
invested, and the annual product exceeds 15,000 bushels, valued at
$12,750.

The town of Essex has realized the importance of the clam problem,
and has attempted through legislation to deal with it. The selectmen
are empowered to grant to citizens of the town an area consisting of
an acre or less on flats already barren, for the purpose of raising
clams, and in this manner partially restock the flats. A rental of
$2 is charged, covering a period of five years, and an additional fee
of 50 cents is required for recording. In spite of inadequate pro-
tection, the experiment has been conducted long enough to prove that
these flats can be made profitable to the clammers.

The history of the clam industry at Essex is one of extensive decline.
There is every reason to believe that the greater part at least of the
waste area was once very productive. Prof. James L. Kellogg in the
United States Fish Commission Bulletin for 1899, says : —

We have much evidence that the clam industry in Essex has, in the past,
been extensive. . . . Much more testimony of a similar character may be
had to show that the flats once very productive have almost entirely failed.

COMPARISON OF 1907 WITH 1879.

1

1879.

1907.

Production (bushels),
Value

,500
*4 500

15,000
$12 750

Men . .

75

50

Capital

$1 200

Price (cents)

40

85

190 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . « . . . . . . . 50

Capital invested, $1,200

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . . . . . . . 15,000

Value, . . . $12,750

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . , . ...- 500

Mud, 125

Gravel, . '.

Mussels and eel grass, . 25

Total, . . . . . 650

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . ,. ., 150

Scattering clams, . .- «,. .» 150

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 325

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 25

Possible normal production, . . $120,000

Gloucester.

The far-celebrated deep sea fisheries of Gloucester overshadow her
humble shellfish industry; but within her tidal flats lie undeveloped
resources, which if properly brought out would form no inconsiderable
factor in her annual revenue. Even now her clam fishery attains con-
siderable proportions, though by no means what it once was, or what
it might be were suitable cultural methods employed.

The main areas of clam-producing territory lie in the Annisquam
River and in the Essex River in West Gloucester. The grounds in the
Annisquam are the more productive. This river is some 4 miles long,
and is bordered for the greater part of this distance with tidal flats. Of
these the sand flats predominate, though there are large areas of mud
and extensive beds of mussels. On the extreme head of the river, known
as the Dumfudgeon region, dredging operations for the Gloucester
canal have somewhat impaired the flats, but as a whole the river seems
in every way suitable for the production of an abundant harvest of
clams.

The flats of West Gloucester, including a portion of the Essex Spit,
are largely unproductive. The Spit is the only flat of any extent in this
region which is at present of real economic value; the remaining flats,
scattered along the south shore of the Essex River and its tributary
creeks, are for the most part practically barren.

The total area of clam flats in Gloucester approximates 550 acres. Of
this, some 250 acres are sand, 200 mud, while there are about 100 acres
of mussels and eel grass, which cannot be considered at all adapted for
clam culture. Only a fraction of the whole, 75 acres, more or less, is
good clamming; a scant 100 acres produces scattering clams; 275 acres

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

191

are barren, though capable of producing clams; while 100 acres may
never be made productive.

Eight men dig regularly on these flats the year round, and 23 others
work intermittently. The capital invested amounts to over $600, and
the annual output exceeds 6,000 bushels, valued at $8,000. Most of
the clams produced at Gloucester are shucked either for market or bait.

Local legislation has no bearing on the shellfish question, and no
effort is being made either to better conditions in the clam industry or.
to check its steady decline.

The industry has fallen off greatly in the past few years. In 1875
there were 90 regular clammers, and a man could dig 6 bushels to a
tide, where now 8 regular and 23 intermittent clammers find it difficult
to get from l1/^ bushels to 3 bushels per tide.

COMPARISON OP 1907 WITH 1879.

YEAR.

Production
(Bushels).

Value.

Men.

Capital
Invested.

Price.

1879

13,978

$5,200

92

$2,000

$0 40

1907,

6,000

8,000

31

600

1 33

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 31

Capital invested, $600

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 6,000

Value, $8,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 250

Mud, 200

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass, ........ 100

Total, 550

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 75

Scattering clams, . 100

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 275

Waste barren area (acres), ...... . . 100

Possible normal production, ........ $70,000

Manchester.

Manchester has a coast line so much exposed, and consequently so
small a territory of tidal flats, that it is not surprising to find its clam
industry of very insignificant proportions. Affairs are in much the
same state of apathy as at Beverly, though Manchester does not possess
the resources of the former town, and could not, in the nature of the

192 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

case, carry on any extensive clam business. Its facilities, however, poor
as they are, are very imperfectly utilized; hence the present state of
depletion, verging on absolute exhaustion.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men,

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . 100

Value, . . . . . $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, ...... 10

Mud, . . . . . . 10

Gravel, ...........

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 20

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, ......... 5

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 10

Waste barren area (acres), 5

Possible normal production, ........ $2,000

Beverly.

Beverly has practically no clam industry. The area of tidal flats,
comprising nearly 50 acres, is at present unprofitable and nearly
worthless. As at Swampscott, some clams still continue to be dug for
bait and for local clam bakes, but any evidence of a systematic business
has long ceased to exist. Thirty years ago clams were far more
abundant, though there was never an extensive industry. The town
authorities require no licenses and make no efforts to revive the industry.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.
Number of men, . ....
Capital invested, . . ...
Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . ....... ...... t • 100

Value, . . . ..... ...... . . $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . ..,....* .... 30

Mud, . ........... . . 20

Gravel, . . . . . , . .

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 30

Waste barren area (acres), 10

Possible normal production, ........ $5,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 193

Salem.

Salem has far better natural advantages for clam culture than the
other towns in its immediate vicinity, and leads in clam production,
though the industry is of very inferior proportions. Seven men are at
present employed in digging the harbor flats, where the clams have
very recently seeded in. Many of these clams, though rather small,
are shucked, and the remainder are sold in the local markets. The
entire value of the annual production does not exceed $200, and the
capital invested amounts to but $75. This is rather poor showing for
100 acres of flats for the most part comparatively good, and capable
of yielding $11,000 annually. The Salem clammers dig also in the
Danvers River in the town of Danvers.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 7

Capital invested, $75

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 200

Value, $200

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 75

Mud, 25

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . .

Total, 100

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 5

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 70

Waste barren area (acres), 15

Possible normal production, $11,000

Lynn.

The city of Lynn has within its tidal flats the latent resources of an
important industry. Its clam grounds could, if properly utilized, yield
a great increase over their present inconsiderable return. No legislation
on the part of the city authorities has intervened to improve the shellfish
production or to prevent the depletion of valuable territory which has
been allowed to gradually lapse into an unsanitary desert. While at
low tide about 400 acres of flats spread over the broad harbor or border
the banks of the Saugus River, but 40 acres of this wide expanse yield
any appreciable revenue. The principal part of the digging is done
on the mud flats of the Saugus River. Here 7 fishermen work inter-
mittently to supply the local market during the summer months. There
is some good territory at the mouth of the river toward the north, and
scattering clams occur along the eastern shores, but the main flats of
the harbor are for the most part barren.

194 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The deposit of sewage from the city drainage has undoubtedly had a
prejudicial effect on much of this area, as the unpleasing scum which
covers the soft, sticky mud and eel grass bears abundant witness.
Whether measures undertaken to reclaim this lost area would in the
long run yield profitable returns is an undecided question, but much
might be done, by the employment of judicious cultural methods, to
increase the yield of those flats which are properly productive. No
exact returns of the annual clam harvest for this region are obtainable,
as most of the output is disposed of at retail, but it cannot exceed 1,000
bushels, and probably falls far short of that figure; $1,000, then, or
thereabouts, represents the total monetary income from this fishery.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 7

Capital invested, . . ..... . . . $100

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . 1,000

Value, $3,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 90

Mud, 300

Gravel, ........... 5

Mussels and eel grass, . 5

Total, . . . . . . 400

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . .- . . . . . . . . 10

Scattering clams, . . . ... . . . 30

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 160

Waste barren area (acres), . . . . V . . . . 200

Possible normal production, ........ $26,000

Saugus.

At Saugus conditions in many respects parallel those at Lynn. The
clam grounds, while they by no means equal those of the neighboring
city in area, are on the whole better, as they are freer from contami-
nating sewage. Of the 250 acres which comprise the normal tide flat
area, only 100 acres, or 40 per cent., can be said to be strictly barren.
The remaining 150 acres is an undeveloped asset, as its value lies far
more in its prospects than in its present productivity. While scattering
clams occur throughout, no more than 25 acres can be accounted paying
property. This remunerative territory lies chiefly in the Saugus River
and in the vicinity of the Point of Pines. Here 10 men dig quite
regularly, particularly in the summer, though none of them depend
wholly upon this source of revenue for a livelihood. The annual output
equals that of Lynn, both in amount and valuation. To these flats,
with their undeveloped resources, local legislation gives practically no
attention.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 195

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 10

Capital invested, $100

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 1,000

Value, $1,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 100

Mud, 150

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 250

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 10

Scattering clams, . 40

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 100

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 100

Possible normal production, $22,000

Ndhant.

Although Nahant has a large area of tidal flats, it is not on the whole
favorably located, and much that would otherwise be available is neces-
sarily waste. The territory which borders the western coast is not
barren, but most of it is not productive enough to be profitable.

A few scattered sections repay the clammer for his labor, and from
these sections perhaps 300 bushels a year- are dug for home con-
sumption. Four or five men are employed at intervals in the summer
months, but no one of them depends upon this source of income for
more than transient employment, as the entire value of the yearly
harvest does not exceed $300. As there are nearly 250 acres of flats
in Nahant, this would be a revenue of $1.60 per acre, on an average.
However, this is not a fair comparison, for much of the territory
apparently available is, as has been stated, properly waste. Never-
theless, an industry of far greater proportions than at present could
be attained if wise legislation were directed to that end.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men,

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . >. . . . . . . . 300

Value, .... . . . .. . . . . $300

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . . . . . • . . . . 50

Mud, .'.100

Gravel, ,.'.,.- • » . . 100

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . ....

Total, 250

196 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . -. . : . , . . . .

Scattering clams, . . » . . . . » . 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . . 150

Waste barren area (acres), 50

Possible normal production, ........ $25,000

Boston Harbor.

Owing to the danger arising from sewage contamination the State
Board of Health, on Dec. 6, 1906, requested the Department of Fisheries
and Game to prohibit the digging of clams for market in Boston harbor.
The region closed by this law lies to the west of an imaginary line run-
ning from Point Shirley through Deer Island to the northeastern end
of Peddocks Island; thence in a southwesterly direction to the extreme
point of Hough's Neck. This territory includes Winthrop, Chelsea,
Charlestown, Everett, Somerville, Cambridge, Boston, East Boston,
South Boston, Dorchester, Neponset and Quincy. For convenience all
the prescribed territory is treated under the head of " Boston harbor."

The action of the State Board of Health in closing Boston harbor
was necessitated by a due regard for the public health, as it seemed
inexpedient to allow clams dug from this territory and subject to
sewage contamination to be marketed for food. Necessary as this act
may have been, the closing of 5,000 acres of flats for the production of
edible shellfish made valueless an important source of revenue, and
threw a large number of clammers out of employment. Some allevia-
tion of these conditions has resulted through the granting of permits
to take shellfish for bait from the prescribed waters, thus furnishing
a number of men with transient employment. The value of the law,
however, is almost completely nullified, for the danger to the public
health is actual, and not imaginary. Under present conditions it is
well-nigh impossible to make the necessary surveillance so complete as
would be necessary to prove that clams " dug for bait " are not used
as food. Further, even in the digging and handling of shellfish in
polluted waters there is positive danger of transmitting the germs by
hands of the digger to his own mouth or to other persons.

The nature of the flats permit the division of Boston harbor into
three sections: (1) the north shore, (2) the south shore, (3) and the
islands.

(1) The northern coast of the harbor has extensive mud and sand
flats, covered for the most part with eel grass or scattered mussel beds.
Much of the surface is a variety of pebbly gravel, while but little of
it appears to be good clam ground. The mud flats are mostly covered
with a sewage scum which renders them unsuitable for clams. Scat-
tering clams are found throughout the entire region.

The immediate vicinity of Snake Island in Winthrop and the cove
on Point Shirley furnish fairly good clamming, while clams are found
in a greater or less degree upon the extensive flats of Winthrop harbor.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 197

The flats of the Mystic River, which are of a tenacious mud rather
unwholesome in appearance, in so far as they have not been encroached
upon for building purposes, possess scattered patches of very good
digging, and furnish transient employment to 20 or more men. The
flats in the Charles and Chelsea rivers likewise furnish fair clamming.

(2) The south shore of the harbor is much like the north, except that
the mud type of soil predominates. The large flats, mainly mud, are
not entirely barren though most of the clams are found in a narrow
strip of beach along the shore. At South Boston as well as in Dor-
chester Bay clams are found in considerable numbers, though nowhere
are there any large areas of good clamming.

(3) The islands in the harbor are fringed with pebbly beach, where
scattering clams are usually found. Apple Island and Governor's
Island are surrounded with quite extensive flats, which are, however,
but sparsely productive. Much digging for bait is carried on con-
stantly on these pebbly beaches.

History. — Boston harbor has been in the past a good clamming
region, as the magnitude of its available flats has rendered possible
an extensive production. Naturally, the closing of the harbor by the
State Board of Health has limited the annual production of clams
from this vicinity, as now the only legal digging is for bait. Owing
to this partial closed season the clams are said to have been on the
increase during the last two years. Nevertheless, before the passage
of this act the fishery had already greatly declined. The decline of
the clam industry has been going on for years, as even in 1879 Mr.
Ernest Ingersoll mentions : —

In Boston harbor clams are much depleted, owing to the fact that they
are remorselessly dug the year through, chiefly by a class of ignorant
foreigners who go down the harbor for the purpose. July and August are
the most productive months, there being a large demand for the "clam
bakes" which picnic parties from the cities indulge in on the various
beaches. All the clams got in Boston harbor are very small, because they
are allowed little chance to grow; in March and April they are hardly
worth eating.

COMPARISON WITH 1879.

1897. 1907.

Number of men, . .... . . . 90 350

Annual production: —

Bushels, . . . . , . . . . 40,000 7,500

Value, . . . . . . . $20,000 $6,000

Number of dories, . . . . . - . 50

Capital invested, . . . . . . . , . $1,350 $2,250

In 1879 A. Howard Clark states : -

The towns around Boston usually charge a license fee of $2 a year for
the privilege of taking clams. The clams are in some cases bought up by

198 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

small operators, who team them into the city, though the diggers sometimes
bring them to the city and sell them to the dealers direct from their boats
at the wharves.

SUMMABY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of licenses, .......... 350

Capital invested, $2,250

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . . 7,000

Value, . . . . . . ' $5,500

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 500

Mud, . . . . . . \ ... 2,500

Gravel, . . . . . . . .' . . . 1,000

Mussels and eel grass, . . 1,000

Total, ." . . . . 5,000

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 100

Scattering clams, . 1,000

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 900

Waste barren area (acres), . 3,000

Possible normal production, . . $330,000

Wei/mouth.

Weymouth, with its two rivers, possesses an area of flats aggregating
250 acres. The shores of Fore River are stony, but in spite of the hard
digging clams are found in fair numbers. The shores of Back River
are similar, except for the mud flats on the channel, which are either
barren or but sparsely productive. A few clams are dug for bait and
home consumption.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . ...

Capital invested, . . . . . . .

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . . . . . . •'.- . 150

Value, . . . . . . ...'-.. .... $150

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . ...... . . . . .

Mud, .... . . . . . . . . i 150

Gravel, . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Mussels and eel grass, . . , . . . . 20

Total, 250

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, 30

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ..... 50

Waste barren area (acres), 170

Possible normal production. ........ $11,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 199

Hingham.

Hingham has an area of tidal flats comprising nearly 650 acres. The
characteristic soil is of two kinds: a marginal strip of pebbly beach
extending the full length of the shore, and the broad flats of Hingham
harbor and Weir River, with their extensive areas of mud, eel grass
and mussels. The clamming territory is confined for the most part
to this narrow strip fringing the shore, though scattering clams are
found in diminished numbers on the mud flats.

The shellfish industry of the town consists mostly in procuring clams,
mussels and cockles for bait. Clams are dug to some extent for home
consumption and for the hotels at Nantasket; but the fishery is carried
on in a desultory manner by a few men who dig when other work fails,
and who do not wholly depend on clamming for a livelihood.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, *..

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 250

Value, $250

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 25

Mud, 450

Gravel, 100

Mussels and eel grass, 75

Total, 650

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 100

Barren area possibly productive (acres),

Waste barren area (acres), 550

Possible normal production, ........ $20,000

Hull

The stony shores of Hull offer but little suitable clam area, though
fair digging is found in the vicinity of Hog Island and in Weir River.
The usual type of flat is a pebbly or gravel beach, while near White
Head and Weir River there are large mud areas. Clams are dug only
for home consumption or for bait.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men,

Capital invested, .

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . ... 100

Value, $100

200 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . -. ...... . . . .

Mud, . . . , .... . . . . 225

Gravel, . . ... . . , . . . 200

Mussels and eel grass, . . *

Total, . . . . . 425

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . «...

Scattering clams, . . . 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . 50

Waste barren area (acres), 325

Possible normal production, ........ $15,000

Coh asset.

Cohasset, thoug'h possessing sufficient suitable area to support a
clam fishery, has no industry of any importance. The greater part
of the tidal flats are barren, while the remainder are far from fertile.
The region immediately about White Head and the territory opposite
extending along Barson's beach are the most productive, while scatter-
ing clams are found in Little Harbor.

The total acreage of available flat exceeds 100 acres. Of this, 90
acres are wholly unproductive, and the remainder, 10 acres, is not very
valuable. The main type of soil is sand, though areas of mud are found
in the coves. There are no regular clammers, though many clams are
dug by the citizens of the town for their own use. There has never
been a clam industry worthy of the name at Cohasset, and the present
state of apathy appears to be normal. No local regulations of any
kind govern the fishery.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . .

Capital invested, . . . . . ....

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, . . . . . . . . . 200

Value, . . ' . . . -.' . . . . . . $200

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, U * . ..." . 50

Mud, ...."". . . , . . ;.: 50

Gravel, . . . . . . . . . .

Mussels and eel grass, . .

Total, 100

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 40

Waste barren area (acres), 50

Possible normal production, $6,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 201

Scituate.

There is no clam industry at Seituate. The selectmen of the town
have forbidden all exportation of clams for market, and consequently
the few clams dug are utilized for home consumption.

The possibilities of a future clam industry at this town, while not
alluring, give indications of some promise. Occasional clams are found
on the shores of Scituate harbor, as well as its tributary creeks. The
main undeveloped resource lies, however, along the broad flats of the
North River. These flats undoubtedly constitute a considerable asset
in the communal wealth, and the action of the selectmen in maintain-
ing a close season will tend to the restocking and consequent utilization
of this territory.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : -

Bushels, 200

Value, $200

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 50

Mud, 45

Gravel, 5

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 100

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, 20

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 40

Waste barren area (acres), 40

Possible normal production, ........ $8,000

Marshfield.

Affairs at Marshfield are in practically the same state of inactivity
as at Scituate. The town has considerable natural advantages, since
the North River, which formerly made a wide sweep to the south be-
fore emptying into the ocean, has opened a new channel within the
last ten years, forming many acres of excellent clam ground. A close
season is maintained, although there has been considerable discontent
on the part of certain individuals relative to this policy of the select-
men. A considerable quantity of clams, probably not exceeding 200
bushels per annum, are dug for home consumption. There are no ship-
ments for market.

202 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .... . . ....

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, , . . . . , 200

Value, . '...' . . . ... . . . . $200

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 40

Mud, . . . ... 50

Gravel, ..... 1 10

Mussels and eel grass, .

Total, . . . . . . 100

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . . ...

Scattering clams, . . . .,'•... . . . 30

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 30

Waste barren area (acres), . . . . . . ... 40

Possible normal production, . . . . ' * . . $9,000

Duxbury.

The clam industry at Duxbury has a peculiar interest, owing to the
many perplexing problems which it presents. A vast extent of tidal
flats, far exceeding in area those of any other town in the State, and
in a measure suitable for the production of clams, lie almost wholly
barren. The enormous territory comprised in these flats exceeds 3,500
acres, or, roughly, 5% square miles. This is greater than the combined
clam area of Salisbury, Newburyport, Ipswich, Essex and Gloucester,
which is the finest territory in the State, and produces most of the
Massachusetts clams. Duxbury, with a greater area than all these towns,
dug in 1907 about 700 bushels of clams, — an amount which could well
have been produced from 2 acres of ground. An investigation into the
history of the town shows us that this state of barrenness has not always
existed. There was a time when Duxbury was justly celebrated for
her shellfish, as is still shown by the allusions to Duxbury clams on
the menus of many hotels and restaurants. The dealers at Taunton,
Fall River and other Massachusetts cities formerly sent to Duxbury
large orders for clams, which were always forthcoming. Now, as far
as can be ascertained, not a single barrel is shipped out of the town
from year to year.

This transition from a state of prosperity to one of almost total
barrenness is replete with interest, and is difficult of solution. Doubt-
less several causes may have contributed to this general decline. In the
first place, it is evident that the Duxbury flats were never in so flourish-
ing a state of production as those of the Cape Ann district. This
assumption is amply supported by historical records, and it is also
supplemented, at least, by the fact that a great per cent, of the
present territory is largely unfit for the production of clams in any

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 203

quantity. As these flats have changed scarcely at all for many years,
is it unreasonable to suppose that they ever have been very suitable
since the first settlement of the country?

As for the historical records referred to, the weight of evidence
everywhere tends to prove that many years ago there was a fairly
large output of clams yearly from Duxbury. But while this output was
large in itself, it was, in proportion to the possible area, exceedingly
small. Mr. Ernest Ingersoll states that in 1879 there were yearly
exported from Duxbury 5,000 bushels of clams. At that time, he
says, the industry had declined. Clamming was then prosecuted with
no such vigor as at the present time, for the price was low, and the
demand, except for bait, by no means excessive. Clams had not yet
come to be looked on as such important articles of food as at present,
and the business of digging them as carried on then could have made
little inroad on well-stocked flats. The great probability is that only
a small percentage of the whole territory was ever very productive.
An observer at the present time, viewing from an eminence the flats of
Duxbury at low tide, could not help being struck with the singular
appearance which they present. He would see spread out before him
a broad expanse apparently of green meadows, with long, narrow
streams of water winding in and out among them. These seeming
meadows, stretching on mile after mile, broken here and there by a
patch of clear sand, are the tidal flats of Duxbury, more than 2,700
acres of which are covered with a thick growth of eel grass.

How many years this eel grass has covered the flats no one knows.
It shifts somewhat, as the ice in winter sometimes plows up an immense
surface, stripping it of its green covering. For the most part it seems
to grow steadily year after year, until the roots, decaying stalks and the
fine sediment which they have collected build up a spongy crust over the
true bed of the flat. It is this spongy, clayey soil which is the pre-
dominant type in the eel-grass region, though a large area is soft mud
with little patches of hard sand. It does not seem surprising that clams
are not abundant in this soggy medium, covered with its thick matting
of grass. Clams do exist, however, for occasionally when the ice in
the winter storms has scraped bare a section of these flats, scattering
large clams can be found.

Whether anything can be done with these eel-grass flats on a suffi-
ciently large scale to render the undertaking profitable, and whether
they would prove good ground for clam culture if the eel grass were
removed, is a problem. However, the sand flats free from eel grass
comprise nearly 800 acres, — an area sufficient in itself to furnish a
very large industry for the town. Smooth, hard and unshifting, they
have the appearance of being in every way suitable for the production
of an enormous amount of shellfish. Yet, barring cockles, mussels and
razor clams, shellfish are rare on most of these flats, which, in spite
of their inviting appearance, are practically barren.

204 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The only places where clams are dug in any quantity is along the
shore. Here little scattered patches, remnants perhaps of the former
large supply, repay the clammer's toil with a scant return. Little or
no effort is made to dig them on the main flats, and few are so dug
unless they happen to be unearthed by accident when the men are
searching for razor clams for bait. The supply is hardly adequate
for home consumption and the demands for bait by local fishermen.

Whether all the great tidal territory of Duxbury can ever be recon-
structed into profitable clam ground is a difficult question. There exist,
however, no known reasons why a fishery at least as flourishing as that
of twenty years ago could not be re-established and indefinitely devel-
oped. A great industry was once in evidence here. Outside the boggy
eel-grass marshes (doubtful territory at best) are wide expanses of
clean sand flats, suitable in every way for the cultivation of clams.
That the ingenuity of man properly administered can build up an
enormous industry on these sand flats alone, no thoughtful person can
doubt, and then utilization of these great barren Duxbury wastes will
partially, at least, be accomplished.

COMPARISON OF 1907 WITH 1879.

YEAR.

Production (Bushels) .

Value.

1879,
1907,

5,000
700

$2,500

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . . . .... 5

Capital invested, . » ..- . . . . . . . .. $60

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, '...-. . . . . .700

Value, . . $600

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . . . . . ".-.• . . ., * ' • . 800

Mud,

Gravel, ........... —

Mussels and eel grass, 2,700

Total, 3,500

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 5

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . . 800

Waste barren area (acres), 2,685

Possible normal production, $83,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 205

Kingston.

The condition of the clam industry at Kingston is in many respects
parallel to that at Duxbury. The clam flat area (some 600 acres) is
very much smaller, but the character of the soil is essentially the same,
consisting for the most part of clay, soft mud and eel-grass marshes,
with a relatively small proportion of really suitable ground.

The two main flats of the town are Egobert's and Gray's. Egobert's,
the larger of the two, has an area of about 275 acres. Most of this is
practically waste, owing to a thick growth of eel grass; but a triangular
piece on the mid-southern section is bare. This portion of smooth,
unshifting sand comprises about 80 acres. A few patches of clams
are scattered along the outer edge, near the channel, but hardly any of
these patches produce clams enough to make it profitable to dig them.
The great bulk of this territory is entirely barren.

Gray's flat is of an entirely different type. It is a long flat, with a
fairly uniform width of about 100 yards. It runs through its entire
length parallel to the shore, while on the other side it is separated
from Egobert's by a 300-foot channel. Like Egobert's, it is covered
for the most part by eel grass, but it is essentially different in the
nature of its soil, which is mud throughout. Although the total area
of the flat is about 115 acres, an irregular section of bare mud on the
southeastern side, comprising 30 acres, is thjs only available clam ter-
ritory. This section is composed of soft mud on the north and south,
rather poorly suited for clam culture; but the mid section contains
several acres of hard mud, which seems well adapted, and here clams
are found in sufficient quantities to keep several men digging inter-
mittently through the summer months.

Along the shore a few clam grants have been given to individuals
by the local authorities. These are managed with fair success, though
no business other than that of supplying the local demand is carried
on. The possibilities of forming a clam industry here of importance
is evident, though through lack of available territory it could never
give promise of such a development as might be looked for from Dux-
bury or Plymouth.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . 4

Capital invested, . . . .'.'.-. .. . . , $50

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . 500

Value, . . . ;••••'; . . $450

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 150

Mud, * . . . • .

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass, 450

Total, .... 600

206 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ...,,..... 5

Scattering clams, ... . . .' . . . 5

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 150

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 440

Possible normal production, $18,000

Plymouth.

The clam industry at Plymouth is at a low ebb. The same problems
which baffle progress at Duxbury and Kingston are present here with
all their complications. The combined available territory, exceeding
1,600 acres, save for a few unimportant sections, is wholly barren.
While it is true that fully two-thirds of this great area is eel-grass
waste, and in its present state of little value for the production of
clams, there remains over 500 acres of good flats, for the most part
sand well adapted for shellfish culture. It is certain that a flourishing
industry has existed here in former times. From the earliest history
of the colony, records tell of the excellent clam flats at Plymouth; and
we learn that the Pilgrims during the darkest hours of the early settle-
ment depended in large measure upon these flats for support. As late
as 1879 Ernest Ingersoll reports an annual output of 5,000 bushels of
clams, and states that the industry had then greatly declined. It
appears to have gone down steadily ever since, until now it merely
furnishes transient employment to 4 or 5 men, who dig at rather un-
certain intervals for local markets.

The best clamming, probably because the most inaccessible, is around
Clark's Island. Scattering clams occur on Wind flat, the Oyster grant,
and in patches along the shore. But no considerable extent of good
clamming occurs anywhere, and the bulk of the territory is wholly
barren.

The town of Plymouth has endeavored in several ways to develop
the industry. It has appropriated money to restock the flats, a close
season has been tried, and an attempt made to solve the problem by the
giving of private grants. While these grants have not always been
run in as energetic a manner as could be desired, the experiment has
proved conclusively that there are great possibilities in such a system.
In short, there can be little doubt that in the proper administration of
private grants lies the key to the solution of the problem which con-
fronts this whole region. As clams were once abundant in Plymouth
harbor, and as no apparent causes other than excessive digging appear
to have brought about the decline, there seems to be no logical reason
why this amount of territory (500 acres) should not yield its proper
harvest. As for the vast extent of eel-grass flats, with all their unde-
termined possibilities, they c&n well afford to wait until the more im-
mediate and pressing problems of the flats already available for clam
culture have been solved.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 207

COMPARISON OF 1907 WITH 1879.

YEAR.

Production (Bushels) .

Value.

1879

5,000

$2,500

1907

3,000

2,500

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 6

Capital invested, .......... $60

Value of shore property,

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 3,000

Value, $2,500

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 400

Mud, 100

Gravel, ...........

Mussels and eel grass, 1,100

Total, 1,600

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 10

Scattering clams, 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 440

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 1,100

Possible normal production, $58,000

Barnstable.

The clani industry at Barnstable, while not so extensive as at Ipswich
•or Essex, is nevertheless of special interest. The immensely long coast
line, stretching for many miles on both the north and south shores of
Cape Cod, gives the town a shellfish area both in Cape Cod Bay and
Vineyard Sound which renders it unrivalled throughout the State for
variety of marine life and diversity of natural environment. These
conditions, as they affect clam culture, are best suited on the northern
or bay side of the town, where the clam industry flourishes more exten-
sively, as the southern shore is almost wholly given up to the rival
quahaug, oyster and scallop fisheries.

On the northern shore a large harbor, nearly 5 miles long and about
2 miles broad at its widest part, extends in a general westerly direction,
ending in a vast waste of salt marshes interwoven with a network of
creeks. Up this harbor the tides rush with great velocity, and when
they sweep out to sea leave a broad expanse of flats, sandy on the
north and central portions and muddy on the south. These flats cover
an aggregate area of 400 acres, comprising 200 acres of hard sand and
150 acres of soft mud. Large stretches of these mud flats on the south

208 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

are waste, and covered for the most part with eel grass. Other sections
elsewhere are likewise waste for various causes, and are to be excluded
as unprofitable or barren; yet the total available area remaining after
making these deductions exceeds 350 acres. This is the theoretical con-
dition,— the real condition is far otherwise: 20 acres at the most
yield clams, and of these only 10 acres produce them in marketable
quantities.

The explanation of these conditions is interesting. In the winter
the ice and the force of storms tear out great pieces of the tough marsh
surf, and the tides sweep them down the harbor. Some of these huge
masses are torn to pieces and washed away, others find lodgment on the
broad surface of some tidal flat; these, becoming stationary, accumulate
sediment; the grass grows upon them through the summer, and grad-
ually a little island is formed. Surrounding these islands and often-
times growing over their entire surface, bedded in among the roots of
the marsh grass, we find a very thick set of clams. In short, all the
digging of any kind is in the immediate vicinity of these islands.

The deductions to be made from these facts are apparently simple.
In the spawning season, when the microscopic clam larva} are in their
floating stage, they are carried here and there by the currents. Later,
when they tend normally to settle in some fertile tract of flat, they are
prevented from so doing by reason of the remarkable swiftness of the
tides, which sweep strongly over the broad, smooth flats, and give
the little clams no opportunity of lodgment. Only in the firm thatch of
low-lying islands can they find anything to cling to, and here, with
their slender byssus threads attached to unyielding grass or roots, they
are able to withstand the wash of the current. Thus the clams are
gathered in great numbers in these natural collectors, later are washed
on the neighboring flat, and finally a little colony grows up about every
island of this sort.

That this is actually what happens is largely borne out both by
observation and facts. It makes little difference where these islands
are located; clams grow nearby, while all about may stretch smooth,
hard flats, perfectly adapted for clams, yet altogether barren. In view
of the somewhat incomplete investigations made in this region, it is per-
haps too sweeping to point out any single factor as the sole cause for
these waste areas ; but undoubtedly the swift tides and smooth, hard flats,
which offer no resting place for the young larvas, constitute the main
causes.

Another odd circumstance in connection with the Barnstable clam in-
dustry is the local regulations which control the industry. Almost all
digging is carried on in the winter, as a local by-law forbids the digging
of clams in summer in any quantity exceeding 6 bushels per week for
family use. This somewhat curious by-law is designed wholly for the
benefit of the majority of the clammers, and .to give them employment
in that season of the year when work is most difficult to obtain. While

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 209

interfering somewhat with summer clam bakes, the law appears to meet
the approval of the townspeople.

The south shore of Barnstable possesses many of the features of
Buzzards Bay, and produces clams only in numbers sufficient for home
consumption.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 25

Capital invested, $200

Value of shore property,

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . 700

Value, $550

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 200

Mud, 150

Gravel,

Mussels and eel grass, ........ 50

Total, 400

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 10

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 330

Waste barren area (acres), 50

Possible normal production, ........ $39,000

Yarmouth.

The clam industry at Yarmouth, never extensive, has steadily declined,
until now it barely supplies the demands of home consumption. Barn-
stable bar on the northern coast twenty years ago produced clams in
considerable quantities, but the soil was never well adapted for this
shellfish. Scattering clams are now found there, but the grounds are
very much exposed, and cannot properly rank as clam-producing area.
Sea clams abound there at certain seasons, and furnish a transient
business; also razor clams, which are used extensively for bait.

The best clam territory is in Mill Creek, on the south shore of the
town. Scattered patches of clams also occur along the shore of Bass
River, but the whole area really available does not exceed 50 acres,
and this is not at all well improved. There are no regular clammers,
but intermittent digging produces about 600 bushels of clams annually,
which are used either for home consumption or for bait.

No effort has been made on the part of the town authorities to better
conditions, although the advisability of giving clam grants, at least
on the northern or bay side, has been discussed. No permits are
required, and local legislation does not in any way concern itself with
the clam industry.

210 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, , . ..- .,'"*• « . . , ; 5

Capital invested, ., . . -. . . . . . * $40

Value of shore property, .........

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, . . . . 600

Value, . ^ . . . . . $500

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . 25

Mud, ... ... ... . . . 15

Gravel, . . . ..... . . . 10

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . . . . . 5

Scattering clams, ......... 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 25

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 10

Possible normal production, . ....... $6,000

Orleans.

Orleans is one of the few towns in the State which shows an advance
in the clam industry. This is largely due to an increased production
on the rich flats of Nauset harbor, as the remaining available territory
in the town is declining in value. The output of 1907 is an increase of
nearly 40 per cent, over the yield of the previous year, which shows
an encouraging development.

The clam flat area of the town is divided into four rather distinct
divisions, three on the east or Atlantic side and one on the Bay or
western side. The grounds which have been dug for the longest time
and yielded uniformly the best results lie in the waters of Town Cove.
Here a strip of gravelly sand and mud about 30 feet wide extends
along the shores of this cove for 2 or 3 miles. Clams are scattered
throughout this strip, and are dug constantly.

The second division includes the bars of Nauset harbor, which at
present furnish the best digging in town. The increased value of the
town's industry is largely due to the recent development of these flats.
Clams have seeded in abundantly during the past two or three years,
and now furnish very good digging.

The third section comprises that portion of the clam flat area border-
ing the coast of Pleasant Bay which crosses the town boundaries on
the southeast. Here clams are rather scarce, though dug occasionally.
This section is economically the least important of the four.

The fourth section extends along the western coast, on a belt of sand
bars well out in Cape Cod Bay. Clams are found on a strip about a
quarter of a mile in width, and lying over half a mile from shore. This
is a very exposed location. Billingsgate Point, projecting out from the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 211

Wellfleet coast, offers some protection from northwest winds, and the
hills of the Cape break the force of the easterly gales; but the full
force of storms from the west and southwest sweeps these bars, and
would seem to render them unsuitable for the growth of clams. Clams
are here, however, in considerable numbers, though not so numerous
as three or four years ago, and are dug to some extent.

The greater part of the digging is done by intermittent clammers,
who obtain perhaps 2l/z bushels per day. No permits are required, as
there are no town by-laws regulating the industry.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 30

Capital invested, $200

Value of shore property,

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 3,000

Value, ' . $3,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 125

Mud, 50

Gravel, 20

Mussels and eel grass, 5

Total, 200

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, 25

Scattering clams, ......... 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 75

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 50

Possible normal production, $27,000

Eastham.

The town of Eastham is a sparsely settled community, and the clam
fishery, while not large, plays a rather, important part in its business
activity. Six men depend quite largely upon it for a livelihood, while
some 30 others dig intermittently through the summer. The same
peculiar condition as at Orleans exists on the western coast. Here far
from shore clams are found in considerable numbers on the shifting
bars. The main source of supply,, however, comes from the productive
sand flats of Nauset harbor.

These flats have seeded in only in the past two or three years, but
they have already shown latent possibilities of a future increase.
In the so-called " Salt Pond " 2 men are employed nearly the year
round in digging clams under water by a method of " churning," locally
known as "rootling."

The total available area in Eastham is about 200 acres. More than
half of this is sand, which includes almost all the good digging, while
the mud flats are interspersed with stretches of gravel and scattering
patches of eel grass.

212 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The same abuses which have nearly ruined the Swansea fishery have
begun here. Small seed clams are exported in considerable quantities
to supply the summer demand of the New Bedford and Fall River
districts. While this system has not yet made its ravages apparent, a
glance at the Swansea report will serve to convince the most casual
reader that unless some steps are taken to check this evil, the practical
annihilation of the Eastham clam industry must follow. As it is, local
legislation seems powerless to cope with the problem, and no laws of
any kind relating to the clam fishery are in force.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . 36

Capital invested, $250

Value of shore property, . . ... » , . .
Production, 1907: —

Bushels, . . . . . 4,000

Value, . . . ' . . . . . . . . . $4,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, -.,•-» 100

Mud, . , 50

Gravel, . • . ' . .- . . . . . . , . 30

Mussels and eel grass, . . . .... . . 20

Total, . ... .200

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . . . .. . 25

Scattering clams, . . . „ . . . . . 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . .'•'•' . 100

Waste barren area (acres), ... . . . . . 25

Possible normal production, . .. .... . . . $30,000

Wellfleet.

Although possessing extensive flats, Wellfleet produces at present
a relatively small amount of clams. The inhabitants realize that these
flats are capable of producing a large harvest of clams if properly
planted, and that in this way an extensive industry can be developed,
and have undertaken to restock the flats, appropriating in 1906 for this
purpose the sum of $1,000.

At Billingsgate Island there are fair clam flats, but they are not
easily accessible, as they lie at a distance of 5 miles from town. Clams
can also be obtained in more or less abundance in the thatch which
borders the flats of Blackfish Creek, Herring River and Duck Creek.
A few clams are scattered over the flats of Blackfish Creek, particularly
toward the head of the creek. Two patches of clams covering perhaps
an acre are on the flats in front of the town: one in the stone and
gravel east of Commercial wharf; the other, a more extensive area,
just west of Mercantile wharf.

Wellfleet possesses many acres of flats which, though now barren,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 213

are capable of excellent production if properly planted. Wellfleet
flats extend from Duck Creek to Herring River and from Herring River
along the shores of Great Island for a distance of 41/£ miles, and cover
an area of 400 acres. The Great Island flats are not especially adapted
for clams, and only parts of these can ever be successfully cultivated,
while possibly all the area between Duck Creek and Herring River can
be reclaimed. South Wellfleet flats, which comprise an area of 200
acres, are much poorer flats, consisting for the most part of mud and
shifting sand. Only the firmer portions, about 50 acres, can be made
productive by planting with clams.

At Wellfleet the soft clam fishery can hardly be styled an industry.
In the winter a few men go clamming when there is nothing else to do.
The majority prefer razor clamming, which is a considerable winter
industry, owing to the demand for this bait at Provincetown. Three
men clam during the summer, doing practically all their digging at
Billingsgate, while 8 others are in this work during the winter.

The flats of Wellfleet were never very productive, but formerly were
capable of furnishing a far greater production than at present. This
decline is only accounted for by overdigging, which has brought about
the present scarcity.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.
Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, $300

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 800

Value, $640

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 450

Mud, . . . .

Gravel, ...... 150

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . .

Total, ....... ". . . . . 605

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . . .

Scattering clams, . ... . . • 12

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 250

Waste barren area (acres), . . . « • ... 340

Possible normal production, . . . . . . . . $28,000

Truro.

The clam flats at Truro are confined principally to the Pamet River.
At the mouth of this river near the head of the harbor bar is a sand
flat comprising several acres, where the bulk of the clams are produced.
In South Truro, Stony Bar and other similar patches of rocky beach
are fairly well bedded with clams. Scattering clams are found over
the shifting bars which skirt the main land on the bay side, but
nowhere are clams sufficiently abundant to warrant any serious attempt

214 THE MOLLTJSK FISHERIES

at exportation. Fifteen to twenty years ago clams were everywhere
much more abundant in this region than now, and in those days some
market digging was carried on. At present the needs of the home
market are with difficulty supplied from the local production, and 100
bushels per year would cover all clams dug both for food and bait. No
effort has at any time been made by the town authorities to increase the
industry, though the clam fishery, at least in the sheltered coves of
Pamet River, is not without possibilities of development.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . , . .. ..... 1

Capital invested, . . , ••;,<• ... • • • $2

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . .. . ; : . .-..•;*.; . . , . . . 50

Value, . . . . . . : . . . . . . . $60

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . •". ''.',. .... . . . . 50

Mud, . .... . . . . .

Gravel, . < ; . . . . • ; . . . . .

Mussels and eel grass, ..... . . . . j . .

Total, . . . . . . . . . . . . t 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . 1

Scattering clams, . . . . . . . . . 2

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . . 47

Waste barren area (acres), . * . . . .

Possible normal production, ........ $5,000

Provincetown.

For the last five years the flats of Provincetown have produced only
a small amount of clams. Wherever clams have set in abundance they
have been quickly dug by fishermen for bait, thus checking their natural
propagation.

Clams are found in the drains among the thatch beds on the south-
west side of the harbor and in Race Run, while a considerable set is
scattered between the wharves of the town. All the extensive flats at
the southwest end of the harbor are entirely barren of clams, owing
chiefly to the shifting nature of the sand, although on certain parts of
these, especially near the thatch, clams would grow if planted. As it
is, the shifting sand makes it impossible for the young clams to set
on this area.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 5

Capital invested, $15

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 400

Value, $320

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 215

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 400

Mud,

Gravel, ...........

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 400

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams,

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 200

Waste barren area (acres), 194

Possible normal production, $21,000

Chatham.

Chatham can no longer be considered as the best clam-producing town
of southern' Massachusetts. In 1879 Chatham produced a greater
quantity of soft clams than all the rest of the Cape; to-day all has
changed, and the annual output is far less than several other towns of
the Cape district.

The town of Chatham is situated in the southeastern portion of Cape
Cod, and includes that part which is commonly called the " elbow " of
the Cape. It is surrounded on the north, east and south sides by the
ocean, while on the south the peninsula known as Monomoy Island
extends for 9 miles.

The clamming territory of Chatham is situated in Stage harbor,
Pleasant Bay and at Monomoy Point.

In Stage harbor clams are found along the sides of the Mill Pond,
comprising possibly an acre, and in the eastern end of the harbor
toward the dike, where about 3 acres of flats are thickly set.

An extended area of sand flats are found in Pleasant Bay. But
small parts of this area furnish good clamming, and the Common Flats
on the inside of Monomoy Island, where once there were acres of good
clams, now lie entirely barren except for a small patch of set just
north of Brant Island, comprising about % of an acre. Here are
about 100 acres of barren flats which only need planting to be made
productive.

The commercial clam fishery of the town is carried on at Monomoy
Point, where 5 acres of the best clamming in Massachusetts is found.
The Powder Hole flats, formed of coarse, clean sand, are thickly set
with clams of all sizes, and furnish excellent digging. A good clammer
can obtain from 5 to 6 bushels per tide from these flats.

Clams are dug at Chatham during the fishing season chiefly for bait.
Such digging lasts through the fall and winter. In the summer, clams
are dug only for food, as no cod fishing is conducted in the warm
months. From 10 to 15 men were engaged in clamming during the
summer of 1907, travelling from Chatham to Monomoy Point in power
or sail dories. Practically all the clams dug came from the Powder Hole

216

THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

flats at Monomoy Point. These were purchased at Chatham wharf by
fish firms at the price of $2 per barrel.

The winter clam fishery of Chatham was once an important industry,
which started in 1875 when clams were in great demand as fish bait.
The following table shows how this industry has declined : —

1879.

1907.

Number of men, .......

150

10

Annual production (bushels), ....

35,000

1,500

Value of production, . '

$1-2,250

$1,200

35

SO

Capital invested, . /. . .

$2,000

$400

Owing to the large amount of clams dug by fishing vessels, the fol-
lowing restrictions were incorporated in 1881 as a State law, which
reads as follows : —

No fisherman or any other person shall take from the towns of Chatham
and Nantucket any shellfish, for bait or other use, except clams and a shell-
fish commonly known by the name of horse feet, and no quantity exceeding
seven bushels of clams, including shells or one hundred of said horse feet
shall be taken in one week for each vessel or craft, nor in any case without
a permit being first obtained from the selectmen of the town.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . » * . » V . . . 10

Capital invested, . . . . . . . . . . $400

Production, 1907 : : —

Bushels, ........... 1,500

Value, $1,200

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 330

Mud, ~ ». . . . 10

Gravel, * . • ... • 20

Mussels and eel grass, . . . •

Total, . 360

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, , 10

Scattering clams, ......... 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 300

Waste barren area (acres), .......

Possible normal production, $44,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

217

Harwich.

The town of Harwich possesses but little clam area. A few clams
are obtainable on the shores of Pleasant Bay and Mud Creek in limited
localities, while in the southern waters of the town there is some digging
in Wychmere harbor and in Herring River. The total area of clam
flats is not more than l1/^ acres.

There are no regular clammers engaged in the business, all the clams
dug being used only for home consumption.

In 1905 there was a town law restricting the digging in Wychmere
harbor, except for bait, to one day in the week.

COMPARISON OP 1907 WITH 1879.

YEAR.

Production
(Bushels).

Value.

Men.

1879 1,125 s4nn 15

1907, 100 100

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, ..........

Capital invested,

Production, 1907 : -

Bushels, 100

Value, $80

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 10

Mud, . 10

Gravel, 10

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 30

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .......... 1

Scattering clams, ......... 5

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 10

Waste barren area (acres), '14

Possible normal production, . . . . . . . . $2,400

Dennis.

As the town of Dennis has mutual fishery rights with the town of
Yarmouth, the clam flats of Bass River, which lie between the towns,
are free to any inhabitant of Dennis. A few clams are also dug in
Swan Pond River.

218 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .,

Capital invested, . . . . . . . . . . -

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . ... , . " . . 50

Value, . . . . $45

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . . . 25

Mud, . . , . * i ; i _. . . . . 15

Gravel, . . ... . 10

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . , . .

Total, . ' . . . . .- C:.' . . . . ." 50
Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . 1

Scattering clams, . . . . . .'...' 4

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 30

Waste barren area (acres), . . . . , . . . 15

Possible normal production, . . . . . . . . $4,200

Mashpee.

The clam fishery at Mashpee is of hardly sufficient proportions to
rank as an industry. The shores of the Popponesset River furnish
perhaps favorable conditions for the growth of this shellfish, but the
available territory is small, not exceeding 50 acres, and of this only a
small percentage, comprising scattered patches of gravel-mud, produces
clams in any abundance.

No effort is made at exportation for market, and under the present
circumstances it is doubtful if a greater yield than that required to
supply home consumption could be expected. No effort is made on the
part of local legislation to control the industry or foster it in any way.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . 2

Capital invested, . . . . . ... . . . $20

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 50

Value, $45

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 20

Mud, 5

Gravel, 20

Mussels and eel grass, 5

Total, 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, 2

Scattering clams, ......... 8

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 30

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 10

Possible normal production, $5,400

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 219

Buzzards Bay.

The section of Massachusetts bordering the shores of Buzzards Bay
supports a flourishing quahaug, oyster and scallop fishery, capable of
great development. The clam industry, however, never very extensive,
is of very slight significance at present, and can never attain the same
degree of importance as the other shellfisheries, owing to the' limited
area available for clams. To those familiar with the harbors of New-
buryport and Duxbury and their vast tidal flats with their latent possi-
bilities, the shores of Buzzards Bay present indeed a notable contrast.
Bluff and hilly for the most part, and frequently rocky, nowhere do
they show extensive flats suitable for clam culture. That clams grow
wherever opportunity permits is evident, for they are found on gravelly
stretches or among rocks all along the coast, except in those localities
openly exposed to the full force of the sea. But allowing for all
possible favorable features, the lack of any considerable territory is a
disadvantage that will forever act as a barrier to any expansion.
Falmouth and Dartmouth on the east and west sides of Buzzards Bay
respectively differ materially from the remaining towns of the district,
in the fact that the characteristic soil of their clam grounds is sand;
while the other towns have little in the shape of available territory
except gravel stretches along the shores of coves, small areas of mud,
and the rocky beaches of points and headlands. The yearly output
hardly anywhere suffices for the needs of home consumption. Nowhere
is any attempt at exportation possible. The business, such as it is,
is carried on in a very intermittent fashion, chiefly in the summer,
with but a small investment of capital.

Special local regulation seems to remain aloof from the problem of
insuring a future clam supply. That the combined area of all the
towns of Buzzards Bay does not equal that of a single town in the
Cape Ann district is an undeniable truth; but the fact nevertheless
remains that an industry far more considerable than exists at present
could be supported, and it is truly to the interest of the towns of this
region to make the best possible use of their limited advantages.

Falmouth.

Falmouth has a long coast line not only on Buzzards Bay but also on
Vineyard Sound. The flats at North and West Falmouth on the bay
side are similar to those of Wareham and Bourne, though there are
several small patches of quite good digging. On the southern shore
there are clams scattered along the coasts of the various indentations,
particularly at Waquoit Bay.

220 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . . . . . . .

Capital invested, »:•.....

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, .... . ' . . . . . . . 200

Value, . ...... . . . . . $175

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . •''•". . . ....... 40

Mud, . ..... 5

Gravel, . if . . ... . . . . 5

Mussels and eel grass, . *• « . . . • .

Total, . . . . . v »• . . . „ 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, .... "... « . . . . 2

Scattering clams, ., . 8

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 40

Waste barren area (acres), . .

Possible normal production, ........ $6,400

Bourne.

The clam industry at Bourne is practically extinct. Scarcely any
clamming is carried on by the inhabitants of the town, even for their
own use, as clams have become so scattering that it hardly pays to dig
them. The territory is much the same in extent and general character
as that of Wareham, but it has been overdug to a greater degree, and
has become nearly barren.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . . ...

Capital invested, . . . . . . . .

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 100

Value, ... $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . ; . . , . : 5

Mud, V . . . 5

Gravel, 30

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 40

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 30

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ......

Waste barren area (acres), 10

Possible normal production, ........ $6,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 221

Wareham.

Wareham leads the towns of Buzzards Bay in the production of
clams, although its annual output is only 600 bushels. This clearly
shows the low ebb to which the industry has fallen in this region.

There are no true tide flats in Wareham, but the total area of the
mud-gravel and rocky bottom between high and low water mark where
scattering clams are found is nearly 100 acres. There are no regular
fishermen, but some half dozen quahaugers dig clams from time to
time, chiefly during the summer, to supply the home market.

The industry, such as it is, appears to be about stationary at present,
though in production it has declined notably during the last twenty
years. The town officials have attempted no measures to revive the
failing fishery, and no town laws affect it in any way.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 6

Capital invested, $100

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 800

Value, $800

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 15

Mud, 10

Gravel, 75

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 100

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, . 50

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ......

Waste barren area (acres), 50

Possible normal production, ........ $10,000

Marion.

The wealthy summer residents at Marion create a demand for clams
at a very substantial price. In spite of the increased price, there is
little inducement to engage in this industry as a livelihood, and only
1 man digs steadily through the summer months, though intermittent
digging is done by others to supply the local market.

The best clamming is on the east coast of Great Neck and in Wing's
Cove. These grounds are difficult of access, and consequently have not
been so much overworked as the nearer shores of Ram's Island, Allan's
Point and Blankinship Cove. The total area does not exceed 10 acres,
and this for the most part is very poor territory ; while the clams coming
from these rock and gravel beaches are not of very good quality, the
shells being usually gnarled and crooked.

222 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

There is no town legislation relating to this industry, and though it is
becoming of less consequence every year, nothing is done to revive it.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Number of men, .......... 1

Capital invested, . . . . . . . . . . $15

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, .... .. . . . . . 100

Value, . . . ,v" . •; • .- • .-• . . . $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . py ;•-.-. || .-...>.. . ... * .

Mud, . . . . yW -' * ^.-M:f,:.. ..'. . . , . .

Gravel, . 10

Mussels and eel grass, . . . .. . . . ,

Total, 10

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . , . . . . . . • -

Scattering clams, . . . • . . . . . 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . ...

Waste barren area (acres), . . . . . ...

Possible normal production, .'.. . •»• • • $2,000

Mattapoisett.

The coast of Mattapoisett, more open and exposed than that of Fair-
haven, does not offer equal advantages to the cultivation of clams. A
similar strip of gravel-mud or sand occurs along the more sheltered
portions of the coast, and wherever an indentation in the mainland
offers shelter clams may be found, though never in sufficient quantities
to make digging profitable. There is really no industry at all; the few
clams that are dug go for home trade or are used as bait, and the
prospects of any decided improvement appear to be slight.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . . . . . . . .. 1

Capital invested, . ' - . . $15

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, 100

Value, $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand,

Mud, . 5

Gravel, 5

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 10

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, ......... 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres),

Waste barren area (acres), ........

Possible normal production, $2,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 223

Fairhaven.

The clam industry at Fairhaven suffers from the unsanitary condition
of the flats, though in a lesser degree than at New Bedford. The finest
clam grounds of this town lie in the .proscribed district of the Acushnet
River, and handling or eating shellfish from this area is a positive
menace to the public health.

A strip of gravel-mud about 100 feet in average width fringes the
shores of Priest's Cove, and this strip furnishes at present the best
digging-. Scattered patches of clams occur along the indentations of
Sconticut Neck, around West Island and along the coast of Little Bay.
No men are regularly employed in digging clams, though a rather
inefficient attempt is made at times to supply the local demand.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 100

Value, $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand,

Mud, 25

Gravel, 25

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, 25

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 25

Waste barren area (acres), ........

Possible normal production, . . $7,500

New Bedford.

The clam industry at New Bedford was never of any great im-
portance, but the unwise methods of sewage disposal of the city,
whereby the effluent enters the harbor in close proximity to the clam
flats, renders the taking of shellfish a positive menace to the public
health. The action of the State Board of Health in closing the Acushnet
River and Clark's Cove to the clam digger virtually annihilated the
remnant of the industry. Now practically all the available territory
of the city is proscribed, and no clams are allowed to be taken from this
area except for use as bait. Licenses are also required to take clams
even for bait from this proscribed territory. Three hundred and
twenty of these licenses have been issued since the passage of the act
in 1904. The annual yield of clams for this purpose cannot be accu-
rately ascertained, but probably does not exceed 250 bushels. No
important clam industry would ever have been possible at New Bed-

224 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

ford, under any circumstances, but the slight possibilities which once
existed have been swept away and can never return under the present
conditions, though shellfish grown in this region could, if suitable
legislation were enacted, be transplanted to a sanitary environment,
where in a month all danger of ^spreading typhoid germs would be
avoided.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.
Licenses for bait, . . .... . . . . 320

Capital invested, . . . . . . . . .

Production, 1907: —

Bushels (for bait), . ..'... . . . 300

Value, '.•'"' :. . . . . . $225

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . ' . .."'.' . . . . . 5

Mud, . . . . . .... . . . . 5

Gravel, . . . • -.« _ i ; . . . . . . . 15

Mussels and eel grass, . ...

Total, . . . . ..... . . . . 25

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . .

Scattering clams, . . .-». . . .. 15

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . I

Waste barren area (acres), • . 10

Possible normal production, . . . ... . . $3,000

Dartmouth.

The town of Dartmouth possesses a wide expanse of territory, but
the actual amount of available clam ground is not as large as it would
appear at first sight. Clams are found in more or less abundance at
the following places: (1) Rickerson's Point (% acre); (2) Appona-
gansett River (6 acres) ; (3) Apponagansett harbor (1 acre) ; (4)
Nonquit (%0 acre) ; (5) Round Hill Point (% acre) ; (6) Salter's Point
(3/4 acre); (7) Smith's Neck (% acre); (8) Little River (7V2 acres);
(9) Slocum's River (6 acres) ; comprising a total of 23 acres. The best
clamming is obtained on the flats of Little and Slocum's rivers. In
Apponagansett River clams are dug in the summer for the Padanaram
clam bakes.

A town by-law placing a closed season on Slocum's River was in
force during the years 1904 and 1905. In 1906 Dartmouth, by a State
law, required permits for clamming. These permits are issued by the
selectmen free of charge.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 4

Capital invested, $50

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 200

Value, $160

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 225

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, ............ 15

Mud, . V . . . , 10

Gravel, 5

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 30

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, 5

Scattering clams, ......... 15

Barren area possibly productive (acres),

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 10

Possible normal production, . $5,000

The Fall River District (Narragansett Bay).

The section of country bordering on Narragansett Bay and the
Rhode Island line comprises a territory remote from the other clam-
producing districts of the State, and possessing many characteristics
not found in any other locality. Six towns of this region enjoy the
privileges of a clam industry, situated as they are on the shores of Mt.
Hope Bay and its tributary streams, the Cole, Lee and Taunton rivers.
Beginning with the most westerly and taking them in order, these
towns comprise Swansea, Somerset, Dighton, Berkley, Freetown and
Fall River. These towns differ only in extent of resources or develop-
ment of the industry, while the general nature of the clam flats and the
methods employed in carrying on the business are essentially alike for
all. The area in this region suitable for clam culture possesses some of
the distinguishing features of the typical north shore flats, some of the
Buzzards Bay variety and some peculiar to itself. There are scarcely
any sand flats, and the prevailing type of soil is mud, as at Newbury-
port, or gravel, as in Buzzards Bay; while the greater part of the clam
supply comes from a large and rather indefinite area, which is not
properly tide flat at all, but lies continuously submerged.

The methods employed in carrying on this industry include both wet
and dry digging. On the tide flats the clams are dug as elsewhere on
the south shore, with hoes or the common digger. Where, however,
clams are dug in 2 or 3 feet of water, as is most frequently the case,
an ordinary long-handled shovel and wire basket are employed. The
soil containing the clams is shoveled into the baskets, and then the clams
are sifted out under water. Several years ago an attempt was made
to dig clams by machinery. An enterprising oysterman spent several
hundred dollars in constructing a machine which was designed to farm
the under-water districts more quickly and successfully than could be
done by hand. The device had some of the principles of a suction
pump, and theoretically the clams on the submerged flats could be
washed out from the soil and collected in a receptacle. The machine
worked well enough in extracting the clams from the mud, but failed

226 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

completely when it came to collecting them. In short, after a thorough
trial it was pronounced a failure and had to be abandoned.

The main peculiarity of this region, and a far more important one
than the type of soil or the methods of digging, is the nature of the
clams which are produced. The inadequate territory and the constantly
increasing demands of the Fall River markets have led to abuses which
have had a most disastrous effect on the clam industry, and unless
checked, and soon, these abuses will certainly cause its complete annihila-
tion. The abuses in question are the universal custom of digging small
seed clams for food. So importunate have the markets of Fall River
and the vicinity become, that when the supply of suitable clams proves
inadequate they demand and will gladly take " anything with a shell
on," as the dealers say, so that it is no uncommon sight to see exposed
for sale in the city markets clams of only 1 inch in length. This
deplorable condition is fostered by the custom of digging .under water,
for the fine mesh of the woven-wire baskets retains even the smallest
clams, which are saved for market.

No quicker or surer way of destroying the industry completely could
have been devised than this method of digging seed clams for food.
One barrel of these clams would produce 10 to 15 barrels of marketable
clams if left for one year under favorable circumstances. Thus, when
a clammer digs 1 barrel of these clams he is in reality destroying 10 or
more barrels. This is truly reaping the " seed " before it has had any
time to mature the proper harvest. Also, these " seed " clams are so
immature that in many cases they have not spawned, and thus the
clammer by destroying the clams in this manner damages irrevocably
all chances of restocking the flats.

From the inherent difficulties of the problem, however, local regula-
tion seems powerless to cope with the evil. The short-sighted clammers,
while they know that these methods, if pursued very far, will ultimately
destroy the industry, seem willing, nevertheless, to sacrifice the future
for the present. The other clammers are inevitably brought into line
on this mistaken policy, as they cannot but argue that if a few will
persist in exploiting a natural resource it is the right of every man
to have an equal chance, and take his share of the proceeds as long
as they last. Another potent factor in this wastefulness is the irre-
sponsible foreign element of the mill districts, who dig clams for their
-own use, large or small, with entire indifference. It might perhaps
prove unjust and difficult to enforce laws preventing individuals
digging " seed " clams for their own use ; but legislation could possibly
be enacted preventing the sale of such seed in the public market. This
would strike a blow at the abuse sufficient to rob it of its worst
features. The most casual glance at the facts in the case prove that
there is a pressing need for some legislative action. The history of the
clam industry in this region is one of steady and rapid decline. Any
clammer of the vicinity is willing to acknowledge that conditions at

OF MASSACHUSETTS. ^ 227 "''

present are in a very unsatisfactory state. The output of clams has
greatly diminished, both in the consensus of opinion of those interested
in the business, and also according to statistical figures. Furthermore,
the end of the industry, as far as any economic importance is con-
cerned, is plainly in sight, and at the present rate of destruction cannot
long be delayed. It would seem that here was a striking example of
the need of prompt and wise legislation for the protection and develop-
ment of an industry which has made large profits for the community,
and might yield still greater returns if properly regulated.

The towns of this region can never compete with the towns of the
Newburyport district in the production of clams, for the reason that
they have by no means an equal acreage of suitable flats. The Taunton
River is also a considerable factor, as its contaminated waters impair
the quality of clams grown along its shores. There remains, however,
a considerable extent of suitable territory which might yield a large
product if rightly controlled, and this territory, with its inherent
possibilities depleted to the verge of exhaustion by unwise and wasteful
methods, it is for the interest of the Commonwealth to protect and
improve.

Swansea.

Swansea, the most western town of this district, is by far the most
favorably located, and has the greatest possibilities of clam production.
Situated on the northern shore of Mt. Hope Bay, and containing the
majority of the flats in the Cole and Lee rivers, it possesses a greater
available territory free from the contaminating influences of the
Taunton River than any other town in this region.

Altogether, 200 acres comprise the possibly available clam area of
this town. The best of this area is located in Cole's River, and includes
Long Beach flat, the best flat of the district. Situated on the east
shore of the river just below the railroad bridge, this flat stretches south
in a broad triangle comprising some 20 acres of smooth, semihard mud.
Over the main flat is sprinkled a very thick set of ^ inch to 1 inch
clams, interspersed with some of larger growth. While this is the best
flat, other flats extend along both shores far up the river until the
clams become too " fresh " to be very good. Flats also occur in the
Lee River, and there is a large and rather indeterminate amount of
under-water territory. The total area suitable for culture is not far
from 150 acres; of this, about 20 acres are gravel and the rest prac-
tically all mud.

No permits are necessary to dig clams on tidal flats, but permits are
required to " churn " clams under water. Twenty of these permits
were issued last year. Usually in digging under water two men work
together, one shovelling the mud into the wire baskets and the other
sifting out the clams. About 75 per cent, of the clams produced come
from these under-water areas, as the tide flats are for the most part
nearly exhausted.

228 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The season lasts all the year round, though most of the clams are
dug in the summer time. Of late years it has become increasingly
hard for a man to earn a living by clamming, as only 1 to 1V2 bushels
now comprise an average day's work under the most favorable circum-
stances. Many of the clammers are leaving the business and seeking a
livelihood in other employments.

The history of the industry is one of marked decline. The most
conservative clammer estimates that at the present rate the passing of
five years will witness the complete annihilation of the industry.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, .......... 25

Capital invested, ..... $250

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . 5,000

Value, $5,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . 100

Mud, 100

Gravel, . . . . .1 ......

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . ...

Total, 200

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . . . . ... . 20

Scattering clams, 30

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . . . . 100

Waste barren area (acres), ........ 50

Possible normal production, ........ $24,000

Somerset.

Somerset, the next town in order, joins Swansea on the east and
extends several miles up the left bank of the Taunton River. Its flats
on the south and west, particularly in the Lee River, produce some
clams, though the industry is practically run out. The total clam area
comprises about 75 acres. This is mostly mud, though gravel stretches
along the shore aggregate perhaps 10 acres. The development of latent
possibilities in this territory is largely curtailed by the disastrous effects
of the Taunton River upon the clams. This water, contaminated by
the manufacturing plants of Taunton, makes the clams grown in the
northern part of the town of inferior taste and quality.

Six licenses, costing $1 apiece, were issued last year for " churning "
clams. No permits other than these are required.

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, .

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 50

Value, $50

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 229

Total area (acres) : —

Sand,

Mud, 25

Gravel, 25

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 50

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), ...... 20

Waste barren area (acres), 20

Possible normal production, ........ $4,000

Dighton.

Dighton has a very limited area of clam flat, comprising only about
10 acres. Clams extend but little beyond the southern boundary of the
town on the Taunton River and about % mile up the Segregansett
River on the west. Practically no business is made of clamming by the
citizens of the town except for local consumption. About 40 bushels
were " churned " last year by outsiders. No permits are issued.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.
Number of men, ..........

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, ........... 40

Value, $40

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . .

Mud, . . . . . . . . . . . ; . 5

Gravel, . . . 5

Mussels and eel grass, . . . ...

Total, . . 10

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, ......... 2

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 8

Waste barren area (acres), . . . . . . .

Possible normal production, . ..... . . $1,200

Berkley.

Berkley, on the right bank of the Taunton River, opposite Dighton,
has a very similar clam territory both in extent and characteristics.
But little use is made of the clam except for bait, as the river water
renders them very unsatisfactory as food.

There is practically no industry, and there never could be any of
importance, owing to the very limited area and the contamination of
the waters.

230 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

SUMMARY OF INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . . . . '••"'. . . .

Capital invested, . . . . . . . .

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, . . . . . . . . . 25

Value, . . . . , . . . . ... $25

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, . . . . ., ' . . . . . . .

Mud, . . . . ' . * . :. . . - . . . 5

Gravel, . ... 5

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . . .

Total, 10

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming,

Scattering clams, 4

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . ...... 6

Waste barren area (acres), . .

Possible normal production, . . . . . . . . $1,400

Freetown.

Freetown, joining Berkley on the south near the Fall River line,
possesses a number of clam flats, aggregating 25 acres. Very little
business is carried on, although conditions are better than in Berkley
or Dighton. The clams, too, are of better quality, being freer from the
disagreeable flavor of clams grown farther up the river. The possi-
bilities for clam culture in this town are not attractive, but the present
conditions can be vastly improved.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men,

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 100

Value, $100

Total area (acres) : —

Sand,

Mud, 10

Gravel, 15

Mussels and eel grass,

Total, 25

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 15

Barren area possibly productive (acres),

Waste barren area (acres), 10

Possible normal production, $3,000

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 231

Fall River.

Fall River has no clam territory on the south, owing to the wharves
and other obstructions. On the more open waters of the north towards
Freetown there is an extent of clam ground occupying about 25 acres.
The foreign element in the city dig here for food, and some clams are
likewise dug for bait, but the industry on the whole is of little con-
sequence.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men,

Capital invested, ..........

Production, 1907: —

Bushels, 100

Value, $75

Total area (acres) : —

Sand,

Mud, 20

Gravel, 5

Mussels and eel grass, ........

Total, 25

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, ..........

Scattering clams, 10

Barren area possibly productive (acres), . . . ... 15

Waste barren area (acres), ........

Possible normal production, $3,500

Nantucket.

At present Nantucket does not possess a clam industry of any im-
portance. Years ago it is claimed that clams were abundant, and that
quantities were dug for food or for bait. Now the reverse is true, and
the fisherman often finds it difficult to procure clams even for bait.
Indeed, Nantucket furnishes an excellent illustration of the decline of
the clam industry.

Practically all the flats of Nantucket are shore flats i.e., narrow flats
along the shores of the harbor and on the sides of the creeks. Thus the
area, though extending for many miles, is not great, and the clam
industry of the island, though capable of development, nevertheless can
never assume the importance of the quahaug and the scallop fisheries.
In Nantucket harbor clams are found in the creeks, and particularly
in Polpis harbor, although scattering clams are found all along the
south shore of the harbor. A few clams are found on the north side
in Coatou Creek and in First and Second Bend. The flats in Nan-
tucket harbor are all coarse sand or a fine gravel, except in the creeks,
where they become muddy. On the eastern and southern sides clams
are found in scattering quantities in Maddequet harbor, on the north
side of Tuckernuck and in the cove on the south side of Muskeget.

232 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

COMPARISON OP 1907 WITH 1879.

PRODUCTION.

1879.

1»07.

Bushels,
Value,

2,253

$872

400
$350

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, . ... 4

Capital invested, . . -, ... . . . , $40

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, ..... 400

Value, . . . $350

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, 150

Mud, 1 25

Gravel, 25

Mussels and eel grass, . . . . . , . ,

Total, . . % . 200

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, 5

Scattering clams, . . . . . . . . 15

Barren area possibly productive (acres), 130

Waste barren area (acres), 50

Possible normal production, $18,000

Edgartown.

Although Edgartown possesses 200 acres of clam flats, it is not in a
true sense a clam-producing town. The reason for this small production
is due to the nature of the flats, which are mostly under water at low
tide, making clamming difficult. Naturally Edgartown devotes its
energies to the more profitable quahaug and scallop fisheries.

The clam flats of the town are situated along the shores of Cape
Poge Pond and in the lower part of Katama Bay, where many acres
of flats are continually submerged. The shore flats are of small area,
owing to the light rise and fall of the tide, less than 3 feet at this part
of the coast.

(1) Cape Poge Pond. — Scattering clams are found all along the
shore flats, except for a 3/4-mile strip on the west side. The soil is of a
coarse sand or gravel.

(2) Katama Bay. — The best clam flats of the town are situated in
Katama Bay, and extend over a considerable territory. These flats,
consisting of a coarse, sandy soil, lie continually submerged. Here the
clams are dug by means of a " sea horse." This " animal " is nothing
more than an elongated clam hoe with a belt attachment, whereby the
elammer can " churn " out the clams at a depth of 2 to 3 feet.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

233

The clam industry of Edgartown has fallen off considerably since
1879. However, the clammers say that it has improved during the last
fifteen years. The following comparison is made between the pro-
duction of 1879 and 1907 : —

COMPARISON OF 1907 WITH 1879.

YEAR.

Production
for Food
(Bushels).

Production
for Bait
(Bushels).

Total
Production
(Bushels).

Value of
Production.

1879

1.000

3,000

4,000

fl,570

1907,

625

575

1,200

1,000

The general shellfish regulations which govern the other shellfisheries
of the town apply to the clam fishery; but the industry has never been
considered important enough to need special legislation, and but slight
attention has been given to it.

SUMMARY OP INDUSTRY.

Number of men, 7

Capital invested, . . . . . . . . . $50

Production, 1907 : —

Bushels, 1,200

Value, $1,000

Total area (acres) : —

Sand, .

Mud, .

Gravel,

Mussels and eel

Total,

Productive area (acres) : —

Good clamming, . . . .

Scattering clams,

Barren area possibly productive (acres), .
Waste barren area (acres),
Possible normal production, . .

150

50

200

20

100

50

30

$33,000

In the opinion of many, doubtless, this report may appear unduly
lengthy, and to include many seemingly trivial facts and unnecessary
repetitions. To the trained observer, however, it seems of the greatest
importance in dealing with such a practical and important problem
to place on record all facts and opinions which may become of value,
and to emphasize by frequent repetitions certain fundamental facts.

Respectfully submitted,

D. L. BELDING.

234 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

The preceding report is intended to be a reliable statement
of facts, and suggestions for consideration. On such a basis of
facts the future policy of developing the shellfisheries must be
based. It is the purpose of the Commissioners on Fisheries and
Game to hold a series of public hearings in the different sections
of the State for the purpose of giving personal expositions of
the shellfish conditions and possibilities, and of giving a better
opportunity for exchanging, discussing and weighing opinions.
Meantime, in considering the conditions of the shellfisheries of
Massachusetts, and the laws necessary to improve these condi-
tions, the following points are of importance.

The present shellfish laws are based upon the principle of
" public " fisheries, and were made at times and at places where
there was such a superabundance that the natural increase was
sufficient to meet the market demands. Artificial cultivation was
unnecessary. The fundamental laws were made in the colonial
days. Since then the demand for shellfish as food has enor-
mously increased, and for -many years the annual natural in-
crease has been entirely inadequate to meet these demands. We
have outgrown the conditions which the original conception of
that law covered. Under parallel conditions it has been found
necessary to sell or lease the public lands, in order that the yield
of food may be increased by cultivation under the immediate
direction and responsibility of individual citizens, and under
protection of State and national laws. When it was learned that
the yield of a cultivated oyster bed far exceeded the natural
product both in quantity and quality, the oyster laws were so
modified that an important industry was built up, until to-day
practically the entire oyster yield of Massachusetts, Hhode
Island and Connecticut is from cultivated beds, and the total
product is many times the total catch from the natural beds in
their palmiest days. To-day not only is it necessary to so modify
the oyster laws as to increase the opportunities for better utiliz-
ing our bays and estuaries for oyster growing on a more extensive
scale than is done at present, but also for developing similar
methods of growing clams and quahaugs, and perhaps also
scallops. The tidal flats must, as well as the deeper waters, be
made to produce food and money by securing a larger yield per

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 235

acre, and by the utilization of thousands of acres which are now
practically idle, but which either are now adapted for growing
shellfish or can readily be made so.

Our present shellfish laws are a heterogeneous, conflicting
patchwork, devised to meet temporary and local conditions,
utterly inadequate to-day to permit the fishermen to secure a
just return for their labor, and completely sacrificing the public
interests. In many cases the responsible tax-paying citizen
cannot find a place to dig a family supply of clams or quahaugs,
neither can the industrious native fisherman get a fair day's pay
for his labor.

An entirely new code of shellfish laws is necessary, based upon
the general principles (1) that in selling the shores the State
reserved the right of fishing as " far as the tide doth ebb and
flow," and (2) that the State may now lease these fishing rights
under such conditions and restrictions as to secure to every
citizen so desiring and so deserving an opportunity to cultivate
such a definite area as may meet his needs and powers. Experi-
ence has proved conclusively that it is a correct economic prin-
ciple for the State to give a secure title to certain carefully
defined lands to a capable man, and to say : " This land is yours.
You may raise potatoes, corn, hay or anything you choose.
Every plant, fruit or tree growing on this property is yours.
You have become responsible for its right and proper use. You
have full and complete rights in this property, and can develop
it by investing your labor and your money according to your own
judgment, and the State will protect you in these rights as long
as you do not interfere with the rights of other persons."
Equally so it is an indubitable economic fact that the landowner
finds it more profitable to plant or transplant corn, potatoes,
grass, strawberries, etc., rather than to depend upon the natural
methods and yield. Similarly, it is equally logical for the State
to give to the fisherman equal opportunities with the farmer.
The State should guarantee the tenure of the fisherman in his
definitely bounded shellfish garden, and should protect his in-
terests and the property on that garden as securely as if it were
potatoes or corn, and should, so far as possible, guard him from
local jealousy or the effects of petty politics so long as he con-

236 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES OF MASSACHUSETTS.

tinues wisely to improve his grant in conformity to the spirit
and letter of laws which are found by experience to give the
greatest good to the greatest number.

.Further, the State should protect the fishermen and the con-
sumers of shellfish by defining the areas which from a sanitary
point of view are (1) totally unsuitable for shellfish cultivation;
(2) those where shellfish may be grown but not eaten; and,
finally, (3) definite areas from which alone shellfish may be sold
for food. Provide suitable penalties for sale of shellfish which
have not been kept for the required time (at least thirty days) in
sanitary surroundings before going to market. The entire
question of pollution of streams and estuaries must be carefully
considered in view of the public rights and of the commercial
interests of the fishermen. Further, the laws must be so care-
fully drawn that the respective rights and interests of individual
fishermen, shore owners, summer cottagers and the transient
public at the seashore are completely safeguarded against the
dangers of predatory wealth monopolizing the opportunities for
cultivating shellfish in the waters and the tidal flats.

The situation is extremely complicated on account of the
diverse conditions and the numerous conflicting interests, oyster-
men, quahaugers, clammers and scallopers, native and alien
fishermen, owners of shore property, town and State rights,
local interests and petty politics, and careful judicial considera-
tion is necessary not alone as to the substance of the necessary
laws, but upon the methods of administering these laws.

Respectfully submitted,

G. W. FIELD.
J. W. DELANO.
G. H. GARFIELD.

INDEX

INDEX

Barnstable: — PAGE

Clam industry, 207-209

Oyster industry, 147-149

Quahaug industry, I . . . . . . . . . 52, 53

Scallop industry, /.'... . 96-98

Berkley: —

Clam industry, 229,230

Oyster industry, 156-158

Beverly, clam industry, . . . . . . . . . 192

Boston harbor, clam industry, ........ 196-198

Bourne: —

Clam industry, 220

Oyster industry, 153, 154

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . . 53, 54

Scallop industry, . 98, 99

Brewster, scallop industry, ........ 99

Buzzard's Bay district: —

Clam industry, .......... 219

Oyster industry, . 150-152

Capital, 36

Chatham: —

Clam industry, 215,216

Oyster industry, ......... 144-146

Quahaug industry, ......... 55, 56

Scallop industry, . . " 99-101

Clam: —

Decline, . . " . • 165, 166

Distribution, . . . . . . . . . . 159

Farming, . . . ' 167-176

Growth, . '. . . 171-173

History in Massachusetts, . . V . . . 176-178

Industry in Massachusetts, . ... . . . . . 178-180

Production for Massachusetts since 1880, . . . . . 178

Remedy for decline, . . ..... . . . 167

Seed, . . . . 174

Statistics of industry in Massachusetts, . . . ... 161-164

Cohasset, clam industry, . . ^ . . . . 200

Dartmouth: —

Clam industry, . , . . . 224,225

Quahaug industry, ........'. 56

Scallop industry, • i • • • • • • • • 103

Dennis: —

Clam industry, .......... 217, 218

Oyster industry, ......... 146, 147

Quahaug industry, ......... 56

Scallop industry, ......... 101-103

Dighton: —

Clam industry, .......... 229

Oyster industry, 156-158

Duxbury, clam industry, ..... . 202-204

240 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

Eastham: — PAGE

Clam industry, . . 211,212

Oyster industry, . . . . . . . . . 144

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . .... 56, 57

Scallop industry, . . . . . ... . 103

Edgartown: —

Clam industry, • . . . . 232, 233

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . . 58-60

Scallop industry, 103-105

Essex, clam industry, . . . . . . ... . 188-190

Fairhaven: —

Clam industry, . . . . 223

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . 60, 61

Scallop industry, . . . 105, 106

Pall River, clam industry, . . . . . . . . . 231

Fall River district: —

Clam industry, , . . 225-227

Oyster industry, . . . 156-158

Scallop industry, . . 106

Falmouth: —

Clam industry, -".',. 219,220

Oyster industry, . . . . . . . 149, 150

Quahaug industry, . . . 61, 62

Scallop industry, . . . . . ... 106

Fishing rights of the public, ........ 26

Food value of shellfish, . . . . . . .- ' . 92

Freetown: —

Clam industry, . 230

Oyster industry, . 156-158

Gloucester, clam industry, 190, 191

Harwich: —

tDlam industry, . . . . . . , ... 217

Oyster industry, . . . 146

Quahaug industry, . . . . . .... . 62, 63

Scallop industry, . . . . v . . . . 106, 107

Hingham, clam industry, . . . . . . . . . 199

Hull, clam industry, . . . . 199, 200

Ipswich, clam industry, .......... 185-188

Kingston, clam industry, . . . . . . . . 205,206

Laws: —

Oyster, 127-132

Quahaug, . . . 50,51

Scallop, 92,93

Shellfish, 25-30

Lynn, clam industry, .......... 193, 194

Manchester, clam industry, ........ 191, 192

Marion: —

Clam industry, . ... .221,222

Oyster industry, . . . . . ' . . . . 156

Quahaug industry, ......... 63, 64

Scallop industry, 107, 108

Marshfield, clam industry, 201, 202

Mashpee: —

Clam industry, .......... 218

Oyster industry, ........ 149

Quahaug industry, ...... . . 64, 65

Scallop industry, ......... 108

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 241

Mattapoisett: — PAGE

Clam industry, . . . . . . . . . 222

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . 65, 66

Scallop industry, ......... 108, 109

Methods of work, 16

Clam, 160, 161

Oyster, . . 117, 118

Quahaug, 38

Scallop, 81

Monopoly, ........... 36

Nahant, clam industry, ......... 195, 196

Nantucket: —

Clam industry, . 231,232

Oyster industry, 158, 159

Quahaug industry, ......... 66-69

Scallop industry, ......... 109-111

Narragansett Bay: —

Clam industry, 225-227

Oyster industry, ......... 156-158

New Bedford: —

Clam industry, .......... 223, 224

Quahaug industry, ......... 69, 70

Scallop industry, . 111-113

Newbury, clam industry, ......... 184, 185

Newburyport, clam industry, ........ 182, 183

Orleans: —

Clam industry, . . 210,211

Oyster industry, ......... 144

Quahaug industry, . . . . ... . . . 70-72

Scallop industry, ......... 113

Overfishing, ........"... 23

Oyster: —

Enemies, . . . . . . . . . . 155

Grants, . 119

Natural beds, 119-123

Statistics, . 136-138

Spat collecting, . 133, 134

Oystermen v. quahaugers, ......... 152

Plymouth, clam industry, . . . , . . . . . . 206, 207

Pollution, water, 23-25, 236

Protection, . . . . . . . . . . 26, 27

Provincetown: —

Clam industry, ... . . . . . . . . 214, 215

Quahaug industry, ... . . . . . 72

Scallop industry, ; .... . . . . . 113

Quahaug: —

Decline, . . . . . 38-40

Distribution, . . . . . . . f .36,37

Farming, . . . 40-43

Growth, . . . . . . . . .... 42

History in Massachusetts, ........ 49, 50

Industry, 43-49

Rakes, 44,45

Spat collecting, 43

Statistics, ........... 51

Quahaugers v. oystermen, ......... 152

Resources, unimproved, ..... 19

242 THE MOLLUSK FISHERIES

PAGE

Salem, clam industry, ......... 193

Salisbury, clam industry, . . . ... . . . 180-182

Sanitary conditions, . . . . . .... . 236

Saugus, clam industry, . . . . . . . . . 194,195

Scallop: —

Decline, .... • • • 82-84

Distribution, .......... 80

Dredges, . . . 86-88

"Eye," . . . . . . . ..... . 88

History in Massachusetts, ........ 93, 94

Improvements, . . . . . . . . . 84

Industry, . . . 85-91

Maine, 90

Market, 90

Openers, . 88

Outfit, 90, 91

"Pusher," 85

Season, . 91

Shanties, . . . 88

Soaking, •. . . 89, 90

Statistics, -. • . . . 95

Scituate, clam industry, ..... c. ... 201

Sectional jealousy, . . . . . . . . . . 31

Shellfisheries: —

Abuses, . . , . 25-33

Decline, '. . 20-25

Development, . . . . . . . . ; 19

Production since 1879, i 20

Remedy, 33-35

Statistics, . -. . . 19

Somerset: —

Clam industry, 228,229

Oyster industry, . . . 156-158

Statistical summaries: —

Clam industry, . . . . . . ... . 161—164

Oyster industry, . . . . . -. ... 136-138

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . 51

Scallop industry, ......... 95

Shellfish industry, 19

Swansea: —

Clam industry, . . 227, 228

Oyster industry, . . . 156-158

Quahaug industry, ......... 72

Tisbury, scallop industry, ..... . 113

Town jealousy, ....... 31

Truro: —

Clam industry, 213, 214

Quahaug industry, ......... 72

Wareham: —

Clam industry, .......... 221

Oyster industry, 154-156

Quahaug industry, ..... . 72-74

Scallop industry, 114, 115

Waste of competition, ......... 31

Wastefulness, historical, 17-19

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 243
/

Wellfleet: — PAGE

Clam industry, 212, 213

Oyster industry, ......... 138-143

Quahaug industry, ......... 74-79

Scallop industry, . . . . . . . . . 115

Weymouth, clam industry, ......... 198

Yarmouth: —

Clam industry, .......... 209, 210

Oyster industry, ......... 146, 147

Quahaug industry, . . . . . . . . . 79, 80

Scallop industry, . 115, 116

Li

The above map of the coast line of Massachusetts, with its numbered sections,
furnishes an index to the following series of shellfish areas.

Qudhesiug Clam

Poor F*>r Good Poor pa^r Good

•f- -f + -f

+v

-t- +

ScaiUop
Beds

The above characters, as used on the following maps, indi-
cate the position and relative quantities of the various shellfish
in their respective localities. No attempt is made to give the
relative abundance of scallops and oysters, while the present
productive value of the different clam and quahaug areas is in-
dicated by different standards of marking.

NEWBURYPOR

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^jeiComtnonroealtl) of iflassadjitsctte.

A REPORT

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

MASSACHUSETTS,

INCLUDING THE HABITS, LIFE HISTORY OF PECTEN IRRADIANS,

ITS RATE OF GROWTH, AND OTHER FACTS OF

ECONOMIC VALUE.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE.

1910.

Commonroeolth of Jttas0ad)ii0ett0.

A REPORT

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

OF

MASSACHUSETTS,

INCLUDING THE HABITS, LIFE HISTORY OF PECTEN IRRADIANS,

ITS RATE OF GROWTH, AND OTHER FACTS OF

ECONOMIC VALUE.

BOSTON:

WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,

18 POST OFFICE SQUARE.

1910.

F

APPROVED BY
THE STATE BOARD OF PUBLICATION.

of Jfla0sacbusette.

COMMISSIONERS ON FISHERIES AND GAME,

STATE HOUSE, BOSTON, Sept. 15, 1910.

To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives.

We herewith transmit a special report upon the scallop fishery
of Massachusetts, as directed by chapter 74, Resolves of 1906.
The complementary portion relating to the lobster fishery is
embodied in a separate report.

Respectfully submitted,

GEORGE W. FIELD.
JOHN W. DELANO.
GEORGE H. GARFIELD.

A BEPORT UPON THE SCALLOP FISHERY OF
MASSACHUSETTS,

The bays, estuaries and tidal flats of New England are prac-
tically undeveloped as sources of food. The demands and con-
ditions of an increased population, far surpassing the dreams
of the framers of the colonial laws, have in a very great degree
destroyed the delicately adjusted balance of animal life in these
waters, and left us only a comparatively barren waste, governed
by laws far out of tune with the changed conditions. The waters
are capable of producing for man as much " sea food " as for-
merly, possibly more, but certainly an enormous increase over
present supply if the laws could be so amended as to permit the
cultivation of the bays and shores to the full capacity, after the
scientific agricultural methods already adopted for increasing
the yield of the land.

It is a well-established law of economics that increased popu-
lation increases the demand for food, with consequent higher
prices. These higher prices tend to spread to well nigh every
branch of living expenses. The fundamental method of check-
ing this undue increase is to increase the supply. We have
learned to do this in the case of corn, potatoes, wheat and other
agricultural staples, and (apart from uneconomic and often
harmful manipulation of prices by speculators) the increased
demand brings forth an increased supply. With the supply of
game, lobsters, fish, clams, scallops, etc., however, we apply the
absurd practice of limiting the demand by restrictive legisla-
tion, e.g., close season, size limit, limits upon time of catching
or upon quantities to be taken each day, etc., rather than seeking
to augment the supply. If the demand for corn or potatoes
tends to higher prices, the logical remedy is the production of

6 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

more corn and potatoes. We do not call vociferously for a close
season on corn or potatoes, or for any other law which tends to
restrict the demand. Measures are taken as quickly as possible
to augment the supply.

The necessary increased development of our shellfish supply
is notoriously prevented by antiquated and inadequate laws.
Agriculture cannot nourish where the community must depend
either upon natural yields ("volunteer" crops), or upon fields
tilled in common by persons whose chief aim is to selfishly
appropriate the results a before the other fellow " can.

The capital required for cultivation of the water, aquiculture,
is far less than that required for successful cultivation of the
land, while the returns per acre are far greater, both in money
and in food value of the product. Our shores, therefore, offer
remarkable opportunities for the development of shellfish gar-
dens. Here employment could be furnished for many thousands
of unskilled laborers, in a healthy and remunerative occupation.

To secure such desirable results the public mind must be
disabused of the false idea, almost universally and tenaciously
held, that the " public rights " of getting shellfish wherever
they may be found is a valuable and inalienable right. It is
equally illogical to apply the same reasoning to forest and fruit
trees, to strawberries, raspberries and cranberries, making these
the property of the person who discovers and markets them,
while at the same time making laws which prevent increasing
the natural yield through cultivation by individual owners or
lessees. The intelligent public cannot fail, however, to see,
upon careful and thoughtful consideration, that what has been
represented to be a boasted blessing is now in fact a veritable
incubus, impeding further progress, and to this are to be traced
many of the unfavorable conditions which check the development
of our fishing industries and the prosperity of our shore dwellers.

An abundance of ' " sea food ;? is a strong attraction to our
summer visitors. But the supply must be certain, regular, defi-
nite, readily accessible for quick consumption; available in
sufficient quantities to meet special seasons of largely increased
demand ; and produced under unquestionable sanitary conditions.

Further, the supply of bait for our shore fisheries is an ex-
ceedingly important item, and should furnish directly large

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 7

opportunities for employment, in addition to increasing the
quantity of sea fish landed upon our shores.

For these reasons it has seemed wise to the Legislature to
devote some attention to the questions involved in the very
obvious decline in the shellfish production along our coasts,
since this decline affects not alone the shore communities, but,
to some degree, every citizen of the State. The problem must
be viewed in its broad aspect. The source and the supply of
sea food is not solely and exclusively the peculiar asset of the
seashore town, to be kept forever closed to development. It
should be truly public, in the sense which our forefathers in-
tended, i.e., " free to every citizen of the Commonwealth," free,
not for plunder and destruction, but for intelligent development
for the increased production of food and wealth.

Inasmuch as the scallop (Pecten irradians) and the lobster
(Homarus vulgaris), though formerly exceedingly numerous
and cheap, have now become merely a delicacy, practically be-
yond the reach of the average citizen, it -seemed desirable to in-
vestigate for the purpose of suggesting some feasible methods for
increasing the market supply, before the source is commercially
exhausted.

To say that the fault lies in the increased use of these foods
is but idly begging the question. The fault rather lies in the
failure to assist Nature, which is ever ready to respond to
intelligent and well-directed efforts to increase her bounty.

The report covers in very considerable detail the facts con-
nected with the scallop industry. The notable peculiar fact in
the life history, the weak link in the chain of supply, and, there-
fore, of greatest importance, is that the abundance and even the
continuance of the scallop depend chiefly upon the generation
immediately preceding. Thus, successful fishing depends upon
the number of eggs laid by the previous generation of scallops.
The number of eggs laid depends upon how many adults lived
through the vicissitudes of the previous winter, after escaping
the dredges of the scallopers. As a general rule, the scallop
lays but a single litter of eggs, inconceivably vast in numbers,
but yet only a single litter. It seems surprising that nature
should, so to speak, rest all on a single throw. So narrow, indeed,
is the margin of safety that the excessive destruction of scallops

8 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

less than one year old, i.e., " seed scallops," may result in com-
plete annihilation of the future supply, — a condition which
has occurred in some localities.

The present report is largely the work of the biologist to the
commission, I). L. Balding, A.B., and has been carried on upon
a broad outline laid out by the chairman, under whose general
supervision the work has progressed, in accordance with the
provisions of the f oil owing resolve : -

ACTS OF 1906, CHAPTER 74.

RESOLVE TO PROVIDE FOR AN INVESTIGATION AND REPORT BY THE COM-
MISSIONERS ON FISHERIES AND GAME AS TO SCALLOPS AND LOBSTERS.
Resolved, That the commissioners on fisheries and game be authorized
and directed to investigate and report upon the life history, feeding and
breeding habits of scallops and lobsters, and to make any investigations
which may assist in devising methods of commercial propagation of
these animals, or of increasing the market supply. The said commis-
sioners are authorized to establish and adequately protect structures
and areas of land or water wherein such animals may be kept under
observation, and to protect animals or material contained therein, and
to erect or lease such areas of land or water, buildings, boats or other
structures, as in their opinion may be necessary for the proper pursuit
of the above objects. Said commissioners may expend for the purposes
of this resolve a sum not exceeding fifteen hundred dollars a year for
a period of three years.

CHAPTER I. — INTRODUCTION.

Dr. GEORGE W. FIELD, Chairman, Massachusetts Commission on Fish-
eries and Game, State House, Boston, Mass.

SIR : — I herewith submit the following report upon the life history
and habits of the scallop (Pecten ir radians}. All investigations herein
were made in accordance with the provisions of chapter 74, Resolves
of 1906. The work was conducted by D. L. Belding, assisted by W. G.
Vinal in 1907, 1908 and 1909, and by W. H. Gates and C. L. Savery
in 1906.

Respectfully submitted,

DAVID L. BELDING, Biologist.

The following report embodies the results of the experiments and
investigations conducted on the Massachusetts coast during the years
1905 to 1909. The facts discussed in this paper are intended for the
inspection of three classes of readers : the fisherman, the consumer, and
the scientific student, each accustomed to the daily use of terms with
which neither of the others is familiar. This circumstance, added to the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 9

fact that the subject-matter of the report is largely technical in char-
acter, renders it doubly hard to present the material in clear and com-
prehensive form. As the investigations were primarily designed for
the benefit of the fisherman, the terms as far as possible will be those
used by the practical seacoast inhabitants, while the report is arranged
so that sections which are purely scientific may be omitted without
impairing the value of the whole paper. Whenever a scientific or collo-
quial name is used in the text the common name is either given with it
or a more complete definition is appended in the glossary.

The circumstances which led to the legislative act authorizing the
investigation were briefly as follows: In the years previous to 1905 the
scallop industry, while still an important source of winter revenue for
the southern coast towns of Massachusetts, manifested signs of serious
decline, especially in the Buzzard's Bay region. A natural resource of
sufficient importance to bring into the Commonwealth a yearly revenue
of nearly $150,000 could not be neglected, and the result was that the
Legislature directed the Department of Fisheries and Game to study
methods of improving the scallop fishery. The laws which were at that
time in force were based on very defective knowledge of the life history
and habits of the scallop, and it early became apparent that a knowledge
of these important points was essential for proper legislation for the
conservation of the industry. It' is earnestly hoped that an immediate
result of this investigation will be the passage of suitable legislation for
the preservation of the scallop fishery.

Object. — The aim of this report is to publish all known facts about
the life and habits of the scallop, and to show their proper bearing
upon the present fishery. At the beginning of the investigation certain
important questions of a practical nature presented themselves.

(1) Is the scallop supply of Massachusetts in danger of extermina-
tion ? If so, how can this be avoided ?

(2) Is the present protective legislation based on accurate knowledge
of the life and habits of the scallop?

(3) Can the scallop be propagated artificially?

(4) How can the present industry be increased?

In order to obtain satisfactory answers to these questions it was
found necessary to obtain information upon : —

(1) The distribution and range of the scallop.

(2) The anatomy and its relation to the habits of the animal.

(3) The spawning, reproduction, early life history and propagation.

(4) The habits of the young and of the adult.

(5) The rate of growth and length of life.

(6) The scallop fishery, — its present extent and possibilities.
Presentation. — Information on the above points, as completely as

possible, is presented in the following pages, each topic in the form
of a chapter; and the practical bearing on the four questions is con-
sidered whenever feasible under each subject, and is summarized in the

10 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

general conclusion at the end of chapter VI. It is realized that there
are various facts which still require further study, and that it will take
years of investigation to complete the history of the animal. The
anatomical description in chapter II. is by no means complete. The
object is merely to give the reader a general idea of the structure of the
animal, and to make clear the more intricate development of the various
organs as they appear in chapter III. No claim is made for marked
originality or for detailed work in the chapter on anatomy; the general
scheme given by Drew (1) is closely followed, and only a simplified
description is given. Likewise, the embryology of all the lamellibranch
rnollusks have such a close similarity, not alone in the general course
of development, but even extending in some cases to very minute details,
that the description of any species might be applied equally well during
its early stages to any other closely related species. Thus, although our
work upon Pecten irradians was begun four years ago, and carried on
entirely independently, and is, we believe, the only work upon this
species which even professes to approximate completeness, its general
features closely parallel the admirable work of Drew (1) upon Pecten
tenuicostatus (the deep-sea scallop). Many of our results, therefore,
are entirely new for Pecten irradians, and, since they confirm the earlier
published observations oil this and other species by Drew (1), Jackson
(4) and others, to whom due credit is given, are of use not alone as
confirmatory evidence; but since they contribute new observations and
original applications of these facts to the practical solution of how best
to develop and maintain our scallop fishery we trust that they are not
without value. The life history is given in narrative form and is not
explained in detail, as could be done by sectioning the developing eggs
and embryos. As it is the purpose of this paper to present not only new
material but also a rather complete account of the life and habits of the
scallop, it has been frequently necessary to reprint or refer to previous
works on the subject. In most cases these observations have been
verified by our experiments, and are printed with the consent of the
authors.

Courtesies. — At the start of the investigation in 1906 there was found
a general lack of knowledge among the fishermen upon such important
points as the spawning season, rate of growth and length of life of the
scallops (Pecten irradians). Indeed, little literature on. the subject was
available, Kellogg (5), Jackson (4), Ingersoll (8) and Kisser (2) com-
prising all publications on Pecten irradians. Of these, Risser alone
dealt with the spawning, growth and length of life in his report upon
the life history and habits of the scallops in Narragansett Bay, Jackson
with the young scallop, and Kellogg and Ingersoll with the industries.
While the paper by Risser was of great assistance at the start of the
work, the diverse natural conditions in Massachusetts waters often ren-
dered our results at variance, and unfortunately made this excellent

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 11

report only valuable for comparative purposes. In addition to these
publications the following papers proved of special value in the work:
Drew (1) was of great assistance in studying the embryology and in
preparing the chapter on anatomy; Jackson (4) furnished considerable
help and useful methods in tracing the post-embryonic development;
and Kellogg (6) was found a most comprehensive and valuable paper
for general reference work.

The writer is deeply indebted to Dr. George W. Field for his general
supervision and helpful advice in the investigations and in the prepara-
tion of the report; to. Prof. James L. Kellogg of Williams College, and
Prof. Gilman A. Drew of Maine University for their kindly criticism;
and to the scallop fishermen of Massachusetts for their friendly assist-
ance. More especially is acknowledgment due to the assistants in the
investigation. In the summer of 1906 W. H. Gates and C. L. Savery
ably assisted in the post-embryological investigations and general growth
experiments. During the summers of 1907, 1908 and 1909 W. G. Vinal,
together with D. L. Belding, brought the embryological and post-embryo-
logical work to a completion. The work of all three assistants, particu-
larly the continued investigations by W. G. Vinal, is worthy of special
commendation.

Methods of Investigation. — The greater part of the work on the scal-
lop was conducted at Monomoy Point in the town of Chatham. Near
the end of this point an enclosed body of water, some 6 acres in area,
connected with the ocean by a shifting channel through which the tide
passed every twelve hours, was acquired by the State for experimental
purposes. This body of water, called the Powder Hole, is a natural
breeding ground for shellfish, and proved an excellent place to study their
life history and habits. A few scallops were found in the Powder Hole
at the beginning of the investigations; more adults were brought there
for breeding purposes and the basin was transformed into a natural
aquarium. In this way it was possible to keep close observation on
several successive generations of scallops in regard to their growth and
length of life under completely natural conditions. A small laboratory
was erected on the shore, and a raft 20 feet long by 10 feet wide was
securely moored in the deepest part of the cove. The raft proved an
invaluable aid in catching and rearing the young, some of the most
important experiments being conducted on it.

While Monomoy was the central station for the scallop work, observa-
tions were made in other parts of the State under as diverse conditions
as possible. Records of the spawning, growth, migration and habits
were kept at EdgartoAvn, Nantucket, Chatham, North Falmouth, Marion
and Monument Beach. In this manner the entire scalloping territory of
the Commonwealth was under surveillance. Under chapter VII. the
specific methods of work will be given in greater detail.

The Scallop Family. — The scallop belongs to the class of mollusks

12 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

called the Lamellibranchia, or, to use an older nomenclature, the Pelecy-
poda. The family of the Pectenidce includes a great many species,
totalling about forty, of which the most important commercially is the
shallow-water variety, Pecten irradians. Of the four species found on
the Atlantic coast only two are of commercial importance in New Eng-
land, Pecten irradians and Pecten tenuicostatus, the giant or deep-sea
scallop of Maine. These are rivals in the Boston market, but the smaller
scallop is usually preferred by reason of its more delicate flavor. Sev-
eral different species of the PectenidcE are used as food in -other coun-
tries. Fossil Pectens have been found as far back as the Carboniferous
age.

Names. — Pecten irradians is more commonly given as the scientific
name for the shallow-water scallop of the Massachusetts coast, but the
later and more exact title of Pecten gibbus, var. borealis Say., is now
used. In New England the animal is ordinarily called by the name
" scallop," sometimes written " escallop." This word, according to
Ingersoll (8), is derived from either the French " escallope " or the
Dutch " schelp," meaning a shell. In Italy the scallop is called " cape
saute," in Holland "mantels," in England "fan shells," "frills,"
" queens," and " squims."

Distribution. — Pecten irradians has a wide geographical range, ex-
tending from Massachusetts Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, where it has
been reported in the vicinity of the Chandeleur Islands in Louisiana by
Professor Kellogg (7). It is occasionally found along the Atlantic
seacoast wherever the coast is sufficiently broken to afford sheltered
bays and inlets. In 1880 Ingersoll (8) reports its presence in North
Carolina, where it was used for local trade at Moorehead City. The
scallop inhabits quiet waters, where it is protected from heavy winds
and storms, which would wash it high on the sandy beaches. Long
Island Sound is very productive of scallops, and many thousands of
gallons are shipped from its waters in a successful season.

In Massachusetts this species occurs commercially only in the waters
south of Boston (Fig. 78). It is usually found in abundance along
the southern shore of Cape Cod, in Buzzard's Bay and about the islands
of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. According to a map in the
Boston Museum of Natural History a small bed formerly existed in
the waters off Nahant. Shells are often picked up on the North Shore
beaches, but at present no live scallops are found in this State north of
Boston. It is reported that a few are to be found in some of the warm
bays of the Maine coast. Thus the scallop fishery in Massachusetts is
only a partial industry, as it concerns only the Vineyard Sound and
Buzzard's Bay shore.

The bathymetrical range of the scallop is extensive, as many thousand
acres of eel-grass flats, extending even to a depth of 60 feet of water,
are covered at times with this bivalve. Usually the scallop is found in

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 13

water from 5 to 30 feet deep. Scallops are often abundant on the high
flats where there remains but a foot or two of water at low tide, as on
the Common Flats at Chatham. These exposed places with the thick eel
grass seem to receive the heaviest sets, but the young often perish in
the cold winters. Scallops can arbitrarily be separated into two classes :
(1) the channel or deep-water scallops, found in water 15 to 60 feet
deep, and (2) the shallow-water or eel-grass variety, from low-water
mark to 15 feet.

While the extent of the scalloping area is large, owing to the wide
range of the animal, only portions are ever productive at any one time.
A set may be in one place this year and the next year's spawn may
" catch " in a different locality. Thus, while all the ground is suitable
for scallops, only a small part is in productive operation each year.
The natural barrier to the distribution of the scallop is the exposed
nature of the coast, as this mollusk cannot live in rough waters.

CHAPTER II. — ANATOMY.

The loss of the anterior adductor muscle in Pecteu, as shown by
Drew (1) and Jackson (4), has been accompanied by a shifting of the
soft parts, so that the antero-posterior axis, instead of running parallel
to the hinge line, forms with it an angle of at least 60°. While this
fact is recognized, for simplicity the relation of the hard and soft parts
in the following description is considered as in a typical lainellibranch.
The animal is oriented: (1) dorso-ventral axis or height, from the
hinge to the opposite edge of the shell; (2) antero-posterior axis or
width, the distance across the shell; (3) lateral axis or thickness, the
distance between the two valves (Fig. 65).

The Shell. — The scallop shell consists of two lateral valves joined
together on the dorsal edge, the hinge line (HH), by means of a thin
ligament. The two valves, which open on the ventral or lower edge,
are nearly round and of equal curvature. The right or lower valve, on
which the animal rests, is of a lighter and cleaner color and differs from
the upper in having a byssal notch (B) or foot groove. In the scallop
less than a year old this notch is lined with several projecting teeth,
which are absent in the old animal. If the shell of an adult is broken
along the notch a row of thirty-five or more of these teeth can be seen
extending back to the urnbo. The adult scallop is somewhat wider than
high, the average dimensions being: height, 2% inches; width, 2%
inches; thickness, IM-O inches.

On the outer surface of the shell are prominent ridges and furrows
(R, F) which radiate from the beak to the free margin, giving the
animal a beautiful fan-like appearance. The number of ridges does not
vary in the individual scallop, the adult having the same number as
the very young animal. In different scallops the number of ridges

14 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

varies from 14 to 19, the average being 16. Crossing the radiating ribs
are concentric growth lines, which almost show the daily accretion of the
shell. Age and wear cause these to be less conspicuous toward the beak
and on the lower valve. During the winter months growth ceases and
when again resumed in the spring, a heavy line has formed by the
thickening of the edge of the shell, comparable to the annual ring of a
tree. This is the so-called growth line, which defines a " seed " or
immature scallop. Such marks may not always represent the end of
the season's growth, but may indicate that unfavorable conditions for a
certain length of time checked the building processes of the animal.
When scallops were transplanted from Inward Point to Monomoy
Point,, being confined several days, the change caused a mark similar
to the annual growth line.

In old age these growth lines may pile up and form a very slight
re-entrant in the shell, due to retrogressive development. The re-entrant
is not so conspicuous in Pecten as in other lamellibranchs which have
a thicker shell. If the edge of one valve is broken, the opposite valve
growrs down abnormally to protect the soft parts. Both valves are
needed in place to get a normal growth in the same manner as rodents
require both sets of incisors to wear on each other.

Besides these markings the outer surface of the shell may be engraved
by various enemies. The oyster drill often punctures a small hole in the
shell and through it sucks out the soft parts. The boring sponge does
not attack the scallop as frequently as it does the oyster and other
mollusks which lead a sedentary life, but occasionally parts of the shell
are dissolved by the secretions of the sponge. In the older scallop of
fifteen months the upper valve is usually covered with various forms of
life, such as Serpula (worm tubes), barnacles, young oysters, Anomia
(silver shells), Crepidula (quarter deckers), Acmaaa and such sea weeds
as Enteromorpha, Ulva and Champi parvia. Many old scallops are
doubtless killed by the accumulation of foreign growth, which at times
fastens the valves together.

The inner surface of the shell is very smooth arid somewhat vitreous,
due to the nacreous or pearly material secreted by the mantle. The
ridges and furrows exist but are not conspicuous. The scar, which
marks the attachment of the adductor muscle, can be seen indistinctly
outlined slightly to one side of the center of the shell.

The hinge line (HH) is curved in most lamellibranchs, but in Pecten
it is straight, and extends to the end of the well-developed " ears." A
V-shaped spring in the central part of the hinge tends to keep the
valves apart after the same manner of doubling a large piece of rubber
in the hinge of a door. When the animal is at rest the large adductor
muscle is relaxed and the valves remain open.

The calcareous shell is formed by the secretions of the mantle. Al-
though it is added to slightly by the surface of the mantle, the main
increase is in height and width at the edge of the mantle. These two

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 15

secretions differ in structure; the inner pearly or nacreous portion
being formed of thin layers, the outer of prisms. The valves increase
in size as the direct consequence of the increase in size of the soft parts.

The shell is well adapted to the life of the scallop. Being light in
weight it is suitable for movement through the water, while the rounded
outline is the form which offers the least resistance for swimming. The
opposite ridges and furrows fit tightly together when the valves close.
Thus, when the animal moves, streams of water are forced by the aid
of the mantle through the small openings below the " ears," or from
the ventral edge of the shell.

The Mantle. — The shell of the scallop is lined with a thin ciliated
organ called the mantle (Fig. 73, m). The thickened margins of the
two mantle lobes are free ventrally but are united dorsally and to a
slight extent on the anterior and posterior ends in the region of the
" ears." In a scallop of 52 millimeters the mantle lobes are united
posteriorly for 13 millimeters and anteriorly for 6 millimeters. This
corresponds roughly to the width of the " ears " of the shell, 12 milli-
meters and 6 millimeters respectively. The shorter union anteriorly
permits- the extrusion of the foot. The free edge of the mantle, often
brightly pigmented, possesses tentacles (t) or tactile organs, and bead-
like eyes of a bright blue color. These sensory organs are not so
numerous or so large near the byssal notch and the corresponding
posterior edge. Each lobe of the mantle is attached to the inner surface
of the valve about one-half inch from the free edge. The broad face
of each lobe rests on the inner surface of the shell except when the
animal is disturbed and the mantle withdrawn by the retractor muscles.
While resting, the mantle lobes are held slightly apart, the guard tenta-
cles forming a lattice work between the perpendicular flaps of the
mantle through which the water passes. As previously stated, the
mantle also functions in the formation of the shell.

Tentacles. — The sense organs of the mantle are of two kinds, tenta-
cles and eyes. There are numerous tentacles near the free edge of the
mantle, which vary greatly in size and formation. These tentacles can
be divided into two classes, (1) the mantle tentacles, which are situated
on the external edge of the lobe in several rows, and (2) the guard
tentacles, situated on the edge of the perpendicular flap of the mantle,
5 to 6 millimeters from the edge. Each class differs in form and func-
tion; the mantle tentacles are larger, capable of greater extension and
contraction, and armed with papillary projections, while the guard
tentacles are smaller, less extensible and of a bright color. The tentacles
have a sensory or tactile function, and when the scallop lies undis-
turbed, the mantle tentacles, lengthening out, wave slowly in the currents
of water. They can be withdrawn immediately at the passing of a
shadow or at any slight disturbance in the water. When contracted
each forms a slight conical projection.

Eyes. — Situated between the band of tentacles and the outer edge

16 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

of the mantle are many well-developed eyes, brilliantly hued with
blue and brown pigment, which help to make the scallop attractive to
summer colonists. When sectioned, these eyes are found to be spe-
cialized organs comparable to the eyes in the higher animals. They
vary in size and number, the larger ones usually occupying the grooves
of the shell, although in the adult definite arrangement appears to be
lacking. To what degree the eyes react to light and to external stimuli
is problematic, and offers a field for research. They appear to be
keenly sensitive to any change in light and shade, possibly observing
the approach of an enemy by its shadow or movement in the water.

Muscles. — Unlike the soft clam (Mya) and the quahaug (Venus),
which have two adductor muscles for closing the shell, the scallop has
only a single adductor muscle (the so-called eye in the fisherman's
vernacular), which is situated posterior to the center of the shell, form-
ing a conspicuous part of the internal anatomy. The muscle is made up
of two parts, a large anterior section and a small posterior division. As
is shown in the development of the young scallop, this muscle is the
posterior, the anterior adductor disappearing during the early shell
stage. The muscle is the edible part of the scallop, and its shape is
maintained when served on the table as " fried scallops." When the
muscle is cut the valves immediately gape open, being forced apart by
the V-shaped cartilaginous elastic pad in the middle of the hinge. The
other important muscles are the retractor muscles of the foot, the gills
and the mantle.

Gills. — There are four gills (Fig. 74, g) in the scallop, a pair on
each side of the generative mass and ventral to the adductor muscle.
Each pair has a free end posteriorly and extends in a curved line
nearly around the posterior adductor muscle. The gills are attached
dorsally near the adductor, the inner and outer gills having a common
membrane. Each gill is made up of two lamellae of radiating filaments.
Fine markings cross the filaments at right angles, thus giving each
lamella a delicate lace-like appearance.

When a few grains of carmine powder are sprinkled on the gills the
small grains pass to the base of the gills and then move toward the
anterior end in a definite channel. This movement is due to the cilia
between the filaments, which cause the grains to pass toward the mouth.
The work of the gills is not only to strain out the food but to aid in
respiration. The impure blood flows into the capillary spaces of the
gills, where the delicate membranes are bathed by the inflowing water,
and, having acquired a new supply of oxygen, passes back to the heart.
The area is increased by the folding of the lamella. If stimulated, the-
gills contract immediately, showing that they possess a nervous mech-
anism.

Palps. — Just dorsal to the gills on the borders of the mouth are
two pairs of delicate filaments similar in structure to the gills. These

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 17

organs are the labial palps (lp), which correspond to the lips of
higher animals and function in conducting the food to the mouth. The
central portion of these lips, which extend laterally for a distance equal
to the thickness of the animal near the umbo, has arbor-vita3-like proc-
esses, concealing the mouth. The flaps which extend on each side of
the branching area are united to the body dorsally and posteriorly,
leaving the other edges free. The exterior surface is smooth, while the
internal surface is covered with ciliated ridges and furrows which aid
in conducting the food from the gills to the mouth.

Digestive System. — The digestive system of the scallop is compara-
tively simple. The mouth opens into a short oesophagus or gullet, which
leads into a gourd-shaped stomach (s). On the posterior end of the
stomach is a curious hard socket into which fits the tip of a translucent
gelatinous rod, the crystalline style. This rod extends along the in-
testine in a sort of pocket or groove as far as the lower part of the
visceral mass (Fig. 75, vm). The stomach is enveloped by a dark-brown
mass, connected with it by two short canals, one on each side. This
large conspicuous organ is the digestive gland or "liver" (1), and "is
only bounded in the region of the stomach by the sexual gland on its
ventral surface." Kellogg (6). The liver (1) sends secretions into the
stomach to aid digestion. The food is caught up as soon as it leaves the
stomach by the cilia of the intestine (i), which forms a double loop in
the visceral mass (Fig. 76, vm). It then passes in a dorsal direction
through the liver, curving posteriorly to pass through the heart, and
finally ends posterior to the ventral portion of the adductor muscle.

Circulatory System. — The scallop has a blood system passing over
the whole body and through the gill filaments, where the blood' is
aerated. The heart (ht), a three-chambered organ, is situated in a
pericardial cavity dorsal to the adductor muscle. The intestine passes
through the pericardium and is surrounded by the ventricle of the
heart. The auricles are two filmy bodies connected with the ventricle.
From the heart arise the different arteries which conduct the blood to
all parts of the body, whence it is returned through the venous system
to the sinus venosus, from there to the gills, and finally back to the
heart.

Nervous System. — The nervous system of the scallop is complicated,
and the animal is highly sensitive in all parts, especially in the region of
the mantle, through the circumference of which passes a large nerve
connecting with the tentacles and eyes. Several ganglia lie in the region
of the mouth, foot and visceral mass. From these, numerous nerves
pass to the various parts of the body.

Excretory System The kidneys are a pair of yellow-colored organs

in the form of sacs, encircling the anterior part of the adductor muscle.
These glandular organs open into the mantle chamber above the gills,
where they are joined by the openings of the reproductive organs.

18 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

Foot. — The foot (f ) of the adult scallop is a small muscular organ
extending from the upper part of the visceral mass dorsally for about
a quarter of an inch. It is nearly cylindrical, with a deep groove on one
side and a hollow, sucker-like disc on its distal end (Fig. 42). It has a
slight twist which places the cleft portion in juxtaposition to the right
valve, instead of on the ventral border. This is of use to the young in
crawling, as the sucker can be put down evenly on the surface without
a twist of the foot to hinder the retraction. Jackson (4). The func-
tion of crawling is only for the young, and the adult has either lost the
power of locomotion through degeneration or at least does not make
use of it. A byssal gland (bg) is on the proximal end of the foot, and
secretes the bundle of threads by which the mollusk anchors itself to
various objects, as described under " Attachment " in chapter IV.

The Reproductive Organs. — The generative organs comprise a large
share of the soft parts of the scallop, and lie, surrounding the folds of
the intestine, in the lower portion of the visceral mass. The surface of
this mass, which terminates bluntly some distance below the large
adductor muscle, is usually covered with a black glossy pigment, which
is especially noticeable previous to and during the spawning season,
when it completely hides the bright color of the egg sac. Both the male
and the female organs are found in the same scallop, whereas in P.
tenuicostatus, the giant scallop of the Maine coast, the sexes are sepa-
rate. Drew (1).

The testis (Fig. 75, ts) or male gland is a cream-colored organ lying
just ventral to the liver and foot and extending down the side of an
orange-colored sac. This sac is the ovary (ov) or female gland, which
during the spawning season takes on a bright orange color, presumably
due to the number and ripeness of the eggs. In size it is somewhat
larger than the testis, and lies ventral and slightly posterior to that
organ. During the early part of the spawning season, when full of
eggs and spermatozoa, these glands are well rounded and brilliantly
hued; but after the completion of spawning they become small and
lighter colored. In the ovary of the scallop previous to spawning are
many millions of little eggs in various stages of maturity. These eggs,
held in large follicles, are packed firmly in place, giving to the genera-
tive mass a smooth, plump appearance. Dr. James L. Kellogg has
kindly permitted the use of an illustration from his work on the " Mor-
phology of Lamellibranchiate Mollusks, 1890," which shows a section of
the generative organs of Pecten irradians, and supplements it with the
following excellent description : —

Fig. 67 represents a section passing vertically through the outer wall' of
the visceral mass, where the testis and ovary are closely apposed. The
body wall is represented at ep and consists of a single layer of columnar,
ciliated, epithelial cells, whose nuclei are about equally distant from their
outer ends and the thick basement membrane (bm). In this epithelium are

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 19

many conspicuous gland cells (glc). Between it and the follicles of the
generative gland is a thick layer of connective tissue, extending in between
the follicles. The follicles of the ovary (ov) are not so regular in outline
when seen in section as those of the testis (t). The walls of the latter
bear a follicular epithelium (fep). In the ovary, the cells of this layer are
in all stages of development into eggs. The eggs themselves, crowding
the follicles, possess a very thick membrane and their protoplasm is finely
granular. A duct from the follicles is seen at d.

The mother cells of the spermatozoa (fep) are circular and of constant
size in the follicles of the testis (t). As we follow the mass of cells inward
from these mother cells they become very gradually smaller and smaller,
until their final divisions result in the spermatozoa. They are so arranged
that their " tails," in forming, project in extended masses toward the lumen
of the follicle and give it a radiating appearance. I have not been able
to determine how many times a mother cell divides in forming spermatozoa,
for the cells are all rounded and give no evidence of their divisions, as
they do in the testes of many animals. A duet of the testis containing
spermatozoa is shown at d. The ducts of both testis and ovary are com-
posed of slightly columnar, ciliated cells. In the wall of the duct of the
testis is shown a single deeply stained cell, which is evidently a gland cell.

CHAPTER III. — EARLY LIFE HISTORY.

The Ripening of the Reproductive Organs. — In the early spring the
sex products of the scallop begin to ripen, as the eggs and spermatozoa
mature preparatory to the summer spawning. The final ripening takes
place during the month of May, when the water has reached a tempera-
ture ranging from 45° to 50° F., and the scallop is prepared "to shoot
its spawn " in the first part of June. During the month of May the
generative organs take on a plump appearance; the eggs grow larger;
the spermatozoa become active; and the ovary passes from an indis-
cernible pink to a deep orange color. This change in color furnishes
a general index for recording, by the aid of color charts, the spawning
period of the scallop.

The Egg. — The egg or female cell (Fig. 1) is a small spherical body
surrounded by a thin membrane inclosing a protoplasmic fluid. Lying
in the protoplasm are numerous yolk granules which give to the egg an
opaque appearance. These granules form the nutritive part of the egg.
The shape of the mature egg when extruded appears spherical, but,
when measured, one axis will be found slightly longer than the other.
If the eggs are cut from the ovary they have a variety of shapes, due
to the manner in which they were compressed within that organ (Fig.
3). The scallop egg resembles that of the clam and oyster in size, the
average diameter being about 3/ioo of an inch. In the ovary the eggs,
when mature, have an orange color, and when discharged " en masse "
still retain that color ; but when separated appear, to the naked eye as
minute white specks. The color intensity of the mass seems to be due to

20 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

the arrangement of the yolk granules within the egg. A light color ap-
pears to be caused by large vacuoles or clear spaces among the yolk
granules, as are often found in distorted and immature eggs. Evidently
the number, size and arrangement of these vacuoles in respect to the
granules determine the color of the mass, and thus indicate the maturity
or immaturity of the eggs. Orange-colored ovaries when placed in 75
per cent, alcohol in a short time become white, the orange color being
extracted by the fluid.

The Spermatozoon. — The spermatozoon or male cell (Fig. 2) is
extremely minute, being only an exceedingly small fraction of the size
of the egg. It consists fundamentally of two parts, an. elliptical head
and a slender whip-like tail, which is used as an organ of locomotion
in seeking the egg. The size of the head is ^eo by %oo of a millimeter
by %2500 of an inch), with a tail about ^o of a millimeter
of an inch) in length. The minute anatomy was not studied.

Spawning. — The term " spawning " refers to the discharge of the
eggs from the female or the spermatozoa from the male. With most of
the lamellibranchiate mollusks, the class to which the scallop belongs,
it is the act of throwing off the sex products, which meet in the water for
the purpose of fertilization. Pecten irradians, as is often the case with
highly specialized mollusks, is hermaphroditic, i.e.., both sex elements are
found in the same individual. Spawning in this instance is the dis-
charge of either eggs or spermatozoa from the same animal, usually
at different times.

In the Pectinidffi the opening from both ovary and testis lead into a
common duct with a single orifice, which opens into the kidney com-
paratively near its external aperture. Pelseneer (9). The sexual
products, as they are extruded, pass through a part of the kidneys just
dorsal to the large adductor muscle into the mantle chamber, where
they are discharged into the water. The discharge takes place through
the pseudo-siphon, formed by the mantle when closed, at the right or
posterior edge of the shell, as the animal lies in a natural position.
The spawn is usually cast forth as a fine spray by a quick snap of the
valves and is rapidly diffused through the water, though sometimes the
valves remain quiet, the spawn then passing out in a steady stream.
As the mantle fringe is slightly opened to allow the spawn to roll gently
out, this latter method can be compared to the exhaling of tobacco smoke
from the human lips. If eggs are given off they either appear in pink
masses or are just visible to the naked eye as fine white specks, making
it possible for the observer to readily distinguish them from the sperma-
tozoa, which give to the water a quivering, milky appearance. The
amount of eggs extruded at one time varies considerably, but generally
numbers high in the thousands and even millions.

The following observations upon the spawning of individual scallops
were made at Monomoy Point. The scallops were confined, as described

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 21

in chapter VII., in small aquaria during the period of observation, and
were replaced in their native element between times. Possible error
arises from the unnatural conditions, which may render the spawning
abnormal. Unfortunately no satisfactory method of eliminating this
error could be devised. These observations, however, have been par-
tially confirmed in other ways.

(1) When the scallop spawns, which sex cell is liberated first?
Observations on 38 scallops showed that 19 produced spermatozoa,

17 eggs, and 2 a mixture of both at the first discharge. In general, the
scallop continues shooting for a number of discharges the kind of sex
cell with which it starts, and although scallops are hermaphroditic, only
a single kind is usually given off at any one time, the length of the
period varying from a few minutes to five or six hours. It can be safely
concluded that it is purely a matter of chance which sex cell is given
off, and that the tendency toward one kind may be a precaution against
self-fertilization.

(2) How long are the intervals between discharges?

The intervals between discharges vary from one-half a minute to
forty-five minutes, or even days. After a series of rapid discharges the
resting period appears to be longer. One scallop was observed to give
as many as five successive discharges, while two are of frequent occur-
rence. Other specimens have been observed to shoot spawn at intervals
of two or three minutes for over five hours. The scallop possibly can
adapt itself to existing conditions and spawn only at favorable times.
If the germ cells are set free at intervening periods over a long space of
time there is a greater chance of surviving.

(5) Do scallops throw all their spawn in one day?

Numbered scallops were placed in separate aquaria for periods of
two hours for several days, a record being kept of the spawning of
each individual. After each test the animals were suspended in wire
baskets from a raft at a depth of 10 feet in water, which was consider-
ably cooler than the sun-warmed water in the aquaria, probably pre-
venting further shooting of spawn. Although only 25 per cent, threw
spawn we can infer that scallops shoot their sex products little by little,
as the same individuals were found to give forth spawn after an interval
of several days. This fact indicates that the spawning season for one
scallop probably extends over a period of days and even weeks. Rec-
ords with color charts, upon scallops of another set, likewise show
that spawning is gradual.

(4) Do scallops spawn at any particular time of day?

Scallops have been observed to spawn as early as 8.15 A.M. (July 13,
1907) and as late as 4.30 P.M. (July 12, 1909), and at various times
between these hours. Although sunlight is more favorable, the scallop
will spawn on cloudy days and probably at night, as the time of spawn-
ing is largely determined by the temperature.

22 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(5) What temperature is most favorable for spawning?

In confinement scallops have been observed to throw spawn at all
temperatures from 68° to 84° P., although above 76° F. was most
favorable. Great variation is found, as every scallop is a distinct
individual and the eggs vary in degree of maturity. One scallop gave
off its sex elements at a temperature of 68° F. in fifteen minutes after
being placed in the aquarium, while at 78° F. one spawned in three
minutes and others took hours. Under natural conditions the spa\vning
season begins when the water reaches 61% °F. As a rule high tempera-
tures are most conducive for spawning.

(6) At what age does a scallop first spawn?

The extreme rapidity of growth makes it possible for the scallop to
spawn when exactly one year old. With the clam, spawning occasionally
occurs at the age of one year, with the quahaug only in very exceptional
cases, but with the scallop the most important reproductive period, and
the only one of practical value, comes at this early age. This fact is
explained by the short life of the scallop, from twenty to twenty-six
months, as compared with the many years of the clam and quahaug.

(7) Is there a second spawning season?

For the majority of scallops there is only one spawning season. Na-
ture has so regulated that less than 25 per cent, attain a length of life
of two years. In the few scallops which pass the two-year mark, eggs
and spermatozoa apparently develop normally, and if the animal lives
through the season it produces offspring for the second time in its life.
These two-year-old scallops are larger, and the ovaries and testes are of
correspondingly greater size. Two-year-old scallops are occasionally
found in small beds, but large numbers are by no means of common
occurrence. In the protected waters of the Powder Hole two-year-old
specimens were frequently found. During the summer of 1909 a com-
paratively large number of the set of 1907 were found. This set was
peculiar for its slow growth and small size, the two-year-old animals
being about the size of normal one-year-old scallops. The spawning
of this set was perfectly normal during the second season, and the sex
products could in no way be distinguished from those of yearlings.
Although it is possible for scallops to spawn a second time, provided
they pass the two-year limit, their economic importance is slight, owing
to the small per cent, which survive so long. The first spawning season
must, therefore, be considered the only practical one in legislation for
the welfare of the scallop fishery.

This fact proves that all scallops under one year old must be pro-
tected, as these furnish practically all the spawn for the following
year. Only scallops under this age need protection. If the scallop
under this age is amply protected, the law has done all in its power to
insure the future of this profitable industry. It does no harm to capture
scallops over one year old; in fact, it would result in economic loss if

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 23

they were not taken, as nearly all die from natural causes before a
second season.

The Spawning Season. — In Massachusetts waters, owing to the
diversity of conditions as regards locality, environment and seasonal
changes, it is difficult to define the spawning season exactly and only
general limits can be given when the entire territory is considered. As
a rule, temperature seems to be the controlling factor, as is demon-
strated by the variation of the season according to locality and years.
The entire period roughly covers two months, averaging from the middle
of June to the middle of August (Fig. 83). The height of the spawning
occurs during the first weeks in July, and although the season drags on
for a month longer, the greater part of the mature eggs have been liber-
ated. Different localities, with the same general limits, often vary in
having the height of the spawning at different times. While the spawn-
ing of the scallop as a class extends for two months, the duration of the
season for the individual runs anywhere from one day to several weeks.

(a) Spawning Season at Monomoy Point. — During the summers of
1906 and 1907 the spawning season of the scallop was followed in the
waters of the Powder Hole at Monomoy Point, and supplementary
observations were made during 3908 and 1909. During the first two
years conditions in this locality were practically the same, thus eliminat-
ing nearly all variation factors except seasonal change. It is, there-
fore, fair to assume that the following variations are mostly due to
the difference in the temperature of the two years.

In comparing the two years 1906 and 1907 the following points will
be considered: (1) date of first spawning; (2) length of time spawn
could be obtained for successful artificial fertilization; (3) date of
appearance of the set on raft spat collectors.

(1) Careful observations were made in regard to the beginning of
the spawning season, and the start was accurately determined for this
locality. In 1906 scallops first extruded eggs and spermatozoa on
June 12, and in 1907 on June 21, a variation of nine days. The average
temperature of the water on June 12, 1906, was 61.5° F., on June 21,
1907, 61.5° F. June 4, 1906, was equivalent to June 18, 1907, in
regard to the temperature, which reached 60° for the first time on these
dates, showing that the seasonal variation in temperature was about
two weeks. In both cases there had been a previous rise in temperature.
By June 20 this difference had vanished and the daily temperatures for
the two years were approximately the same (Fig. 81).

(2) For successful artificial fertilization spawn could be obtained
for both years as late as July 20. Mature eggs and active spermatozoa
were found in the reproductive organs later, but the scallops did not
give forth spawn readily after this date. The records made with the
color chart show that the spawning season is not complete before the
middle of August.

24 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(3) Very little variation was found in the sets of 1906 and 1907
on the raft spat collectors, but the 1908 and 1909 sets were slightly
earlier, though fewer in number. The temperature of the water at the
time of set was about 70° F. In 1906 the set began July 26 and reached
its height August 4; in 1907, July 24 and August 2; in 1908, July 18
and July 26; in 1909, July 22 and July 29, respectively.

In the above cases, more especially the first, temperature seems to be
the controlling factor. The warmth of the water determines an early
or late spawning season, as is shown by the difference in the start of the
seasons of 1906 and 1907, the latter being nine days behind the former.
In each case spawning did not start until the water had assumed a tem-
perature of 61.5° and had been over 60° for a few days. Spawning
does not take place until the temperature of the water is sufficiently high
to enable the young larvaB to live. Thus, in comparing the two years
we find that the variation in the spawning compares in every detail
with the variations in temperature, and, when other factors are elimi-
nated, depends directly upon it. The average summer temperature
controls the length and completeness of the spawning season, as is
directly manifested by the time and amount of set.

(b) Conditions influencing the Spawning Season. — In any given
area the spawning depends on the latitude and on the climate, tempera-
ture again being an important factor. In Rhode Island, in the warmer
waters of Narragansett Bay, the season lasts from June 1 to July 1,
reaching its height about June 15, Risser (2), as compared with
June 15 to August 15 in Massachusetts waters. Naturally the farther
south the earlier the season, as the warmer waters hasten the spawning.

While the temperature is the main factor in determining the spawn-
ing, it is by no means the only one. The natural conditions of any local-
ity, such as its suitability for growth, for food, depth of water, kind of
bottom, enemies, exposure, and other factors which make up the environ-
ment of the scallop, play their part in determining the spawning
season. Scallops in shallow water spawn slightly earlier than those in
the deep, probably due to difference in temperature, while those under
favorable growing conditions probably spawn in advance of scallops
less favorably situated.

(c) Length of Season in Massachusetts Waters. — The different local-
ities present considerable variation not only within their borders but
with each other. The four sections of the scalloping territory given in
chapter VI. are useful for a comparison of the spawning season, owing
to their divergent conditions. The work of determining the spawning
season, as described in chapter VII., was conducted during 1905 and
1906 by (a) general observations of the ovary; (6) color chart records;
(c) appearance of set.

(1) On the north side of Cape Cod conditions are not favorable for
scallops and there is but a small industry. In Cape Cod Bay the water

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 25

is colder than south of the Cape, and the spawning would naturally be
somewhat later. In the harbors, such as Wellfleet Bay, the reverse is
true, as the broad exposure of flats, heated by the sun, gives a greater
warmth to the water. In these cases many scallops are left in little
tide pools, where they bask in the sun and shoot spawn in these small
natural aquaria. The eggs have thus a chance to develop in quietude
until the incoming of the tide, when the little embryos join company
with the young from the other pools and begin the keen competition of
life. The spawning season lasts from June 25 to August 15.

(2) On the south side of Cape Cod is found a great variety of terri-
tory and conditions, which nearly approximate those of Monomoy
Point. The limits of the season in this locality are from June 15 to
August 15.

(3) The conditions at Nantucket and Edgartown closely approximate
those on the south side of Cape Cod, and except for local variations the
spawning season is the same.

(4) In the warmer waters of Buzzard's Bay spawning is somewhat
earlier, the set usually being about two weeks in advance of Monomoy.
The limits of the season scarcely differ from the south side of Cape Cod
and the Islands, but the main part of the spawning takes place earlier.
The season lasts from June 1 to August 1. The Buzzard's Bay scallop
is larger in size than the scallop in the other localities, owing to earlier
spawning and rapid growth.

Fecundation. — Fecundation is the union of the female cell (egg)
with the male cell (spermatozoon), which results in the formation of a
new individual that partakes of the nature of both parents. Since the
eggs of the scallop are fertilized externally, in the water, it is com-
paratively easy to watch the act of fertilization and the subsequent
development of the embryos. In the water a transparent substance
envelops the egg, which holds the spermatozoa a short distance from
the cell proper (Fig. 6). The only reason for believing that such a
substance is present is the fact that preserved eggs still retain the
circle of spermatozoa. The attraction of the male cell to the egg is
believed by scientists to be of chemical origin. Although the egg is
thickly surrounded with spermatozoa, only one is needed for fertiliza-
tion, and after its entrance the rest are held outside by the formation
of a membrane through which they cannot penetrate. Occasionally
more than one spermatozoon enters the egg, but in this case the egg
possibly fails to attain complete development.

(a) Natural Fecundation. — Judging from the enormous number of
eggs and spermatozoa annually liberated by a single adult scallop,
nature seems prodigal with her bounties; but on second thought it
appears that an equilibrium has been established and that an abundance
of spawn is needed to compensate for the destructive agencies which
beset the scallop. It seems strange, perhaps, that the spermatozoa

26 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

should outnumber the eggs 1,600 to 1, as it only requires one sperma-
tozoon to fertilize one egg. But as the small male cell has the active
part of finding the egg, this again is a wise provision of nature, whereby
this proportion vastly increases the chances of natural fecundation.

If only 1 scallop arrives at maturity from 3,000,000 eggs, it is suffi-
cient, under normal conditions, to perpetuate the species. Naturally
there is a vast destruction of eggs and young scallops, an important
part of which is due to the loss of eggs through non-fecundation, i.e.,
the eggs and spermatozoa not meeting in the water. There are a great
many chances in nature against fertilization of the egg. Scallops may
be some distance apart and the spermatozoa must travel far before
they can meet the egg. Water Currents, winds and other weather con-
ditions may prevent this union. Fertilization is partly by chance, as
the male cell can only be attracted to the egg from a short distance.
Thus, if it were not for the abundant supply of sex products the race
of scallops would soon be exterminated.

In artificial fertilization a large number of the eggs are not fertilized,
and, failing to develop, soon decompose and pollute the water, thus
causing the death of the more advanced larvae. This shows that per-
haps all the eggs given forth at one time from the scallop are not
ready for fertilization and cannot develop, and it may be supposed
that, under natural conditions, an indeterminable per cent, of the ex-
truded eggs are incapable of development.

(b) Self-fecundation. — Pecten irradians is hermaphroditic, i.e., both
sex elements are found in the same individual. Pelseneer (9) asserts
that : " In hermaphrodite mollusks the spermatozoa ripen before the ova ;
the hermaphroditism is therefore protandric. The hermaphroditism
also is not self-sufficient, and the ova of one individual must normally
be fertilized by the spermatozoa of another individual." Pecten ir-
radians is an exception to this in that both the eggs and spermatozoa
mature at the same time, and that self-fertilization frequently occurs
although it is not the common method of reproduction.

In nature it is not usual for scallops to produce both male and female
cells at the identical moment, and self-fertilization is therefore not
as common an occurrence as when scallops are confined in aquaria.
Scallops often shoot eggs and spermatozoa within as short an interval
as 15 to 30 minutes apart. In numerous cases self-fertilization has
been observed during the spawning experiments. The spermatozoa
and eggs of the same scallop have been artificially mixed, and the early
embryological stages followed. Whether these self -fertilized eggs
would develop into mature scallops was not determined, as the devel-
opment was only followed as far as the trochosphere larva, up to
which period it was normal. Drew (1) and Risser (2) also have made
observations on the self -fertilizing powers of the individual Pecten irra-
dians.

Fertilization of the Eggs of Two-year-old Scallops. — In spite of

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 27

the fact that the second spawning of the scallop occurs during1 its old
age, and that the majority of this species do not reach a second season,
the eggs of two-year-old scallops may be fertilized and pass through the
normal cleavage stages. Although there were some indications that
the subsequent development under artificial conditions is not as satis-
factory as that of the younger scallops, there is no proof that their
development under natural conditions is anything but normal, or that
they cannot produce hardy offspring. Naturally, as the two-year-old
scallops are few in number their offspring are not numerous. Under
artificial conditions as compared with the younger scallops they do
not seem to produce spawn so readily and fewer larvae in proportion
are raised to the early swimming stage. These observations cannot
be considered as conclusive, as the special Powder Hole set of 1907,
already referred to, during 1909 furnished as healthy spawn as the
1908 set.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.

The early life of Pecten irradians can be separated arbitrarily into
two main divisions, (1) the embryonic or sub-veliger life, which com-
prises the development of the animal until it acquires a shell; and (2)
the post-embryonic life of the young scallop before it attains adult
characteristics.

The post-embryonic life is further subdivided into the (a) early
veliger stage, when the animal is a free swimming larva with a straight
hinge line (Fig. 17); (b) late veliger or prodissocouch stage, distin-
guished by the curved hinge and development of gills and foot
(Fig. 18) ; (c) the dissoconch stage, where notable changes occur as a
result of the "setting," that is, adjustment by spun byssus threads;
(d) plicated stage, where the ridges and the furrows characteristic of
the adult shell appear.

The embryonic development of Pecten irradians is in many respects
so similar to that of its large relative, Pecten tenuicostatus Mighels, the
giant scallop, so ably described by Dr. Oilman A. Drew (1) that it is
difficult to present a complete account without a repetition of many
interesting facts. For this reason special emphasis has been placed on
the points of difference between the two species, and only general con-
sideration given those of common interest. In reporting upon this
phase of the life history of Pecten irradians, it is perhaps worthy of
mention that the results here embodied, imperfect as they are, have
been obtained from hundreds of scallops under different conditions and
from four years of successive observations.

The Development of the Egg.

The development of the egg after fertilization is by the usual process
of cell division, whereby the single ovum is transformed into a living
mass of tiny cells. Like most lamellibranchs, in which fertilization

28 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

takes place externally to the parent, the scallop develops by the normal
process of unequal cell division, and its subsequent growth as far as
the prodissoconch stage is similar in nearly every respect to the devel-
opment of the clam, oyster and quahaug.

The Polar Cells (Figs. 4, 5). — The first noticeable change in the
external appearance of the egg occurs about thirty-three minutes after
it is laid. At one part of the egg, which from this time forth becomes
the so-called animal pole or region of the greatest activity, appears a
small translucent globule, Mo the diameter of the egg. This is known
as the first polar cell, and is soon followed by a second body of similar
nature, which pushes out behind the first in such a manner as to
separate it from the egg. Both adhere to the egg by protoplasmic
strands, such as described by Drew (1). With Venus mercenaria (the
quahaug or hard-shell clam) the polar cells form beneath a thin mem-
brane, and are held to the egg by strands from this source. Such a
covering is not well marked in the scallop egg, which appears naked,
and the protoplasmic strands may possibly have a different origin.
The polar cells contain no yolk granules, as is shown by their trans-
parent appearance. They remain with the egg through all the varied
stages of cell division, and can be seen still adhering to the first ciliated
larvae, evidently disappearing during the early swimming stage.

The Yolk Lobe. — About ten minutes after the first polar cell is
formed, the opposite side of the egg, now known as the vegetative pole,
elongates, giving to the egg a pear-shaped appearance. The constric-
tion at the small end is the so-called yolk lobe (Fig. 5) which forms a
few minutes previous to cleavage. Pecten irradians differs somewhat
from Pecten tenuicostatus in regard to the time of formation of the
yolk lobe. In the case of the latter species, Drew (1) has shown that
the yolk lobe appears previous to the polar bodies, and that it becomes
prominent when the second polar body is formed, only to disap-
pear and again to become prominent when the egg cleaves into
two cells. The yolk lobe in the former was not seen until after the
formation of the polar cells, and not until just before the first cleavage
did it become markedly prominent. It forms in about three minutes,
and is completed one minute before the first cleavage takes place.

The First Cleavage. — Soon after the formation of the yolk lobe and
the differentiation of the egg into the animal and vegetative poles a
constriction takes place parallel to the longitudinal axis of the egg,
dividing the broad end into two unequal cells, the smaller one-half the
size of the larger, with the polar bodies between them (Fig. 7). The
actual time consumed from the beginning to the completion of the first
cleavage varies from two to twelve minutes, but usually it takes about
three minutes to effect the change. This first division occurs forty-six
minutes after the egg is fertilized.

The action of the yolk lobe during this division is somewhat peculiar.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 29

Previous to the first cleavage the egg has taken on a pear-shaped appear-
ance, due to the formation of the yolk lobe. During cleavage this lobe
in many of the eggs became so constricted that the dividing egg had a
three-celled appearance. Then it gradually disappeared, in one case in
the course of seven minutes, leaving only a large and small cell. The
form of the different eggs during cleavage varies greatly, some dividing
with scarcely the appearance of a yolk lobe, others with prominent con-
strictions.

The next cleavage (Fig. 8) divides the egg into four cells in a vertical
direction, and passes through the animal pole nearly at right angles to
the first cleavage plane, and a little to one side of the center. This
division forms three small cells and one large, the latter holding the
nutritive or yolk part of the egg, originally contained in the region of
the yolk lobe. The second cleavage occurs from fifty-five to eighty-one
minutes after fertilization, the average time being sixty-seven minutes.

The third division (Fig. 9) is in a horizontal plane, dividing the four
cells into eight. The four upper cells, which lie next to the polar bodies,
are much smaller than the lower ones, and from this time forth are
designated as the micromeres, while the large lower cells are known as
the macromeres. During the process of cleavage the upper layer of cells
twists 45°, so that they alternate with the lower cells, furnishing an
excellent illustration of the spiral cleavage so common in nature. The
time of arrival at the eight-celled stage varies from fifty-eight to one
hundred and ten minutes after fertilization, the average being about
eighty-one.

From this time on the micromeres divide rapidly into smaller and
smaller cells, during which the egg passes successively through sixteen,
thirty-two, sixty-four, etc., celled stages, finally forming a layer around
the macromeres. The average time of the sixteen-celled stage (Fig. 10)
is about one hundred minutes after fertilization. Cell division continues
until the single primitive ovum has become a compact mass of small cells
surrounding four large cells, the macromeres, resulting in a type of the
epibolic gastrula, which later becomes a true imagination by the further
division of the macromeres. From a surface view the animal is merely
a rounded mass of cells, still bearing the two small polar bodies (Fig.
11.) Soon the inner layer of cells forms an infolded cavity, the arch-
enteron or primitive digestive tract, which opens to the exterior. The
micromeres now make up the ectodermal, the macromeres the endo-
dermal layer.

By this time the surface cells have developed cilia, and the animal
acquires the power of locomotion (Figs. 12 and 13). It is important
that the scallop become active at this period of its existence, as other-
wise it would perish. In the laboratory the majority of the eggs settle
to the bottom of the glass dishes until this stage is reached. Doubtless
in nature the egg, unless held in floating masses or kept in suspension

30 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

by the currents, falls to the bottom, where it remains until it acquires
cilia. The majority probably perish before they reach the swimming
stage, either through not being fertilized or because of settling on un-
favorable bottom.

The swimming period is reached from nine to twelve hours after
fertilization, ten hours being the usual time. Little change has taken
place in the size of the animal, and the entire scallop is hardly larger
than the original egg. Development is rapid during the swimming
period, not so much in size as in change of form from the early swim-
ming gastrula to the trochosphere larva. There are three phases of
development in changing from the early gastrula to the advanced
trochosphere. (1) The animal is a mere rounded mass of cells covered
with cilia. (2) The body has elongated, the blastopore or primitive
mouth becomes more noticeable, and the cilia instead of being general
are confined to a special portion of the body, which later proves to be
anterior end (Fig. 14). In the course of two hours after phase 1, the
cilia on the frontal cell at the anterior end of the body elongate until
they attain seven-ninths the length of the body (ordinary cilia measure
one-fifth the length of the body), and unite to form a bundle called the
flagellum, which guides the swimming embryo. Ordinarily it has the
appearance of a single last or whip, so closely are its parts united, but
as many as six individual cilia have been counted in this bundle. The
anterior end of the animal has in the mean time become larger and
heavier, while the posterior half has elongated, giving the scallop a top-
shaped appearance. (3) The third phase is marked by another invag-
ination on the dorsal side of the animal, directly opposite the blastopore.
This is the primitive shell gland which secretes the shell. Pelseneer (9)
in considering lamellibranchiate mollusks as a class says of the shell
gland : " During its extension it gives rise to a saddle-shaped cuticular
pellicle, which becomes calcified at two symmetrical points, right and left
of the middle line. These two centers of calcification eventually form
the two valves of the shell. . ."

The transition from the early swimming gastrula to the advanced
troehosphere is well illustrated by the development of the swimming
powers of the young scallop. As soon as the embryo has acquired cilia
it starts with a rolling motion, at first slowly, but later faster as it
increases in strength, turning over and over on the bottom of the dish.
This simple method of changing position is by a rotation on the longi-
tudinal axis which might be compared to the movement of a top before
it totters over. The embryo rotates in one place or hutches along in
random directions. The rate of this action varies greatly, anywhere
from five to twenty turns being counted in ten seconds. The cilia soon
perform the functions of swimming organs, and the little animals rise
through the water towards the surface, where they can get a better
supply of oxygen. The first swimming movement is a compound motion

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 31

consisting of simple rotations plus revolutions. The prevailing revo-
lution is clockwise, but the motion is intermittent and the direction can
be changed at will. With the development of the flagelluin, a definite
direction of motion arises. The animal nearly always swims with the
flagellum anterior, although one case has been observed where the animal
swam in a reverse direction for a short distance. Possibly the flagellum
serves to increase the speed, which becomes so rapid that it is difficult
to follow the animal with a microscope of 41 magnification. The motion
is now effected in a straight line by spiral revolutions along the longi-
tudinal axis of the animal. This final motion is probably the culmina-
tion of the previous aimless rotations.

The Shell Gland. — The formation of the shell gland, which occurs
twelve to fourteen hours after fertilization, marks a decided change in
the character of the young scallop (Fig. 15). In the course of a few
hours a thin transparent shell grows slowly over the animal, until it
completely envelops the soft parts. At first the shell is so small that it
scarcely covers the whole of the animal, which can be seen swimming
through the water partly covered by the two thin valves. This shell is
formed by the secretion from the shell gland, which becomes calcified
at two points, forming the two valves. The hinge line at this early
stage is flat and straight. At the same time, with the spreading of the
shell, various changes of more or less importance, both in the anatomy
and in the habits of the young scallop, have taken place, giving rise to a
period in its development known as the veliger stage, perhaps the most
critical and important period of its existence.

The Veliger Stage.

When reared in the laboratory the embryos reached the full veliger
(shell) stage between seventeen and forty hours after fertilization,
according to the temperature. Presumably the same time is true in
nature, although the rapidity of development varies with the external
conditions. The length of the veliger stage is likewise dependent on
temperature and environment, the usual duration being about five to six
days. During this period numerous changes of more or less importance
take place, and the late veliger is an essentially different animal from
the early form. It will be necessary, therefore, in describing the veliger
stage, with all its involved changes, to arbitrarily divide it into two
phases, the early (Figs. 16 and 17) and the late veliger (Fig. 18) ; and
in describing the anatomical changes it will be more satisfactory, after
a brief survey of the essential features of each phase, to trace the
development of the individual organs separately.

The chief characteristics of the early veliger (Figs. 16 and 17) are:
(1) an equivalvular shell slightly inequilateral, without definite struc-
ture, with a straight hinge line, no umbones being present; (2) a velum
or ciliated swimming organ; (3) a primitive mouth lined with cilia,

32 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

leading into a cavity in the center of the body, the stomach, and an
abbreviated intestine with a posterior anal opening; (4) an inconspicu-
ous mantle; (5) anterior adductor muscle alone present; (6) size .093
millimeter. The increase in size from the trochosphere stage is due to
the formation (Fig. 16) of a cavity between the body and the shell.

The late veliger is characterized by: (1) a shell of the same structure,
marked by prominent umbones directed posteriorly; (2) a well-devel-
oped foot which has succeeded a degenerated velum as the swimming
organ; (3) a more complex digestive tract, with palps, and a coiled
intestine; (4) a conspicuous mantle; (5) a posterior adductor muscle,
and the appearance of several gill bars; (6) size, .18 millimeter.

In studying the life history of nearly every large lamellibranch which
begins its life external to the parent, there is a gap between the ana-
tomical changes of the early and late veliger periods, as it is a difficult
stage to procure specimens for study. It is only possible in this history
of the scallop to give the changes in. the different organs by comparing
the early and late veligers, as we have not been able to identify with
certainty the intermediate forms on account of the large number of
species which so closely resemble each other, as they are collected in
the plankton net at the surface.

The Shell. — The veliger shell of the Pelecypoda or lamellibranchiate
mollusks has been aptly given the name prodissoconch by Jackson (4)
to distinguish it from the succeeding shell, the dissoconch. With the
scallop, I have taken the liberty to apply this term, which properly
includes all of the veliger stage, to merely the late veliger, at which time
it has acquired a form markedly characteristic of the scallop. Here-
after, when speaking of the prodissoconch shell, it refers only to the
form of shell typical of the late veliger, as it remains differentiated
from the succeeding dissoconch stage. In the early veliger, the shell
consists of two valves of homogeneous structure joined dorsally by a
ligament in a slightly concave hinge-line.

The change from the flat hinge veliger (Fig. 17) to the completed
prodissoconch (Fig. 18), which marks the end of the veliger stage, is
quite pronounced. The straight hinge line has given way to one of
slight curvature, while the valves by their growth have formed promi-
nent umbones, hiding the hinge line from lateral view. The umbones
point posteriorly, but are less prominent than in the case of the oyster.
The left valve is more convex than the right, and the right umbo is less
prominent than the left (Fig. 19). In the completed prodissoconch and
probably in the early veliger ten pairs of teeth can be seen along the
hinge line, five on each side of a central slit (Fig. 22). The question of
teeth has always been of interest in the classification of lamellibranchs.
These are later either obscured or absorbed by the growth of the shell.
The teeth of one valve* fit into the depressions of the other, adding
strength to the hinge. The shell remains homogeneous, except for fine
lines of growth parallel to the free edge. Its calcareous composition is

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 33

shown by effervescence when tested with acid. The scallop differs from
Anomia glabra at this stage by having no byssal notch in the shell.

The Velum. — The veliger derives its name from the larval swimming
organ or velum peculiar to this period of its life. This organ, situated
in the anterior part of the shell, consists of an elliptical pad, .046 milli-
meter in length, with a border of short vibrating cilia, and supporting
in its center a long flagellum. It is capable of extension and contraction,
whereby it can be thrust out of the shell or drawn in quickly by means
of retractor fibers, which are fastened to the shell near the posterior
part of the hinge, so as to give a direct backward pull. Two fibers
go to the ends of the velum, the third to the center. When contracted,
the velum folds in to the form of a bell, the round ciliated edges curving
toward the central part, which bears the flagellum. When expanded,
the velum opens like the unfolding of a flower, the ciliated edges curling
outward. When the velum is extended outside the shell, as the animal
swims, the whole mass shifts ventrally, leaving a clear space between
the hinge and the body. The flagellum serves during this period as a
sensitory organ or feeler. The velum is of great use in swimming,
and can rapidly propel the young scallop through the water by the
lashing of its cilia in a manner similar to the action of oars in a
boat.

The development of the velum can be traced from the ciliated region
of the early gastrula, and the organ is a direct modification of the
anterior ciliated area of the trochosphere larva. The frontal cilia,
with the long central flagellum, have become more centralized and
stronger, while the ciliated arc has formed a muscular pad capable of
extension and contraction. The flagellum and cilia of the veliger stage
are identical with those of the trochosphere, the only change being a
modification of the supporting area.

While the transition from the veliger to the footed larva has never
been completely observed in the scallop, it is doubtless identical with
that of the clam, which is here described. This change takes place by
the atrophy or degeneration of the velum and the simultaneous develop-
ment of the foot. Several stages can be observed during this transition
period: (1) the primitive veliger, with no foot or at best a rudimentary
projection posterior to the mouth; (2) a reduced velum and a half-
formed foot; (3) a small velum and a nearly complete foot; (4) no
velum and a perfectly developed foot. During this period the mouth
has advanced anteriorly and dorsally, following the disappearing velum,
which vanishes in the region of the palps.

Habits Swimming in the earlier veliger stage is wholly by the

velum, while later this organ is assisted by the foot. The very young
veliger is less active than the older larva, and is usually found at
the bottom of the dish with valves widely open and velum partly pro-
truded. In this case, the movement merely consisted of turning in a
circle, as the velum was not thrust out far enough to enable the animal

34 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

to swim rapidly in a straight course. Only when the velum can be
completely extended does the larva attain full swimming powers.

When the velum is fully developed the animals become rapid swim-
mers, and can be found in great numbers through the water, more
especially near the surface, where they can be taken in a net of silk
bolting cloth. When placed in a glass aquarium, if left undisturbed,
they can be seen by the naked eye as white specks as they swim through
the water. If the dish is subject to any sudden jar, such as a sharp
tap with a pencil, the young scallop quickly pulls in the velum and
settles to the bottom with closed shell. After a brief interval the ani-
mal extends the velum with a hesitating jerky movement, until it is
fully expanded, and then resumes swimming. The usual direction is
with the velum ahead, the cilia on the edges lashing with a rowing
motion which propels the animal in the same manner as a boat is
propelled by a man seated in the bow. There is also a turning motion,
which whirls the larva anterio-posteriorly in either a clockwise or anti-
clockwise direction.

The Foot. — As the animal passes into the late veliger stage the
swimming powers of the velum degenerate, while the foot with its
ciliated tip becomes the only organ of locomotion. The footed larvaa
swim by a kicking movement of the foot. It is natural to suppose that
there is a transitory stage where both the velum and the foot are used.
The foot, the most useful organ of the young scallop, makes its appear-
ance in the prodissoconch stage, and for a long time serves as means
of locomotion for the animal. It is a long, flexible organ, made up of
both longitudinal and circular muscles, and entirely covered with fine
cilia. On its tip or distal end are long cilia, comparable to the little
tuft or cluster posterior to the mouth in the early veliger. The long
cilia are at first useful in swimming, but as the animal becomes larger
they become relatively less important. The tip of the foot is slightly
cleft, as is shown for an older scallop (Fig. 27). On both sides of the
foot in a median position are two vestibules, with several small granules
rotating inside. These are the otocysts or organs of equilibrium. On
the dorsal side of the foot, one-third the distance from the proximal
end, is a prominence with a cleft opening, the byssal gland, the function
of which has not culminated at this stage. The foot is capable of great
extension by the contraction of the circular muscles, and is drawn in
by the contraction of the longitudinal to lie in its normal curved posi-
tion within the shell (Fig. 18).

The Adductor Muscles. — The primitive veliger has but a single ad-
ductor muscle, the anterior. In the dissoconch stage, the posterior
adductor is the only one present, the anterior having disappeared. As
is stated by both Jackson (4) and Drew (1), there must be an inter-
mediate stage where both are present. I have obtained no actual proof
of this, but in all probability a dimyarian stage, i.e., having two mus-
cles, must have been reached in the course of development.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

35

The Gills. — The early veliger has no gills. They first begin to
develop eoincidently with the formation of the foot as simple bars or
ciliated filaments, capable of extension and contraction from the dorsal
point of attachment. Starting from beneath the stomach they lie in
folds along the upper part of the foot. When first seen, at the begin-
ning of the degeneration of the velum, they scarcely consist of two
folds, but before the velum has disappeared they number from four to
five. The edges of the folds are lined, with active cilia which keep up
an incessant motion. These primitive bars, as seen in the prodissoconch
(Fig. 18), are the paired beginnings of the inner gills. The outer gills
develop at a later stage.

The Mantle. — At the time of the formation of the gills the mantle
becomes noticeable as a thin, transparent covering just under the shell,
although it has been functional before this period. By the time the
dissoconch stage. is reached, the free edge has thickened into fine folds
and is lined with small cilia.

The Digestive Tract. — The digestive apparatus of the early veliger
consists of a funnel-shaped mouth lined with active cilia, leading into a
broad sac, the stomach, also lined with minute cilia, from which arises
a two-lobed liver. The intestine is merely a straight tube opening pos-
teriorly. With the prodissoconch veliger the digestive tract is obscured
by the growth of the liver, which has assumed a greenish yellow color
so that the coils of the intestine are difficult to distinguish. The mouth
has travelled forward in a dorsal direction, the edges apparently having
formed the palps, while the ciliated funnel has become the esophagus.
The intestine now has one or more coils, and, in order to carry on the
more complicated process of digestion, opens dorsal to the adductor
muscle.

Summary of Veliger Stage.

Early Veliger.

Prodissoconch Veliger.

Shell
Velum

Straight hinge, .*"' .
Present, . ...
Absent .

Prominent umbones.
Degenerate.

Gill-bars

Mantle,

Invisible

Visible

Mouth,

Palps,

Absent

Liver

Small

Larere

Intestine,

Straight
Anterior ...

Coiled.
Posterior

Size, .

36 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

The Dissoconch Stage.

The young scallop now enters upon the third stage of its development,
the period of byssal attachment, which is comparable to youth in man.
From structural differences of shell, which sharply distinguish it from
the prodissoconch, it has been called by Professor Jackson (4) the dis-
soconch stage. The anatomical changes are so complicated that for the
purpose of description several arbitrary subdivisions, illustrating suc-
cessive periods of development, have been made. A table of these
phases is appended in chapter VII. In the general description of the
dissoconch period, especially in the section on anatomical development,
reference is made to these subdivisions.

The chief characteristics of the dissoconch stage are the habits of
byssal fixation and crawling. In a preliminary report the writer was
led to include an intermediate stage between the free swimming veliger
and the attached scallop, that of a free crawling existence. Later in-
vestigation has shown that the last two stages practically coincide, and
that no line of distinction can be drawn. Evidently the power of
crawling is supplementary to byssal fixation, and is of great service
to the animal when it wishes to change its location or is torn away
from its point of attachment. That young scallops have the power, of
byssal fixation immediately following the prodissoconch or at the very
beginning of the dissoconch stage is shown by those attached to the
raft spat boxes, described in chapter VII. In many of these scallops
the dissoconch growth, scarcely one day old, had just started, yet they
at once attached themselves, by a fine byssal thread, to the sides and
bottom of glass dishes.

The subsequent changes in anatomy and shell formation can be
more readily attributed to a complete change in habits, such as the
assuming of a stationary life after a free-swimming existence, than
the transition from swimming to the intermediate crawling stage, such
as has been suggested by other investigators. Knowledge of the byssal
attachment in the early part of the dissoconch stage shows that there
is an abrupt change of life at this period, and gives a new interpreta-
tion, to the structural differences.

The Set. — The oyster, according to Jackson (4), still possesses a
velum when it " spats," or attaches itself at the end of the prodissoconch
stage, and no foot has developed. " The preliminary fixation," he
states, " is probably effected by means of the reflected mantle border,
as described by Ryder, and is then immediately succeeded by a cement-
ing conchyolin attachment at the extreme edge of the lower left prodis-
soconch valve." The scallop, on the other hand, before it sets has lost
its velum and has developed a muscular foot, which acts as a swimming
organ during the latter part of the prodissoconch stage. The set is
made, not by any fixation of the shell, but by a fine thread, called the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 37

byssus, formed by a gland in the foot (Fig. 30). It is interesting to
note that in each case the attachment, though entirely different, comes
at the end of the prodissoconch period, and that the organs of attach-
ment and locomotion, owing to the absence of the foot in the oyster,
are strikingly dissimilar.

The Shell — The shell of the dissoconch stage (Fig. 19) is sharply
separated from the prodissoconch by a well-defined growth line and by
different shell formation. The prodissoconch has a smooth homogeneous
structure lined with finely concentric lines of growth. The new growth
is of an entirely different character, as the right or lower valve acquires
a prismatic structure (Fig. 41), such as was described in Ostrea and
Pecten by Jackson (4), in which each prism is separated by an inter-
vening space. The structure on the left or upper valve, while not pris-
matic, is readily discernible in appearance from the prodissoconch.
The first indications of coloring in the shell appear during the latter
part of this period as little dashes of yellow or brown. The dissoconch
shell has a smooth, even appearance, with no plications, and separated
by regular concentric growth lines, which are used by the writer to
mark off certain sub-stages. Probably these growth lines, as yet not
eroded by action of water or subsequent growth, denote daily periods,
tides or other intervals in shell formation.

With this stage the hinge becomes for the second time a straight line.
During the first three sub-stages it is narrow, hardly four-sevenths the
width of the animal, but later it increases relatively in width, until
at the beginning of the plicated stage it is nearly the same length. In
the early stages the hinge line is not absolutely straight, but inclines
slightly upward at both ends. The inside of the hinge line is set with
teeth, as described for the prodissoconch veliger (Fig. 22).

The form of the scallop gradually changes during the dissoconch
period, as it grows from .18 to 1.20 millimeters. At first the shell
rounds out anteriorly, while posteriorly it breaks directly down from
the hinge line with a slight curve (Figs. 19, 20). The left or upper
valve elongates anteriorly a slight distance beyond the right, covering
in this region the byssal notch of the lower valve (Fig. 19). At a
slightly later stage (Figs. 25, 26) the shell has formed in this region
a " pseudo ear," which disappears as the animal grows larger, and
again reappears at the size of 1.50 to 2 millimeters to form the true
"ears" on both sides of the shell. Meanwhile, the posterior part of
the shell has increased slightly faster than the anterior, causing the
prodissoconch to assume a position anterior to the center (Fig. 28).
Toward the close of the dissoconch stage the scallop loses its elongated
form and takes on a semicircular appearance (Fig. 31). The various
changes in form from the early veliger to the 2 millimeter scallop are
shown in Fig. 77, which consists of eleven concentric camera outlines
of different sized scallops.

38 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

The dissoconch scallop differs from the adult, in which the two valves
are equal, by having the right or lower valve smaller than the left and
less convex. This is undoubtedly a direct adaptation to its method of
life during this period, the flat lower valve offering ease and assistance
in crawling and attachment. Anomia offers an excellent example of
the flattening of the lower valve in an attached animal, and the rounding
out of the upper. The same is true of Pecten irradians to a slighter
extent, as it is not attached so firmly nor for so long a period as Anomia.

The most interesting feature of the shell formation during this period
is the development of the byssal notch and groove in the anterior part
of the lower valve. The notch is the name applied to the indentation
(Figs. 19-21), while "groove" refers to the hollow formed by the
.growth of the notch (Fig. 25). The notch first makes its appearance
close to the prodissoconch, indicating that it starts at the time the
animal " sets." By the time that phase 5 is reached a tooth-like process
has formed on the notch (Fig. 29). These increase to three in number
at the end of the dissoconch stage, and go as high as five or more in the
plicated period. Similar teeth are found on the byssal notch of scal-
lops less than one year old, as new ones are constantly forming, while
the old are covered by the growth of the shell. Old scallops rarely
have teeth on the byssal notch. If the shell is broken along the byssal
groove in an adult scallop an entire ridge of these teeth can be seen
where they have been covered by the growth of the shell. The use of
these teeth is unknown, except that they are closely associated with the
byssus, as is described in chapter IV. under the habit of byssal fixation.

The name byssal notch is probably derived from the fact that the
byssus comes out of the same indentation in the adult. Perhaps at this
stage a more appropriate name would be foot groove, as that organ,
in crawling or in spinning the byssus, is thrust out of the opening.
There is some difference of opinion as to whether the byssus or the
foot is the cause of the formation of this notch. Jackson (4) says
that it is formed by the folding back of the mantle, resulting in retarded
growth in that locality (Fig. 21). Whether the foot or the byssus
thread was the cause of this retardation cannot be stated definitely,
although probably both are functional. Although the foot appears
before the dissoconch stage it is used as a swimming organ. The byssal
notch appears immediately after the prodissoconch stage, corresponding
with both the byssal attachment and the use of the foot as a crawling
organ. Therefore it can safely be concluded that the byssal notch is
characteristic of this period, and is formed by the combined action of
foot and byssus.

The Internal Anatomy. — With the development of the shell, corre-
sponding changes have taken place in the internal anatomy, rendering
the scallop better adapted to its new mode of life. Adult characteristics
are now manifest, and the animal can be readily recognized as a scallop.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 39

The specific development for each set of organs is given in detail under
the section on " Anatomical Development," and it is only necessary to
give here a brief resume of the more important changes.

As the animal has entered upon an alternately stationary and crawling
existence, the foot has become relatively the most important organ, and
during the early part of the dissoconch stage reaches its maximum
development in size. The ciliated tip and muscular body render it an
active organ of locomotion, while the byssus gland provides the scallop
with a means of attachment. The mantle, at first a simple, curtain-like
fold with ciliated edges, becomes more specialized by the development
on its outer edge of a few tentacles and eyes, which give it greater
sensory functions. The four folds of the inner gills of the prodis-
soconch increase to twenty-two, and the outer gills make their appear-
ance before the dissoconch stage is completed. The digestive organs
increase in size, the liver becoming the most prominent, while the in-
testine elongates so that the anal opening is on the postero-ventral side
of the adductor muscle. The posterior adductor muscle, which through
this period has been capable of great expansion, as is shown in Fig. 23,
so that the shell is often opened to an angle of 90°, has grown larger
in circumference and has taken a more central position. The heart,
consisting of a ventricle and two auricles, with its supplementary cir-
culatory system, now first becomes conspicuous (Fig. 27). Altogether
the internal anatomy of the young scallop has passed through the tran-
sition period from babyhood to the adult, and is now ready to take on
the final characteristics of the mature scallop.

The Plicated Stage.

The plication stage, as the name suggests, marks the beginning of the
radiating ridges or furrows which give to the scallop its beautiful fan-
like appearance. • These plications do not increase in number as the
animal grows older. Figs. 33 and 34 show the beginnings of the plica-
tions in the shell, while Figs. 36 and 37 show a later stage. In the early
plicated stage the form of the scallop is semi-circular, the height and
width being approximately the same, while the hinge line is nearly equal
to the width. The hinge line is now straight, but markings exist in the
shell showing the former downward, slant toward the prodissoconch,
which in the early part of the plication period is asymmetrical, but
later attains a median position, before it is covered by the rounding
umbones of the shell. The true " ears " of the adult make their appear-
ance as indentations on the lower sides of the hinge line, anteriorly and
posteriorly, when the scallop has attained about 2 millimeters in size.
During this stage they are much less pronounced than in the adult, while
the hinge line itself is relatively longer, nearly equaling the width of
the shell.

The byssal notch, which inclines slightly upward toward the prodisso-

40 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

conch, has now become deeper and is lined Avith several teeth along its
inner border. The number varies from one to six or more, the older
teeth being less pointed than the last formed. In Fig. 39 there is a
secondary furrow dorsal to the main groove, and a serrated structure
near the hinge line, consisting of seven sharply pointed teeth, the origin
and use of which are unknown.

The dorsal view of the shell of Pecten at this stage (Fig. 38) shows
the relative size of the umbones and the hinge line. The left valve is
deeper than the right and the umbones point slightly posteriorly. The
line of separation of the prodissoconch and dissoconch growth is sharply
marked, showing how the two valves, which were close together during
the prodissoconch stage, have been spread apart by the new growth of
the valves. This period is just previous to the disappearance of the
prodissoconch, either by the wearing away of the shell or by the growth
of the shell.

The exact duration of the plication stage cannot be given, as the tran-
sition to the adult is gradual. Perhaps the end of this period should
come when the animal has attained general adult characteristics. If such
a definition be taken, the arbitrary size may be assigned as 4 millimeters,
for by that time the visceral mass is well defined, completing the adult
anatomy of the scallop. Unless some standard were taken, it would
be impossible to tell just when the plication stage ceased and adult life
began. Another view would have the plication stage followed by a
period of youth, and consider that the adult life was not reached until
the animal was a year old. This, perhaps, is a better division, although
the characteristics of the youth and the adult are practically the same.

The Internal Anatomy. — Few new organs arise during this stage,
which is mostly concerned in the development of those already formed.
The most prominent feature is the appearance of the visceral mass
with the reproductive organs, which are first noticeable at the size of
3 millimeters. The visceral mass grows down from the ventral surface
of the foot, which becomes relatively smaller with the growth of the
animal.

At the size of 3 millimeters, the mantle has increased by the formation
of a set of guard tentacles, which are situated on the perpendicular flap.
The eyes have increased until they number sixteen or more on each lobe
of the mantle, while the tentacles have correspondingly increased in
size and number. The circulatory and the nervous systems have become
more complicated, to meet the requirements of the growing animal,
which now has acquired the power of swimming by valvular contraction.
The digestive system has expanded, the palps becoming ruffled around
the mouth, and the intestine elongated in the region of the visceral
mass. The adductor muscle has increased greatly in size and can be
seen to consist of two distinct portions. By the completion of the stage,
the animal has attained all the organs and characteristics of the adult
scallop.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 41

Anatomical Development.

In order to insure a unified and connected narrative, it was thought
best, even at the risk of repetition, to trace the development of each
organ or set of organs separately. Wherever opportunity is given the
reader is referred to other portions of the report for supplementary
reading. In tracing the outline of the early life history of the scallop
the shell has been taken as the unit of description, and therefore its
development need not be treated separately, and only the soft or
internal parts of the animal need exemplification. Constant reference
is made to the various stages outlined in the table in chapter VII., and
to the illustrations, so as to present a connected account without unnec-
essary description.

The Mantle. — A description of the structure and functions of the
mantle of the adult scallop is given in chapter II., and it is only neces-
sary to recapitulate certain points which bear directly upon its develop-
ment. The mantle is a thin bilobed membrane closely lining the interior
of the shell and enfolding the body of the animal. The free edges form
thickened flaps, which are brilliantly colored and lined with rows of
sense organs, eyes and tentacles. The functions of the mantle are:
(1) shell secreting, as the growth of the shell is due to the secretions
from the mantle; (2) protective, as it enfolds and guards the body, and
is largely instrumental in swimming and feeding; (3) sensitory, as the
numerous tactile appendages and the circumpallial nerve render it
sensitive to the slightest stimulus.

There is a steady development from the primitive mantle in the young
scallop to the highly specialized organ in the adult. It can be deduced,
from the changes which take place during the embryological and post-
embryological development, that the early ancestor of the scallop did
not have such highly specialized functions, which only developed when
the animal assumed its present dangerous mode of life, where it depends
upon its nervous mechanism to warn it of impending danger.

The primitive mantle of the young scallop is a simple bilobed fold
joined along the hinge line, and is first visible in the prodissoconch or
late veliger stage. In the early veliger, although probably present to
enable the formation of the embryonic shell, it was not noticed. It
evidently attains prominence during the prodissoconch stage as a definite
mantle, common to all lamellibranchs, similar, except for the crenulated
edges, to that of the adult quahaug. At this time it appears entirely
separate from the degenerate velum, whereas in the early veliger it was
indistinguishable. The animal can extend the mantle slightly beyond
the shell, and by means of retractor muscles withdraw it to about two-
thirds its natural size. Even at this early period the mantle serves as a
sensory organ, as the edges are lined with minute cilia and simple
folds are already noticeable on the borders.

42 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

During the dissoconch or attachment stage, the mantle first takes on
characteristics which differentiate it from the early stages of other
forms. The edges become more folded arid knob-like projections grad-
ually form at definite places on the border, some to form tentacles,
others the eyes of the scallop. ( The development of the eyes and tenta-
cles will be considered separately under " Sensory Organs.") The
retractor muscles become stronger, and the mantle is now capable of
greater extension and contraction, withdrawing at points where irritated.
As the animal grows larger the number of retractor muscles of the
mantle increase and are attached in a widening semi-circle far down the
interior of the shell, so that only the outer portion of the mantle hangs
free.

Another important functional change takes place when the so-called
flap of the mantle is formed. This is a thin outgrowth in a perpendicu-
lar direction along the entire edge of the mantle, except just beneath
the " ears " near the siphonal openings. The flap, when first formed
during phase 6, is entirely plain, but soon is ornamented with a row of
small tentacles called by Jackson (4) " guard tentacles." With the
formation of the guard flap the animal has become a specialized scallop,
differing from other lamellibranchs. The valves are now held apart,
when resting, in such a way that the opposite flaps almost close the
intervening space. Water can be taken in and shot out of the shell,
giving the scallop the power of swimming.

Closely allied in function with the guard flap is the formation, during
phase 5, of what is known as the pseudo-siphon, which arises as a
transparent conical projection from the median posterior border of the
mantle. This organ is formed by the concrescence of the mantle edges,
and is not a true siphon, as is found in the clam and quahaug. Func-
tionally this pseudo-siphon acts as an excurrent canal to eject water
from the shell. Although it is not used for the purpose of swimming,
as is the case with the same region in the adult scallop, it assists the
animal at this period of life in crawling, as simultaneously with the
contraction of the foot a stream of water is ejected from the pseudo-
siphon. After each flow of water the siphon is retracted again, to be
extended when the next stream is forthcoming. The pseudo-siphon
disappears before the scallop reaches adult size, and is evidently only
functional during the crawling period.

The mantle, particularly the edge, is beautifully hued with many
colors. The mantle of the scallop at first is a transparent white, which
gradually takes on the colors of the adult mantle. The intensity of the
color varies greatly in the different scallops and is as unexplainable as
the variety of colors in the shell.

The Sense Organs. — The scallop has a well-developed sensory sys-
tem of specialized parts, each of which contributes to the maintenance
of life and to the protection to the animal.

(a) Tentacles. — The tentacles in the adult scallop line the border of

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 43

the mantle. There are two kinds: (1) the large, highly extensible tenta-
cles, lining the outer edge of the mantle, called by the writer " mantle
tentacles " to distinguish them from (2) the inner or " guard tentacles,"
which lie on the edge of the perpendicular mantle flap. The " mantle
tentacles " comprise several rows, apparently without any definite
arrangement in the adult. When extended they have the appearance
of long, slender white bars covered with minute conical projections,
each tipped with a hair. The " guard tentacles " differ from the former
in extensibility and function. They extend nearly the entire edge of the
mantle flap, except in the region of the two siphonal openings below
the " ears," and evidently act as strainers to keep out foreign substances
from the mantle chamber.

The first specialization of the mantle border, the tentacles, appear
when the growing condition of the animal demands sensitory functions.
They appear soon after the scallop passes the size of .5 of *a millimeter,
just previous to phase 5, when they can be seen fairly well developed.
The first tentacles were noted as conical papillary projections .04 of a
millimeter in height, tipped with single cilia (Fig. 44a) on the border
of the ciliated mantle. Soon another rises close to the first, or more
likely there is a division into two with a granular core between (Fig.
44b). The growth continues by repeated subdivisions and the extension
of the core part of the mantle until a colony of these projections is
formed (Fig. 45), covering a single tube of blood spaces, nerves and
tissue, the tentacle proper. The papillary projections radiate from the
stalk in such a manner as to give it the appearance of a pineapple
(Fig. 46). Such projections are noticeable on the tips of the tentacles
during stage 5 (Fig. 29).

The first tentacles to form are in the ventral region of the mantle
(Fig. 27). When the young scallop has nine large tentacles on each
mantle lobe, it has seven eyes, which alternate with tentacles. At this
stage there are nine slight secondary tentacles which arise between the
large ones and in definite relation to the eyes (Fig. 29). As the scallop
grows the tentacles increase rapidly by this method of interpolation, with
the result that there finally is apparently no definite arrangement of
tentacles and eyes. The first nine tentacles may be styled primary, as
they are much larger than the others, which, taken in the order of their
occurrence, are called secondary, tertiary, etc. It is interesting to note
(Fig. 29) that no primary tentacle is near the central region of the
pseudo-siphon, but that there is one on each side. In scallops of l1/^
millimeters these tentacles when extended measure two-thirds the height
of the animal. The " guard tentacles," on account of their function,
are quite different in appearance from the " mantle tentacles," being
less extensible and heavier.

There are several uses for the tentacles of the young scallop, especially
the primary, which are not functional in the adult. In floating, the
small animal opens the shell, extends the tentacles to full length, and,

44 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

turning the body with right valve uppermost (the reverse of the natural
position), maintains itself on the surface of the water. This habit has
been observed in numerous cases in the aquarium in which scallops
were confined. In scallops over 1 millimeter it appears to be accom-
plished by the spreading of the tentacles.

Observers, as Jackson (4), have stated that the animal is assisted by
the tips of the tentacles in crawling, more particularly in climbing,
during which the tentacles cling to the sides of the glass. Whether the
extension and clinging of the tentacles is any great help to the foot in
climbing is a matter of doubt, but they undoubtedly rest on the glass
and are extended during both swimming and crawling.

The chief function of the tentacles is sensory. Often the tentacles
of the adult do not respond to external stimuli, as would naturally be
supposed, and in the case of repeated stimulation often fail to react
at all. In scallops of 2 millimeters the tentacles may be made to contract
separately by mechanically stimulating one at a time. This nervous
reaction is not general, but if the whole animal is suddenly jarred all
the tentacles are withdrawn with surprising swiftness. The tentacles
of scallops of this size render the animal more sensitive than the
smaller scallops, which do not have the full development of the tentacles.
Thus the sensory nature of the tentacles is proven, and the subsequent
inactivity of the large adults must be accounted for in other ways.

(b) The Eyes. — The most prominent feature of the mantle border
is the fringe of brightly pigmented eyes, which are thickly scattered
along the edge. In the adult there is great variation in the number,
size and order of arrangement. These eyes are comparable with those
of higher animals, and evidently have a sensory function.

As stated by Drew (1) the eyes are closely allied to the tentacles, and
are in fact derived from the same source, being nothing more than
modified tentacles. Their situation, origin, time of appearance, arrange-
ment, all indicate that the eyes and tentacles are fundamentally the same.

The eyes make their appearance during phase 5, when the first or
primary set is developed just after the primary tentacles are formed.
The two lower or ventral eyes are formed first, then the eyes near the
hinge line, and the intermediate ones soon after, numbering seven on
each lobe of the mantle. The color of the eyes varies at this age from
a brown to a blue. As can be seen in Fig. 29, the primary eyes and
tentacles are arranged definitely, the eyes being situated on slight pro-
jections on the outer fold of the mantle between the tentacles. The
successive development of the eyes is like the tentacles by the formation
of secondary, tertiary, etc., sets between the primary eyes, at first
alternating with the tentacles, but later apparently without definite
arrangement. Although the visual function of the scallop's eye has
been a matter of much dispute, there is but slight question that the eye
has its use as a sensitory organ.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 45

(c) The Otocyst. — The otocyst, or organ of equilibrium, is situated
in the foot in the young animal. It is first seen in the scallop of the
prodissoconch stage as two vestibules of small size, one on each side
of the foot. Inside the circumference is a clear fluid in which several
small granules are constantly revolving (Fig. 20), evidently due to
ciliary action. These remain prominent in the foot as long as thac
organ is relatively the largest part of the body, but are gradually lost
sight of in the visceral mass of the adult scallop.

The Gills. — The gills form during the transition period from the
early veliger to the prodissoconch stage, when they are observed as
simple primitive folds lined with vibrating cilia. At the beginning of
the dissoconch stage the gill is a bar folded into four simple filamentous
processes, covered on the outer edge of the folds by rapidly stroking
cilia (Figs. 18 and 20). Later stages show that the bar filaments are
added ventro-posteriorly, first appearing as bud-like processes. The
gills then consist of simple bar filaments so arranged with the longer
ones dorsal that the whole gill has a semi leaf-like appearance. At the
end of the dissoconch period these filaments number between 20 and 25,
while the more mature dorsal bars became enlarged at the free end,
due to their turning back upon themselves. At this time there are two
gills, one on each side of the body, which are the inner gills of the adult.
This later growth marks the beginning of the inner lamella although the
filaments are still separate. The scallop is about 1 millimeter (about
^5 of an inch) in size at this time.

The next change is the formation of two outer gills, which mark the
characteristic structure of the adult. Just previous to the appearance
of the outer gills the animal has two inner gills of about seventeen
filaments. Small " buds " arise on the upper edge at the posterior end
of the gill, and increase rapidly in size and number. It is curious that
the development of the outer gills starts at the posterior instead of the
anterior end, exactly reverse to the formation of the inner gill. In a
114-millimeter scallop sixteen filaments were counted on the outer gill,
in a 1.8-millimeter scallop twenty-eight, and by the time the animal had
reached the size of 3 millimeters the gills had the same appearance as
in the adult. The inner gills are reflected inward, the outer gills fold
outward to form the second lamella.

The later changes are more complicated and not so conspicuous. The
filaments appear to become united, but on close examination this union
is found to be due to the interlocking of ciliated discs on the posterior
and anterior sides of each filament, giving the appearance of interfila-
mental cross bars. The filaments are joined in groups or bands of seven
or eight. A 4-millimeter scallop has about ten bands, a 5-millimeter
specimen twenty-five. The lamella? are also attached at intervals by a
fine septum.

The .gills are at all times very- sensitive. When touched with a pencil

46 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

they immediately contract. If a few drops of formalin are placed in
the water near a small scallop a sudden clapping of the valves frequently
shoots out a detached portion of the gills.

The Adductor Muscle. — According to Jackson (4) the revolution of
the axis has brought about the loss of the anterior and retention of the
posterior adductor muscle in the adult Pecten. Naturally, as with the
oyster, there is one period of life, the early veliger stage, when the ante-
rior adductor is present. Then follows an intervening stage where
both are presumably present, and finally, by the time of the dissoconch
stage, the anterior adductor has disappeared. Sharp (15), like Jackson,
favors the view that the mechanical shifting of the axis of the shell has
caused the atrophy of the anterior and the subsequent enlargement of
the posterior adductor. In the adult the muscle is formed of two parts,
a large anterior and a small posterior division. The relative increase in
size of the muscle between 3 and 10 millimeter scallops is more rapid
than the formation of the shell, the muscle increasing sixteen times, the
shell only eleven times, in volume, and is possibly due to the need at
this period of a larger muscle.

The Foot.. — As the functions of the foot are given in chapter IV.,
under " Locomotion " and " Attachment," little needs to be said here.
From the relatively largest organ in the scallop during its dissoconch
stage, the foot rapidly becomes smaller, owing to degeneration and lack
of use, until in the adult it is but a small projection on the antero-dorsal
surface of the visceral mass.

The Visceral Mass. — The degeneration of the foot marks the growth
of the visceral mass, which contains the reproductive organs and the
coils of the digestive tract. It is first noticeable to the naked eye in the
3-millimeter scallop as a mere speck on the ventral surface of the foot.
The reproductive organs are the last to mature and the last to be of use
to the animal before its decline, which theoretically starts at the com-
pletion of spawning. Even at this early stage it is covered with the
black pigment so prominent in the adult. A white streak running along
the anterior edge marks the situation of the testes. The rest of the
mass is covered with the pigment. The surface area of this mass for a
13-millimeter scallop is ten times greater than for a 3-millimeter animal.
The intestine does not form a part of the mass until the scallop has
attained a size of 8 millimeters, when the coils are enveloped. The
visceral mass continues to increase in size until in the adult it is the
largest part of the body.

The Digestive System.

(a) The Palps. — The palps are formed soon after the disappearance
of the velum, and there possibly may be some connection between the
two as the velum disappears in the vicinity of the palps. At first they
are simple folds, as in the average lamellibranch, and not until later do
they assume the ruffled form which is characteristic of the adult.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 47

(b) The Mouth and (Esophagus. — The primitive mouth and oesoph-
agus in the veliger consisted of a simple ciliated funnel leading into the
stomach. At this period the edges of the mouth were covered with cilia,
and the palps had not made their appearance, the only fundamental
difference between the mouth of the veliger and of the adult.

(c) The Stomach. — The stomach of the veliger can be discerned
beneath the liver through the transparent shell. The walls are lined
with cilia. The adult stomach is more specialized by the formation at
the posterior end of the articulating receptacle for the head of the
crystalline style, by its larger size, and the ridges and folds which line
its inner surface. Its development is gradual with the rest of the soft
parts of the scallop, but cannot be traced in the young scallop after the
veliger stage, owing to the dark covering of the liver.

(d) The Liver. — The liver appears in the veliger stage as two glands
on each side of the stomach, and rapidly spreads out to cover that
organ, so that in the developed veliger the most conspicuous object is the
large liver mass in the center of the animal, with its granular colored
appearance. As the scallop grows older, the liver takes on a darker
color, which in the adult is an extremely dark brown, whereas in the
young scallop, even up to 15 millimeters, it is a light brown or occa-
sionally a yellow brown.

(e) The Intestine. — The intestine of the veliger when first formed
is a simple tube curving downward and backward from the stomach.
In a few hours the digestive processes have necessitated greater use of
this organ and it has accordingly elongated by forming a coil in the
upper part of the mantle chamber above the stomach and liver. The
entire length of the tube is lined with cilia, and the food particles can
be seen rotating within. The successive development of the intestine,
exclusive of the formation of the crystalline style, which lies in a folded
groove in the portion near the stomach, is chiefly that of elongation by
means of coiling. When the scallop attains the size of 8 millimeters
the coils of the intestine are inclosed by the visceral mass, or rather
are seen to be enfolded in that substance, and are carried ventral as the
mass increases in size. The anal opening passes during this development
from a position dorsal to the adductor muscle to a more ventral situa-
tion in the adult, thus further increasing the length of the digestive
tract, which passes through the central chamber of the heart.

Coloring of the Shell.

The numerous color variations in the shells of young scallops render
them conspicuous among other objects on the tidal beaches. Scallops
are found of all shades, ranging from the plain color to the striped
varieties, with hardly two alike, and are on this account often gathered
for ornamental or decorative purposes. The popularity of the scallop
shell is ancient, as history tells us that this shell was the device on the

48 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

shield of many a crusader, and that through all ages it has been regarded
as an object of beauty.

Naturally, various questions on the subject of shell coloration arise,
such as (1) the nature of the coloring matter; (2) where and how it
appears; (3) the variations; (4) do scallops change color ? (5) is color
due to inheritance or environment? In connection with the growth
experiments on young scallops the following notes were made.

Coloring Matter in the Shell. — In scallops from 3 to 10 millimeters
the brown coloring matter is the predominating shade. When mounted
on a slide after having been treated with acid the colored shells leave a
brown outline of various intensities on the glass, according to the
depth of the color, while the pure white are barely discernible in outline,
showing that the brown coloring matter resists the action of the acid.
Other colors, as black and red, are of different origin and disappear
under the action of acids.

The Appearance of the Color. — The lower or right valve of the
scallop shows the color best. The upper valve is usually darker, of
plainer hue, and covered with growths such as eel grass, sea lettuce,
Enteromorpha and numerous smaller plant forms. In the young scal-
lops the color of the two valves is the same, and only when the upper
becomes coated over is any difference apparent. In the adult the lower
valve is much lighter in color than the upper.

The time of appearance varies greatly. Albino scallops, which do
not seem to have any coloring matter in the shell, are found in all sizes
up to 1^2 inches. As they grow older the pure white color takes on
a yellowing or grayish hue. Scallops the size of the head of a pin may
have more color than scallops the diameter of a lead pencil. The pro-
dissoconch is unpigmented; occasionally in the dissoconch stage little
spots of color make their appearance, but no decided coloration takes
place before the plications begin to form, when the scallop assumes in
a minor degree the color patterns of the adult.

Color Variation. — The color of the shell varies greatly, especially
with the young. All varieties from a pure white to a grayish-black,
as well as a red variety, can be distinguished. The common marking
is a mottled or striped appearance, undoubtedly the intermediate forms
between the pure color types, as it is possible to arrange a series of
shells showing these gradations. The color marking of the young scal-
lops offers an excellent field for the student of variation.

Young scallops from % to 10 millimeters can be readily divided into
two main classes, using color as a basis of separation. Some are dark
brown with a white fringe, while others range from a light yellow to a
transparent white. It seems strange that scallops of the same set and
size should present so much difference in color, and that different colors
are often found on the same place of attachment.

In white scallops 2 to 3 millimeters a yellow pigment is frequently
found in the grooves between the ridges, whereas in the adults these

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 49

furrows are colorless. Yellow markings are found on these small scal-
lops below the hinge line in scattered patches about the umbo.

Do Scallops change Color as they grow older? — In 1906 the follow-
ing experiments were made: Scallops of the 1906 set, ranging from
10 to 20 millimeters, were obtained from Stage Harbor, Chatham.
These were sorted according to color and placed in wire baskets and
suspended from the raft at Monomoy Point. On Sept. 7, 1906, they
were put on the raft, and on Oct. 23, 1906, the color changes noted.
A similar experiment was made with smaller scallops, about 3 milli-
meters in size, from August 15 to September 15.

These two observations indicate that there is a slight change in color
from white to medium and from medium to dark, or that the scallop
shell acquires as it grows older a darker shade. The dark scallops
always remain the same, while the light-colored ones gradually take
on a darker hue which never becomes very intense. Scallops between
3 and 12 millimeters vary in deepening their color, some requiring one
week, others three, before any appreciable change is noticeable.

Is Color hereditary or due to the Environment? — The color of the
shell seems to be an inherent quality and not influenced radically by
the environment. An orange-colored scallop is always orange color,
as has been shown by keeping record of the same colored scallops in
wire baskets, and a small orange-colored scallop will always remain
the same color, no matter how large it becomes. Color is not wholly
unaffected by environment, as modifying changes occur ; but in the main
it is a constant quantity. The nature of the surface to which the scal-
lops are attached does not seem to determine the color of the shell, as
on light-colored wooden boxes 150 out of 1,100 scallops were dark
colored, while the remainder of the scallops, which measured from 2 to
3 millimeters, were of a lighter hue. This shows that environment does
not regulate the color formation of the shell, as both dark and light
colored scallops are found on the same surface. It is perhaps worthy
of notice that the majority, 86l/2 per cent., were light colored, while
the rest, only IS1/^ per cent., were dark. The conclusion is that environ-
ment, while perhaps tending to modify the coloration, does not deter-
mine the true color of the scallop, which is an inherent quality in the
animal.

An interesting experiment could possibly be made in regard to color
inheritance if certain mechanical difficulties in the line of artificial
propagation could be overcome. It would be of scientific interest to
know whether scallops of a certain color would transmit this color to
their offspring, and if so in what proportions. To accomplish this it
would be necessary to have inclosed spawning ponds in which the
scallops of the required color could be separated from the rest. At
present, owing to the difficulties in the breeding of scallops, this is not
possible, and an experiment of this nature will have to be postponed
until artificial breeding is more fully perfected.

50 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

CHAPTER IV. — HABITS.

The story of the scallop would hardly be complete without some
mention of its interesting and curious habits, which not only explain
the anatomical structure, but also throw further light upon the life
history. The methods of life of the young scallop are for the most part
different from those of the adult, and are typical of stages in the de-
velopment of the animal. A change in the function of an organ causes
a corresponding change in its form, and practices once useful are dis-
carded for others better adapted to the needs of the growing animal.
Throughout early life can be traced a steady development, culminating
in the adult method of life. For this reason the habits of the young,
with the exception of swimming and resting, have been considered
separately in the following chapter, and as far as possible arranged in
logical sequence.

ATTACHMENT.

After the free swimming period of its early existence, one of the most
prominent habits of the young scallop is the power of attachment,
which occurs at the completion of its embryonic existence. This func-
tion not only proves a great help in growth, marking a new era in shell
formation, but renders the immature animal less liable to attack from
its numerous enemies.

The Set. — The " set " takes place when the young scallop attaches
itself to any foreign object by means of threads secreted from a gland
in the foot. The animal, at the proper time, settles or strikes against
some object in the water, and clings to the point of attachment with
its foot until the thread or byssus is spun. The frequency of " set " on
eel grass is best explained by the hypothesis that the swimming scallop
at this critical period of its life is carried by the current against the
upright blades, where it clings with the foot until the byssus thread
is formed. Larger scallops have been observed to swim to the sides of
the aquaria and support themselves on the slippery glass by the foot
alone until the attachment by the byssus was accomplished. The great
numbers of young scallops found on the sides of spat boxes lowered
from a raft moored in 20 feet of water show that the means of first
attaining this attachment was by clinging with the foot when the animal
came in contact with the box.

Young scallops attach themselves to eel grass, shells, stones, etc., but
are generally first noticed by the fisherman on eel grass or sea lettuce,
where they remain until they reach adult age. Scallops are found on
both the upper and the under side of eel grass, usually 3 to 6 inches
from the bottom being the locality of the heaviest set. Ulva (sea
lettuce) seems to offer a better place of attachment than eel grass, as
it may be carried for miles by the currents and " seed " scallops may

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 51

be transferred in this way from one locality to another. Shallow flats
covered with thick eel grass are usually the most productive of heavy
" sets," although the exposed nature of these flats during the winter
often causes a severe mortality among the young scallops.

The exact conditions governing the set in any one locality are diffi-
cult to observe. The primary requisite is something to which the attach-
ment can be made. This is usually eel grass. In a number of cases
heavy " sets " are found in the still water on the sides of a swift
current. This is often the case at the entrance to harbors where eel-
grass flats line the channel. The spread of the incoming or outgoing
waters carries with it the young larvae, which, striking the eel grass in
the still water, settle upon the waving blades.

The Byssus (Fig. 43). — The young scallop after its free swimming
existence attaches itself by slender strands of hard, gelatinous material
to the first suitable object with which it comes in contact. This bundle
of threads is called the byssus, and is similar in function to the anchor-
ing strands, the " beard " or " weed," of the common black mussel.
The number of fibers composing the byssus depends upon the size of
the scallop and the length of time attached, as but one thread is formed
at a time, and the total number is not at once completed. As the scallop
increases in size, the number of strands increase in proportion to the
added weight. The environment may also determine the strength of
the byssus, as scallops exposed to the strong winds and wave action
necessarily need more anchoring strands.

The byssal threads pass from a gland in the foot out through an
indentation in the lower or right valve of the scallop to the surface of
the foreign object to which they are attached by minute discs. This
indentation, directly under the anterior "ear," is the so-called byssal
notch, which has already been described in chapter III. Along this
groove are little projecting teeth or knobs, which develop in the later
part of the dissoconch stage soon after the attainment of the byssal
attachment. The use of these teeth is not known, but appears to be
related to the byssal habit. Possibly they are of use in separating the
strands. In scallops under one year of age these teeth number four to
five, but in the majority of old specimens they are entirely absent,
evidently disappearing when the byssus becomes practically useless,
as the last formed teeth are rounded instead of sharply pointed. The
manner of disappearance is readily shown by breaking the valve along
the byssal groove and observing the line of teeth which -have been en-
veloped in the adult shell. As they are formed at the same time that
the byssus becomes functional, and disappear when that organ is no
longer of use, there seems little doubt that their use is closely correlated
with that of the byssus.

The following excellent description of the process of byssal fixation
is given by Jackson (4) : —

52 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

Lying on the right valve, the foot is extended on the surface of the dish,
the flattened distal portion taking a firm hold as if about to crawl. This
position is maintained for a moment or two and then the foot is withdrawn
within the body; by the motion of retraction it draws out, or spins, the
byssal thread, which the creature had fixed to the surface of the dish while
the foot was laid closely against it. Soon the foot is again extended, pressed
flatly against the dish, and another byssal thread is spun. The second
byssal thread is always attached at a point a little removed from the point
of fixation of the first thread; sometimes the two are separated by a dis-
tance of two or more millimeters. Additional threads may be spun; but
three was a common number with specimens in confinement. Those on the
bar, especially the larger individuals, frequently spun a large number of
threads in the byssus. The byssal gland is situated in a proximal cleft-like
depression in the foot separate from the more distal cleft-like depression
which serves the animal in crawling, so that between the two there is a
slight interspace without a cleft. Frequently when forming the byssus the
foot may be arched up in this interspace, the hold being maintained by the
tip of the foot and at the same time the byssal cleft being pressed closely
against the glass, so as to make the fixation of the byssal thread. While
spinning the byssus the scallop is preoccupied, and pays little attention to
pricks or stimuli which at other times would meet with immediate response.

The following notes, which give additional information as to the
length of time, were made on a 6-millimeter scallop confined in a small
aquarium (Figs. 58-60).

The scallop lay in an unnatural position on its left or upper valve
on the bottom of the glass dish. At 10.15 it extended its foot perpen-
dicular to its body, lashing it to and fro with a wavy motion, until it
was extended to its full length. Then, at 10.15V2, it placed the tip on
the bottom in a cautious manner. Soon after attaching the tip the
scallop contracted the foot, snapping its valves in such a way as to force
a jet of water from the posterior edge of the shell. This movement
forced the body ahead with a partial turn. The scallop thereupon with-
drew the foot, shooting two additional jets of water from the posterior
pseudo-siphon. During these maneuvers a one-stranded byssus had been
formed and was completed by 10.17. The byssus gland, meanwhile, had
been in contact with the bottom of the dish, and the thread was formed
by the opening of the groove and the hardening of the horny mate-
rial by contact with water. Another scallop of the same size was twice
observed to spin a byssal thread in four minutes, each time swimming-
through the water with foot extended in the interval between the attach-
ments.

Period of Attachment. — The scallop can cast off the byssus at will,
and soon spin another. The threads are broken off at the byssal gland,
where they are closely united, and left adhering to the object of attach-
ment (Fig. 43). This habit is altogether voluntary or under the effects
of external stimuli. The early life of the scallop thus consists of a

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 53

series of attachments and dislodgments, with intervening periods of
crawling or swimming.

The power of byssal fixation is first noticeable at the beginning of the
dissoconch stage, when the young animal is found on eel grass and
other objects. The free swimming period of the veliger has just passed
and the scallop has entered upon a new existence, that of crawling
and attachment. The scallop retains the power of byssal fixation
throughout life, but seldom makes use of it after the first year. Scallops
fifteen to sixteen months old have been frequently observed fastened to
eel grass and to each other, showing that byssal attachment even at this
late period in life is by no means uncommon. Perhaps scallops over
one year old find little use for the byssus, as, owing to their size, there is
less danger of their washing ashore in heavy winds. A twelve-month
scallop has been seen to attach itself to the bottom of the aquarium
twice within forty-eight hours.

Observations on the Attachment. — The byssal thread is strong and
flexible, as the 6-millimeter scallop when firmly attached can be revolved
at least 360° without breaking the strands (Figs. 52-54).

A curious attachment was noticed in a 21/£-millimeter scallop on Aug.
3, 1908. The scallop was hanging by a byssal thread apparently from
the surface of the water. The distal end of the byssus seemed attached
to a small bit of mucus on the surface of the water, which was bowed
down by the weight of the scallop. The valves of the little animal were
apart, the tentacles extended, and the foot was lashing around with a
wavy motion. The point of attachment was touched with the tip of a
pencil, whereupon the byssus stuck to it so that the scallop could be
raised to the surface and towed around the dish. The pencil point was
then lowered gently in the water and the scallop remained suspended
from the surface as before. This was repeated with the same result.
The pencil was thrust through the water until it touched the scallop,
which cast off its byssus at once.

Young scallops swim with the foot extended, and if the foot comes
in contact with an object, such as the side of the aquarium, the animal
claps the valves rapidly, as if to keep its balance until the foot becomes
firmly attached. The movement might be likened to the fluttering of a
hen when flying on to a roost. The foot is then drawn in, and the
animal remains hanging to that corner of the shell by means of a quickly
spun byssus. If the scallop strikes the side of the aquarium with any
other portion of its body it does not have the power or perhaps the
intelligence to swing the body around so that the foot will strike the
glass. This observation shows that the scallop of 2 millimeters and over
gains its position on the sides of the aquarium as frequently by swim-
ming as by the more laborious method of crawling up the sides.

Value of the Attachment. — The value of the byssus as a protective
factor is at once apparent when one considers the rough conditions to

54 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

which the scallop is often subjected. If it were not for some means of
holding fast to the eel grass or other supports, the heavy storms would
wash the small animals ashore. So possibly this power has been devel-
oped by natural selection for the protection of the scallop. Also, nature
has acted wisely in making the attachment and climbing powers of the
scallop supplementary, as the climbing habit is necessary to enable
the scallop to reach a place of attachment, or, when attached, to find a
better location.

Spat Collecting. — The attachment period in the life of the scallop
naturally offers the best opportunity for the capture of " seed." When
this period of life is reached in the case of the oyster, the planter puts
into the water large quantities of shells, on which the young oyster may
" set " or permanently attach itself by a calcareous fixation. The
scallop, unlike the oyster, has no power of calcareous fixation, and the
byssus is not a* permanent attachment. If found desirable, old nets,
frayed rope, boxes, etc., hung in a moderate current, should furnish an
excellent means of collecting spat. Although scallop Iarva3 were plenti-
ful in the water, no natural set on the eel grass occurred during the
summer of 1906 in the Powder Hole at Monomoy Point. Nevertheless,
on boxes and frayed rope, lowered for spat collecting from a raft, 1,200
small scallops were obtained in a few square feet of surface. At the
present time there is no distinct need of spat collecting, as " seed " is
superabundant in many localities. The young dissoconch scallops usu-
ally are attached by one byssal thread.

LOCOMOTION.

The young scallop depends greatly upon its powers of locomotion to
enable it to maintain the struggle for existence, to seek new fields and
to escape its enemies. Early movement is shown by the swimming of
the ciliated embryo, an entirely distinct process from the same function
in the adult scallop. Between intervals of attachment it moves by
crawling with the foot either along the level or clinging to perpendicular
surfaces, a considerably slower method than the earlier habit. Later,
the swimming powers of the adult gradually appear, although the
scallop still maintains its crawling powers. There is a gradual develop-
ment in its methods of locomotion comparable to changes in its life,
each of which are adapted to the special needs of the animal.

Crawling. — The scallop, long before it lost the faculty of swimming
with its foot, had the power of crawling, although it did not wholly rely
upon this method. When the body became too heavy to swim success-
fully with the foot, the animal depended entirely upon the latter means
of locomotion. Later, when the swimming habits of the adult made their
appearance, the young scallop used both, assisting the act of crawling
by shooting a stream of water from the posterior edge of the shell in
unison with the contraction of the foot. Crawling is accomplished by
three muscular actions of the foot, extension, holding and contraction

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 55

(Figs. 55-57). Before starting to move the scallop projects its foot,
waving it several times around, as if to reconnoiter. Then, suddenly
becoming bold it stretches out this organ in a decided manner. The
foot is elongated about the length of the body by the contraction of
the circular muscles, which is called a " thinning wave " by the Ger-
man. The free end is firmly set by a sucker-like arrangement, and
a "thickening wave," caused by the contraction of the longitudinal
muscles, passes toward the shell. The foot movement is roughly com-
parable to the creeping of an earthworm. The shortening of the foot
jerks the shell forward, the movement being strengthened by the clap-
ping of the valves, which send out a current of water posteriorly from
the pseudo-siphon, as is indicated by the moving specks of dirt in the
water. The valves shut when the longitudinal muscles contract and
open with the contraction of the circular muscles, giving a jerky motion
to the crawling.

The scallop may change its direction in crawling by setting the tip
of the foot to either side of the line of motion. When the foot contracts
the shell is swung around very effectively. As the animal has never
been observed to crawl backward, a frequent maneuver with young clams
and quahaugs of this age, it probably reverses its direction by a series
of these movements. The animal often changes its base of crawling
from the face of the right valve to the free edges of both valves. In
this case the valves are so tilted that the posterior portion of the free
edge is uppermost, thus making the anterior posterior axis perpendicular
to the surface on which it crawls. (The above observations were made
on 1 to 2 millimeter scallops.)

An early dissoconch scallop (phase 4) was observed to take a peculiar
position on the bottom of a watch glass. It raised itself on to the edge
of the shell with the anterior end high in the water, the foot extended,
waving back and forth. Whether it did this by other aid than the lash-
ing of its foot could not be ascertained, but it gracefully rose on edge.
A similar maneuver was observed in a l^-millimeter scallop. Evidently
this habit is useful in turning over when the young scallop finds itself
on the wrong valve.

In a young scallop about 1 millimeter in size (phase 5) the following
rate of traveling was observed. The heart beats faster when the scallop
is crawling than when the animal is resting. Occasionally all visible
cardiac movement ceases for short periods during the resting stage. The
rate of beat when crawling is about 100, when resting 85, per minute.
The first series of continuous movements permitted the animal to cover
the space of 5 millimeters in thirty seconds. On a second trial the
scallop was able to cover the same distance in twenty seconds, taking six
movements. Taking an approximate average the scallop would be able
to cover 1 inch in two minutes, or thirty times its length, if it traveled
consecutively.

The crawling stage can be divided into three periods: (1) swimming

56 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

and crawling by means of the foot with its ciliated tip; (2) the true
crawling stage, where locomotion is by means of the foot ; this is found
only in the early dissoconch scallop and is of short duration; (3) crawl-
ing with the foot and swimming by a clapping of the valves, as in the
adult. The actual use of the foot for crawling covers a long period,
as the animal continues to creep more or less until it reaches a size of
iy± inches, when the foot becomes too small for this purpose.

Climbing. — Climbing rather than horizontal crawling seems to be
the natural instinct of the young scallop, which seems to prefer going
up the sides of an aquarium to crawling over the bottom. Young scal-
lops 0.6 to 0.8 of a millimeter, placed in a glass dish, climb up the sides
until they find a place for attachment by the byssus, crawling over or
around obstacles with equal readiness. A needle was placed before a
crawling scallop, and it climbed up this for several millimeters before it
found a resting place. The usual point of attachment is just below the
surface, but the scallop may encase itself in a drop of water somewhat
above this level. The scallops do not climb out of the water, as evi-
dently the siphon helps the foot in the work of climbing and it is
impossible for the animals to lift the increased weight of the body.

Scallops do not progress with such rapidity as in crawling, as the
animal is forced to support its weight when making each extension
of the foot. In the larger scallops the action of the foot is aided
by the tentacles, which at times seem to offer support as the animal
rests against the sides of the glass dish. The pseudo-siphon on the
posterior side of the mantle aids by forcing a jet of water from the
shell at the same time that the foot contracts. Evidently the scallop
maintains its position for the most part by means of the foot, which
makes a double bend so that a second part near the byssal gland touches
the surface. Possibly by using this portion as an elbow, in the same
manner as when the byssus is formed, it is able to cling to the support.
Ordinarily the lift comes directly upon the end of the foot, as scallops
have been observed hanging on the sides of the dish by merely the tip,
and to pull themselves up by the contraction of the foot alone. Part
of the contracted foot then rests on the glass, and the distal end lengthens
out, searching for another resting place.

It was observed that 25-milJimeter (1-inch) scallops could climb
for a distance of 4 to 5 inches on a smooth, perpendicular surface. The
larger scallops were not so active as the smaller, and the 25-millimeter
size seems to mark the end of the climbing activity of the animal, the
foot evidently being unable to support the heavier body.

The use of the climbing power is connected with the attachment of
the scallop. Whenever the animal is shaken from its point of location
it can climb back to another perch on the eel grass. There seems no
selection in the climbing instinct, only a tendency to mount upwards.
It is also possible, when the set strikes the eel grass, that the scallops

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 57

may have to climb to get their proper positions. If it were not for
the ability to climb upon the eel grass again, many detached scallops
would undoubtedly perish.

Turning Over. — The young scallop (Figs. 49-51) possesses several
resources by which it may orient itself when placed on its upper valve.
There are two general means, one by help of the foot and the other by
the clapping of the valves. With the small scallop the use of the worm-
like foot is the primitive method of getting into a natural position.
When scallops from 1 to l1/^ millimeters are placed on their left valve,
they at first appear uneasy. After a few moments the animal thrusts
out its foot, waves it around as if seeking a foothold, and finally ap-
plies the cleft tip to the bottom of the glass dish with a twisting motion.
By this movement the shell is pulled so that the hinge line is resting
on the bottom of the dish (Fig. 50), and the scallop pries itself over in
the opposite direction, naturally falling into its right position. This
operation is frequently aided by a slight opening and shutting of the
valves. The quickest way of turning over in case of the older scallops
is by clapping the valves, which flips the animal from one side to the
other. The animal may turn in a lateral direction on the hinge, but
the usual turn is anterior or posterior, either toward the foot or away
from it. Another means is to swim with foot extended, usually landing
proper side up.

Rate of Traveling. — Observations were made on the rate of travel-
ing of 3-millimeter scallops, placed both on the right and left valves.
Scallop A, resting in an "unnatural position on the upper (left) valve,
compared with scallop B, resting on the lower valve, did not exhibit
as great speed or travel so great a distance. Although young scallops
do not seem to be as uncomfortable as the old when placed on the
left side, they do not move so rapidly as in a natural position. Out
of 19 consecutive moves scallop B showed 11 greater and 7 less than
scallop A, while one was the same distance. Scallop A traveled a
total distance of 190 millimeters in thirty minutes, but actually gained
only 37 millimeters, owing to its random movements. The same ir-
regularity, m spite of its greater speed, which is accounted for by the
foot having a more direct line of tension for the single left retractor
when the animal lies on the right side, was noticed on scallop B. The
animals may move for some time without going far, and may even
return to the exact place of starting. The distribution of scallops at
this age is probably determined more by wind and current than by any
movements of the animal itself.

Swimming. — The first attempt at swimming occurs when the sur-
face cells of the scallop embryo acquire cilia. The succession of rotary,
circular and straight line movements of the larva have already been
described for this period, and likewise for the early veliger, with
its ciliated velum or swimming organ. Also, the change from the

58 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

swimming veliger to the larva which swims by a kicking motion of the
foot has been given in chapter III.

The adult swimming characteristics appear at the beginning of the
plicated stage, after the mantle has become specialized. During and
just previous the scallop has passed through a stage in the evolution
of swimming, which, though closely associated with crawling, is the
bond that shows its relationship with other lamellibranchs, such as
the clam and quahaug. It is the " pseudo-siphon stage," so named from
an organ formed by the edge of the mantle on the posterior side of the
animal. In crawling, water is ejected from this opening with sufficient
force to throw the animal ahead. It is interesting to note that this
movement is the first indication of swimming in the animal, and that
it is comparable to similar conditions in the other shellfish, which have
fully formed siphons in the adult. The description of the adaptability
of the anatomical parts of Pecten tennicostatus (Mighels) for swim-
ming, as given by Drew (1), applies equally well to Pecten irradians,
and is here quoted : —

Pecten is one of the ablest swimmers among lamellibranchs. The whole
structure of the animal is modified for this purpose. The valves have be-
come rounded in outline, flattened and comparatively light. The anterior
adductor muscle has been lost, and the posterior adductor muscle, which is
very powerful, is situated near the middle of the body. The cartilage has
become well developed, so the shell may be opened quickly when the muscle
relaxes, and the hinge line is straight, so there may be no unnecessary
strains in opening and closing the shell. Each gill is attached by one
lamella only, so water in the temporary cloacal chamber may be thrown out
without injuring the gills, and the gills and margins of the mantle are
provided with muscles to withdraw them from the margins of the shell
when the shell is closed. Furthermore, the margins of the mantle are pro-
vided with infolded ridges and with circular muscles, so it is possible to
direct the current of water which issues from the shell in the required direc-
tion.

The only striking difference in the swimming of the young plicated
scallop and the adult is the extension of the foot by the former, possibly
a characteristic retained from the old method of swimming with the
foot. In all the swimming of the young the foot is thrust out to its
full extent, and possibly assists the animal through the water, either
by its waving motion or by its cilia.

The following excellent account of the method of swimming of the
adult Pecten is given by Jackson (4) : —

It is best to study the swimming in young Pectens some 3 centimeters
high, as at that age it is more easily seen than in adults, and does not
differ from what may be observed in them. Lying on the bottom, with
tentacles extended, the scallop suddenly folds the guard tentacles back so
that they lie closely against the outer border of the perpendicular mantle

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 59

wall. The valves are then closed by a quick action of the adductor muscle
and water is forcibly expelled. The first water expelled is driven out pos-
teriorly in the direction of the arrow A (Fig. 61), and if this were the only
or the main direction in which a current is expelled the animal would by
impact of water be impelled in the opposite direction or anteriorly; but the
action of swimming is more complicated than this would indicate. When
the valves have closed to a slight extent the borders of the two thick, per-
pendicular mantle walls come in contact and then no more water passes
out as indicated by arrow A, but instead, during further closure of the
valves, it is forcibly ejected from the lower border of one ear, where the
mantle wall is low and thin, as indicated by the arrow B (Fig. 61).

The water expelled at the point B is the most forceful current and
probably of the greatest volume; by its means the creature is impelled in
the direction of the arrow C. The valves open quickly and clap again. The
second time, as before, the first water is driven out posteriorly; but when
the mantle walls come in contact, the direction of the excurrent water is
again changed, and is forced out from the lower border of one ear, in the
direction of the arrow D (Fig. 62) ; being the strongest current, it impels
the animal in the direction of the arrow E. This striking difference is
noted, viz., that at successive claps the water is driven out from alternate
ears, first on one side and then on the other. The resultant action of the
several currents and successive claps, illustrated in Figs. 61, 62, is, therefore,
to drive the animal in the direction of the free borders of the valves, or
posteriorly. It is due to the alternate expulsion of the water first from
one ear and then from the other, as described, that the animal presents a
succession of zigzag jerks in swimming. The direction of the current
alternately to the two ears appears to be voluntary, as scallops can scuttle
over the bottom of a dish in a sidelong direction by successively expelling
the water at each clap from one and the same ear. The action of the first
current of water expelled posteriorly, before the mantle walls come in contact,
gives the animal an upward jerk, and it is in virtue of this jerk, combined
with the momentum in a posterior direction, that it maintains its position
on the surface of the water, and also the high angle to the surface which
it presents in swimming. The current driven out posteriorly in the initial
closure of the valves is so powerful that water may be squirted by adults
to the height of five inches or more from the surface by this action.

A few additional observations upon the swimming habit may not be .
out of place. Scallops acquire the power of swimming at an early age,
as they are able to swim in the manner described above soon after they
attain 1 millimeter in size. The swimming habit is adopted when the
scallop becomes less proficient in moving with the foot, owing to the
increasing weight of its body.

Scallops are capable of movements in other directions than described
in the above paragraph. Specimens 8 to 10 millimeters in size,
when approached ventrally with the point of a pencil, snap their valves
together and dart back in a dorsal direction, evidently to get away from
the pencil, which they allow to get within reach of their tentacles before
moving. The water is expelled with a quick squirt from the ventral

60 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

portion of the valves. The distance covered on the back dart was about
10 millimeters. This observation was made several times on different
scallops, and is interesting, as it shows that the scallop can force water
from different parts of its shell, in this case exactly at right angles to
its usual direction. Darts can likewise be made in either an anterior
or a posterior direction, showing that the body can be forced in any
desired course by changing the point of expulsion of water from the
shell. This habit is of a protective benefit to the animal, as the ordinary
method of locomotion would be such as to carry it to an advancing
enemy rather than allow its escape by a backward " shoot." This
method is closely associated with the tactile functions of the tentacles,
and it is only when stimulated that the scallop makes use of it.

RESTING.

The young scallops as well as the old have periods of rest, during
which they probably feed or merely lie inactive. There are three kinds
of rest: (1) the scallop attached by the byssus; (2) lying unattached on
the bottom; (3) floating on the surface of the water.

Attachment. — This position has been denned under " Byssal At-
tachment," and only the appearance of the scallop needs description.
The animal is probably in a feeding position, the mantle with its tenta-
cles is extended, the heart beats slowly, and the food particles rotate
in the digestive tract. In this position the animal is keenly sensitive
to stimuli and if touched closes its valves at once.

Resting on the Bottom. — During the intervals of crawling the young
scallops often rest on the bottom for a long time. Even in this resting
position part of the internal anatomy is constantly moving. The cilia
in the gills, in the digestive tract and on the foot are always lashing,
while the foot is often restless and writhes within the shell. The tenta-
cles are generally extended and the shell gapes slightly open. The heart
action is less rapid than in crawling and at certain times seems to have
ceased.

The natural resting position of the adult scallop is on the right valve
on the bottom. Very seldom, and then only owing to accidental over-
turning, does it rest on the left valve. Often on a coarse sand bottom,
especially in winter, the scallop excavates a shallow hole in the sand
and lies passive, half concealed in its burrow. This habit may be pro-
tective in severe winters.

Drifting. — Scallops frequently drift just below the surface of the
water, with the right valve uppermost, some with shells nearly closed,
others with tentacles and foot extended (Fig. 47). The foot evidently
needs to grasp some object before the animal can control the direction
of the motion. If one of the drifting animals is jostled with a needle
it sinks to the bottom, probably taking in a little water. Scallops as

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 61

large as 10 millimeters have this habit of floating, and scallops of 6
millimeters are often found with tentacles widely spread out. The
reverse position of the animal, the right or lower valve being uppermost,
is not so unnatural as may seem at first, as it can be likened to the crawl-
ing of a fly on the ceiling. The surface of the water acts as a wall
upon which the scallop, with its extended foot, can rest. Pecten and
Anomia have been observed apparently crawling, right valve up, on the
surface of the water in the same manner as on the bottom, only in a
reversed position, evidently in a similar manner to snails, by mucous
secretion.

In the case of the small scallops, the tentacles, which appear to sup-
port the larger scallops, are not essential for floating. Very small disso-
conch scallops, before the formation of tentacles, have the floating
habit, and do not depend, therefore, on the tentacles to support them.
The habit of floating is useful in that it probably allows the scallop
the opportunity to get a better supply of oxygen, and to be carried from
one locality to another or from one stalk of eel grass to the next by the
current.

MIGRATION.

Many remarkable stories concerning the movement and migratory
habits of the common shallow-water scallop have long circulated among
the fishermen. Several writers have described schools of scallops in
the act of skipping and swimming over the surface of the water, and
have attributed to this species the migratory powers of fish. Scallops
are reported to traverse many miles, passing from one part of the coast
to another, continually on the move. Unfortunately, these stories have
arisen from incomplete observations, which, supplemented by the use
of the imagination, have credited the scallop with powers it never
possessed. Indeed, so much has been said concerning the swimming
powers of the scallop that people have come to believe that the scallop
should be considered as a migratory fish.

While the basis of these reports is correct, there has been much
exaggeration. The scallop has the power of migration only in a limited
sense, and although capable of swimming never traverses far. In a
small bay or harbor it is possible for the scallop to move to various
parts, especially if there is a strong current, but extended and definite
movements never occur. Swimming is a frequent diversion of the scal-
lop, which, after lying quietly on the bottom, suddenly takes a slanting
" shoot " through the water. The scallop is not built for continuous
traveling, as it seems to need periods of rest between each flight. The
average distance covered in a single movement is about 10 feet, while
often it is much less. The longest flight ever noticed by the writer
was about 25 feet, which is an exceptionally long distance for the
scallop to traverse at one time. Occasionally a series follow in quick

62 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

succession, but more often many hours elapse between them. As the
scallop is incapable of making continued flights for any distance its
migratory movements, if such it has, are limited to certain definite
areas, and never extend over a large territory.

A swimming habit of the scallop, which undoubtedly gave rise to
the mistaken idea that they swam in schools on the surface of the
water, can be observed particularly toward evening, when the scallops
in the shallow water rise to the surface, shoot a jet of water in the air,
and then, closing their shells, sink to the bottom. This fact has given
rise to another popular fallacy, that the scallop has to come to the sur-
face to breathe. The real explanation of this peculiar habit lies in the
swimming of the scallop. In swimming water is taken in by opening
the valves, and is then ejected on either side of the hinge line. The
scallop, in traveling through the water, is forced to take an upward
slant to keep moving, and in shallow water the animal soon rises to
the surface. Not being able to take in any more water by opening its
valves, the animal gives one final squirt, and sinks to the bottom with
closed shell. This strange habit of the scallop is readily explained as
the natural result of the sudden ending of its swimming.

The idea that the scallop makes a definite migration from shallow
to deep water during the warm months of the summer, and returns to
the shallow water in the fall, has spread widely. Where this idea
could have arisen is impossible to state, but it has always been con-
sidered as an established fact. As far as could be discovered by the
experiments and observations, the idea is wholly erroneous. Scallops
have never been seen to make any such definite migration during the
summer, and monthly records have been kept of scallops in the shallow
water in as many as fifteen localities in the State, with the result that
no movement of any kind was observed during the whole season. Not
only were observations made for one year, but for a period of three
consecutive years, which seems to conclusively indicate that no such
migration ever takes place.

There are several possibilities for the irregular movements of the
scallop, and the element of chance has a great deal to do with its travel-
ing. If a bed of scallops happens to be in a swift current the scallops
may be carried along by the strength of the current, whenever the
animals rise in the water. As this is usually a tidal current the dis-
tance traveled is not far, and the opposite tide washes them back to
the starting place. The scallops in a heavy wind are rolled along the
bottom and in this manner are carried some distance. This method
of migration likewise depends on chance, and is only applicable to
scallops in shallow water, where they are unprotected by eel grass.
Many scallops are yearly washed ashore, which is sure indication of
the force of the waves and helplessness of this bivalve. Undoubtedly
this is the most extensive means of traveling, and is probably the only

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 63

one of importance. A third method of migration is possible when the
young scallops are attached to eel grass by slender byssal threads.
When the eel grass is torn up the young scallops drift with the wind
and tide for long distances. In this way localities that have not had
scallops for years can again be restocked, Ingersoll (8).

The scallop is short lived, very few ever reaching the two-year limit.
The majority, therefore, have only one spawning season. If any
adverse natural condition, such as a severe winter, kills off the small
" seed " scallops for that year, the total crop for the following year
will be exterminated, as it is a case where there is only one set of scal-
lops spawning at a time, and generations so follow generations that all
the scallops which are to furnish the spawn belong to the same set.
In this way the scallop crop of any locality is often wholly extermi-
nated, and it takes years before it can again assume its former propor- .
tions. Thus the uncertainty of the scallop crop makes it appear that
the scallops migrate from one town to another, as one town will have
an abundance one year, perhaps followed by a poor season, while the
reverse may be true for neighboring towns. So what has apparently
been considered a migration is in reality no migration at all, but is
merely due to the short life of this interesting mollusk.

There are several facts that substantiate the non-migration of the
scallop. While none can be termed actual proof, nevertheless they
furnish strong evidence that the scallop as a rule does not travel far
from its native place. It was found almost impossible to obtain definite
data on the movement of the scallops, as there was no accurate way in
which to observe them in their native haunts. One attempt was made
which gave results of negative quality. About 400 tagged scallops were
liberated in Nantucket harbor in such a location that they would have
to cross the channel to get to the scalloping grounds. The scallops were
tagged with copper wire through the " ear " of the shell, which did not
hinder to any extent their movement, and were liberated in October, at
the beginning of the scallop season. Careful watch was kept by the
scallopers on the fishing grounds, but none were ever found, indicating
that they had not traveled. They were so located that the least traveling
would have carried them to some part of the scalloping territory.
The possible errors were: too few scallops, interference of the tags
with the traveling and the possibility that they were carried to other
places than the scalloping grounds, or that they were overlooked by
the scallopers.

While there is much difference of opinion among the fishermen as
to the movement of the scallop, the majority believe that there is little
or no traveling, basing their claim on the fact that they find scallops
in the same place the year round, and that the beds shift but little. New
beds seem to spring up when the eel grass is rolled away, but the
scallops probably have been there always, or have been carried a short

64 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

distance by either wind or tide, and have not come from miles away, as
has been frequently supposed.

In all the observations made by the Massachusetts Department of
Fisheries and Game on the habits of the scallop records have been kept
of the different sets in many scalloping localities in the State, and no
case of extended migration has been recorded. It has been impossible
to make as extended observations in the deep water as in the shallow,
but there is every reason to believe that the same conditions hold true,
in spite of the fact that the scallops can more frequently be carried by
the current.

A further fact of interest in this connection is the distinction between
the two sizes of scallops, the large channel or deep-water scallop, and
the small shallow-water or eel-grass variety. These two are the same
species, but, owing to the better growing conditions in the deep water,
the channel scallop is much larger in size. If the scallop were a migra-
tory form, and would travel first to deep water and then to shallow,
there would be no well-marked distinction between these two groups, as
all scallops would be approximately the same size. This fact furnishes
excellent proof that there is no such thing as definite migration.

In conclusion, the matter can best be summarized by stating that while
the scallop is capable of swimming . through the water by its own exer-
tions, it can never travel any great distance in this way, and that there
is no such thing as definite voluntary migrations. While no exact proof
can be obtained there is not sufficient evidence to show that the scallop
ever travels, and the weight of the evidence implies that there is never
any migration. The only possible traveling of the scallop is caused by
forces external to the animal, such as wind, current, storms, etc., and is
merely a matter of chance. This cannot be styled in any sense a true
migration, and there is little evidence to show that any considerable
distance is traveled by this means.

The non-migratory habit of the scallop is of importance to the scallop
planter if in the course of future events cultural methods are ever
applied. It is also of great importance to the town, as no town may
feel that their scallop crop will travel to the borders of the neighboring
township. The scalloping towns can rest assured that, if the scallop
crop is once within their borders, there is slight chance that it will
ever leave.

RECOVERY PROM INJURY.

Scallops are frequently found with twisted and warped shells, or
other deformities. Jackson (4) reports finding scallops with portions
of the mantle missing, evidently from the attacks of predacious fish.
Occasionally small fish about 1 inch in length are found within the
scallop shell. In many of the growth experiments, where the scallops
were kept in confinement in wire baskets, the growth was abnormal, as
the shell grew in a variety of shapes, owing to the manner of resting

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 65

against the wire. To observe their recovery from injury, scallops were
treated in a variety of ways: (1) four scallops were unhinged by break-
ing the ligament; in three days' time three were dead, one was alive;
(2) small holes were bored in shells of three scallops: all were dead in
three days; (3) five with adductor muscle badly strained: in three days
two were dead, three alive; (4) three with valves cracked lengthwise:
in three days one was alive, two were dead; (5) one with valve cracked
along byssal groove: alive two weeks later but shell not mended; (6)
three with small piece cut out of mantle edge; in three days two were
alive, one was dead. The result of these mutilations shows that the
scallop, although not as hardy as the clam or quahaug, is capable of
repairing minor injuries inflicted by enemies, and only succumbs to the
more severe hurts.

FEEDING HABITS.

The feeding habits of the scallop are similar in many respects to those
of the other shellfish, as all lamellibranchs obtain their food by means
of the gills, which act as filters or strainers. The clam and quahaug lie
beneath the surface of the soil and reach the water by a fleshy extension
of the mantle, known as the siphon. The scallop has no siphon and its
method of life is such that it does not need an organ of this nature.
When in a natural position for feeding, the animal rests on the bottom
on its right valve, the shell gaping open at an angle of about 20°.
Closely lining the inside of the two valves is a thin fleshy substance, the
mantle, described in chapter II. When extended, the edge, lined with
papillose tentacles and brightly colored eyes, passes beyond the shell,
while another portion, consisting of a perpendicular flap, surmounted
with a row of closely set guard tentacles, acts as a curtain to nearly
close the intervening space between the open valves. Instead of the
specialized siphon of the clam, which is in reality only a part of the
mantle, the scallop makes use of the entire ventral area of this fold to
take in its food, with the result that a continual stream is passing in
through the mantle and going out at a definite locality in the posterior
side of the shell. This portion of the mantle is destitute of guard
tentacles, and, when the walls are closed together, forms a pseudo-
siphon.

The food of the animal, as more fully described in the report on the
food of the lamellibranchiate mollusks, consists largely of certain micro-
scopic plants, called diatoms. These tiny forms are extremely varied in
size and shape. They are easily recognized by their silicious cases and
beautiful markings, which have won for them the name of " the jewels
of the plant world." They are found in the water everywhere in more
or less abundance, and are filtered out by the scallop from the water
which bathes its gills.

The four gills, which were described in chapter II., in addition to
aeration of the blood possess the important function of straining food

66 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

from the water. Lying free in the body cavity, they are constantly
surrounded by the flowing water, which passes through and around the
filamentous bars. When examined under a microscope the gills are
found to be covered by small hair-like cilia, lashing in a definite direc-
tion. These cilia cause currents of water to pass over and through the
gills, while other cilia between the filaments act as minute sieves to
strain out the food particles, which are at once cemented together with
a mucus and propelled by the ciliary action toward the popularly
called " backbone " of the gills, or the dorsal edge. Here they are taken
up in a more definite channel and swept with increasing velocity toward
the upper end of the gills to the lower edges of the palps. The palps
are ridged and furrowed like the gills, and the food is transferred to
the mouth by means of these " lips." If an excess of food or foreign
matter is caught by the gills, the animal, by a complicated mechanism,
as described by Kellogg (3), is able to cast it off.

The effete matter from the digestive tract is carried out from the
shell at the posterior pseudo-siphon. The waste in transverse section
has the appearance of a three-leafed clover, Jackson (4), and is of
uniform length. When the scallop lies feeding in the aquarium, the
feces pass out at regular intervals of about a minute, suggesting a
nearly constant need of food. The constant flow of water through the
shell shows that the other parts, such as mantle, visceral mass, etc., must
likewise be ciliated as well as the gills, in order to force the flow of
water in one direction, an entirely different arrangement from the
ejection of water by the mantle in swimming.

SENSORY POWERS.

The exact reactions of the scallop to light and other external stimuli
have never been worked out, and there remains a wide field for investi-
gation on these points, especially in regard to the effect of light. The
following are a few meager observations which it is hoped may interest
some one to take up the study of the sensory powers of the scallop.

The scallop is sensitive to a sharp tap or sudden jar. When small
6-millimeter scallops are attached to the sides of glass dishes, the valves
remain open, tentacles extended. A sharp tap on the outside of the jar
directly over the animal causes it to retract its tentacles, but after
repeated tapping the creature does not seem in the least disturbed, as
the tentacles remain extended. All motions outside the glass dish were
unnoticed by the scallop.

At times the adult scallop is quite sensitive; again, the same stimulus
does not excite the animal. Evidently it has various moods. Jack-
son (4) states that when spinning the byssus the scallop appears undis-
turbed by pricks, etc. As cold weather comes on the animal becomes
less active and fails to respond with its former alertness.

The eyesight of the animal has aroused considerable comment. The

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 67

eyes, so far as concerns the gross anatomy, closely resemble those of the
higher animals, and are connected to the circumpallial nerve by short
nerve fibers. To what extent the animal can see is a question. Observ-
ers have stated that scallops lying on the eel grass notice a person
wading through the water and swim off. Whether this is due to sight
or to the disturbance of the water is uncertain. It is true that move-
ments in the water have more effect than those outside, and the effect of
shadows on the scallop may cause it to withdraw its tentacles. The
approach of enemies is readily recognized by the scallop, which scuttles
out of harm's way. Whether this is from sight or other modes of sensa-
tion is as yet undetermined.

Yeliger scallops apparently are not sensitive either to dark or light.
With scallops of 2 millimeters and over, in which the eyes or tentacles
are developed, different results were obtained. A few tests were made
with animals of this size in small dishes, covered with black paper,
except in certain places for the admission of light at the will of the
operator. Many of the results were negative, but a slight heliotropic
(toward light) tendency was evidenced.

The young scallop under 3 millimeters evidences little preference for
different colors. Tests along this line have given negative results, as
the distribution on areas of different color seemed at random.

Scallops will live in waters that have a density of 1.010 or greater,
one-half salt to one-half fresh. This has been tested by observations in
different localities and by keeping the animals in aquaria with various
densities. The scallop, compared with the clam and quahaug, succumbs
more readily. In aquaria, where these burrowing mollusks will live
indefinitely, it is often difficult even with running water to keep the
scallop alive for more than two to three weeks.

ENEMIES.

Owing to its free life and activity the scallop is beset by relatively few
enemies, as compared with the oyster, or, more properly speaking,
suffers less destruction from the same adversaries. Nevertheless, there
are certain species which prove dangerous and cause the scallop a con-
tinual struggle to maintain its existence. Naturally in the early life
of the scallop the destruction is much greater, and it is necessary to
divide the enemies of the animal into two classes: those which menace
(1) early life; (2) adult.

Enemies of the Young Scallop. — In the early life of the young scallop
it is not so much the active animal enemies as the adverse natural
conditions that destroy the embryonic larvae. When the fact that only
one of the several million eggs liberated by the adult spawning scallop
ever reaches maturity is considered, the extent of the destructive powers
of nature becomes strikingly manifest. The early life of the animal is
the critical period of its existence, and it is at this point that the young

68 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

must be shielded from their enemies. The active enemies of the young
larvae can be enumerated: fish, other shellfish and animals of similar
nature which suck down the larva for food, the adult scallop often
treating her young in this manner. Later in life, when the young
scallop is discernible to the naked eye, the starfish, crabs, sea fowl and
other predacious animals feed upon it. Scallops of nearly l1/^ inches
in size have been taken from the crop of an eider duck by John H.
Hardy, Jr., of Chatham.

But the force which causes the vast destruction is not accounted for
by these active enemies. It is broader and farther reaching in its in-
fluence. It is nature, with her vast adverse conditions. Severe weather,
storms, sudden changes in temperature and in salinity of the water
during the spawning season, sewage and other contamination, may
bring about the destruction of the floating larvae. The localities of set
are such that only a limited area is available for the retention of the
spat. Eel-grass-covered flats are best adapted for the set, and other
localities generally prove unfruitful. The larvae, uniformly scattered
through the water, are washed hither and thither, relatively few ever
setting on good ground, the rest either washing ashore or being buried
on slimy and unwholesome bottom. Thus the infant mortality is es-
pecially great and only a very few escape the perils of the embryonic
stage of their existence. These few are now at the mercy of the
elements until they have attained sufficient size to enable them to take
care of themselves. On the eel grass they are constantly in the danger
of washing ashore. When the set is on shallow flats, for example,
the Common Flats of Chatham, the scallops are nearly exposed at low
running tides, and thus often are killed by the severe winter frosts and
ice. Even when in deeper water, the " anchor frost " is said to destroy
them in great numbers, but fortunately this condition is rarely found.

Enemies of the Adult. — The adult scallop has several natural ene-
mies, including man, both active and passive, as well as being subject
to the adversities of nature, for the scallop, by reason of its specialized
anatomy, is most susceptible of all economic mollusks and readily suc-
cumbs to an unfavorable environment.

(a) The Starfish. — The starfish (Asterias forbesii) is probably the
most destructive pest of the scallop fishery, and has proved a source
of great annoyance and loss to the scallopers. Fortunately the inroads
of this pest are chiefly confined to one section of the State, Buzzard's
Bay, and although the animal is found in some abundance along the
south side of Cape Cod and at the islands of Nantucket and Martha's
Vineyard, it is not so serious a menace to the industry. Many of the
Buzzard's Bay fishermen attribute the decline of the scallop fishery
in those waters some eight years ago to the invasion of the great num-
bers of starfish at that time. From reports by the fishermen the scallop-
ing grounds were literally paved with starfish, and it was utterly

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 69

impossible for the scallops to escape destruction. It is well known
how destructive the starfish is to the oyster beds, and undoubtedly the
scallops would not be able to escape so great a number and must have
suffered severely. Capt. James Monahan of Wareham cites the follow-
ing instance : " In the fall of 1898 I located a bed of seed scallops
so thick that half a dredge full could be obtained at a single drift.
Next year I went to the same place, and on casting my dredges found
them full of dead scallops, shells and starfish in great number." He
estimated that in that one locality 1,000 bushels perished.

During the season of 1907-08 nearly every boat from Wareham
saved the starfish, and instead of throwing them overboard, as was
previously the custom, carried large numbers to the shore. Under the
old method of carelessly returning these pests to the waters they were
scattered over a wider area from the boats. For two seasons previous
to 1907-08 it is said that the starfish had been decreasing, and that the
return of the scallop fishery after an absence of seven years was due
to this decline. Many scallopers and oystermen are anxious for State
appropriations for the removal of these pests.

The method of attacking the scallop (Fig. 70) is similar to that used
on the oyster, i.e., opening the shell by means of a steady strain exerted
in opposite directions upon the two valves. The starfish surrounds the
scallop with its long arms or rays, five in number, and clasps it in its
embrace, generally in such a way that the mouth of the starfish rests
just above the byssal notch of the scallop, and the arms are closely
attached to the shell by the tube feet or suckers. By exerting a steady
pull with its numerous suckers, and by the tendency to straighten out
the long arms, the animal exerts a strong and steady strain on the
adductor muscle, which, though well adapted to resist a sudden pull,
gradually tires and relaxes. The starfish has the advantage, as, having
five arms, it can rest some of them and yet keep on pulling, while the
scallop has only one muscle and has to exert a perpetual strain. Then
a curious phenomenon is noticed. The starfish rolls out its stomach
and allows it to flow into the interior of the scallop, where it digests,
outside its own body, the soft parts of the scallop. When the meal is
completed the stomach is withdrawn, and the clean scallop shell left
with gaping valves.

Small starfish seem to be the most active in this work of destruction,
and the " seed " scallops are the most frequent objects of their attack.
The only method of reducing this pest, as extermination is practically
impossible, is for the scallopers to carry the starfish taken in dredging
to the shore. The oystermen, who suffer more severely from the inroads
of the starfish, most commonly use a tangle or mop which is dragged
over the oyster beds, the " five finger " becoming easily entangled. The
starfish are then either thrown into boiling water or carried ashore.

(b) The Oyster Drill. — Where the scallop is not found the oyster

70 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

drill (Urosalpinx cinerea) (Fig. 68) is generally present. This little
gasteropod mollusk, next to the starfish, is the most destructive enemy
of the scallop and oyster, and is found in nearly every scalloping lo-
cality. Scarcely more than an inch in height and of an innocent grey
color it has proved a source of trouble to the oysterman, owing to the
impossibility of thoroughly removing it from the oyster beds.

Its method of attack is to crawl upon the upper valve of the scallop
and then pierce a hole in the thin shell, scarcely larger in diameter
than a needle, by means of a tiny ribbon-like tongue armed with fine
teeth. When the boring is completed the animal sucks out the contents
of the shell. Scallops have been found destroyed by the drill bearing
on the shell a row of globular egg cases which the drill had deposited.
It is during this process that the scallop has an advantage over the
oyster. The latter is fixed and immovable, the former is capable of
movement, and by a few well-directed flaps of the shell can in many
instances throw off the intruder and escape destruction. The numerous
half punctures in many living scallops bear witness to the inability of
the " borer " to finish its task.

A few observations upon the length of time it takes to bore and eat
a scallop were made at Monomoy Point with a view of determining the
actual extent of destruction. Scallops were confined with the drills
in boxes with netting tops. Different numbers of scallops and drills
were used for over a month. As many as five drills have been found
on one scallop not in confinement, and as many as two or three are of
common occurrence (Fig. 95). The conclusion arrived at from these
observations was that it took from four to six days for the drill to
pierce the shell sufficiently to eat the contents, and that the meal was
consumed in about the same amount of time. At this rate the drill
could only eat about three large scallops per month, even if nothing
interfered with the operation, and in the long run the amount of
destruction would be extremely slight. While the unnatural condition
of the confined animals may have made the process slow, the limited
area afforded the scallop but slight chance to escape from its enemy
and so partially offsets any error.

(c) Nassa obsoleta The third active enemy of the scallop is per-
haps hardly to be classed under that head. It is the scavenger of the
tidal flats, the little black winkel, Nassa obsoleta, which has the im-
portant duty of cleaning the flats. The actual damage done by this
animal is comparatively small, as it is not an inhabitant of the same
localities as the scallop as a rule, being found between the tide lines.
Nassa is commonly thought to be of little damage to living shellfish,
though it is known to eagerly devour any dead or broken specimens.
Although the damage is of little account the method of attack is so
interesting that it will bear relating. The scallop when resting on the
bottom with tentacles extended is at times extremely sensitive, and then

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 71

again less so. Nassa possesses an extremely well-developed sense for
finding food and gathers around the scallop in numbers. Then a con-
certed action takes place, whether intentional or by accident, but it
occurs time and time again. One Nassa forces itself between the valves
of the unwary scallop, which at once close with a snap, but only part
way, as the little winkel has formed a wedge between the valves which
permits the entrance of more of its kind, which rapidly fall to eating
the contents (Fig. 94). While we cannot attribute this mode of
attack to any reasoning powers of the small creatures, the fact remains
that 17 out of 500 scallops, confined in a pen 10 feet square, in two
weeks' time were killed in this way. However, under natural conditions
this would be impossible in the open. The scallops were observed con-
tinually to flirt off the crawling Nassa by snapping the valves, and in
this way were able to protect themselves.

(d) Passive Enemies. — The scallop has besides these active enemies
other passive foes which perhaps do not accomplish so much apparent
damage but affect the growth of the animal and in some cases result
in its death. Such are the enemies which use the same food and retard
the growth by depriving the scallop of sufficient nourishment. All
other shellfish, both valuable and of no importance, come under this
head. Another class of passive enemies are the ectoparasites on the
scallop shell, the sea weeds, such as Enteromorpha, Ulva lactuca, etc.,
barnacles, Serpula (worm tubes), Anomia, Crepidula, oysters from
one to two years old, Acma3a, etc., which not only partake of the same
food but hinder the movement through the water, and in cases like
the oyster and serpula, by their growth in time kill the scallop, in the
case of the former by weight of shell, with the latter by binding edges of
the valves together.

(e) Man. — While the main cause of the decline of the natural clam,
quahaug and oyster beds is overfishing by man, the decline of the scallop
fishery cannot be so considered. The scallop has a short life, hardly
25 per cent, passing the two-year limit; so it does no harm to capture
the marketable scallops which are over sixteen months old, as the scallop
spawns when one year old and dies a natural death usually before it
reaches a second spawning season. When only old scallops are taken,
as is generally the case, it is probably impossible for man to exter-
minate the scallops by overfishing. Unfortunately, in certain localities
in the past there has been a large capture of the " seed " scallop, viz.,
the scallop less than one year old, which has not spawned. This has
worked the ruin of the scalloping in these localities. The capture of
the spawners for another year merely makes the next year's set so
much smaller, and causes a rapid decline.

As a rule, it is hardly profitable to catch the " seed " scallop, owing
to its small size. But a direct relation can be established between a
high market price and the capture of seed. When the market price is

72 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

high and scallops are scarce, it becomes profitable to catch the young
" seed." The present scallop law now defines a " seed " scallop and
forbids its capture. By protecting the " seed " scallop, the State has
done all that at present appears expedient to insure the future of the
industry; the rest lies in the hands of the towns.

So, while the scallop has declined in certain localities, and the decline
has been hastened by unwise capture of the " seed " scallop, the main
decline of the fishery cannot be attributed to wholesale overfishing, as
it is impossible to overfish if only the old scallops (over one year old)
are taken ; for, unlike most other animals, the scallop usually breeds but
once, and its natural period of life is unusually brief. These scallops,
if not taken, will die, and prove a total loss; so every fisherman should
bear in mind that, as long as the " seed " scallops are protected, severe
fishing of large scallops is not likely to injure the future scallop
industry.

The adult scallop has to contend against the same adverse physical
conditions of nature that beset the young animal. Severe winters,
storms, anchor frosts, etc., work destruction upon the helpless scallop.
Exposure to low tides, as on the Common Flats of Chatham, and on the
north side of Cape Cod; exposure to sewage contamination, as in New
Bedford harbor; exposure on an open coast, as is occasionally the case
on the south side of Cape Cod; sudden changes in the salinity of the
water, i.e., by flood waters; the distribution of tides and currents; the
temperature of the water ; the nature of the bottom, — all affect the life
of this mollusk, and render its existence precarious.

The very nature of the scallop's period of life renders it peculiarly
sensitive to adverse conditions, and places difficulties in the way of its
natural propagation.

As the scallop dies before reaching its second birthday, only one set
of scallops spawn in any one season. There are never two generations
of scallops spawning at one time. I quote from Ingersoll (8) in this
connection : —

This represents a case where the generations follow one another so rapidly
that there are never two ranks, or generations, in condition to reproduce
their kind at once, except in rare individual instances, since all, or nearly
all, of the old ones die before the young ones have grown old enough to
spawn. If such a state of affairs exists, of course any sudden catastrophy,
such as a great and cold storm during the winter, or the covering of the
water where they lie for a long period with a sheet of ice, happening to
kill all the tender young (and old ones, too, often) in a particular dis-
trict, will exterminate the breed there; since, even if the older and tougher
ones survive this shock, they will not live long enough, or, at any rate,
will be unable to spawn again, and so start a new generation.

The set of young scallops is abundant in shallow water upon the
eel-grass flats, which often, as is the case of the Common Plats at Chat-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 73

ham, are exposed at extremely low tides. A severe winter often kills
off all the " seed " thus exposed. In this case no spawn is obtained
the following summer, causing the suppression of the scallop fishery
in that locality for at least a few years, and possibly its permanent
extinction.

The low temperature during the winter, particularly in the shallow
waters and on the exposed flats, is often destructive to the adult. Scal-
lops have been observed in zero weather frozen, with shells full of ice,
as they lay on the exposed flats at Parker River, Yarmouth. Un-
doubtedly many die, but many recover from being frozen, as shellfish
will live if properly thawed out. In the severe winter of 1904-05 the
entire crop of scallops was killed on the Common Flats, Chatham, and in
3906-07, 40 per cent, of the " seed " on the Stage Harbor flats, Chatham,
succumbed to the ice and cold. Often the ice settling on the flats
carries with it the scallops, or leaves them in a dying condition. Low
temperatures, tides and currents work together, as the scallop, rendered
inactive by the coolness of the water, is at the mercy of the elements,
and is readily washed ashore, to perish on the open beaches or high flats.

POPULAR FALLACIES.

Many interesting but erroneous ideas concerning the habits of
the scallop have arisen among the fishermen, and a brief mention of
several will bring this chapter to a fitting close. The length of life of
the scallop has always been a perplexing question. While the majority
of the scallopers have drawn correct conclusions from their practical
observations, a few still maintain that this mollusk lives for a long
period of years. Arguments to this effect are based chiefly upon the
foreign growth, which is abundant on the shells of the old scallops.
Successive layers of Crepidula (quarter deckers or sweetmeats) piled
one on top of the other on the shell are claimed to denote a yearly
period for each new animal, and large barnacles, worm tubes, etc., are
considered as indicating a long period of development, while in reality
these bodies are the result of only a few months' actual growth.

The idea that it was necessary for the scallop to come at least once
a day to the surface to breathe arose from seeing the animals rise in
shallow water to the surface when swimming. Such a conception
appears absurd when it is known that the scallop possesses gills like a
fish and is not an air-breathing animal. Numerous misconceptions as to
its migratory, swimming, attachment, feeding and other habits have
prevailed during past years, and it is sincerely hoped that this chapter
on habits may aid in clearing many misunderstandings about the life
of the scallop.

74 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

CHAPTER V. — GROWTH.

The rate of growth of the scallop, besides being of popular interest
among the fishermen, has an important bearing on the development of
the fishery. Owing to its intimate connection with practical scallop
culture, a detailed study of the rate of growth comprised a large part of
the investigation. In addition to extending the knowledge of the fisher-
man and defining the proper relation of growth to protective legislation,
several facts of biological interest have been brought out by the experi-
ments, and although not at present of practical importance, they are
likewise included for the benefit of persons interested in the study of
the Mollusca.

In the determination of the average growth of any shellfish it is diffi-
cult to make definite statements, as the natural conditions, which influ-
ence development, are varied. The rate of growth for one body of water
is different from the growth in other localities, unless the same condi-
tions are present, instances of which occur but rarely in nature. This
fact not only has rendered difficult the concise presentation of the sub-
ject, but also has necessitated a manifold duplication of the experimental
work in order to satisfactorily cover the conditions in Massachusetts
waters. Therefore, the reader must understand that the general figures
given in the following pages do not hold true for individual localities
and are but the averages for certain sections.

Methods of Investigation. — The natural conditions of the scallop
grounds in Massachusetts are dissimilar to the Rhode Island waters,
Buzzard's Bay being the only section at all approximating the conditions
in Narragansett Bay. These differences will be brought out later by a
comparison with the growth experiments of Risser (2) on the Narra-
gansett Bay scallops. The variety of conditions presented in the differ-
ent localities of Massachusetts necessitated an extensive series of
experiments, covering the same ground and in several instances with
results at variance with the observations of Risser.

The opportunities for solving the rate of growth of the scallop under
a variety of natural conditions were especially favorable owing to the
diversity of the different scallop grounds. The average rate of growth
for the different sections in the State, as here presented, is the result
of three years' continued observations on sets of scallops under various
environments. Excellent facilities for detailed work on the growth and
length of life for a period of four years were afforded at Monomoy
Point in the nearly landlocked harbor, the Powder Hole, and a large
share of the experimental observations, many of which could never have
been obtained elsewhere, were made in this locality. Inclosed in a
natural aquarium, the scallops could be followed from birth to death
under conditions many of which were under the direct control of the
operator.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 75

The general work consisted of two parts: (1) at Monomoy Point on
the scallops confined in the Powder Hole; (2) records of the growth,
of the different sets at different localities along the southern coast of
the Commonwealth. The investigations were first started in July, 1905,
and continued steadily through 1906 and 1907. Records were also
maintained in several localities for 1908 and 1909, while the work at
Monomoy Point was continuous for the whole period. During this
time records of the complete sets of 1904 (second year), 1905, 1906,
1907, 1908 were made at Monomoy, and for the State in 1904, 1905
and 1906. Another division of the work of a different nature can be
made: (1) experiments in artificial culture, where the scallops were
confined in pens of wire netting at Monomoy, Marion, Monument Beach
and Chatham; (2) records of the growth under natural conditions on
the scallop grounds by measuring large numbers of scallops. A descrip-
tion of the methods of work, details of measuring, construction of pens,
marking of scallops, etc., is given in chapter VII.

General Growth. — The shell or exo-skeleton of the scallop is com-
monly considered the growing part and any increase in its size indicates
the development of the animal. New shell formation is the direct
result of a previous corresponding growth in the soft parts, whereby
an extension of the shell is necessitated. In the following experiments
the shell has been considered as typifying the development of the body,
and all measurements have been recorded on this basis. The quality
of the meat and the fattening of the tissues, so important to dealer, are
not considered under the subject of growth, but are discussed in con-
nection with the " eye " in chapter VI.

Shell formation by the secretion of the thin mantle lining the inside
of the shell has been described in chapter II. The shell is built almost
entirely of lime salts (principally the carbonates), which is obtained in
some unknown manner from the water. It appears that the amount of
lime in solution in the water is an important factor in the rapidity of
growth, but is not as essential as the nourishment of the soft parts by
the microscopic food. The actual increase in the rate of growth by an
excess of lime is but slight, as the shell formation naturally depends
upon the growth of the soft parts, and the difference is only evidenced
by the increased weight of the shell in localities rich in lime salts. The
lime supply varies somewhat in the different localities, and its efficiency
is largely dependent upon the circulation of water.

In considering the rate of growth the matter of food is of chief im-
portance. Within limits the growth of any mollusk is directly propor-
tional to the amount of food it consumes. Scallops situated in good
feeding localities will grow much faster than those less fortunately
located. The food as stated in chapter IV. consists of microscopic
plant forms, called diatoms, which are uniformly distributed through the
water. Naturally the abundance of diatoms in any locality and the

76 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

circulation of water or current are the two external factors in the devel-
opment of the scallop.

Growth of Scallop compared with Other Economic Bivalve Mollusks.
— The limited life and active habits of the scallop require a quick
maturity and light shell, which make its growth the most rapid of the
economic bivalves. Arranging these mollusks in order of rapidity of
growth, scallop, clam, sea clam, oyster and quahaug, we find that they
are likewise placed in respect to the weight of their shells, the lightest
shell corresponding to the fastest growth. From this we can formulate
the general rule that the growth of any shellfish is directly propor-
tional to the weight of the shell, which not only seems to hold true for
the different species, but is applicable to varieties of the same species;
i.e., a thick-shelled clam grows more slowly than a thin " paper " shell
variety.

Variations in Growth. — Many variations are found in the growth of
scallops. In no two localities is the size identically the same, as can
be seen by comparing Buzzard's Bay, Cape Cod and Island scallops.
This variation may be called sectional, and can be attributed to the
difference in environment, which also applies to local conditions. There
is also variation in the sets, the average of one year differing from the
succeeding or preceding years. The size of a scallop is due to two main
factors: (1) its time of birth, either at the beginning or end of
the two months' spawning season; (2) the conditions under which it
lives, whether favorable or unfavorable for rapid growth. Primarily
the environment and secondarily the time of the set determine in a
great measure the life of this mollusk. There is another type, indi-
vidual variation, which is important to consider in presenting the results
of the growth experiments, as it proves that correct results can only be
satisfactorily obtained by records of large numbers of scallops. Risser
(2) remarks on the remarkable uniformity of the individuals of the
set in Narragansett Bay. No such uniformity has been found under
the more diverse conditions in Massachusetts waters, and in individuals
of the same set, especially in the young scallop, variations as great as
from 1/2 inch to 2^2 inches have been found at the same time and place.
Between these extremes all grades can be found converging toward the
average. Even when scallops of the same size are confined in pens
their growth varies, a fact that can only be attributed to the individual
traits of the animal.

Growing Months. — Man passes through four arbitrary periods in
life, childhood, youth, manhood and old age, attaining his actual stature
during the first two, and only adding more flesh as the years pass.
The scallop, on the other hand, continues to increase in size during the
adult period, and in fact up to the time of its death has not lost the
power of growth, although the shell formation in the old scallops is
somewhat slower than in the younger specimens. But the scallop only

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

77

grows half the time, as all shell formation is accomplished during
the slimmer months and no increase in size is found during the cold
weather. This gives the scallop a resting time between the period of
youth and adult, and again during its old age, as the average life of
the animal is from twenty to twenty-six months.

In following the life of the scallop born in July, growth ceases dur-
ing December and is again resumed May 1 of the following year, when
the temperature of the water has reached 45° to 50 °F. The same scal-
lop ceases growth in the fall, usually in the latter part of November
(slightly earlier than the young set of that year), when the water has
again fallen below 45°. Thus, every scallop has two periods of growth,
corresponding to the two summers of its existence, and two resting
periods during the winters. The cause of this cessation of growth is
explained under the topic " Effect of Temperature."

By monthly measurements of the scallops confined in pens at Mono-
moy Point during 1906, the relative value of each month was calculated
and the variation in growth for different parts of the summer was de-
termined. In the following table each month is given a numerical
number, representing the gain per cent, for the month, the entire year
being considered as 100 per cent. (Figs. 84, 85) : —

MONTH.

Per Cent.

MONTH.

Per Cent.

January, . »
February, ....

-

August

20.31*
20.08

October, .....

18.94

April, . . . . " .

November, ....

2.15

May .

19.76

8.33

100.00

July, i •» . . . .

10.36

i Decrease In June ami July due to spawning.

Length of Life. — Briefly stated, the normal life of the scallop is
from twenty to twenty-six months, relatively few scallops passing the
two-year limit.

Previous to 1906, when this problem was first satisfactorily solved
by the commission, the question most often propounded by the practical
scallop fisherman was, "How long does the scallop live?" In spite of
the diversity of opinion, which credited the scallop with living anywhere
from two to five years, the majority of the scallopers believed that two
years marked the limit of its life, a view which coincided with the
results of the investigation. Both Ingersoll (8) and Risser (2) agreed
with this view, but were unable at the time of writing to furnish definite
proofs. So it fell to our lot to obtain, through a series of observations

78 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

covering several years, the necessary data for the actual substantiation
of the popular theory, and for the establishment of proper legislation
for the fishery.

The method of work consisted primarily of continued observations on
the sets of 1905, 1906 and 1907, following each from birth to death.
The greater part of the work was done in connection with the growth
experiments in the different scalloping areas, but more particularly
with the scallops confined in the Powder Hole at Monomoy Point,
where favorable opportunity was afforded for obtaining data on the life
of the scallop. An inclosed, protected body of water, forming a natural
aquarium of five acres, from which the scallops could not escape; un-
molested, owing to its being leased by the State for scientific investiga-
tion; a natural scallop bed with all normal conditions, yet small enough
for direct control and observation, — were all factors which rendered
the Powder Hole of especial advantage for the solution of this problem.
Three sets of scallops were closely followed from birth to death under
natural conditions, free from many natural enemies and the interference
of man, and practically unable to escape. Likewise, scallops were con-
fined in wire pens for two successive seasons and the actual death-rate
of the old and young scallops compared under the same conditions.

The life of the scallop can be arranged in four arbitrary stages:

(1) embryonic life or babyhood, from the time the egg becomes a living
organism until the animal attaches to the friendly blade of eel grass;

(2) adolescence, or the period ending when it first spawns at the age
of one year; (3) the adult period, from twelve to twenty months,
during the later part of which it is ready for the market; (4) senility
or old age, from twenty months until the animal dies.

This last period, that of senility, is the important factor in consider-
ing the length of life of the scallop, as it is the time of physical decline.
Old age is marked in the scallop by (1) slower growth and a slight
thickening in shell formation for those specimens which live over
twenty-three months; (2) a degeneration in the large adductor muscle
or "eye," shown by flabbiness and diminution in relative size; (3) an
increasing amount of foreign growth on the shell. One or more of these
signs may be absent in individual specimens, but all are true of the
general type. Old scallops are more sensitive or susceptible to adverse
conditions than the scallops a year younger, and perish under condi-
tions which would be survived by the latter.

The period of senility has no definite beginning. Possibly the scallop
is on the decline during its adult life, having reached its maximum
at the spawning season, and then, having outlived its usefulness, awaits
death. One of the fundamental principles of nature according to the
old school, as applied to the lower animals, is that life exists only so
far as it concerns the reproduction of the species, and that animals,
such as the mayfly, live only until they reproduce, and then perish.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 79

But with the scallop we have the interesting case of an animal which
spawns but once and yet lives for nearly a second year, perishing just
on the verge of another spawning season, — an exact contradiction to
this principle. This apparent phenomenon might be explained in two
ways: (1) that a few second-year scallops are useful, as they spawn
twice; (2) that probably the shallow- water scallop (P. irradians) once
had a longer life and more than one spawning season, as its cousin the
giant scallop (Pecten tenuicostatus Mighels), and that the present Pec-
ten irradians is a decadent species.

About the first of March the adult scallops begin to die, and this
period, when the average scallop is twenty months old, is taken as the
arbitrary beginning of the period of senescence. In the natural scallop
beds the majority of the scallops are caught by this time, while the re-
mainder sooner or later die a natural death, a large proportion perish-
ing before May or before the twenty-second month. This fact is well
known to scallopers who fish late in the season, and there have been
striking instances of large beds suddenly perishing, as at Dennis in
March and April, 1905. After May the length of life is variable, some
scallops passing the two-year limit (July) and occasionally living until
the following October and November (twenty-seven and twenty-eight
months), but the majority of these die before the twenty-fourth month
(July). Exact data upon this subject were obtained from scallops
which had been under observation in wire pens at Monomoy Point for
two years. Records of death-rate from old age show that, of 465 scal-
lops alive May 1 (twenty-two months), 32 per cent, remained by July 10
(twenty-four months) and only 6 per cent. August 2. In July these
scallops would have been two years old. Scallops one year old, con-
fined under similar conditions, showed only a slight mortality.

It is, therefore, fair to assert that under natural conditions, when
unmolested by the scallopers, but 20 per cent, reach the two-year mark,
whereas on the scalloping grounds, unprotected both from nature and
man, the percentage of old scallops which reach two years is much less
than in the inclosed Powder Hole ai Monomoy Point, and in all proba-
bility the total which pass the two-year limit is under 10 per cent. All
rules have their exceptions, and frequently instances occur where scal-
lops of twenty-eight months (recognizable from two growth lines and
general appearance) are found. In every scalloping ground an occa-
sional scallop of this age or older is dredged. More particularly, in
certain localities small beds of scallops which have passed the age limit,
are occasionally found, but usually the number in the bed is small.
Several small beds and one large (Common Flats, Chatham, 1908) have
come under the observation of the writer, who by no means claims
that the two-year limit is a hard and fast rule, but rather that there
are often exceptions, which, however, form but a small per cent, of the
whole.

80 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

The age limit of the scallop ranges from twenty to thirty months.
We find that the variation is due to several causes: (1) the spawning
season, which makes possible a difference of two months in the age;
(2) the environment, favorable or unfavorable, which lengthens or
shortens the period of life; (3) seasonal differences, as during a mild
winter the old scallops are under less strain than during a severe
season; (4) the rate of growth and consequently the size of the scallop,
as the small, slow-growing scallops apparently live longer than the
large. This was noticeable with the set of 1907 at Monomoy Point,
which grew very slowly, as compared with the sets of previous years,
owing to the partial closure of the opening to the ocean and the con-
sequent lessening of circulation in the Powder Hole during 1908.
These scallops in the summer of 1909, when two years old, were scarcely
larger than yearlings, and lived until the following September before
they began to die, at least six months longer than the normal. In pre-
vious years in the Powder Hole a small per cent, of the scallops had
lived until May and a still smaller number until August (twenty-five
months), but this was the only set, as a whole, to pass to the twenty-
sixth month, a fact probably explained by their small size and freedom
from foreign growth.

The above statements are based on the following facts : —

(1) The writer has been able to find very few old scallops (twenty-
seven months) during the fall dredging in waters of the Commonwealth,
The scallop fishermen report in each locality the same result, with the
exceptions above mentioned. This narrows the limit from general prac-
tical observation to twenty-seven months.

(2) The reports of fishermen upon the death of scallops in the
last of the winter and in the spring, as well as the great destruction of
beds at Dennis, Chatham, etc., prove that the scallop begins to die
about the twentieth month of its life. This brings the period of death
and decline between the twentieth and twenty-seventh month, or from
March until October.

(3) The sets of 1905, 1906 and- 1907 were followed from birth to
death at the different scalloping sections by observations at stated in-
tervals, and the results, except for the inroads of the scallopers, were
conclusively proved by dredging on the scallop grounds.

(4) Detailed study of the sets of 1905, 1906 and 1907 in the Powder
Hole, where the scallops were confined for life, shows conclusively that
the average length of life is two years, even when undisturbed by
dredging.

(5) Records from 500 scallops in pens at Monomoy for growth gave
actual figures for death from old age.

The connection between the limited life of the scallop and the spawn-
ing season has been considered under the subject of " Spawning," in
chapter III., and it is only necessary to again call the reader's attention

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 81

to the importance of the short life of the scallop in regulating the
fishery by law. This knowledge is particularly applicable to protective
legislation. The length of life permits but one spawning season, when
the scallop is one year old. After spawning the average scallop is
valueless for the maintenance of the race, and does not need protection.
Thus the scallop under one year old, the "seed" scallop, is the only
one that should be protected by law. No legislation is necessary for
the scallop past its prime. For this reason restrictive legislation, such
as limiting the catch by the town law, except when it is to the pecuniary
advantage of the scalloper, to avoid " glutting " the market, is unneces-
sary, and only works to the detriment of the fisherman, as all scallops
not taken will perish before another season. The fisherman should be
given freedom in his dredging, provided he observes the all-important
"seed" scallop law, as he can catch all the old scallops without in-
juring in the slightest degree the future industry.

The Growth Line. — The shell of the scallop is increased by calcified
secretions of the mantle, which add fine concentric rings to the growing
edge. If one observes the shell closely one will find that it is made up
of microscopic growth lines, due to the method of growth.

On scallops which reach a second summer there is found a growth
line, more or less pronounced, which can be likened to the year marks
seen in cross-section of tree-trunks, and is given the name of the annual
growth line. Growth lines with the oyster are helpful in determining
the age, and this line marks the distinction between the adult and
" seed " scallop, and has attained considerable prominence as the basis
of the " seed " scallop law.

The annual growth line is formed in Massachusetts waters about
May 1, when the scallops resume their growth after the cold winter
months, during which all growth has ceased. Necessarily, during the
long period of nongrowth, from November to May, the edge of the
shell has become thickened or blunted by more or less wear, and when
the new growth is secreted by the edge of the mantle on the inner
side of the shell a distinct ridge is formed, marking the separation of
the old and new growth. The location of the growth line varies between
the limits of 10 to 65 millimeters from the hinge, depending upon the
size of the scallop when it ceases growing in the fall. We have already
shown that there is a similar variation in the size of the " seed " scallop,
owing to difference in its situation and the time of spawning. As a rule,
the line is 30 to 40 millimeters from the hinge. In some scallops it is
very prominent, while in others it is difficult to discern at first glance;
sometimes the shell shows a difference in color between the two parts,
at other times both the old and new growth are alike, and it is neces-
sary to run the finger down the shell to determine the ridge. However,
these cases are the exceptions, and the average growth line is especially
prominent on the lower or right side of the animal, the upper valve

82 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

usually being covered with numerous growths, both plant and animal,
which may obscure the line.

As the formation of the annual line is due to cessation of growth
during the winter, it logically follows that any check for a less or
greater time will cause slight lines, which are entirely distinct from the
annual growth line and are by no means as prominent, being merely
heavier concentric layers. Growth lines of this sort can be produced
on young scallops at any time by interfering temporarily with their
growth. The same scallops repeatedly transferred from the spat boxes
on the raft at Monomoy Point, and kept in an aquarium for even as
short a period as one day, could be made to produce as many as three
or four distinct growth lines. Large " seed " scallops and even adults,
when transplanted from Harwich and Chatham to Monomoy Point,
always showed the change by the formation of a line of growth.

The growth line is not caused by the spawning season, as has been
supposed, since our investigations upon the effect of the spawning on
growth indicate that there is no cessation during this period (June
and July), and that before the beginning of the spawning there has
formed during the month of May about % of an inch of new shell.
All our observations for the years from 1906 to 1909 have shown that
the new growth begins about May 1, except for the variation of differ-
ent years, and that the growth line is formed at a time previous to the
spawning season.

Although the growth line appears when the scallop is but ten months
old, it can for all practical purposes be considered as marking the first
year of the scallop's life. While the spawning season is not completed
until about the first part of August, these dates are included in the
closed season, which lasts from April to October, and in a general sense
the growth line can be associated with the spawning season, and in the
open fishing season any scallop with the annual growth line is ready
for capture. Risser (2) was the first to advocate the use of the growth
line to distinguish the difference between the adult and " seed," while-
the Commonwealth of Massachusetts was the first to put into force a
law based on the growth line as distinguishing the adult from the " seed "
or immature scallop, which has not spawned. While we cannot say
that every scallop with a growth line has spawned, we can definitely
state that every scallop without a growth line has not spawned and is a
"seed" scallop. The growth line has thus proved of great practical
importance in scallop legislation, which is based on the facts obtained
upon the length of life and spawning of the scallop in Massachusetts
waters.

Growth during Spawning Season, — The spawning season has the
wide limits from June 15 to August 15. The greater part of the spawn-
ing is accomplished during June and the first part of July. Corre-
sponding to the spawning period there occurs a slowing in the rate of

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 83

growth (Fig. 85). Risser (2) has observed a similar occurrence with
the growth of Rhode Island scallops, but declared that there is a com-
plete check at this period, and to it attributes the origin of the annual
growth line. This report has demonstrated that the growth line is
formed at an early period, about May 1, by the resuming of shell
formation after the nongrowth of the winter months, and has nothing
to do with the spawning season. Likewise, no decided check in the
growth of Massachusetts scallops is found during the spawning season,
but rather the scallop continues to grow at about half its normal rate.
The monthly rate of growth was determined for 1,900 scallops in four
wire netting pens at Monomoy Point during 1906. It was found, by
considering the entire summer's growth (May 1 to December 1) as
100 per cent., that the growth during May was 19.76 per cent., during
June 8.33 per cent., during July 10.35 per cent., during August 20.39
per cent., showing that the rate of growth for the month preceding and
succeeding the spawning season was over twice as fast as for the
spawning months.

The reason for this slow growth can be attributed to the coincidence
with the spawning season, and is best explained by assuming that the
activities of the animal were directed for that period upon the propaga-
tion of its species, and less energy was used for the secretion of shelL
Temperature, the great factor in determining growth, does not have any
influence here, as the water during June and July was warmer than
during May and colder than August. In fact, all natural conditions
affecting the rate of growth were eliminated, leaving the spawning
season as the direct cause in the lessening of the rate of growth.

Growth of the Young Scallop. — The young scallop at the age of
forty-eight hours has increased in size by the formation of the embry-
onic shell. Previous to this time the ciliated larva was scarcely larger
than the original egg. The period of first shell formation marks the
beginning of real growth, which continues for the entire life of the
scallop during the summer months. Since the growth during early life
has been described in chapter III., it is only necessary to consider the
growth after the scallop has become readily visible to the naked eye,
i.e., about ¥25 -of an inch in size.

The time of appearance of the set depends upon two factors, (1)
locality; (2) year. During 1906 the visible appearance of "set" was
recorded as follows: (1) Powder Hole, Chatham, August 7; (2) Stage
Harbor, Chatham, July 24; (3) Edgartown, August 3; North Fal-
mouth (Buzzard's Bay), July 20; Marion, July 20; showing a difference
of fourteen days between two bodies of water not 10 miles apart, and
an extreme variation of eighteen days. At Monomoy, between 1905
and 1909, the sets have appeared as early as July 24 and as late as
August 7, showing the influence of seasonal change. (These dates do
not indicate the first appearance, but when the average set was readily

84

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

discernible to the naked eye.) Stragglers can be found weeks before
and after, due to the length of the spawning season.

The rate of growth of the young scallop is affected by the same
natural conditions as the adult. Between the sizes of 1 and 15 milli-
meters, the average gain per day is 0.5 of a millimeter (about %o of an
inch). As the scallop increases in size the actual growth becomes less.

The habit of attachment is of great importance to the scallop, not
only occasionally saving it from destruction on foul bottom, but raising
it in a position where the little animal can obtain a better food supply,
thereby favoring its growth. Eel grass from its abundance proves the
most common place of attachment, but is often detrimental to growth
by shutting off the circulation of water. In comparing the growth of
small scallops in eel grass and outside, the eel-grass scallops show a
slower growth.

In summarizing the growth of the young scallop the following points
are important: (1) the actual growth begins only with the first shell
formation; (2) the time of set varies in regard to (a) locality, and
(b) year; (3) the growth up to 15 millimeters averages VQO of an inch
per day; (4) growth becomes less and less as scallop increases in size
beyond the 15 millimeter mark; (5) power of attachment aids growth;
(6) conditions governing growth are the same as for adult; (7)
growth of the young is faster than for yearling scallops, both in (a)
actual gain, and (6) in volume.

Growth of the Average Massachusetts Scallop. — Owing to the varia-
tion in the growth of the scallop in the different localities, it is difficult
to strike more than an approximate average for the size of the yearly
sets and the typical Massachusetts scallop. Two classes of scallops are
found, (1) the shallow-water or eel-grass scallop, and (2) the deep-water
or channel variety. The following tables are compiled from the average
growth in the different localities for a period of three years. The height
of the scallops is given in millimeters, 25.4 millimeters being equivalent
to 1 inch.

The Average Scallop.

SET.

AVERAGE SIZE (MILLIMETERS).

Per Cent.
Gain in Volume.

Mayl
(Ten Months).

December 1
(Seventeen Months).

1904

33.40
37.50
31.82

60.99
62.30
60.51

632.75
525.78
678.04

1905
1906
Average, ....

34.24

61.27

612.19

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

85

Size of Scallop (Millimeters}.

DATE.

1904.

1905.

1906.

Average.

Aug. 1,
Sept. 1,
Oct 1,

2.00
12.40
22.64
32.30
33.40
33.40
38.85
41.15
44.01
49.64
55.18
60.40
60.99

2.00
13.76
25.34
36.26
37.50
37.50
42.20
44.27
46.84
51.90
56.88
61.76
62.30

2.00
11.82
21.61
30.78
31.82
31.82
37.49
39.88
42.85
48.70
54.46
59.89
60.51

2.00
12.66
23.20
33.11
34.24
34.24
39.51
41.77
44.57
50.08
55.51
60.68
61.27

Nov. 1,
Dec. 1,
May 1,
June 1,
Julv 1,

Aug. 1,
Sept. 1,
Oct. 1,
Nov. 1,
Dec. 1,

Growth in Various Localities. — The growth of the scallop is largely
determined by its environment. Owing to the diversity of natural
conditions within small bodies of water more definite conclusions can
be drawn from special localities than by comparing one locality or
section with another, owing to the difficulty of determining the average
growth for so large an area. Nevertheless, it is of interest to compare
the growths in the different parts of the State in a general way, without
making too fine a distinction between the individual towns. The follow-
ing figures are based on a large number of measurements of several
sets : —

Size of Scallops (Millimeters}.

THE ISLANDS.

THE CAPE.

BUZZABD'S BAY.

DATE.

Nantucket.

Edgartown.

Chatham.

Monomoy.

North
Falmouth.

Marion.

Aug. 1
Sept. 1

2.00
10.85

2.00
10.10

2.00
12.43

2.00
12.61

2.00
13.77

2.00
16.29

Oct. 1

19.57

18.09

22.71

23.05

25.36

30.36

Nov. 1

27.79

25.62

32.40

32.90

36.30

43.64

Dec. 1

28.72

26.48

33.50

34.02

37.54

45.15

May 1

28.72

26.48

33.50

34.02

37.54

45.15

June 1

34.53

32.34

38.72

39.33

42.59

49.94

July 1

36.98

34.81

40.92

41.57

44.72

51.96

Aug. 1

40.02

37.88

43.65

44.35

47.37

54.47

Sept. 1

46.02

43.93

49.03

49.83

52.59

59.42

Oct. 1

51.93

49.88

54.33

54.23

57.77

64.29

Nov. 1

57.50

55.49

59.33

60.32

62.58

68.88

Dec. 1

58.13

56.13

59.90

60.90

63.13

69.40

Comparison of the Different Sets. — In the second table given under
the average Massachusetts scallop a comparison of the different sets
can be found for the whole scalloping district. A better idea of the
variation can be given in comparing the sets for four years in the same
locality, the Powder Hole : —

86

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

SIZE (MILLIMETERS).

SET.

Number.

Mayl.

December 1.

1904,

200

34.55

61.59

1905

300

34.00

62.90

300

28.09

59.35

1907,

500

21.50

42.50

The 1907 set was peculiar in showing a much slower growth than the
previous sets. This was due to the partial closure of the entrance to
the Powder Hole during the summers of 1907 and 1908, which deprived
the scallops of the circulation of water which they formerly had. This
peculiar set has already been discussed in connection with the length of
life of the scallop, as nearly all reached the age of twenty-seven months.

Comparison with Rhode Island. — A comparison of the rate of growth
of the different sections in Massachusetts with the Narragansett Bay
scallops shows that the average Massachusetts scallop is much smaller
and less rapid in growth than its neighbor, except in the Buzzard's Bay
section, where the conditions more nearly approximate Narragansett
Bay. This difference is probably due to the warmer water, which per-
mits earlier spawning and more rapid growth. The Rhode Island
figures in the following table are taken from the report of Jonathan
Risser (2) in the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries, 1904: —

Size of Scallops (Millimeters}.

DATE.

Rhode Island.

Buzzard's
Bay.

Cape Cod.

Islands.

Average Massa-
chusetts.

Oct. 2,

42.00

27.86

22.88

18.93

23.20

Dec. 4,

44.50

41.35

33.76

27.60

34.24

Jan. 11,

55.00

41.35

33.76

27.60

34.24

March 20,

56.80

41.35

33.76

27.60

34.24

April 21,

58.80

41.35

33.76

27.60

34.24

May 30,

60.00

46.27

39.03

33.44

39.51

July 1,

60.00

48.34

41.25

35.90

41.77

Aug. 1, . .

62.75

50.92

44.00

38.95

44.57

Sept. 18,

71.60

59.02

52.31

48.94

53.42

Oct. 16,

79.00

63.38

57.06

53.89

58.11

Nov. 16,

81.00

66.00

60.10

56.83

60.98

Dec. 3,

86.00

66.27

60.40

57.13

61.27

Jan. 11,

85.00

66.27

60.40

57.13

61.27

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 87

Age and Growth. — With the exception of the winter months (De-
cember to May), during which no growth takes place, the scallop con-
tinues to increase in size until its death. The proportionate growth as
determined by the volumetric increase steadily diminishes after the
period of first shell formation (the veliger or embryonic shell). On the
other hand, the actual gain in inches or millimeters is approximately
constant for the first summer, then slowly decreases during the second
and even third, provided the animal lives be3Tond the two-year limit.
The point is well illustrated by the following experiment: scallops of
the 1904, 1905 and 1906 sets were suspended in wire cages under simi-
lar conditions from a raft at Monomoy Point for a period of fifty-
three days during the summer of 1906 (Fig. 86). The smaller
(younger) scallops showed a greater capacity for growth both in actual
increase and in volume. The 1904 set gave an actual increase of 2.10
millimeters in height, or 112 per cent, in volume, a return of less than
1% bushels for every bushel planted; the 1905 set 3.94 millimeters
in height, or 125 per cent, in volume, a return of I1/! bushels; the 1906
set 10.86 millimeters in height, or 309 per cent, in volume, a return of
over 3 bushels. From these figures it is evident that the " seed " (1906
set) gave about twelve times the growth in volume of the yearlings
(1905 set), and twenty-five times the growth of the 1904 scallops, which
had lived beyond their allotted life; and that there is a successive de-
crease, both numerically and volumetrically, in the rate of growth with
the aging of the scallop.

Environment and Growth. — Two great factors influence all animal
and plant life, — heredity and environment. In the case of the scallop,
environment seems to possess the greater influence on the variation
of the species, as varieties are more dependent upon the natural sur-
roundings than upon hereditary characteristics. By environment is
meant the natural conditions within which the animal lives, and which
determine its struggle for existence. The question of food, enemies,
exposure, protection, situation in large or small bodies of water, in or
out of tidal currents, temperature, etc., are all factors influencing to
a more or less extent the life and habits of the scallop, making it large
or small, heavy or light shelled, firm or poor meated, etc. Particularly
with marine animals does environment largely determine size, shape,
habits and rate of growth.

With many aquatic animals larger specimens of the same species are
found in the great bodies of water than in the small, showing that the
area of water, either by a more plentiful food supply or in other ways,
determines the general size. Looking at the matter from a different
standpoint, that of current, it seems that scallops which have the greater
amount of water passing over them (which can be compared to resi-
dence in a larger area) are larger and of faster growth than the scallops
which do not have the same volume of water.

88 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(a) Growth in Eespect to Current. — The most important factor in
shellfish growth is a good current of water. The use of the word cur-
rent does not mean necessarily a rapid stream or an exceedingly swift
flow, but a good circulation of water over the bed.

The chief office of the current is as a food carrier. The scallop ob-
tains its nourishment from microscopic plants, called diatoms, which are
found throughout the water. The amount of this food is approximately
uniform, and the scallops situated in a current naturally receive more
food than those in still water. With mollusks the growth is directly
proportionate to the amount of food, and the scallop receiving the most
food increases in size most rapidly. A homely comparison can be made
by likening the scallop in the current to the man seated at a moving
lunch counter, who is able to continually obtain a new supply of food,
while his neighbor at the stationary table (the scallop in the still water)
is limited to the food within reach. For all practical purposes current
means food, and within limits the increase in current indicates the
increase in the amount of food, thus furnishing an index for the rate
of growth. Theoretically, other factors enter into the problem, such
as (1) variations in the amount of food in different localities; (2) the
feeding capacity of the scallop, since beyond a certain maximum value
an increase in current means no increase in the amount of assimilated
food; (3) the freedom of the water from contamination and silt, which
impedes the feeding powers of the animal. The shellfish culturist can
take the current as his guide for planting, and follow the rule that,
as long as the flow of water does not harm the planted shellfish in other
ways, the swifter current gives the faster growth.

Current not only brings food to the scallop but also furnishes the
lime in solution which is utilized in building the shell, a process as
essential in the growth of the scallop as the nourishment of the soft
parts by the food in the water. The amount of lime in solution varies
in different waters, but this difference is largely obviated by the changes
in the current. As an example, a scallop will grow no faster in water
rich in lime which is comparatively stagnant than it will in water rela-
tively much poorer where there is a stronger current.

The third office of the current is a purely sanitary one. It sweeps
away the decaying vegetable matter so destructive to scallops situated
in thick eel grass, and all other poisonous debris which would otherwise
kill the scallops by contamination, or at all events would check their
growth.

The relationship of current to growth has been experimentally shown
in several ways, all of which demonstrate that in the case of the scallop
current is the main essential for rapid development. The following
observations and experiments are cited as confirmatory evidence : —

(1) Eel-grass v. Channel Scallops. — In observing the catch from
the scallop beds, it was recorded that the larger scallops always came

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 89

from the deep water or channel, while the smaller were taken in the
eel grass or shallow water. This difference held true to such an extent
that the scallop fishermen could tell by the appearance of the scallop
from what section of the bed it came. The shallow-water scallops are
much smaller, usually proportionately thicker, and have not the large
" eye " and fine appearance of the channel scallops, which are preferred
by the scallopers. From a study of the natural conditions of the scallop
beds, it appeared that this difference in growth was not due to the mere
change in the depth of water but was due to current. The channel
scallops on clear bottom receive better circulation of water than in the
eel grass, which cuts off nearly all flow of water. Places were found
where scallops in deep water without current showed no more growth
than the shallow-water variety, while, on the other hand, shallow-water
scallops situated near the mouth of an estuary where the tide flowed
swiftly back and forth were nearly as large as the deep-water variety.
Therefore, while the general distinction between large and small scallops
appears to be merely that of deep and shallow water, the fundamental
reason is the presence or the lack of current.

(2) Penned Scallops at Monomoy Point. — Two pens were located
in the Powder Hole at Monomoy Point in 1906. The first was located in
an unfavorable situation in shallow water, in thick eel grass which shut
off all circulation. The second pen was located in a more favorable
situation, where the eel grass was thin and a gentle circulation was
caused twice a day by the inflowing of the tide. This pen was situated
close to the shore and was by no means adapted for more than ordinary
growth. In comparing the growth of the two pens, from May 1 to
August 1 for the same sized scallops it was found that pen 1 gave a
gain in volume of 12 per cent., while pen 2 furnished an increase of 35
per cent, for the same sized scallops, or nearly three times as fast as
pen 1. This furnishes a concrete example of the effect of the lack of
circulation, as other conditions were very similar in the two pens,
which were situated only a short distance apart, in the same depth of
water, and about the same distance from shore.

(3) Basket Growth on Raft and on Shore. — Scallops of the 1906
set were obtained from Stage Harbor, Chatham, Sept. 7, 1906, and
suspended in wire baskets from the raft (Fig. 79), and in pen 2 near
the shore. The scallops on the raft, which was located in the deepest
part of the Powder Hole, received the best circulation of water and
showed a surprisingly fast growth. The difference is brought out by
comparing the raft growth with the natural growth of the Stage Harbor
set for the same time, and for the basket growth in pen 2 of the same
set of scallops. The gain from September 7 to November 22, a period of
seventy-six days, was 17.28 millimeters for the raft, 14.08 millimeters
for the Stage Harbor scallops, and 10.40 millimeters for the shore.
Considering the raft growth as 100 per cent., Stage Harbor would be

90 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

81.48 per cent., and the shore 60.18 per cent. The actual gain in volume
for each locality would be raft 662 per cent., Stage Harbor 475 per
cent., shore 293 per cent. (Fig. 88).

(4) In comparing the growth of penned scallops during 1906 at
Chatham, Powder Hole, Monument Beach and Marion in reference to
the natural conditions, the pens with the best circulation of water
invariably showed the fastest growth, as can be observed in detail by
referring to the table under artificial growth.

(5) The Stage Harbor Set. — An excellent opportunity for observ-
ing the effect of current on the growth of young scallops was found at
Stage Harbor in 1906. The set was located at the entrance to Stage
Harbor on a flat extending about 90 yards from the east shore to the
channel, which curves close to Harding's Beach, on the opposite side.
Thick eel grass covered this flat except near the channel, where it grew
scatteringly. The water at mean low tide is from 6 to 9 inches deep
over most of the flat, gradually deepening at the edge of the eel grass
toward the channel. The rise and fall of the tide is about 2l/2 feet.
At low course tides the greater part of the flat is exposed. The differ-
ence in the flat is mostly due to the tide, which sweeps in and out of the
harbor at every rise and fall, so that there is a strong current always
running in the channel. The result is to give that portion of the flat
near the channel more current than the portion further away, and the
part near shore hardly any. The young scallops were evenly distributed
over the flat, although the channel portion was not so heavily set. The
growth of scallops of the 1906 set was followed by dividing the flat
into three sections, passing from the shore to the channel, each roughly
30 yards wide, and by measuring the average size of scallops in each
of these sections at different dates. Four measurements were made,
Oct. 26, 1906, April 4, 1907, May 1, 1907, and July 1, 1907. By calcu-
lating the difference in the rate of growth and size at each date, the
following figures were obtained. Giving the area near the channel
(the area of fastest growth) 100 per cent., the middle portion would
have a value of 87.04 per cent., while the shore section would have
77.79 per cent. These figures conclusively show the effect of location
on the growth of scallops, as in this case scallops of the same set mani-
fested a much greater growth when situated near circulating water.
Placing the same in measurements as taken July 1, 1907, when the
scallops were exactly one year old, we would have in current portion
scallops 42.81 millimeters in size, middle, 37.77 millimeters, shore, 32.95
millimeters, showing a difference of nearly 10 millimeters between the
current scallops and the shore, possibly 70 yards apart and of the same
set. Computing the growth of the standard scallop (25 millimeters) for
each of these areas for a definite period, the following comparative
gains in volume, 482 per cent., 280 per cent., and 146 per cent, were
obtained (Fig. 87).

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 91

(b) Growth and Soil. — It is impossible to state definitely the exact
effect of soil upon the growth of the scallop. The character of the
bottom apparently affects the growth but little, as the scallop rests only
on the surface and is constantly shifting its position. In this way the
scallop is different from the quahaug and clam, which lie buried under
the surface. While the adult scallop is little affected by the nature
of the soil, the young scallop would soon perish in soft mud were it not
attached to eel grass during the early period of its life. The best bottom
seems to be a tenacious sand (sand with a slight mixture of mud) with
thin eel grass. The most common type, that of the shallow flats, is of a
sandy nature with various thicknesses of eel grass. In the case of the
large channel scallop, the soil is either sand, gravel, hard mud, shells,
with but little eel grass.

The only means of influencing the growth is by the action of the
organic acids in certain soils which affect the chemical composition of
the lower valve, the only part of the scallop in contact with the soil.
Sometimes in cold weather the scallop sinks down in little hollows in
the soil, bringing more surface in contact with the bottom. Fortu-
nately, localities of injurious nature are of infrequent occurrence on the
scallop grounds and are limited in extent.

(c) Growth in Eel Grass. — The soil indirectly affects the growth of
the scallop by the production of eel grass, which is found in more or
less abundance on the scallop beds. Eel grass, especially on the shallow
flats, occurs either as (1) thick clusters with open spaces intervening,
(2) thinly scattered or (3) thick masses. Only in the last case is eel
grass a serious check to growth, as it then cuts off a proper circulation
of water, which is the main essential for rapid development, although
in the other two types there is more or less interference, according to the
thickness of the eel grass. By a comparison between growth on clear
sand bottom and in thick eel grass, where other conditions were approxi-
mately the same, the scallops on the clear bottom show a greater rapidity
of growth than those within the grass, showing that the difference was
mainly due to a lack of circulation.

(d) Effect of Temperature. — The factor next in importance to cur-
rent in determining the growth of the scallop is temperature. The
scallop needs a temperature over 45° F. for growth, thus differentiating
the growing months (May 1 to December 1) from the winter months
(Fig. 89). Naturally, cessation of growth would be attributed to a
lack of food. While by actual count there is a decrease in the amount
of food (diatoms) in the water about December 1, it is not sufficient to
account for the cessation of growth at this date. Indications point to
the fact that the activity of the scallop in procuring food has declined,
as the animal has become sluggish with a lowering of the water tempera-
ture, and during the winter months remains inert on the bottom, nestling
in little hollows in the sandy soil.

92 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

Waters of high temperature usually show more rapid growth, prob-
ably due to (1) the earlier start in the spring and longer season, (2)
more rapid growth throughout the summer months from an increased
food supply. Diatoms multiply more rapidly in warm waters and the
food supply is consequently greater. The effect of temperature can be
seen by comparing the scallops of Cape Cod and Buzzard's Bay. The
former do not attain the size of the latter, which are the largest scallops
produced in the Commonwealth. The same comparison holds true
between Rhode Island and Massachusetts, as in the warmer waters of
Narragansett Bay the scallops develop more rapidly. While in both
cases other natural conditions play an important part, it is only fair
to assume that temperature is a most important factor.

(e) Growth and Salinity. — The oyster is extremely sensitive to
changes in the salinity of the water, both in regard to spawning and
growth. The growth of the scallop, on the other hand, is not materially
affected by these changes. A sudden decrease in salinity, as after a
severe rain, often kills young scallop larvse, and transferring scallops
from water of one density to another during the breeding season has
been found to check the spawning.

Scallops are found in waters ranging in density from 1.010 to 1.027,
i.e., an equal mixture of salt and fresh, as in mouths of rivers, to
extreme salinity. Rough experiments have demonstrated that scallops
live and grow equally well between these limits, and that any differences
in growth are due to other conditions.

(/) Depth of Water. — The question of the most favorable depth for
growth is of importance to the scallop planter. In nature scallops are
found at any depth, from flats exposed at low tide to 60 feet, although
the usual limits are less than 25 feet. In too shallow water severe
winters destroy the sets, so the scallop should be deep enough to escape
the ice. As shown by the channel v. eel-grass (shallow water) scallop,
the greater growth occurs in the deep waters; but, as has been stated,
this is essentially due to the better circulation in the channel.

Scallops were suspended in wire baskets from the raft in the Powder
Hole at different depths during the summer of 1906. The water was
20 feet deep. Four baskets, each containing 100 "seed" scallops
about 20 millimeters in size, were suspended for seventy-six days at
6, 7, 8 and 9Vfe feet from surface. When measured a regular decrease
of about one millimeter per foot was found, the 6-foot basket evidencing
the greatest gain, and the rest less in definite order, ending with 9V2-
foot basket. These figures indicate that the best depth for this particular
locality was about 5 feet from the surface. Similar experiments with
older scallops gave negative results.

Artificial Growth. — The greater part of the growth experiments on
the scallop were conducted under the artificial conditions that would be
employed in scallop culture. In order to record the rate of growth

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 93

correctly, it was necessary to have some means of confining the scallops.
This was done in three ways: (1) pens of wire netting; (2) wire cages;
(3) an inclosed body of water, the Powder Hole. Only the first two
can properly be considered artificial, as in the Powder Hole the scallops
were in their natural environment. The records were taken at monthly
intervals, three measurements being taken of each scallop.

The pens were located at Monomoy Point, Chatham, Nantucket, Mon-
ument Beach, Marion, and in the Annisquam and the Essex rivers. The
size of the pens ranged from 40 to 400 square feet, either of sufficient
height to extend above the average tide, or covered with a netting to
prevent the scallops escaping. The posts were made of 2 by 3 feet
joists firmly fixed in the soil and placed at sufficient intervals to hold
the netting taut. Wire netting (l^-inch mesh) and old seines were used,
the greatest difficulty being to secure the bottom firmly, which was done
by base-boards and by fastening the netting in the sand with long
wooden pegs. (A complete description of the construction of the pens
is given in chapter VII.) It is only fair to state here that pens can
probably be improved in such a manner that better results can be ob-
tained, and many of the difficulties of artificial culture can be eliminated.

(a) Artificial compared with Natural Growth. — For some reason
the scallops in the pens do not grow as rapidly as the unconfined scallops
in the same locality. This is proved by a comparison of the growth of
penned and unpenned scallops in the Powder Hole in 1905, and also by
the table of comparative growths in the pens in the various localities
during the summer of 1906. In the first case the growth approximated
14.30 millimeters for the penned, as compared with 25.04 millimeters
for the unpenned, showing a gain of 10.74 millimeters, or 75 per cent.
The average growth from five pens was 16.77 millimeters, as compared
with 26.29 for the unpenned, showing a difference of 9.52 millimeters,
or 56.8 per cent. It seems peculiar that merely limiting the range of
the scallop should have this detrimental effect upon its growth. Several
explanations are in order: (1) lack of food by overcrowding in the
pens; while this is a very probable explanation, as the scallops were
much thicker in the pens than without, it does not seem to hold true
for the pens which contained but few scallops, as tnese no wise differed
from the others; (2) the accumulation of seaweed and other plant life
on the meshes of the netting, which prevented the proper degree of
circulation; (3) the lessened activity of the scallop as compared with
the freedom of those without, i.e., lack of exercise. Probably to no one
of these explanations can be attributed the whole cause, but rather that
all three are more or less involved.

This fact, when applied to scallop culture, is important, as the planter
would naturally be desirous of at least attaining as good a growth, if
not better, than under natural conditions, and yet if he confines the
scallops in small pens he is unable to obtain a maximum yield. There

94

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

is no reason to believe that this difficulty cannot be overcome by the
construction of improved pens, and by requisite care in cleaning. On
the other hand, as is stated in chapter VI., under " Artificial Culture,"
scallop culture can only be successfully conducted in inclosed bodies of
water, since the expense of erecting pens would offset the profits.
Pens should merely be used to hold the immediate catch for market and
rarely utilized for rearing purposes.

Penned and Unpenned Scallop Growth in 1906.

LOCATION.

PENNED.

UNPENNED.

Gain

(Millimeters).

Gain in Volume
(PerCent.).

Gain
(Millimeters).

Gain in Volume
(Per Cent.).

Powder Hole,

15.84

406.00

28.90

965.00

Chatham, ....

24.25

726.00

26.40

831.00

Monument Beach,

16.00
11.00

411.00
280.00

25.59
24.25

790.00
729.00

Average,

16.77

456.00

26.29

828.00

(b) Results from Artificial Growth. — The greater part of the points
enumerated in this chapter were obtained from the experiments upon
confined scallops, which, although merely approximating natural condi-
tions, were the only means available for arriving at definite conclusions
upon the growth of the scallop. For comparative work and as supple-
mented by definite observations on the natural beds, they proved of
great value in respect to the following: (1) length of life; it was neces-
sary to confine the scallops to ascertain the duration of life, which
results were supplemented by use of tagged and unconfined scallops;
(2) the growing months and the relative economic value of each month,
mainly determined from the pen experiments at Monomoy; (3) the
comparative rate of growth of the different sizes, determined from pen
and cage experiments; (4) growth during the spawning season; (5)
the effect of environment and natural conditions which affect the rate
of growth, resulting £rom (a) currents, (&) soil, (c) eel grass, (d) tem-
perature; (6) density; (7) depth of water. These were determined by
a comparison of the natural conditions for each pen and the effect
which each had upon growth.

Among others, the following facts have been demonstrated by arti-
ficial growth experiments : —

(1) Scallops transplanted to Waters North of Boston. — Three pens
were planted in May, 1906, two of these in the Essex River and one in
the Annisquam River, with scallops brought from Cape Cod. Unfortu-
nately, no records could be obtained as the pens were swept away by
the swift tidal currents of the north shore rivers, and no trace of the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 95

scallops were obtained. Undoubtedly there are but few places in these
rivers where the temperature and other conditions are such that trans-
planted scallops can live. As a whole, the region is unsuited for the
scallop and no industry can ever be expected.

(2) Deformity of Shell of Scallops grown under Artificial Condi-
tions. — Scallops confined under artificial conditions frequently show
deformities. In nature, deformities in shell occur occasionally, usually
being due to the loss of part of the secreting mantle or by contact with
some object. The young " seed " scallops confined in the wire cages fur-
nished three types of deformity: (1) a general type, the ratio of width
to height being much greater than in the normal " seed; " (2) the thick-
ness of the caged " seed " exceeded the thickness of the normal scallop ;
(3) many individuals in the cages showed indented shells, angular pro-
jections corresponding to the position in which they had rested in con-
tact with the wire sides, and numerous other malformations occasioned
by their cramped quarters. All these factors operated against perfect
work in recording the growth of the caged scallop.

(3) Growth of Small and Large Scallops of the Same Age. — The
size of the " seed " scallops of any set vary greatly, but by the time they
are ready for market the size is more nearly uniform for scallops under
similar conditions, i.e., there is less individual variation. One of the
surprising facts noted was that the penned scallops, by the increased
rapidity of growth, caught up with the larger before the season was over.
In one pen two lots of scallops which on May 1 measured 38 and 46
millimeters respectively, by December 1 were each 60 millimeters in
height, the smaller scallops having made up the difference of % of an
inch, and had a gain in volume of 477 per cent., while the 46-millimeter
scallop had only increased 249 per cent, in volume (Fig. 90). In sev-
eral cases this fact was observed and substantiated, likewise from
measurements of the natural scallops, showing that the scallops which
are backward in growth the first year, either from poor location or
late spawning, when placed under favorable conditions have a greater
potential energy for growth than the larger "seed," and practically
make up the loss in the first season by increased gain during the second.

(4) Individual Variation and Heredity. — Each scallop has its indi-
vidual characteristics. Take any number of scallops of the same size,
no matter how few, and let them grow for a month or more. When
measured considerable variation will be found, in spite of the fact that
all the scallops had the same advantages and were under the same con-
ditions. It is due to the individual variation in the growing powers of
the different scallops, such as, e.g., their capacity for feeding or shell
secretion, and is primarily the result of either injury or heredity. Indi-
vidual scallops have been marked and it has been found that generally
a slow-growing scallop will keep the same rate during the entire season,
in spite of changed position.

96

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(5) Overcrowding. — Overcrowding tends to decrease the general
rate of growth, as too many mouths are drawing from a limited food
supply, and unless there is considerable circulation of water the amount
per capita is limited. The stronger the current the greater number can
be planted per square foot. The wire cages suspended from the raft
demonstrated the effects of overcrowding. Under uniform conditions
" seed " scallops averaging 21 per cubic foot gained 21.45 millimeters in
height, or 1,092 per cent, in volume, in seventy-six days, while those
averaging 153 per cubic foot gained 15.59 millimeters, or 659 per cent,
in volume, a difference of 433 per cent. In this case the circulation of
water was excellent, yet the difference was decidedly marked.

(6) Cage v. Natural Growth for Small Scallops ("Seed "} . — The 1906
set on the raft was recorded by confining some in wire cages of small
mesh, increased in size as the scallops became larger, and by measure-
ments of the scallops which naturally were attached to the different spat
boxes. The result was that the caged scallops gained only 15.70 milli-
meters between August 17 and November 22 (ninety-seven days), both
classes being 3 millimeters in size on August 17, while the natural set
gained 29 millimeters in the same period. The difference is explained
by (1) lack of food, the meshes of the cage shutting off the circulation
of food organisms; (2) abnormal growth, due to deformities resulting
from cage environment. It is impossible to overcome these difficulties
in obtaining the rate of growth of the scallop from caged specimens.

1905 Set during 1906.

POWDER HOLE.

CHATHAM.

MONUMENT
BEACH.

MARION.

Penl.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

Pen 5.

May 1,1906, .

51.00mm.

45.30 mm.

42.48mm.

47.50mm.

50.46 mm.

June 1, 1906, .

51.85 mm.

48.43mm.

47.27 mm.

50.18 mm.

52.63 mm.

July 1, 1906, .

52.27 mm.

49.75 mm.

49.29 mm.

51.60mm.

53.55 mm.

Aug. 1, 1906, .

52.80 mm.

51.39 mm.

51.80 mm.

53.40mm.

54.69 mm.

Sept. 1, 1906, .

53.83 mm.

54.62 mm.

56.74 mm.

56.80 mm.

56.93mm.

Oct. 1,1906, .

54.85mm.

57.80mm.

61.61mm.

60.19 mm.

59.14mm.

Nov. 1, 1906, .

55.81mm.

60.80 mm.

66.20 mm.

63.15 mm.

61.22mm.

Dec. 1,1906, .

55.92 mm.

61.14 mm.

66.73mm.

63.50 mm.

61.46mm.

Gain, .

4.92 mm.

15.84 mm.

24.25 mm.

16.00mm.

11.00mm.

Gain in volume for
standard 30 milli-
meter scallop, .

150*

406*

726*

m*

280#

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

97

Natural Conditions.

MONOMOY.

CHATHAM.

MONUMENT
BEACH.

MARION.

Pen 1.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

Pen 5.

Size of pen,

15 x 10 feet, .

40 x 10 feet, .

7x6 feet,

10x10 feet, .

10 x 10 feet.

Location, .

Distance from
shore.
Current, .

Bay, . .
30 feet,
None, / . .

Bay, . .
20 feet,
Fair, .

Entrance to
harbor.
270 feet,

Excellent, .

Bay, .

20 feet,
Fair, .

Small cove.
150 feet.
Slight.

Soil, .
Eel grass, .

Coarse pand,
Thick, .

Coarse sand,
Thin, .

Hard yellow
sand.
Very thin, .

Gravel, sand,
None, .

Soft mud.
Thick.

Rise of tide,

2'£ feet,

2% feet,

3.3 feet,

4 feet, .

4 feet.

Depth of water,

IK feet,

2>£ feet,

1 foot, .

2# feet,

1# feet.

Salinity, .

1.021, .

1.021, .

1.020, .

1.019, . . |

1.017.

Number of scal-
lops.
Enemies, .

610,
Oyster drill,

2300, .
Oyster drill,

100, . .
Starfish,

325, . .
Oyster drill,

338.
Oyster;drill.

CHAPTER VI. — THE INDUSTRY.

While a description of the natural conditions of the beds, the methods
of capture and the preparation of the scallop for market may prove of
slight information to the fisherman, the general public has little knowl-
edge of the methods used in the fishery. For this reason the following
pages are primarily intended for the average reader, although different
methods are employed in the various parts of the coast, and often the
scallop fishermen in one locality are only familiar with the methods used
in their immediate vicinity. In such cases information as to methods in
other localities as regards implements, boats, dredges, etc., is an im-
portant factor in the development of the industry, and since the aim of
this report is the improvement of the scallop fishery, no apology is
necessary for the repetition of special parts of the Mollusk Report
of 1909.

The Fishing Grounds.

Scalloping territory is a variable asset, as the beds are constantly
changing according to the location of the yearly sets, and a description
of the grounds for any reason may vary from preceding or succeeding
periods. In a general way the location and distribution of the scallop
beds are shown on the accompanying map (Fig. 78). For greater detail
the reader is referred to the Mollusk Report of 1909.

The scalloping territory, which is entirely confined to southeastern
Massachusetts, can be separated into four main divisions: (1) the north
side of Cape Cod; (2) the south side of Cape Cod; (3) Buzzard's Bay;
(4) the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket.

98 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

North Side of Cape Cod. — While there is some evidence from old
records that scallops once existed as far north as Boston, they are not
found at the present time further north than Plymouth, where it is
reported that within the past few years a few could occasionally be
gathered on the eel-grass flats of the harbor. Between Plymouth and
Provincetown scallops can be obtained at Barnstable, Brewster, Well-
fleet and Provincetown, but no extensive industry is carried on. This
section, owing to certain unfavorable conditions, probably never will
be suitable for a prosperous fishery such as is maintained on the south
side of the Cape.

Natural conditions are practically the same for the entire section.
Plymouth, Barnstable, Wellfleet and Provincetown harbors are in many
respects similar, except that the two latter have different soil. The
chief characteristic is the great rise and fall of the tide, averaging about
10 feet, which leaves exposed at low water vast areas of flats on which
the scallops perish during the winter. Another unfavorable factor is
the extreme swiftness of the tides, for example, in Barnstable and Ply-
mouth harbors, which cause a continual shifting of the sand bars and
wash the scallops upon the flats, where they are at the mercy of the
elements. Every form of sea life has its range, and Cape Cod may be
considered as the northern barrier in the distribution of the scallop.

The primitive methods of gathering the scallops by hand from the
exposed flats, or by pushers and dip nets in the shallow water, is fol-
lowed. No regular dredging is carried on, and the industry, except
during the last two years at Brewster, has not been considered of any
importance. The origin of the scallops which wash ashore on the flats
of Cape Cod Bay at Provincetown and Brewster is unknown. The
fishermen believe that in the deeper waters of the bay is a large bed,
which furnishes the scallops that are annually washed ashore. In spite
of the fact that this bed has never been located, there is every reason
to believe in its existence.

(a) Barnstable Harbor. — On the eel-grass flats on the south side of
the harbor a few scallops can be found at the present time; but there
is not a sufficient number to make a regular business, such as was carried
on in 1877-78, according to Clark (11). The chances are that a severe
winter or some other adverse condition killed all the scallops in this
locality, and thus, by destroying the spawners, rendered impossible any
future supply.

(b) Orleans and Brewster Flats. — Along the bay shore of these
towns, about 1/2 mile from the high-water line, scallops are found every
winter in more or less abundance, varying from a scant few to a suffi-
cient quantity, as in 1908-09, to make a profitable business for the
town of Brewster. The scallops, unless gathered, soon perish, as they
lie on the flats fully exposed to the chill of winter.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 99

(c) Well-fleet Harbor. — Scattering scallops are found near Billings-
gate Island, on the north side of the harbor, and east of Jeremy's Point,
but no regular fishing is carried on.

(d) Provincetown Harbor. — On the shore of the east bend of the
harbor, toward Truro, scallops are washed ashore in varying amounts
by the southwest winds. About fifteen years ago scallops were reported
as numerous, and it was not uncommon for a man to pick up 5 bushels
at one tide, but since 1900 few scallops have been found.

South Side of Cape Cod. — This section comprises the towns on the
south shore of the Cape from Chatham to Mashpee. Here conditions
are extremely favorable, except for an occasional southerly blow, which
at times is sufficiently strong to wash the scallops in windrows on the
shore. Only the shellfish in the exposed waters on the open coast are
subject to this loss. The other conditions, such as a small rise and fall
of tide (about 2 feet), good circulation of water, suitable bottom and
depth of water, are all favorable to the habitation of scallops. On some
flats during the low-running winter tides there is considerable exposure,
as on the common flats of Chatham, and many scallops perish annually.
The greater part of the fishery is conducted on the open coast, at some
distance from shore, by dredging, or with "pushers" on the low flats
which skirt the shore. Scallops are also plentiful in the inclosed bays
which line the shore, such as Stage Harbor, Chatham ; Lewis Bay, Hyan-
nis; and Oysterville Bay, Barnstable. The average size of the scallop
in this section is 2.13 inches. Few natural enemies are found. Starfish
and oyster drills are present, but not in sufficient number to be of
material damage. The total area comprised in this section is 12,700
acres.

(a) Chatham. — Scallops are found only in the southern waters of
the town. Between Inward Point and Harding's Beach many acres of
eel-grass flats, sheltered from the open ocean by Monomoy Island, fur-
nish excellent grounds for scallops. The entire area of these grounds
is approximately 2,000 acres, although this whole territory is never
completely stocked in any one year. During the season of 1907-08 the
following places constituted the scalloping grounds : —

(1) Island flats in Stage Harbor, on the east side of the channel,
opposite Harding's Beach, furnish a number of scallops, which are
caught the first of the season, as these flats were near the town.
Here the water is not more than I1/* to 2 feet deep at low tide, and
thick eel grass covers the greater part except near the channel.

(2) Directly south of Harding's Beach lies John Perry's flat, com-
monly known as " Jerry's," where there has been good scalloping for
many years.

(3) The western half of the Common Flats furnished the best scal-
loping in 1907-08, as the scallops, though small (6 pecks to a gallon),

100 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

were plentiful. These flats run nearly dry on low course tides, and
are covered with eel grass. Nearly every year there is a heavy set of
scallop seed, which, because of the exposed nature of the flats, is
wholly or partially destroyed. The entire set was destroyed in the win-
ter of 1904-05, while 30 per cent, was lost in 1906-07.

(4) On the flats just south of Inward Point was another bed of
scallops.

(5) In the bend north of Inward Point scallops were plentiful.

(6) On the northwest edge of the Common Flats scallops can be
dredged over an area of 160 acres at a depth of 5 fathoms. These
are of good size, opening 3^/2 quarts to the bushel.

(b) Harwich. — The scallop territory of Harwich covers an extensive
area on the south side of the town, and in some places extends for a
distance of from 2 to 3 miles out from shore. Usually the scallops are
found,- as in the last season (1907-08), outside the bar, at a distance of
3 miles from shore, where they can be taken only by dredging from sail
or power boats. The intervening body of water "sometimes contains a
few scallops in a quantity to make a commercial fishery. The total
area of the scallop grounds is about 3,200 acres. The bottom is mostly
sandy, with patches of eel grass.

(c) Dennis. — The scallop grounds of Dennis and Yarmouth are
common property for the inhabitants of both towns, while other towns
are excluded from the fishery. The West Dennis scallopers fish mostly
on the Yarmouth flats at the mouth of Parker River, and between Bass
and Parker rivers on the shore flats. There is also scalloping along the
shore on the Dennis grounds. These grounds are for the " pushers."
Dredging is carried on at Dennisport, and the boats cover a wide terri-
tory at some distance from the shore. The town possesses a large area,
which either has scattering scallops or is well stocked one year and
barren the next. Nearly 2,250 acres of available territory are included
in the waters of the town. The flats, which are of sand with thick or
scattering eel grass, according to the locality, afford a good bottom for
scallops. Were it not for the eel grass, the scallops would perish by
being washed on the shore by southerly winds.

(d) Yarmouth. — The scallop grounds of Yarmouth are on the south
side of the town, on the flats which border the shore from Bass River to
Lewis Bay. Part of the waters of Lewis Bay belong to the town of
Yarmouth, and scallops are found over all this territory. The nature
of the bottom is the same as at Dennis and Barnstable. The total area
of scallop territory is estimated at 2,250 acres. The scallop grounds of
Dennis are open to Yarmouth scallopers.

(e) Barnstable. — Although the scallop industry on the north coast
of the town is extinct, it still flourishes as of old on the south coast.
The bulk of the business is carried on here, and nearly all the shipments
are made from Hyannis and Cotuit. The grounds of Cotuit are quite

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 101

small, extending over an irregular strip of 100 acres. The bottom is
mostly muddy, and covered with patches of eel grass. All the rest of
the bay, where the bottom is more suited for oyster culture, is taken up
by grants. This scalloping area, although small, is free to the scallopers
of Osterville, Cotuit, Marston's Mills and Hyannis, and even where
heavily set it is soon fished out. The scallop territory near Hyannis
comprises 2,700 acres, in the following localities: (1) Lewis Bay; (2)
near Squaw's Island; (3) Hyannisport harbor; and (4) the shore
waters. At Hyannisport small scallops are taken with " pushers " in the
shallow water, while large scallops are taken by dredging in the other
three localities. Scallops are found in different parts and in varying
abundance each year.

(/) Mashpee. — The scallop territory of Mashpee lies in the Poppo-
nesset River and Bay, comprising at most 200 acres. For the last eight
years there has been no scallop industry in the town. A few scallops
are occasionally gathered for home consumption.

Buzzard's Bay. — The third section comprises the waters at the head
of Buzzard's Bay, the most protected and perhaps the most favorably
situated of the scalloping localities in respect to natural conditions.
The warmth and excellent circulation of the water as it courses in and
out of the numerous little bays and inlets are favorable to rapid growth,
and render possible the production of the large scallop, averaging 2.73
inches, found in this section. The medium rise and fall of the tide
(about 4 feet) and the eel-grass bottom give the scallops abundant pro-
tection in contrast to the exposed situation in other localities. In spite
of these favorable surroundings great numbers of scallops perish from
the severe winters and from the attacks of their natural enemy, the
starfish. For seven years previous to the season of 1907-08 the scallop
fishery had been a failure in these waters, said' to have been due to the
inroads of this pest, but since that date it has again become of im-
portance. The scalloping territory comprises 11,100 acres and is situ-
ated in the towns of New Bedford, Fairhaven, Mattapoisett, Marion,
Wareham, Bourne and Falmouth. The fishing is carried on almost
wholly by dredging.

(a) New Bedford. — The scallop area comprises approximately 400
acres, principally in the Acushnet River and Clark's Cove.

(b) Fairhaven. — This town shares with New Bedford the scalloping
grounds of the Acushnet River, and has in addition a much larger terri-
tory around Sconticut Neck and West Island. The grounds comprise
about 2,500 acres, most of which is unproductive or productive only at
intervals.

(c) Mattapoisett. — The scallop territory, comprising an area of
1,200 acres, much of which is open and exposed, is in general confined
to the following localities: Nasketucket Bay, Brant Bay, Brant Island
Cove, Mattapoisett harbor, Pine Neck Cove and Aucoot Cove.

102 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(d) Marion. — The scallop grounds of the town extend over an area
of 1,500 acres, situated on both sides of Great Neck, and extending
from the Wareham line to Aucoot Cove.

(e) Wareham. — Situated at the head of Buzzard's Bay, this town
possesses a considerable water area which is suitable for scallops. The
entire territory, embracing approximately 2,500 acres, extends in a
southwesterly direction from Peter's Neck, including Onset Bay, to
^biel's buoy, and from there to Weweantit River. Scallops are also
found in the Wareham River. Scallops are mostly found in the deep
water, which makes dredging the only profitable method of scalloping in
this locality.

(/) Bourne. — The available scalloping territory covers approxi-
mately 3,000 acres, extending from Buttermilk Bay along the whole
coast of the town to Cataumet.

(g) Falmouth. — Scallops are found in Squeteague Pond, Wild
harbor, North Falmouth and in West Falmouth harbor. Scallops are
occasionally present in small quantities in Waquoit Bay, on the south
shore of the town.

The Islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. — This section
bears evidence of the protection of a fishery by nature and the ability
of the inhabitants to foster a valuable industry. In both islands the
natural conditions are such as to supply the maximum aid in the preser-
vation of the fishery. The scallop territory, for the most part, lies in
protected bays, Nantucket harbor, Cape Poge Pond and Vineyard
Haven. Certain parts of the territory are exposed and subject to condi-
tions unfavorable for the scallop, but the greater portion is well inclosed
and favorably suited for regulating the distribution of " seed." The
rise and fall of the tides is slight, not averaging more than 2 feet. A
variety of bottom mostly covered with eel grass is found in all the
localities, while the depth of water over the beds averages from 10 to 15
feet, rarely exceeding 25.

In this section, no matter how scarce the supply may be elsewhere
in the State, the yield of scallops is constant. While there is more or
less variation in the different years, extreme scarcity and superabun-
dance, so common in the other sections, occur here but rarely, and the
scallop supply from this locality is considered the most dependable in
Massachusetts. The total area comprised in this section is 7,300 acres.

(a) Nantucket. — The grounds lie both in Nantucket harbor and in
Maddequet harbor, on the west end of the island. The former of these
is the larger and more important, as the fishery is near the town. When
the scallops become scarce in Nantucket harbor, the scallopers adjourn
to the fresher beds of Maddequet. Nantucket harbor contains approxi-
mately 3,000 acres of scallop territory; Maddequet and Muskeget, 1,500
acres.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 103

(b) Edgartown. — The important grounds are in Cape Poge Pond
and in Edgartown harbor, while occasionally beds of scallops, especially
" seed," are found in Katarna Bay. These grounds comprise an area
of 2,000 acres, chiefly of grass bottom.

(c) Vineyard Haven. — The scalloping grounds of Tisbury are in
the harbor at Vineyard Haven. Only Vineyard Haven fishermen make
a business of scalloping here. The scallop grounds comprise an area
of 800 acres.

The Present Industry in Massachusetts.

In considering the scallop industry the following points should be
noted: (1) It has been necessary to record as scallop area any grounds
where scallops have ever been found, in spite of the fact that only
a portion of this total area is in any one year productive. (2) The
boats engaged in the scallop fishery are but transitory capital, which
is utilized, outside of the scallop season, in other fisheries. (3) The
quahaug and scallop fisheries in many towns supplement each other,
as the same men and boats are engaged in both industries. (4) The
length of the season varies in the different localities. In New Bedford
and Fairhaven the scallops are mostly caught in a few weeks, as many
boats enter the business temporarily. This necessarily gives an excess
of invested capital and a small production. In these two towns the
number of scallop licenses are recorded, as showing the number of men
engaged in the fishery, while as a fact but a small part of these are
steadily engaged in the industry.

104

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

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OF MASSACHUSETTS. 105

The History and Development of the Scallop Industry.

In considering the rise of a fishing industry, it is often difficult to
state exactly the year when the industry started, as there are differences
of opinion as to how large a fishery should become before it could be
justly considered an industry. The scallop fishery has existed for years,
but did not become an established industry of the Commonwealth before
the year 1872. At that time there was scarcely any demand for scallops
and the catch was marketed with difficulty. Since then the market for
the scallop has steadily increased, until the supply can hardly meet the
popular demand.

It seems almost incredible that the scallop as an article of food
should once have been scorned and practically unknown. In former
years the majority of people looked upon the highly colored shellfish,
with its beautiful shell, as poisonous and unfit for the table, in the same
manner as our country fathers considered the " love apple," now the
tomato, as only an ornament for the garden. Popular taste and opinion
have changed, and the formerly despised scallop is now considered as an
important part of our sea food. What has been true with the scallop
applies equally well in regard to our future attitude towards sea food;
many species of fish and shellfish now considered as unwholesome will,
in the years to come, be considered as articles of food.

In early colonial days the scallop* was frequently mentioned by the
writers of that period, possibly because the attractive appearance of
the fan-like shell rendered it a conspicuous object on the beaches, and
possibly because the scallop shell had been from the time of the Crusades
of emblematic significance. The first use of the scallop was as fertilizer.
When blown ashore in quantities, the farmers occasionally came with
their carts and carried the decaying shellfish to spread over their inland
farms. The next step in the popularization of the scallop was made by
the domestic animals, such as cats, dogs, pigs, etc., as the inhabitants
let the swine obtain their living from the flats and shellfish. No records
have been found by the writer to show that the Indians taught the
colonists the use of the scallop as an article of food, or that they were
conversant with its use for that purpose in England. So in all proba-
bility the edible qualities of this rnollusk gradually became known.

Previous to 1874 the industry was of little importance as the scallops
were only gathered by hand or taken from the shallow water with dip
nets and rakes. This date marks the introduction of the dredge on Cape
Cod, which revolutionized the industry by opening new territory and
increasing the ease of capture in the deep water. From this time the
fishery steadily increased and the market correspondingly widened.

In Buzzard's Bay the fishery first started at New Bedford in the
Acuslmet River in 1870, furnishing between 1870 and 1879 a winter
living for 15 men. From this locality the fishery spread rapidly in 1879

106 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

among the other shore towns on the north side of the bay. In 1879
several boats from New Bedford commenced dredging in Wareham
waters, and the townspeople soon followed the example of the invaders.
From 1879 to 1899 the fishery became of importance as a winter industry
in the upper waters of the bay, and flourished until 1899, when it became
commercially extinct except at New Bedford and Fairhaven. The fall
of 1907 furnished a revival of the fishery, which has every indication
of becoming permanent.

The industry first started on Cape Cod at Hyannis in 1874, where a
number of men entered the new business; and for several years the
production increased rapidly, with the opening of new territory and
improved methods of capture. The other towns on the south side of the
Cape entered in the new fishery at the same time and with similar
success. From that time on the fishery has been a variable factor in
the towns of this section, depending upon the supply.

On the islands the fishery began at Edgartown in 1875 and at Nan-
tucket in 1883, and in both cases the supply has been fairly constant, a
poor or successful season depending more on the market price and the
abundance in the rest of the State than on the local supply.

While the natural supply has remained the same or has evidenced a
decline in certain localities, the value of the industry as a whole, both
in regard to the number of men engaged, capital invested and the market
returns, has steadily increased. The price of scallops varies from year
to year and at different parts of the same season; but in spite of the
irregularity of the catch the price per gallon has increased threefold
(from 50 cents to $1.50) since 1880, showing the increasing importance
of the fishery.

The Decline.

The most important questions which first come to mind when consid-
ering the scallop industry of to-day are these: (1) Has there been any
decline in the industry? If so, how extensive? (2) What are the causes
of the decline?

Extent of the Decline. — There is no question but that the industry
as a whole has declined. This decline has made itself manifest, espe-
cially in certain localities, e.g., Buzzard's Bay, where until 1907 the
entire fisherj^, except at New Bedford and Fairhaven, had been extinct
for seven years. Along the south side of Cape Cod, at Edgartown and
Nantucket, the supply has, on the average, remained the same. Of
course there is varying abundance each year, but as a whole the industry
in these localities can hardly be said to have declined. On the other
hand, on the north side of Cape Cod we find a noticeable decline. A
scallop fishery no longer exists at Plymouth, Barnstable harbor, Wellfleet
and Provincetown, though twenty-five years ago these places possessed
a slight industry.

So we have to-day in Massachusetts three localities, two of which show

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 107

a marked decline in the scallop fishery, while the other shows some im-
provement. Of the two depleted areas, the one (north of the Cape)
may never revive the industry ; the other (Buzzard's Bay) gives indica-
tions that the industry can once more be put on a profitable footing.
The only thing necessary is perpetual precaution on the part of the
fishermen in order to prevent this decline.

Causes of the Decline. — The causes of the decline of this industry
can be grouped under three heads: (1) natural enemies; (2) overfishing
by man; (3) adverse physical conditions. In the last instance the
severe winters, storms, anchor frost, etc., bring destruction upon the
scallops, especially during early life.

The Fishery.

The Season. — There is considerable diversity of opinion among the
scallopers as to when the scallop season should open. Some advocate
November 1 as the opening date, instead of October 1, as the present
law reads ; and many arguments are put forth by both sides.

The class of fishermen who desire November 1 are those who are
engaged in other fishing during the month of October, and either have
to give it up or lose the first month of scalloping. Naturally, they wish
a change, putting forth the additional argument of better prices if
the season begins later. The scalloper who is not engaged in other
fishing of course desires the law to remain as it is at the present time,
claiming that the better weather of October gives easier work, more
working days, and allows no chance of loss if the winter is severe.

Under the present law, the town can regulate the opening of its
season to suit the demands of the market and the desire of the in-
habitants. This does away with the necessity of any State law on this
point, which, under the present system of town control, would be
inadvisable.

The general opinion of the fishermen is in favor of the present date,
October 1. As nearly as could be determined, about 75 per cent, favor
October 1 and 25 per cent. November 1. This sentiment is divided by
localities, as more men were in favor of November 1 at Nantucket
and Edgartown than on Cape Cod and Buzzard's Bay, where very few
favored a change.

The Methods. — The methods of scalloping follow the historical
rise of the fishery. As the industry grew more and more important,
improvements became necessary in the methods of capture, and thus,
parallel with the development of the industry, we can trace a corre-
sponding development in the implements used in the capture of the
scallop.

(a) Gathering by Hand. — When the scallop was first used as an
article of food, the primitive method of gathering this bivalve by hand
was used. This method still exists on the flats of Brewster, and often

108 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

in other localities after heavy gales wagons can be driven to the beach
and loaded with the scallops which have been blown ashore.

(b) Scoop Nets The hand method was not rapid enough for the

enterprising scallopers, and the next step in the industry was the use
of scoop nets, about 8 inches in diameter, by which the scallops could
be picked up in the water. These nets were attached to poles of vari-
ous lengths, suitable to the depth of water. " This method," writes
Ingersoll (8), "was speedily condemned, however, because it could be
employed only where scallops are a foot thick and inches in length,
as one fisherman expressed it."

(c) The Pusher. — The next invention was the so-called " pusher."
The " pusher " consists of a wooden pole from 8 to 9 feet long, at-
tached to a rectangular iron frame 3 by l1/^ feet, upon which is fitted
a netting bag 3 feet in depth. The scalloper, wading on the flats
at low tide, gathers the scallops by shoving* the " pusher " among the
eel grass. When the bag is full, the contents are emptied into the dory
and the process repeated. The scallopers who use the " pusher " go
in dories, which are taken to the various parts of the scalloping ground
and moved whenever the immediate locality is exhausted. This method
is in use to-day, but is applicable only to shallow flats, and can be
worked only at low tide, where dredging is impossible. It is hard
work, and not as profitable as the better method of dredging. This
method of scalloping is used chiefly at Chatham, Dennis and Yar-
mouth; occasionally at Nantucket and other towns.

(d) Dredging. — The greater part of the scallop catch is taken by
dredging, which is the most universal as well as the most profitable
method. The dredge, commonly pronounced " drudge," consists of
an iron framework about 3 by l1/^ feet, with a netting bag attached,
which will hold from one to two bushels of scallops. Catboats, carry-
ing from 6 to 10 dredges, are used for this method of scalloping. These
boats, with several " reefs," cross the scallop grounds pulling the
dredges, which hold the boat steady in her course. A single run with
all the dredges overboard is called a "drift." The contents of all
the dredges is said to be the result or catch of the " drift."

When the dredges are hauled in they are emptied on what is known
as a culling board. This board runs the width of the boat, projecting
slightly on both sides. It is 3 feet wide, and has a guide 3 inches
high along each side, leaving the ends open. The scallops are then
separated from the rubbish, such as seaweed, shells, mud, etc., while
the refuse and seed scallops are thrown overboard by merely pushing
them off the end of the board. Each catch is culled out while the dredges
are being pulled along on the back "drift," and the board is again
clear for the next catch. The culled scallops are first put in buckets
and later transferred either to bushel bags or dumped into the cockpit
of the boat.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 109

Two men are usually required to tend from 6 to 8 dredges in a large
eatboat, but often one man alone does all the work. This seems to
be confined to localities, as at Nantucket nearly all the catboats have
two men. At Edgartown the reverse is true, one man to the boat,
though in power dredging two men are always used.

Several styles of dredges are used in scalloping, as each locality has
its own special kind, which is best adapted to the scalloping bottom
of that region. Four different styles are used in Massachusetts, two of
which permit a subdivision, making in all six different forms. Each
of these dredges is said by the scallopers using them to be the best;
but for all-round work the " scraper " seems the most popular.

(1) The Chatham or Box Dredge. — As this dredge was first used in
Chatham, the name of the town was given to it to distinguish it from
the other styles. At the present time its use is confined to Chatham and
the neighboring towns of the Cape. With the exception of a very few
used at Nantucket, it is not found elsewhere in Massachusetts.

The style of the box dredge is peculiar, consisting of a rectangular
framework, 27 by 12 inches, of flat iron 1 by % inches, with an oval-
shaped iron bar extending back as a support for the netting bag, which
is attached to the rectangular frame. To the side of the rectangular
frame is attached a heavy iron chain about 4 feet long, to which is
fastened the drag rope.

(2) The- Scraper. — As can be seen by the illustration, this style
of dredge consists of a rigid iron frame of triangular shape, which
has a curve of nearly 90° at the base, to form the bowl of the dredge.
Above, a raised crossbar connects the two arms, while at the bottom
of the dredge a strip of iron 2 inches wide extends from arm to arm.
This strip acts as a scraping blade, and is set at an angle so as to dig
into the bottom. The top of the net is fastened to the raised crossbar
and the lower part to the blade.

The usual dimensions of the dredge are: arms, 2% feet; upper
crossbar, 2 feet ; blade, 21/£ feet. The net varies in size, usually holding
about a bushel of scallops, and running from 2 to 3 feet in length.
Additional weights can be put on the crossbar when the scalloper
desires the dredge to scrape deeper. A wooden bar, 2 feet long, buoys
the net.

Two styles of this dredge are in use. At Nantucket the whole net
is made of twine, while at Edgartown and in Buzzard's Bay the lower
part of the net is formed of a netting of iron rings, the upper half
of the net being twine. The iron rings are supposed to stand the wear
better than the twine netting. This difference seems to be merely a
matter of local choice. The " scraper " is perhaps the dredge most
generally used, as, no matter what style is in use, a scalloper generally
has a few " scrapers " among his dredges.

(3) The "Slider." — The principle of the "slider" is the reverse

110

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

of the ''scraper/' as the blade is set either level or with an upward
incline, so the dredge can slide over the bottom. This dredge is used
on rough bottom and in places where there is little eel grass. In some
dredges the blade is rigid, but in the majority the blade hangs loose.

The " slider " used at Edgartown differs from the " scraper " by hav-
ing perfectly straight arms and no curved bowl, the blade being
fastened to the arms in a hook-and-eye fashion. The dimensions of
this dredge are the same as those of the " scraper,"* although occa-
sionally smaller dredges are found.

(4) The "Holler" Dredge. — This style of dredge is used only in the
town of Mattapoisett, where the scallopers claim it is the most success-
ful. The dredge is suitable for scalloping over rough ground, as the
blade of the dredge is merely a line of leads, which roll over the surface
of the ground gathering in the scallops.

The dredge consists of an oval iron frame, 32 by 20 inches, which
acts as the arms, and is attached to another iron frame, 32 by 3 inches.
The blade of the dredge consists of a thin rope with attached leads.
The net is made wholly of twine, and is about 21/2 feet long.

Outfit of a Scalloper. — The average invested capital of the scalloper
can best be given for two classes, — the boat fisherman and the dory
fisherman : —

Boat Fisherman.

Dory Fisherman.

$500 00

Dory, .....

$20 00

20 00

Oars, . . . .

1 50

25 00

Pusher, ....

2 50

25 00

Shanty, ....

25 00

200

Uv

3 00

Total, ....

$49 00

50 00

$625 00

Boat, .
Dory, .
Six dredges,
Eope and gear,
Culling board,
Incidentals, .
Shanty,

Total, .

Scalloping with Power Boats. — The season of 1907 has witnessed
in Massachusetts the first use of auxiliary power in the scallop fishery.
At Edgartown the main part of the scalloping is now done by power,
which, in spite of the additional expense of 5 gallons of gasolene per
day, gives a proportionately larger catch of scallops. The Edgartown
scallopers claim that their daily catch, using power, is from one-third
to one-half better than under the old method of dredging by sail. Not
only can they scallop when the wind is too light or too heavy for suc-
cessful scalloping by sail, but more " drifts " can be made in the same
time. A slight disadvantage of scalloping with power is the necessity
of having two men, as the steering of the power boat demands much
closer attention than the sail boat, which is practically held to a fixed
course by the dredges. A power boat for scalloping possesses only the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. Ill

disadvantage of additional cost ; but it is only necessary to look forward
a few years, when expedition rather than cheapness will be in demand,
to a partial revolution in the present methods of scalloping, whereby
the auxiliary catboat will take the place of the sail boat in the scallop
fishery.

Preparing the Scallop for Market, (a) The "Eye." — The edible
part of the scallop is the large adductor muscle. The rest of the animal
is thrown away, though in certain localities it is used as fish bait and in
others for fertilizer. Why the whole of the animal is not eaten is hard
to say. Undoubtedly all is good, but popular prejudice, which molds
opinion, has decreed that it is bad, so it is not used as food. This is
perhaps due to the highly pigmented and colored portions of the animal.
Nevertheless, there is a decided possibility that in the future we shall
eat the entire scallop, as well as the luscious adductor muscle.

The adductor muscle is called by the dealers and fishermen the " eye,"
a name given perhaps from its important position in the animal, and its
appearance. The color of the " eye," which has a cylindrical form, is
a yellowish white.

(b) The Shanties. — The catch of scallops is carried to the shanty
of the fisherman, and there opened. These shanties are usually grouped
on the dock, so the catch can be readily transferred. Inside of these
shanties, usually 20 by 10 feet or larger, we find a large bench 3
to 3l/2 feet wide, running the length of the shanty, and a little more
than waist high. On these benches the scallops are dumped from the
baskets or bags, and pass through the hands of the openers. Under
the bench are barrels for the shells and refuse.

(c) The Openers. — The openers are usually men and boys, though
occasionally a few women try their hand at the work. Of late years
there has been a difficulty in obtaining sufficient openers, and the scal-
lopers often are forced to open their own scallops. The openers are
paid from 20 to 30 cents per gallon, according to the size of the
scallops. One bushel of, average scallops will open 2l/2 to 3 quarts
of " eyes." An opener can often open 8 to 10 gallons in a day, making
an excellent day's work. The price now paid is more than double that
paid in 1880, which was 121//2 cents per gallon. Some openers are
especially rapid, and their deft movements cause a continual dropping
of shells in the barrel and u eyes " in the gallon measure.

(d) Method of opening the Scallop. — The opening of a scallop re-
quires three movements. A flat piece of steel with a sharp but rounded
end, inserted in a wooden handle, answers for a knife. The scallop
is taken by a right-handed opener in the palm of the left hand, the
hinge-line farthest away from the body, the scallop in its natural rest-
ing position, the right or smooth valve down. The knife is inserted
between the valves on the right-hand side. An upward turn with a cut-
ting motion is given, severing the " eye " from the upper valve, while

112 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

a flirt at the same moment throws back the upper shell. The second
motion tears the soft rim and visceral mass of the scallop and casts
it into the barrel, leaving the " eye " standing clear. A third move-
ment separates the " eye " from the shell arid casts it into a gallon
measure. Frequently the last two movements are slightly different.
The faster openers at the second motion merely tear off enough of the
rim to allow the separation of the " eye " from the shell, and on the
third movement cast the " eye " in the measure, while the shell with
its adhering soft parts is thrown into the refuse barrel. These last
two motions can hardly be separated, so quickly are they accomplished.

(e) Shipment. — The kegs in which the scallops are shipped cost
30 cents apiece, and contain about 7 gallons. A full keg is known
as a " package." The butter tubs are less expensive, but hold only
4 to 5 gallons. Indeed, anything which will hold scallops for shipment
is used to send them to market.

When the scallops get to the market they are strained and weighed,
9 pounds being considered the weight of a gallon of meats. In this
way about 6 gallons are realized from every 7-gallon keg. With the
improved methods of modern times scallops can be shipped far west
or be held for months in cold storage, for which purpose unsoaked
scallops are required. Certain firms have tried this method of keeping
the catch until prices were high, but it has not been especially suc-
cessful.

(/) Market. — One of the greatest trials to the scallop fisherman
is the uncertainty of market returns when shipping. He does not
know the price he is to receive ; and, as the price depends on the supply
on the market, he may receive high wages or he may get scarcely any-
thing. The wholesale market alone can regulate the price, and the
fisherman is powerless. While this is hard on the scalloper, it does
not appear that at the present time anything can be done to remedy
the uncertainty of return. The scallop returns from the New York
market are usually higher than from the Boston market. The result
of this has been to give New York each year the greater part of the
scallop trade, and practically all the Nantucket and Edgartown scallops
are shipped to New York.

Either from a feeling of loyalty, or because the market returns are
sooner forwarded, or because the express charges are less, Cape Cod
still ships to the Boston market, in spite of the better prices offered
in New York. Why so many Cape scallopers should continue to ship
to Boston, and resist the attractions of better prices, is impossible to
determine, and appears to be only a question of custom.

(g) The Price. — The price of scallops varies with the supply. The
demand is fairly constant, showing a slight but decided increase each
year. On the other hand, the supply is irregular, some years scallops
being plentiful, in other years scarce.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

113

The Food Value of the Scallop.

The large adductor muscle is the only part of the scallop which is
used for food at the present day, as the rest of the soft parts are con-
sidered non-edible. The adductor muscle occupies the center of the
shell and by reason of its conspicuous position has been given the name
of " eye " by the fishermen. Less frequently it is spoken of as the
" heart." From the standpoint of the consumer and the retail dealer the
" eye '' is the object of importance, and the word scallop is applied in
such a way that many people believe that the little white cube comprises
the whole animal. The " eye " can best be likened to the finished product
of manufacture as it passes into the purchaser's hands. Therefore, it
is to the advantage of the consumer to know (1) the amount of nutri-
ment of the scallop compared with other articles of food, both shellfish
and meats; (2) the effects of "soaking" scallops; (3) the amount of
waste and the percentage of actual food in scallops from the different
localities in the Commonwealth.

Food Value. — As a food the scallop stands ahead of all the other
shellfish, containing much more nourishment than the oyster. The fol-
lowing figures are from the tables of Professor Atwater, rearranged by
C. F. Langworthy (14) : —

.

n

S

ft* —

Refuse Bone, Ski
etc. (Per Cent.)

Salt (Per Cent.).

Water (Per Cent.

Protein (Per Cent

Fat (Per Cent.).

I

I5

Mineral Matter (P
Cent.).

Total Nutrient
(Per Cent.).

•£
*•«'

~ ~ ~

Oysters, solids, . .

-

-

88.3

6.1

1.4

3.3

.9

11.7

235

Oysters, in shell, .

82.3

-

15.4

1.1

.2

.6

.4

2.3

40

Oysters, canned, « .

-

.-

85.3

7.4

2.1

3.9

1.3

14.7

300

Scallops

v--:

-

80.3

14.7

.2

3.4

1.4

19.7

345

Soft clams, in shell, .

43.6

. ;-

48.4

4.8

.6

1.1

1.5

8.0

135

Soft clams, canned,

-

-

84.5

9.0

1.3

2.9

2.3

15.5

275

Quahaugs, removed from

_

_

80.8

10.6

1.1

5.2

2.3

19.2

340

shell.

Quahaugs, in shell, .

68.3

-

27.3

2.1

• .1

1.3

.9

4.4

65

Quahaugs, canned, .

-

-

83.0

10.4

.8

3.0

2.8

17.0

285

Mussels

49.3

-

42.7

4.4

.5

2.1

1.0

8.0

140

General average of mol-
lusks (exclusive of

60.2

-

34.0

3.2

.4

1.3

.9

5.8

100

canned).

In the following table the scallop is compared with the chemical
analysis of various meats in their food stuffs. The figures for the meats

114

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

are taken from Howell's "Physiology" (13). The comparative prices
were obtained in the Boston markets on Feb. 18, 1910.

IN 100 PAR

TS (PER

CENT.).

Wholesale

Water.

Protein.

Fat.

Carbo-
hydrate.

Ash.

per Pound
(Cents).

Scallop " eyes,"

80.30

14.70

.20

3.40

1.40

19y2

Beef, moderately fat,

73.03

20.96

5.41

.46

1.14

8%

Veal, fat,

72.31

18.88

7.41

.07

1.33

I2y2

Mutton, moderately fat, .

75.99
72.57

17.11

20.05

5.77
6.81

-

1.33
1.10

10

uy*

" Soaking." - - The " eye " is frequently put through a process famil-
iarly known as " soaking " before it is sent to market. If not done
by the fishermen it is completed by the dealer, in order to tempt the
purchaser with a beautiful white, plump " eye " instead of a small
yellow-colored specimen. Undoubtedly fishermen and dealers would
willingly sell unsoaked scallops at a proportionate price the moment the
market demands them ; but the consumer, through ignorance, prefers the
large, nice-appearing " eyes," and thus unwittingly favors the practice.

From a practical standpoint "soaking" is a very simple affair, the
" eyes " being placed in fresh water for several hours until they have
absorbed sufficient water to increase their bulk about one-third. It has
been noticed that whenever salt-water products are allowed to soak in
fresh water an increase of bulk is found. This is due to a complicated
change, the most prominent factor being osmosis, which causes a swell-
ing of the tissues. The " eye " can be increased by this change to a gain
of more than one-third its natural size; that is, 4V2 gallons can be in-
creased to 7 by judicious " feeding *' with fresh water.

Two methods of swelling scallops are in use. When the scallops are
shipped in kegs which usually contain 7 gallons, the following method
is applied : 4l/2 to 5 gallons of " eyes " are placed in each keg, and are
allowed to stand over night in fresh water; in the morning, before ship-
ment, more water is added and the keg closed, and by the time of arrival
to the New York or Boston market the scallops have increased to the
full amount of 7 gallons. The second method of " soaking " is slightly
more elaborate. The " eyes " are spread evenly in shallow wooden sinks,
5 by 3 feet, with just enough fresh water to cover them, and left over
night. In the morning a milky fluid is drawn off, and the " soaked "
scallops are packed for market in kegs or butter tubs.

The process of " soaking " was not instituted until some years after
the start of the scallop industry. In 1886 Ingersoll (8) reports that
scallops were not being " soaked " in Rhode Island and Connecticut.
Dr. Hugh M. Smith (12) attributes the beginning of soaking to the fact

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 115

that the small Cape scallops could not compete in the Boston market
with the larger Maine scallops (deep sea), and that the fishermen found
it necessary to increase the size by swelling. If this were the cause,
the fishermen soon found it decidedly to their advantage to continue the
process of selling " watered stock."

A change has taken place in the appearance of the scallop a few
hours after soaking. The small yellow or pinkish " eye " of the freshly
opened scallop has taken on a white, plump appearance, adding greatly
to its salable qualities. On the other hand, the fine flavor and freshness
have disappeared, " soaked " out, so to speak, and the transformed scal-
lop lacks many of the qualities which endear it to the heart of the
epicurean. Considerable loss in nourishment has taken place, although
exact figures have not been conclusively obtained by experiment, and
the scallop spoils much sooner than the unsoaked. If kept too long
the absorbed water is given off and the scallop shrinks back to its
original size, a process which is more quickly accomplished on the
frying pan, where the " soaked " scallop rapidly shrivels. While too
much cannot be said to discourage the " soaking " of scallops and to
educate the public to demand the real article, it can be fairly stated
that the process, although producing an inferior article of food, is not
detrimental to the public health as long as proper sanitary precautions
are taken by having the surroundings hygienic and by using pure
water.

The practice of " soaking " will only come to an end when the public
refuse to buy anything but " dry " scallops, and only till then, unless
special legislation is enforced, will " soaked " scallops be taken from
the market. At the present time, if the wholesale dealers uniformly
demanded " unsoaked " scallops from the fishermen, and increased the
price, they would be able to get their shellfish unsoaked.

Food and Waste. — The determination of the amount of food and
waste in the scallop was undertaken with scallops from six scalloping
towns, comprising the three sections of Buzzard's Bay, Cape Cod and
the islands. In this work the "eye" was considered the only edible
part of the animal. Four sizes, 55 millimeters, 60 millimeters, 70 milli-
meters and 75 millimeters were used. Ten scallops of each size were
dissected, and the weight of the different parts recorded.

(a) The Food Value of the Average Scallop. — The "eye" or edible
portion constitutes but a small part of the entire scallop. By weight
the actual food in a scallop of 65 millimeters (2%e inches), the average
from all the determinations, is only 17.77 per cent, of its weight. Thus,
in order to get 18 pounds of " eyes " (2 gallons) it would be necessary
to procure 100 pounds of living scallops.

The average scallop (Fig. 82) is made up as follows: total weight,
1.5 ounces, or 100 per cent. ; total non-edible part, 1.23 ounces, or 82.23
per cent, (includes both shell and non-edible soft part) ; non-edible soft

116 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

parts, .49 of an ounce, or 32.8 per cent. ; shell, .74 of an ounce, or 49.43
per cent.; actual food, .27 of an ounce, or 17.77 per cent. Considering
merely the soft parts of the scallop, the proportion of food and waste
is much closer. The " eye " is by weight 35 per cent, of the soft parts,
while the non-edible soft parts constitute the remaining 65 per cent.

(b) The Non-edible Parts. — The non-edible parts of the scallop can
be divided into two classes, (1) the shell or hard portion, which is neces-
sarily waste except for certain uses common to all shellfish, (2) the
viscera of the scallop, or all parts except the " eye." The latter is the
non-edible part proper; as in other shellfish these parts are utilized for
food.

(1) The Shell. — The shell impregnated with lime salts necessarily
makes up a good portion, about one-half, of the total weight. However,
it cannot be considered waste except in a non-edible sense, as the scallop
shell is found useful in several ways, (a) Oyster planters buy large
quantities of shells for cultch to catch the oyster set, as the fragile
nature is most serviceable in separating the clusters of young oysters.
The average price runs from 3 to 5 cents per bushel. The greater part
of the shell heaps are utilized for this purpose, (b) On Cape Cod,
shell roads and walks are sometimes made with scallop shells, (c) Work
baskets, pin cushions and various ornaments of the house are decorated
with scallop shells, (d) Within the last few years scallop shells bound
together with ribbon and containing miniature photographic views, for
souvenir postal cards, have been put on the market by Boston firms, who
purchased the cleaned shells from the scallopers at the rate of $6 per
barrel. Only the lower or bright colored valve is used.

(2) The Soft Parts. — The non-edible part or body of the scallop
forms 32.8 per cent, by weight of the total scallop. While not utilized
for food at the present time, although there is no reasonable objection
except custom and prejudice, it is made use of for (a) fish bait, either
fresh or salted; (b) fertilizer. The probable reason why this whole-
some flesh is not made use of as food is because of the brilliant coloring
of the mantle and its tough appearance. Other shellfish, such as the
clam, quahaug and oyster, are eaten entire, and there is no good reason
why the scallop should not be taken in the same way.

(c) The Size of the " Eye." - - The relative size of the " eye " increases
with the size of the scallop, as its percentage by weight is slightly
greater in large scallops. The percentage by weight for a 60-millimeter
scallop is 17.47 per cent.; for a 65-millimeter, 17.87 per cent.; for a
70-millimeter, 17.97 per cent., while the ratio of shell and body does not
seem to change. The actual weight of the " eye " varies in the different
localities, some showing as much as one-fourth more weight for the
same sized scallop. In percentage the Buzzard's Bay district led, averag-
ing about 18.18 per cent., with 18.70 per cent, high at New Bedford,
while Chatham and Nantucket gave only 17.20 per cent, and 16.67 per

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 117

cent, respectively. This fact does not indicate anything about the
food value of the scallops from these localities, but is merely cited to
show the variation in the weight of the " eye," and that Buzzard's Bay
scallops should yield a greater return per bushel. Beside this variation,
two conditions influence the size and weight of the "eye": (1) the sea-
son or time of year, as the " eye " is reported by the fishermen " to turn
out more to the bushel" when the cold weather comes on; (2) the age
of the scallop, as the "eye" of a two-year-old scallop (one that has
passed the period of allotted life) is looser in texture and weighs less.
(d) Weight of Shell. — Differences in the weight of the shell for
scallops of the same size occur in different localities. The weight of the
shell is determined by two factors, (1) the rapidity of growth; (2) the
amount of lime salts in the water. These factors are rarely the same
for any two localities, and naturally variations would be expected in
the weight of the shell. The average weight of the shell for a 65-milli-
meter scallop is 21.9 grams, yet in six localities we find the weights
ranging anywhere between 20 and 23 grams.

The Laws.

The question of scallop legislation has attained considerable impor-
tance during the past four years, particularly in regard to the " seed "
scallop. During this period three laws have been passed, with the
ostensible purpose of protecting the " seed," but have proved far from
satisfactory both from the standpoint of the fishermen and the officials
employed by State and towns for their enforcement. The reasons for
the unsatisfactory state of affairs resulting from this frequent change in
legislation are twofold: (1) it is almost impossible to give a compre-
hensive legal definition of a "seed" scallop; (2) a general law neces-
sarily cannot suit all localities. The present law of 1910, founded on
the legislative experience of past years, should prove satisfactory to the
State as a whole.

In the early days the scallop was not considered worthy of legisla-
tion, as it had no market value, and was generally considered as a
poisonous or non-edible shellfish. With the opening of the market
arose the necessity of regulating the fishery, and legislation of a restric-
tive character was enacted.

Previous to 1874 the scallop came under the general acts included in
the term shellfish, with the clam, oyster and quahaug. The general
acts were of several kinds, (1) town regulation ; (2) permits; (3) seizure
in vessels; and (4) protection of the shellfisheries by limiting the catch,
place and time of taking.

In 1874 occurs the first mention of the word scallop in a legislative
act " to regulate the shellfisheries in the waters of Mount Hope Bay
and its tributaries," whereby the selectmen of the towns bordering on
Mount Hope Bay were permitted to grant licenses for the cultivation

118 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

of clams, quahaugs and scallops, and other shellfish to any inhabitant.
It seems strange that such an advanced and beneficial act should have
been passed at that early period, as it was clearly before its time, and
unsatisfactory, as is shown by its repeal the following year. It is only
within the last year that similar legislation has been passed for the
quahaug. Although it is improbable that the cultivation of scallops will
ever become extensive, it is only the question of a short time when the
cultivation of all shellfish will be legalized.

The second mention of the word scallop is found in the act of 1880,
by which the Commonwealth gave to the towns and cities their present
oversight of the shellfisheries and full power "to control and regulate
the taking of eels, clams, quahaugs and scallops." This act was later
amended by the Acts of 1889, but the general terms of the act were
not changed, and the present law is but slightly different. Town con-
trol as applied to scallop fishery has its advantages and disadvantages,
and the wisdom of State control is a debatable question. The present
system is to the advantage of certain towns and a loss to the fishermen
of the other towns and to the general consumer, since town restrictions
prohibit the taking of shellfish by outsiders. Owing to the short life of
the scallop the adults left untaken, occasionally in large numbers at the
end of a season, perish before another year. More men could have
been given employment and a greater supply furnished the consumer
if the large beds had been opened to other fishermen besides townsmen.
As matters exist, the majority of fishermen seem satisfied with the
present system of town control, and until public opinion is favorable
to the best utilization of the scallop fishery, State control is not desirable.

Special legislation for the scallop fishery was first enacted in 1885
by an act which limited the catch to 25 bushels a boat per day, the
first restrictive legislation upon the scallop fishery. Since that time,
within twenty-six years, eight State and seven special acts for towns,
in all fifteen laws, have been enacted, all but one of which have been for
the regulation of the fishery as regards permits, season, catch and town
supervision. The only exception was an act empowering the Commis-
sioners on Fisheries and Game to make an investigation of the spawn-
ing and propagation of the scallop. These laws illustrate the following-
features : —

Daily Limit to the Catch. — The act of 1885 placed a limit of 25
bushels per day for each boat, making no allowance as to the size of
the boat. No record of the repeal of this act has been found, and it
remained practically an unknown law until 1910, when a limit of 10
bushels per day for each person was passed.

The Season,. — Previous to the act of 1885, which made a closed season
between April 15 and September 1, there had been no restriction upon
the time of capture. The primary object of this act was due to a desire
to protect the scallop during its breeding season, and because the winter

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 119

months were the best suited for handling and marketing the " eyes.
In 1887 and in 1896 the closed season was changed to April 1 to Octo-
ber 1, which proved satisfactory until 1909, when the experiment was
tried of shortening it to September 1. In 1910 the act of 1909 was
repealed, at the petition of the scallop fishermen of the Commonwealth,
and the old limits (April 1 to October 1) resumed. The acts of 1885
and 1887 prohibited the capture, sale and export of scallops during the
closed season, while that of 1896 replaced the word export by "have
in possession." In 1909 any inhabitant of the Commonwealth was per-
mitted to gather by hand scallops for his own use at any season.

The Penalties. — The acts of 1885 and 1887 gave a maximum penalty
of $20, which was increased to $50 by the act of 1896, which likewise
established a minimum of $20. The acts of 1907, 1909 and 1910 lowered
this penalty to a minimum of $5 and a maximum of $20. Special acts
for the towns of Buzzard's Bay, in 1888, 1892, 1893 and 1900, estab-
lished a penalty of $20 to $100.

''Seed" Scallops. — Legislation for the protection of the "seed"
scallop was first enacted in 1887, with maximum penalty of $20 for
each offence, which was increased to $50 in 1896. Neither act in any
way defined the term " seed " scallop. In 1906 a " seed " scallop was
legally defined as a scallop under 2 inches, but a size limit proved un-
satisfactory, owing to the great variation in size of young and adult
scallops, and was replaced in 1907 by a detailed definition. This defi-
nition, although describing thoroughly the "seed" scallop, proved too
cumbersome for legal use, and was simplified in 1909 to read merely
" a well-defined growth line." The act of 1909 gave a leeway of 15 per
cent, for the' " seed " unavoidably taken, which made the law difficult to
enforce and harmful to the fishery. This percentage was lowered to a
nominal 5 per cent, in 1910. " Seed " scallop legislation has been the
most troublesome, owing to the difficulty in adequately defining the
term so that it will bear legal interpretation. As long as the scallop
fishermen refuse to take the immature scallops, there is but little need
of the rigid enforcement of the " seed " scallop law.

Town Laws. — Special acts for towns are somewhat different than
the general State laws governing the fishery, as they merely apply to
local waters and emphasize the powers already given by the general
shellfish law of 1880 to the town officials. Special scallop laws apply
to Nantucket, Wareham, Bourne, Marion, Rochester, Mattapoisett and
Fairhaven, and are of two classes : —

(a) Bait Regulation* — Nantucket is the only town which is allowed
to catch scallops for bait out of season, and here only from April 1
to May 15, according to an act of 1901, previous to which the limit
was from April 1 to May 1 by the act of 1888.

( b ) Local Regulation by Permits. — The selectmen of the towns
above mentioned, except Nantucket, were empowered by special acts to

120

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

issue permits for scalloping in whatever way they saw fit, and at what-
ever charge they deemed proper. A severe penalty of $20 to $100 fine
was imposed for taking scallops without permits, except for family use
and for bait. At the present time five towns, Fairhaven, Marion, Matta-
poisett, Wareham, and Nantucket, issue special scalloping permits,
while four others, Bourne, Chatham, Edgartown and Harwich, include
the scallops under the general shellfish permits.

The local town laws which benefit the scallop industry are made each
year according to the condition of the industry. Edgartown and Nan-
tucket have perhaps the best-governed scallop industries. Laws requir-
ing licenses, regulating the opening of the season and restricting at
proper times the catch, so as to get the best market prices instead of
overstocking the market when the prices are low, are to be recommended
on account of their benefit to the scallopers.

Scallop Legislation.

No.

Date.

Kind.

Penalty.

Provisions.

Remarks.

1

1874

Special
town.

$5 to $10 and $1
per bushel.

License to plant scallops in
Somerset, Swansea, Fall

Repealed 1875;
word " scallop "

River.

mentioned.

2

1880

State, .

$3 to $50, .

Towns to regulate shellfish-

Word " scallop "

cries.

mentioned.

3

1886

State, .

$20, . .

25 bushels limit; closed sea-

4

1887

State, .

$20, .

son April 15 to September 1.
Seed scallops; closed season

_

April 1 to October 1.

5

1887

Town, .

_

Nantucket allowed to take

_

scallops for bait from

April 1 to May 1.

6

1888

Town, .

$20 to $100, .

Wareham and Bourne ; per-

_

mits.

7

1889

State, .

-

Town regulation, .

Modification o f

No. 2.

8

1892

Town, .

$20 to $100, .

Marion, same as No. 6; per-

mits.

9

1893

Town, .

_

Marion, Sec. 4 of No. 8,

Word " waters "

amended; Rochester, Mat-

added.

tapoisett.

10

1893

Town, .

$20 to $100, .

Fairhaven, same as No. 8, .

-

11

1896

State, .

$20 to $50, .

Seed prohibited; season
April 1 to October 1.

Repetition of 1887
act, except pen-

alty.

12

1900

Town, .

$20 to $100, .

Mattapoisett, same as No. 8,

13

1901

Town, .

_

Nantucket; bait, April 1 to

_

May 15.

14

1901

State, .

$5 to $10 for first

Capture prohibited in con-

General shellfish;

offence; $50 to

taminated waters.

Fish and Game

$100.

Commission

powers.

15

1905

State, .

-

Investigation and report, .

-

16

1906

State, .

$20 to $50, . ' .

" Seed " scallop, 2-inch limit,

Repealed, 1907.

17

1907

State, .

$5 to $20, .

" Seed " scallop, definition, .

Repealed, 1909.

18

1909

State, .

Not exceeding

Definition of "seed" scal-

Repealed, 1910.

$25.

. lop; 15 per cent, "seed";

capture by hand at any

time.

19

1910

State, .

Not exceeding

Definition of "seed" scal-

-

$25.

lop; 5 per cent, "seed";

capture by hand at any
time; daily catch 10 bushels.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 121

Method of Improving the Scallop Industry.

At the present age a fishing industry must show a steady development
to keep pace with the increasing market, which is continually widening
through better transportation facilities. Unfortunately, the tendency
in the past has been, particularly in industries directly dependent upon
natural resources, to meet the question of progression by increasing the
yield through the improvements in implements and methods rather
than by attempts to increase the natural supply, with the result that
under the increased strain the natural resources have been seriously
impaired and oftentimes completely destroyed. In these cases protective
legislation has either been absent or based upon wrong principles. Ex-
amples of impaired resources are found in the natural oyster beds, the
shad, sturgeon and alewife fisheries, the clam, quahaug and lobster
industries, etc. In the future, fishing industries should be developed
both by improved methods and by the increasing of the natural supply
through propagation and protection, a work which is being carried on
by federal and State fish commissions, and is gradually widening its
scope to include all kinds of fisheries.

The scallop fishery presents peculiarities which differentiate it from
other fishing industries, and a knowledge of which is essential in con-
sidering its improvement. (1) Protective legislation is principally
confined to the " seed " scallop, or scallop less than one year old,
although the new law of 1910 has placed a daily limit of 10 bushels for
each man's catch. (2) The future welfare lies wholly in the hands of
the fishermen and their proper respect for the preservation of the
"seed" scallop. (3) Although there is plenty of room there is no
great prospect for a wide expansion of the fishery, as there are few
ways of artificially increasing the supply ; but, on the other hand, if the
spirit of protective legislation prevails there is but slight danger of a
serious diminution. (4) The scallop fishery is peculiarly fortunate, as,
unlike the clam and quahaug industries, it is unaffected by heavy fish-
ing and needs but minimum care on the part of the fishermen to remain
in excellent condition for years to come. Thus, while there are few
possibilities for its development by increasing the natural supply,
there is but slight danger of its permanent extinction.

Methods of Increasing the Natural Supply. — The possibilities of
increasing the supply of scallops and thus improving the fishery will
first be taken up. Many short-sighted fishermen would be opposed to
the increasing of the supply, for they consider that the price would be
lowered, and they would prefer a high price and small supply. But
this idea is erroneous, as it takes no longer to dredge from thick beds
than it does from depleted areas, and in view of the increasing popu-
larity of the scallop the price would soon regain its former level. The
consumer would be the gainer by the increased production, which would

122 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

tend to make scallops no longer a luxury but a part of the common
diet. However, the fisherman need have no fears in this direction, as
investigation has shown that there can be no great increase in the scallop
supply, although many of the poor years can be avoided by proper
foresight and by work along the lines here suggested.

The reason that the scallop supply can never be successfully increased
is due, (1) to no practical means of artificial culture; (2) it was found
by this department that money expended in propagating the embryos
and young at the present time would be wasted, for the destructive
agencies enumerated in chapter IV. would defeat any increase of the
supply through successive years, one bad season undoing the work of
several years and entailing a new start. If a severe winter killed all
the spawning scallops in one locality, there would be the same scarcity
of spawn, no matter how great the number of scallops. If such disas-
ters were of rare occurrence the eft'ect would not be so important, but
destruction often occurs upon the shallow flats. Thus, under natural
conditions there seems a maximum and minimum point of variation
between which the scallop supply is constantly wavering. The supply
can be somewhat increased and conditions improved by judicious trans-
planting from the exposed places, thus eliminating the adverse con-
ditions.

(a) Artificial Propagation. — Artificial propagation may be of two
kinds: (1) raising the young from the eggs; (2) catching the spat. So
far our experiments have indicated that it is impossible to raise the
young embryos in sufficient numbers for commercial hatching. Un-
doubtedly some benefit would result from the artificial fertilization of
the eggs and the liberation of the young larvae when they first begin to
swim, as in nature there is a great loss through non-fertilization. But
such a result is purely theoretical, as there is no way of determining
the loss when the spawn is liberated. When kept in hatching tubs the
majority die before they attain the shell stage. So far this method has
proved unsatisf actor y, and it is hardly believed that it can be put on a
practical basis.

Spat collecting has already been considered under chapter IV., and it
onty is necessary here to state that for practical work spat collecting
does not pay, as greater quantities of scallops can be obtained when
small from the eel-grass flats than could be caught with extensive spat-
collecting apparatus. Looking at it in one way the scallop supply
would be increased so much by the scallops taken on the collectors,
as they probably would not survive to set elsewhere, but such would
be a " penny wise and pound foolish " method for the planter. If a
scallop culturist found it impossible to obtain " seed " it might pay him
to try spat collecting. This would only occur in rare instances, where
scallops were not plentiful.

(b) Artificial Culture. — The question of raising scallops artificially
for the market, and thus increasing the general supply, was one of the

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 123

first points considered in this investigation. Parallel work on the qua-
haug and clam showed that by individual culture or farming the general
supply could be increased, barren area made to yield a harvest, the
decline of the natural supply checked, and a profitable industry employ-
ing several times the number of men now engaged could be started.
Conditions were found to be different with the scallop. There are serious
limitations to individual cultivation. Scallops can swim and move for
short distances, although they do not make the long migrations com-
monly credited to that species, and thus require penning. It was found
that in a few places in the State the scallop could be cultivated by
private persons. In every instance the locality of the prospective
grant was in a small bay with a narrow outlet, situations so rarely
existing that the idea of private scallop culture must be abandoned.
Undoubtedly in the future, when grants are given for oysters, clams
and quahaugs, they will be assigned under the broad term of " shellfish
grants," and the scallops upon these bottoms will be considered as be-
longing to the grantee. In such cases the scallop is of secondary con-
sideration, and in reality there will never be many true scallop grants.

(c) Communal Culture. — The scallop offers better opportunities for
communal culture, i.e., by towns. There is but one way now known of
artificial propagation for the scallop industry, i.e., by transplanting
in the fall the abundant set from the exposed places to the deeper
water before the " seed " is killed by the winter. It is merely assisting
nature by preventing a natural loss, and in no sense can properly be
termed propagation. It is a preventive, and money used in this way
to preserve the scallop is well expended. Usually the set is abundant,
and can be transferred in large numbers. This is the only practical
method now known of increasing our scallop supply, though it is
hoped in the future that other methods may be devised.

In connection with the above comes the question, if we can thus
preserve scallops doomed to destruction, will it not be profitable to
transplant scallops to places where the scalloping has been exterminated
by various causes, and by means of these " seeders " furnish succeeding
generations which may populate the barren areas? This plan is prac-
tical and feasible, and should be given due consideration. Why should
not scallops be transplanted to the harbors of Buzzard's Bay to again
restock these areas? Often the attempt might fail, but there is bound
to be success if there is perseverance. The best time to plant scallops
is in the fall, as a double service will be given: (1) preservation from
destruction of the seed scallops; (2) furnishing spawn and young in
the barren locality. Ingersoll (8) speaks of the restocking of Oyster
Bay in 1880 : -

In the spring of 1880 eel grass came into the bay, bringing young scallops
[the eel grass carries the scallops attached to it by the thread-like byssusl;
thus the abundance of that year was accounted for, though there had not
been a crop before in that bay since 1874.

124 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

If such a restocking can be accomplished by nature, it can be done
with more certain effect with man's assistance.

Restocking Barren Areas. — The practicability of restocking barren
or depopulated areas is illustrated by the following: As few natural
scallops were found in the Powder Hole, Monomoy Point, in 1906, and
as it was desired to have the place well stocked for experimental work
in 1907, 50 bushels of small scallops about the size of a quarter of a
dollar were transplanted from the Common Flats at Inward Point in
November, 1906. The result was an enormous set from these " spawn-
ers " in 1907, and the sandy bottom along the shores of the Powder Hole
during the fall of 1907 and the summer of 1908 was thickly covered
with the numerous 1907 set. The fishermen, who had been at Monomoy
for years, remarked that it was the largest set that had ever been seen
in the Powder Hole. It can be fairly asserted that the remarkable
abundance was due to the bringing in of the spawners, and that this
case is a striking illustration of the proper methods of assisting nature
in increasing the scallop supply in any particular locality.

Our present town laws stand as obstacles to any restocking, as no
town will give up the slightest part of its " seed " scallops to another
town, thus making any practical tests impossible. Time will smooth
away these difficulties, and the welfare of the community as a whole will
be placed before the petty rivalry of towns.

Improving the Fishery. — The second means of improving the indus-
try is to increase the efficiency of the fishery as regards methods, mar-
keting, utilization of waste, etc. Perhaps the most important means of
developing the fishery is to keep the fishermen well informed as to what
is going on in other scalloping districts, what opportunities are being
opened for the marketing of shellfish, how the waste products can be
utilized, and how the fishery can be preserved. This report contains
practically all obtainable information upon the scallop and the industry
in Massachusetts at the present time. While the main facts set forth
in the preceding pages about the life and habits of the scallop will
remain the same, the condition of the industry will change, and in the
future the descriptions of methods, implements, marketing, etc., will be
of little practical value except from an historical standpoint. It is
sincerely hoped that this report will attain its main object, i.e., the
presentation of the life history of the scallop and the needs of the
industry in such a light to the fisherman that he will realize the great
necessity of the preservation of the " seed " scallop for the maintenance
of the fishery. At regular intervals, for instance every five years, small
pamphlets containing up-to-date information concerning methods of
developing the fishery, as regards implements, marketing, utilization of
waste, etc., should be distributed among the scallopers.

Besides the utilization of the waste parts, the uses of which at the
present time have been enumerated under the food value of the scallop,

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 125

the market can be improved in three ways: (1) To do away with the
marketing of tf soaked " scallops by the co-operation of the dealers
and the payment of a proportional increase in price per gallon for
"dry"' scallops from the fisherman. (2) Co-operation between com-
mission merchants and scallopers, which would result in better satisfac-
tion in both goods and prices, and do away to some extent with that
great bugbear, " uncertainty of returns," which is so discouraging to
the fisherman and makes the fishery a lottery. (3) To increase the
popular demand for scallops by wider fields through the transportation
facilities and advertising.

The methods of capture will slowly improve. No suggestions can be
offered here for improvements in dredges, etc., as each locality has con-
ditions peculiar to itself. The description of the different styles of
dredges in the various localities may cause innovations in certain sec-
tions which have fallen in that rut of custom so prevalent in our fishing
towns. During the last few years the gasolene dredger has gradually
replaced the sail, and while dredging with sail will probably remain, it
will be in combination with power, as in power catboats, resulting in a
partial revolution in scalloping methods.

The question of just and fair laws has been an important factor in
the fishery. While in the past all laws have not met this standard, the
tendency at the present time and for the future is improvement in sim-
plicity and justice, with the sole aim of preserving the fishery, serving
the consumer and protecting the fisherman.

CHAPTER VII — METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

Owing to the different classes of readers, and with a desire to pre-
sent the material so that it will be intelligible to all, it has seemed
best to " cull " from the main portions of the report the various
methods, tables, etc., which were used in its preparation, and to incor-
porate them in a reference chapter, where, though accessible, they
will not interfere with the continuity of the narrative. In this way
the report is made more interesting to the fishermen and general pub-
lic, without detracting from its scientific value. Throughout the paper
constant reference is made to the contents of this chapter, for the
purpose of avoiding repetition and unnecessary description.

The chapter is mainly divided into: (1) methods used in obtain-
ing the early embryology and life history; (2) methods of conducting
the growth experiments; (3) tables; (4) glossary; and (5) bibliog-
raphy.

Embryological Methods.

It is hardly necessary to describe in detail the general method of
investigation of the early life history of the scallop. It is sufficient to
state that the usual methods of microscopic study, camera lucida

126 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

drawings, various micrometers, preparations, fixatives, etc., were em-
ployed, while the material was obtained in a variety of ways, as is
hereafter described. The investigation on the life history was car-
ried on at Monomoy Point during the summers of 1906, 1907, 1908,
and 1909, and at Wellfleet in 1908. Only those methods are here
described which especially apply to the scallop or show some pecu-
liarity which rendered them of value in this investigation.

Method of measuring the Scallop Egg. — The size of the mature
scallop eggs was determined with the aid of camera lueida drawings
and a standard stage micrometer. This work was done with oculars
1 and 2 and objectives % and ^, Bausch and Lomb microscope, the
camera lueida and stage micrometer also being obtained from the
same firm. The average measurements of several batches of eggs,
hatched in 1906 at Monomoy Point, just previous to fertilization, gave
the long diameter as Ms.ss millimeter (%96 of an inch) and the short
diameter as He.ce millimeter (V&s of an inch). These measurements
do not correspond with those made by Risser (2), who found the
size to be %ooo of an inch, or about one-fifteenth as large as the meas-
urements made in this investigation.

Method of determining the Number of Eggs produced by the Aver-
age Scallop in One Season. — How many eggs does a scallop contain
at time of spawning? The answer varies with the size of the scallop,
a large specimen possessing many times the number in a small one.
For the purpose of determining two sizes were used, (1) small, 40
millimeters (1% inches), (2) large, 68 millimeters (2% inches). Tak-
ing Vie of a millimeter (Moo of an inch) as the average diameter of
a scallop egg, the number of eggs in a cubic millimeter can be esti-
mated as 4,096, and as there are 1,000 cubic millimeters to 1 cubic
centimeter, there would be 4,096,000 eggs to 1 cubic centimeter. As
it is estimated that one-fourth of the volume is taken up by egg cap-
sules and tissue, it can be safely stated that there are at least 3,000,000
eggs to 1 cubic centimeter. The second operation consists in remov-
ing the ovaries from a number of scallops of a given size and meas-
uring them in graduates to determine the volume of the average
ovary. From this data the average number of eggs that a scallop
of any size is capable of producing can be readily calculated. Twenty
ovaries of scallops measuring 40.15 millimeters in size made 10 cubic
centimeters, one specimen thus averaging i/2 cubic centimeter. There-
fore, a 40-millimeter scallop can produce about 1,500,000 eggs in a
season. The average of seven 68-millimeter scallops made the ovaries
of one equal to 1% cubic centimeters. Therefore, a 68-millimeter (2.7
inches) scallop may produce in a season 4,285,700 eggs.

At best this calculation is only an estimate. Exactness would be of
little practical value. The errors which arise are as follows: (1) In
computing the number of eggs to the cubic millimeter the eggs are

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 127

considered as spheres with intervening spaces, whereas in reality they
are packed together in distorted shapes in the ovary. This perhaps
offsets the second error. (2) In the second part of the computation
the coils of the digestive tract, left in the ovary, are not allowed for,
and with the outer covering are included in the total volume. (3)
Another error arises from the fact that all the eggs may not be as
large as the mature ones. (4) There is also the room taken by the
egg capsules and tissues. Whether these errors offset each other, or
whether the one-fourth allowance is correct, it is impossible to state.
However, for all practical purposes the method and count are accurate
enough.

Method of determining the Number of Spermatozoa produced by
the Average Scallop in One Season. — The method of finding the
number of spermatozoa in the testes of a scallop is practically the
same as in computing the number of eggs in the ovaries. It takes 260
spermatozoa heads placed lengthwise to measure 1 millimeter, and 500
heads placed side by side to measure the same distance. It there-
fore takes 65,000,000 to make a volume of 1 cubic millimeter. By a
generous allowance of 15,000,000,000 for tails and tissue there would
still be left 50,000,000,000 spermatozoa to every cubic centimeter. It
was found that the size of the testes and the ovaries in the same scal-
lop was practically identical, and that the testes of a 40-millimeter
and a 68-millimeter scallop measured */£ cubic centimeter and 1%
cubic centimeters respectively. Thus the average 40-millimeter scallop
is capable of producing 25,000,000,000 and the 68-millimeter scallop
71,400,000,000 spermatozoa.

Methods of recording Spawning. — A variety of methods were
employed in determining the spawning of the scallop. Chief among
these were (a) general observation at the various scalloping localities
of the coast; (b) microscopic examination of the eggs from the ovaries
at different seasons; (c) the plankton net; (d) recording the color
of the egg sac by color charts; (e] appearance of the young set in
the different localities and at different years; (f) individual
spawning.

(a) General Observation. — This method was chiefly followed in
1905 and 1906. Trips were made to the various localities, such as
Edgartown, Nantucket, Buzzard's Bay, Cape Cod, and the condition
of the egg sac of a large number of scallops noted both by eye and
by microscopical examination. The condition of the sexual products
were then classed under three heads, (1) immature, (2) spawning, (3)
spawned, according as to whether the eggs had been liberated at that
date. By making several trips during the summer a general idea of
the duration of the spawning season and its variation in Massachusetts
waters was obtained. This method, though naturally inaccurate in the
minor details, nevertheless proved extremely useful.

128 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

(b) Microscopical Examination. — This method was used to more
or less extent with (a), and was only of additional value in following
the development of the immature eggs previous to the spawning season,
showing at what period other investigations should be started. The
eggs and sperm were removed from the ovary, placed on a slide and
their size and appearance recorded, the sperm being classed as (1)
active or (2) inactive.

(c) The Plankton Net. — A small net of silk bolting cloth No. 11,
with a diameter of 12 inches, and slightly tapering for 24 inches to
a rounded bottom, was used for this work. By towing the net through
the water the veliger larva?, which are abundant during spawning
season in the water, could be captured. This is an important method
of recording the spawning, as the presence of scallop veligers from
two to four days old is proof that the spawning season is under way.
By making daily towings under the same conditions and for a definite
distance, if was possible to count the number of larva? in the water
each day, and thus determine the conditions influencing the spawning-
season. Although this method has been of greater value in the work
on the other shellfish, as the same method is applicable to lamelli-
branchs in general, a description is here given.

The plankton net, as shown in Fig. 72, is attached in the form of
a bag to a copper ring, to which the tow line is fastened in the same
manner as a kite string. The outfit is trailed from the stern of a dory
or rowboat for a definite distance at a slow, uniform rate, so that no
outward current will sweep away the larva? from the mouth of the
net, which acts as a sieve to collect all microscopic organisms too large
to pass through the meshes.

When the proper distance is covered, the net is taken from the water
and the contents washed into a small pail containing from 4 to 5 inches
of clear sea water. The lamellibranch and gasteropod larva? are now
separated from the rest of the tow contents by giving the water a swift
circular movement around the edge of the pail with a small stick. The
action of the water forces the larva? to settle to the bottom at the
center of the pail, where they can be readily transferred by a pipette
to a watch glass for study.

A convenient means of analyzing the towing similar to the Sedgwick-
Rafter method of a diatom counting was devised. The larval contents
of the towing was spread evenly throughout a cell 50 by 20 by 1 mil-
limeters, covering an area of 1,000 square millimeters, or a cubic vol-
ume of 1 cubic centimeter, and ten counts (Moo of the total area),
each covering an area of 1 square millimeter as measured with a square
ocular micrometer, were made from different parts of the cell to get
a representative average. The approximate number of larva? for each
species of shellfish was obtained by multiplying the sum of these counts
by 100.

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 129

(d) The Color Chart. — The color of the ovaries of a scallop is an
excellent test of their maturity, as when distended with ripe eggs they
generally have a rich orange hue. Before and during the spawning
season all grades of color from a flesh pink to a deep orange can be
found. While doubtless there is considerable variation in the color
at maturity, the general average is sufficiently constant to warrant
using it as a basis for recording the spawning season. By the use of
Prang's color chart a record of the spawning of scallops in the dif-
ferent sections was made. At Monomoy Point, by examining the color
of the ovaries without injuring the scallop (the valves being merely
held wide apart), the same lots of scallops were followed during the
entire summer, and the color changes indicative of the spawning
season charted at weekly intervals, according to the standard grades
of color in the chart.

(e) Appearance of Set. — By observations of the appearance of the
set in different localities, and having already a knowledge of the age
of the scallop at this period, the date of spawning could be correctly
estimated. The sets, taken on the spat boxes at Monomoy Point, were
carefully recorded for four years, and in other localities when oppor-
tunity was given.

(/) Artificial Spawning. — In order to obtain accurate data as to
the spawning of individual scallops the following method was em-
ployed: a large glass aquarium containing fresh sea water was placed
on the warm sand in the sunlight. Small glass jars, each containing
enough sea water to cover a scallop, were placed near the aquarium.
The scallops were gently scrubbed with a brush, rinsed in a pail of
clean salt water, and placed one in each of the small jars, under which
dark paper was placed to facilitate detection of spawn. The usual
number under observation at any one time was 16, which proved the
most convenient number to watch. In order to prevent injury to the
developing eggs by contact with metal the temperature was taken from
a separate jar containing the same amount of water. The temperature
of the water was taken at the time the scallops were put in and at
the discharge of the first lot of spawn. At each spawning the contents
of the small jar was transferred to a bottle labeled with the number
of the scallop, number and time of discharge, and examined micro-
scopically to determine whether eggs, spermatozoa or both were lib-
erated. The animal and dish were rinsed in the pail, fresh water of the
same temperature was taken from the aquarium, and the scallop re-
turned to its former position.

Artificial Fertilization. — Two methods of artificial fertilization have
proved most satisfactory in the study of shellfish larva: (1) removal
of the sexual products by cutting; (2) forcing the spawning, although
the former is not as successful with the scallop as with the oyster,
as there are certain drawbacks, such as the crushing of the eggs,

130 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

abnormal development, non-fecundation of the numerous immature eggs,
and sacrificing the parent. The other method (forced spawning) is
accomplished by transferring the scallops from cool to warmer water,
which causes the ripe eggs to be extruded in a more natural manner.
Spawn could be obtained at any time during the season if the tem-
perature was satisfactory, and the same scallops could be used over
and over.

In raising the Iarva3 for laboratory study the aquaria should be
kept clean, a relatively large amount of water for a few Iarva3 should
be allowed, as crowding results in death, and the decomposing eggs,
if not separated by siphoning off the surrounding embryos, soon cause
the death of all. With every precaution the death rate is very high,
owing to the debris, parasitic protozoa, bacteria, etc., which collect
in the water, but there is good reason to believe that by careful experi-
ment scallops can be raised in numbers in the laboratory, although
during this investigation only a few were successfully carried to the
post-embryonic stage.

Artificial Propagation. — The object of artificial propagation is
the prevention of the great "infant mortality," as under natural con-
ditions but ^0,000 of 1 per cent, of the number of eggs develop into
mature scallops. Artificial fertilization and the protection of the
young embryos during the first few days of life would to a large extent
do away with this great loss; but the practical difficulties in success-
fully rearing the larva} over this period are such as to make the under-
taking problematic. At the present time liberation of the eggs imme-
diately after artificial fertilization seems to be of most benefit to the
fishery.

The Eate of Growth.

Methods of measuring the Scallops. — Three measurements were
made of each scallop (Fig. 65) : (1) height, along the dorso-ventral
axis, or from the hinge to the opposite edge of the shell; (2) width,
along the antero-posterior axis, or from the left to right edge of the
shell; (3) thickness, along the lateral axis, or the depth through the
valves.

The growth of any mollusk can only be accurately stated by deter-
mining the gain in volume. As it was obviously impossible to obtain
the water displacement of the scallop with its loose shell, the following
method of calculating the volume was devised: the three dimensions
of the scallop were multiplied together and the result called the cubic
volume, equivalent to the volume of a solid rectangular prism of
those dimensions, in which the scallop is theoretically enclosed. Thus
the following proportion can be established: scallop A of cubic vol-
ume 1,000 is to scallop B of cubic volume 5,000 as 1,000 is to 5,000
( A :B:: 1,000:5,000). Thus scallop B is five times, or 500 per cent.,
larger than scallop A, and the relative per cent, of increase is ob-

OF MASSACHUSETTS. 131

tained with the same results as if the water displacement had been
taken. By taking several hundred measurements of width and thick-
ness for scallops of the same height a table has been formulated,
giving the average width, thickness and cubic volume for every sized
scallop. Thus having given the height of any scallop, the cubic vol-
ume can be found and any gain in length transformed into gain in
volume.

Measuring Instrument. — For speed, exactness and uniformity in
measuring large numbers of scallops it was necessary to have a suitable
measuring implement. (Fig. 105.) The instrument, designed for this
work by the writer, consists of an inverted triangle, formed by two
strips of metal welded together at the apex of the triangle, and joined at
the base by a short cross piece. The whole instrument is made of brass
except the braised joint, and can be made as light as desired, although
there is danger of a heavy blow rendering a light measurer inac-
curate. Several sizes were used in the work, the most convenient
having a base measuring 3 inches. On the sides of the triangle the
scale is marked in millimeters. The measure is scaled in a simple
manner by taking across the broad end a certain width in millimeters,
measuring the length of the instrument, and subdividing it into a cer-
tain number of equal parts, each corresponding to 1 millimeter.
This gives easier and more accurate readings as it is possible to read
to % of a millimeter with the same accuracy as to 1 millimeter on an
ordinary rule, each division on the triangle having actual measurement
of nearly 5 millimeters. When measuring, the triangle is held with the
base away from the body, and the object is brought down the nar-
rowing sides until it strikes, at which point the measurement is read.

The value of the instrument arises from the rapidity with which
measurements can be made, as only 'one movement is required to record
the length of an object. Measurements could be made nearly twice
as fast as by using calipers, where two movements are required. A
proficient person can measure as high as 400 scallops per hour, three
measurements being taken for each scallop, or a total of 1,200. The
ordinary person can measure about 300 in the same time, or 5 scallops
per minute. This instrument can be used for measuring a variety of
objects, and students of variation, where rough measurements are alone
required, will find it of great convenience.

Growth Experiments. — The growth experiments were carried on in
two ways: (1) by measurements at definite periods of the various sets
in the different waters of the Commonwealth; (2) by growth in pens
at Monomoy Point, Monument Beach, Marion and Chatham.

In the first case the work chiefly consisted of measurements, taken
as described above, of a large number of scallops at each time, so as
to obtain a correct average. During the first year three measurements
of each scallop were made, until sufficient material was at hand to

132 THE SCALLOP FISHERY

formulate Table D. Afterwards only one measurement, the height,
was taken, as the gain in volume for any locality could be determined
from the table. The growth line proved of great assistance, as the
increase from May 1 at any date could be determined by making two
measurements, (1) the height, and (2) the growth line.

Tagged Scallops. — A method of recording the growth of individual
scallops as well as obtaining data upon their migratory habits was
obtained by " tagging " each specimen. A small hole was punched
through the " ear " close to the hinge line, and a numbered copper
tag was attached by a fine wire, as in Fig. 66. The scallops were
then liberated in the Powder Hole, after their measurements were taken.
Whenever found, the number and size were recorded, thus obtaining
the exact growth of the individual specimens. The tag apparently did
not interfere with the growth or movements of the animals.

Another method of identification was used in the pens. The scallops
were notched with a file across one valve, the number of notches giving
the class of the scallop when more than one size were confined in the
pen.

The Pens. — Most of the growth experiments were conducted in
pens (Fig. 80), as the activity of the scallop rendered confinement
necessary. In this way, under what might be termed artificial con-
ditions, the rate of growth of Pecten ir radians was obtained in several
localities. The pens were of two kinds: (1) of 1^-inch wire chicken
netting; (2) of old seines. They were constructed by driving in the
soil posts of 2 by 3 inch joist, at sufficient intervals to hold the netting
firmly in position. When wire netting was used little difficulty was
experienced in making the bottoms of the pens tight to prevent the
escape of the scallops, as the netting set firmly on the soil, which had
previously been leveled. When seines were used the bottom was se-
cured either by baseboards or by fastening the netting by long wooden
pegs, an uncertain method at best. The pens were made either of a
sufficient height to rise above the average tide, which was possible
at Chatham and Monomoy Point, where there is a comparatively small
rise and fall of the tide, or were fitted with netting tops when the tide
proved high, as at Marion and Monument Beach. The pens, which
ranged from 40 to 400 square feet in size, were situated in water from
1 to 2l/2 feet in depth at low tide, and under a variety of conditions
as regards current, soil, eel grass and tide.

Wire Cages. — Scallops were suspended in wire cages (Fig. 71) from
a raft in the Powder Hole, Monomoy Point, in order to obtain the rate
of growth, especially of the young " seed," too small to confine in pens.
The baskets consisted of a wooden framework, 2^ feet long, l1/^ feet
wide, 1 foot deep, covered by netting with ^ to 1^4 inch mesh.
Smaller cages were used for the young scallop with galvanized mos-
quito netting. The objection to the use of a small mesh is due to the

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

133

restriction of the water circulation by the clogging of the fine meshes
by plant growth. This was avoided as much as possible in the growth
experiments by frequently cleaning the cages, and transferring the
small scallops as soon as their size permitted to the larger cages. In
spite of this care the growth of the " seed " inside the cages proved
less than those attached outside. Old scallops, as well as, young, were
confined in the baskets for growth records.

The Biological Raft. — The raft (Fig. 79) from which the wire
baskets were suspended proved particularly useful in the study of the
post-embryonic life history of the scallop, which " set " in numbers
on the boxes, wire cages and ropes, where specimens could be obtained
in all stages of development for laboratory examination. From the
raft at various depths were suspended wire cages and boxes, in which
growth experiments upon the quahaug, clam and scallop were con-
ducted. The raft, 20 feet long by 10 feet wide, was made of two 4
by 6 inch beams, 20 feet long, which were held in place by cross beams,
3 by 4 inches in size. On the framework was a floor, except for a
large central " well." Four trapdoors led to smaller " wells " on each
side. The raft was buoyed by six oil barrels, two on each end and
two on the sides, and was moored in the Powder Hole in 20 feet of
water. The scheme of box spat collecting from a raft is recommended
to biological students, as the young of many worms, crustaceans, mol-
lusks and other marine forms are caught easily in sand boxes.

A. Life Table.

STAGE.

Age.

Shape.

Size (Inches).

Movement.

Egg, . . .

-•

Spherical,

V^oo, • •

None.

Two cells, .

46 minutes,

'.- '

V40-0, - -

None.

Four cells, . . •

67 minutes,

- •

^4oo, • •

None.

Eight cells, .

81 minutes,

.-

Vioo, .. •

None.

Sixteen cells,

100 minutes,

-

V400, - •

None.

Blastula,

9 hours, .

Mulberry,

Vioo, - •

None.

Ciliated gastrula,

10 hours, .

-

V400, • • • i

Cilia.

Trochosphere,

12 hours, .

Elongate,

Vioo, - .

Cilia and flagellum.

Early veliger,

40 hours, .

Flat hinge, .

V275, • •

Velum.

Late veliger,

5 days, .

Umbones,

#52, • •

Foot.

Dissoconch, .

8 days, .

Scallop, .

Visa to V2o, •

Foot.

Plicated,

20 days, .

Scallop, .

y2o to %, .

Foot and valves.

Youth, .

Up to 1 year, .

Scallop, .

V6 to 1%,

Valves.

Adult, .

Over 1 year,

Scallop, .

1% to 2y2, .

Valves.

134

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

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OF MASSACHUSETTS. 135

C. Stages of Development.

In order to give a brief consecutive narrative to the life history
of the scallop it was found necessary to confine the detailed descrip-
tions of the period following the time of " set " to the reference
portion of the report. For this purpose the life of the young scallop
during the dissoconch and the plicated stages has been arbitrarily
divided into eight periods. The chief characteristics of each of these
periods are described in tabulated form and refer to the drawings
of the early stages. In making the divisions the shell has been taken
as the standard, and each stage is differentiated by some change in
formation.

136

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

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OF MASSACHUSETTS.

137

D. Comparative Table of Size and Volume.

In the following table of scallops from 1 to 80 millimeters for each
size (height), the average width and thickness are taken from the
measurements of many specimens. Height is the measurement along
the dorso-ventral axis, or from the hinge to the opposite edge of the
shell; width, along antero-posterior axis, or from the left to right
edge of the shell ; thickness, along the lateral axis, or the depth through
the valves. The cubic volume is expressed in cubic millimeters as
height times width times thickness. For each size the number per
quart is given in the fifth column. This table proved very useful in
determining the gain in volume in the planted beds and in the localities
under observation, as by merely having the original size and increase
in height, the gain in volume could be readily calculated.

1

Width.

Thickness.

Cubic
Volume.

to

1

Width.

Thickness.

Cubic
Volume.

! • ;

Number
per Quart.

1

1.0

.2

.2

7,927,275.00

25

25.0

8.9

5,563.0

285.00

2

1.8

.5

1.8

880,820.00

26

26.0

9.3

6,287.0

252.20

3

2.7

.8

6.5

243,960.00

27

27.0

9.7

7,071.0

224.20

4

2.6

1.1

11.4

138,596.00

28

28.1

10.1

7,947.0

199.50

5

4.5

1.5

33.8

45,898.00

29

29.2

10.5

8,891.0

178.30

6

5.4

1.8

58.3

27,195.00

30

30.3

11.0

9,999.0

168.30

7

6.3

2.1

92.6

17,123.00

31

31.4

11.5

11,194.0

141.60

8

7.3

2.5

146.0

10,859.00

32

32.5

11.9

12,376.0

128.10

9

8.3

2.8

209.0

7,583.00

33

33.6

12.4

13,749.0

115.30

10

9.3

3.1

288.0

5,506.00

34

34.7

12.9

15,219.0

104.20

11

10.2

3.4

382.0

4,150.00

35

35.8

13.3

16,665.0

95.00

12

11.2

3.8

511.0

3,103.00

36

36.9

13.7

18,199.0

67.10

13

12.2

4.1

650.0

2,439.00

37

38.0

14.1

19,825.0

80.00

14

13.2

4.4

813.0

1,950.00

38

39.2

14.5

21,599.0

73.40

15

14.2

4.8

1,022.0

1,551.00

39

40.4

15.0

23,634.0

67.10

16

15.3

5.2

1,273.0

1,245.00

40

41.6

15.5

25,792.0

61.40

17

16.4

5.6

1,561.0

1,016.00

41

42.8

16.0

28,077.0

56.50

18

17.5

6.0

1,890.0

838.80

42

43.9

16.5

30,423.0

52.10

19

18.6

6.4

2,262.0

700.90

43

45.0

17.0

32,895.0

48.20

20

19.6

6.8

2,666.0

595.60

44

46.2

17.5

35,574.0

44.60

21

20.7

7.2

3,130.0

506.40

45

47.4

18.0

38,394.0

41.30

22

21.8

7.6

3,645.0

434.90

46

48.6

18.5

41,359.0

38.50

23

22.9

8.0

4,214.0

376.20

47

49.8

19.0

44,471.0

35.65

24

23.9

8.5

4,876.0

325.20

48

50.9

19.5

47,642.0

33.30

138

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

i
°«

B

1

j

Cubic
Volume .

Number
per Quart.

4
I

Width.

Thickness.

Cubic
Volume.

Number
per Quart.

49

52.1

20.0

51,058.0

31.00

65

70.3

29.6

135,257.0

11.72

50

53.2

20.5

54,530.0

29.10

66

71.4

30.2

142,314.0

11.14

51

54.4

21.1

58,540.0

27.20

67

72.6

30.8

149,817.0

10.58

52

55.5

21.7

62,626.0

25.30

68

73.8

31.5

158,080.0

10.03

53

56.7

22.3

67,014.0

23.65

69

75.0

32.2

166,635.0

9.51

54

57.9

22.9

71,599.0

22.15

70

76.2

32.9

175,489.0

9.03

55

59.1

23.5

76,387.0

20.75

71

77.4

as. 7

185,195.0

8.56

56

60.3

24.1

81,381.0

19.50

72

78.6

34.5

195,242.0

8.12

57

61.4

24.7

86,445.0

18.34

73

79.8

35.2

205,054.0

7.73

58

62.5

25.3

91,713.0

17.30

74

81.0

35.9

215,184.0

7.37

59

63.6

25.9

97,187.0

16.30

75

82.1

36.6

225,364.0

7.03

60

64.7

26.5

102,873.0

15.40

76

83.2

37.3

233,855.0

6.72

61

65.8

27.1

108,774.0

14.58

77

84.4

38.1

247,604.0

6.40

62

67.0

27.7

115,066.0

13.78

78

85.6

38.9

259,728.0

6.14

63

68.1

28.3

121,415.0

13.06

79

86.8

39.7

272,231.0

5.82

64

69.2

29.0

128,435.0

12.34

80

88.0

40.3

285,120.0

5.56

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1. Drew, G. A. The Habits, Anatomy and Embryology of the Giant

Scallop (Pecten tenuicostatus Mighels). The University of Maine
Studies No. 6, 1906.

2. Risser, Jonathan. Habits and Life History of the Scallop (Pecten

irradians). Thirty-first Annual Report of the Commissioners of In-
land Fisheries of the State of Rhode Island, 1901.

3. Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. New

York State Museum Bulletin No. 71, Zoology 10, 1903.

4. Jackson, R. T. Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda. Memoirs Boston Society

Natural History, Vol. IV, 18.

5. Kellogg, J. L. The Clam and Scallop Industries. New York State

Museum Bulletin No. 43, Vol. 8, 1901.

6. Kellogg, J. L. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Morphology of

Lamellibranchiate Mollusks. Bulletin United States Fish Commission,
1890.

7. Kellogg, J. L. Notes on the Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Gulf

Biological Station Bulletin No. 3, 1905.

8. Ingersoll, E. The Scallop Fishery. In the Fisheries and Fishing In-

dustries of the United States, United States Fish Commission and
Tenth Census, 1887.

9. Pelseneer, P. A Treatise on Zoology. Part V., Mollusca. Edited by

E. Ray Lankester, London, 1906.
10. Kellogg, J. L. Shell-fish Industries, 1910. Henry Holt & Co.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

139

11. Clark, A. H. The Fisheries of Massachusetts. In the Fisheries and

Fishing Industries of the United States, United States Fish Commis-
sion and Tenth Census, 1887.

12. Smith, H. M. The Giant Scallop Fishery of Maine. United States

Fish Commission Bulletin for 1889, Vol. 9.

13. Howell, W. H. A Text-book of Physiology, 1909.

14. Langworthy, C. F. United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers'

Bulletin 85, 1898.

15. Sharp, B. Eemarks on the Phylogeny of the Lamellibranchiata, Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sc., Phila., 1888.

GLOSSARY.

Adductor muscle, . Muscle which draws the two valves (shells) to-
gether.

Anterior, . . . Front.

Archenteron, . . Primitive or original digestive tract.

Asymmetrical, . . Not symmetrical.

Auricle, . . .A chamber of the heart.

Bathymetrical, . . Eelating to the depth in the sea.

Blastopore, . . . The opening into the archenteron.

Blastula, . . . An early stage in the development of the embryo,
in which the outer cells form a definite layer.

Byssus, . . . Thread-like fibers secreted by the foot for attach-
ment.

Cell, . . . . The unit structure of life.

Cilia, .... Filamentous protoplasmic processes.

Cleavage, . , ;, « Natural division of the egg cells.

Cloacal chamber, . Space into which waste material is discharged be-
fore passing out the excurrent siphon.

Crystalline style, . A transparent gelatinous rod which lies along the
upper part of the intestine.

Cytoplasm, . . . That part of the protoplasm outside of the nucleus.

Diatoms, . . . Microscopic plants, which constitute the food of
the shellfish.

Dimyarian, . . . Having two adductor muscles, as the quahaug.

Dissoconch, . . Literally, two shelled; babyhood shell with no pli-

cations.

Dorsal, . . . Referring to the back of the animal but not neces-
sarily the upper side.

Ectoderm, . . . The external outer layer of cells.

Egg, .... The female germ cell — ovum.

Egg capsule, . . Case in which the egg is inclosed.

Embryo, . . . The first rudiments of an organism.

Endoderm, . . . The inner cell layer.

Equilateral, . . Having all sides equal.

Equivalvular, . . When two valves are alike in size and shape.

Exoskeleton, j^. . Outside framework or support, differing from a
true skeleton or endoskeleton, which is inside
the body.

140

THE SCALLOP FISHERY

Fecundation,
Fertilization,
Flagellum, .
Follicle,
Formative cells, .

Ganglion,
Gastrula,

Genus,
Geotropic, .
Germ cell, .
Gills, .

Gland,

Hermaphrodite,

Invagination,

Lamella,
Lamellibranchiata,

Larva,

Lumen,
Macromere,

Micromere, .
Mantle,

Mantle cavity,
Maturation,

Migration, .
Monomyarian,

Nacreous structure,

Nucleoli,

Nucleus,

Otocysts,

Ovary,

Ovum,
Pecten,
Pericardium,
Posterior, .

Impregnation of the ovum by the spermatozoon.

Fecundation.

A long, whip-like cilium.

A small cavity.

Cells which form the animal in contrast with cells

which furnish them with food.
A mass of grey nervous substance, which serves

as a center of nervous influence.
An embryonic stage which has the form of a

double-walled sac with an opening leading into

a cavity, the archenteron.
Group of species.

Showing a disposition to incline toward the earth.
That which is to develop a new individual.
Eespiratory organs in water, comparable to the

lungs in air.
. , A cell or collection of cells having the power of

secreting.
An animal having both male and female generative

organs.
One of the methods by which the various germinal

layers of the ovum are differentiated.
A thin plate or scale.
Animals of the mollusk family that have the gills

arranged in leaf -like layers.
The animal during its development until it reaches

adult size.

An opening, space or cavity.

One of the larger cells, resulting from segmen-
tation of the egg.

One of the smaller cells, resulting from segmen-
tation of the egg.
The fleshy, membraneous covering, lining inside of

the shell.

The space between the mantles.
The process of ripening or coming to maturity of

the egg.

Act of traveling from one region to another.
Having one adductor muscle, as with the scallop

and oyster.

Pearly layer of shell, generally on the inside.
Smaller divisions or parts of the nucleus.
Germinative spot.
Organs of equilibration.
The organ of a female in which the eggs are

formed.
The egg.

Scientific name of the scallop.
Membrane inclosing the heart.
Opposite to anterior.

OF MASSACHUSETTS.

141

Prismatic structure,

Prodissoconch,

Protandric,

Protoplasm,

" Seed " scallop, .

Set, . . .

Spawning, .

Spermatozoon,

Tentacle,

Testis,
Trochosphere,

Umbo,
Valves,

Veliger,
Velum,

Ventral surface, .
Ventricle, .
Visceral mass, .

Shell made up of prisms.

Small embryonic shell of a mollusk.

Having male sexual organs while young, and female
organs later in life.

Cell contents — life substance.

A scallop less than one year old.

Attaching of scallop by byssus.

To set free the eggs or spermatozoa.

The male sex cell.

A more or less elongated process, usually an organ
of sense or motion.

The male gland which produces the spermatozoa.

Stage in embryonic development, in which the em-
bryo is spherical and rotates rapidly.

The beak or " shoulder " of the bivalve shell.

Two valves, the right and left, compose the shell
of a lamellibranch mollusk.

Stage in embryonic development in which velum is
used as an organ of locomotion.

A circular pad covered with cilia and used as an
organ of locomotion in the early embryonic

The side opposite the dorsal surface.
A chamber of the heart.

That part of body containing digestive, generative
and part of circulatory and nervous systems.

INDEX

INDEX

PAGE

Acmsea, . . ' ; 14,71

Adductor muscle, . . ....... 16, 46

Age, . 77-81,87

Anatomical development, ......... 41-47

Anatomy of adult, . 13-19

Anatomy of dissoconch stage, 38, 39

Anatomy of veliger, ......... 32-35

Anomia, . . . ... . . . . . . 14, 71

Assistants, ........... 11

Attachment, 50-54

Observations on, . . . . . . . . . 53

Period of 52, 53

Value of 53, 54

Bait regulation, .......... 119

Barnstable, 98, 100, 101, 104

Bibliography . . . 138, 139

Blastula . 29

Bourne * . . 102, 104

Brewster, 98

Buzzard's Bay, . .... 85, 101, 102

Byssal groove, .......... 38

Byssus, 18, 51, 52

Cage growth 89, 90, 96

Cages, wire, . 132, 133

Cape Cod : —

Spawning season,. ......... 25

Growth, 85

Catch, daily limit to, ...... ... 118

Champi parvia, .......... 14

Chatham, . .' . . . . . 73,83,85,99,100,104

Chatham dredge, .......... . 109

Ciliated larva, 29, 30

Circulatory system 17

Cleavage, . . . 28, 29

Climbing 56,57

Color: —

Chart, « 129

Preference, 67

Variation, 48

Courtesies, 10, 11

Crawling, '..... 54-56

Crepidula, • t, • • • 14, 71

Culture: —

Artificial, . . ._. . . . . . ... 122, 123

Communal, ... . 123, 124

146 INDEX.

PAGE

Current, . . . . 88-90

Death of old scallops 79

Decline of industry, . . 106, 107

Deformities 95

Dennis, . . . . . ' . 100, 104

Development table, . . . . . . . . . ' . 135,136

Diatoms, . . . . . . . . . . 65

Digestive system : —

Anatomy, ....... . 17

Development, . . . . . . . . . . 46, 47

Veliger, .... .35

Dissocoiich stage, . . . . . . ' . . . 36-39

Distribution, . . . , . 12

Dredges, .... 109, 110

Dredging, . . . . . . . . i . . . 108-110

Drew, Prof. G. A., . . . •. . . . . 10, 11, 13, 18, 27, 58

Drifting, . . . 60, 61

Edgartown, . . . 83, 85, 103, 104

Eel grass, . . . .88, 89, 91

Egg: —

Description, . . . . . . . . . . 19

Development, . . . . . ; . . . . 27, 28

Method of counting, . . . 126, 127

Embryological methods, . . . . . . . . . . 125-130

Embryology, . . . . 27-31

Enemies, ..... . 67-73

Enteromorpha, .......... 13

Environment, . . . . . .... . 87-92

Excretory system, . . . . . . . ... 17, 18

"Eye," . .... Ill, 116, 117

Eyes: —

Anatomy, . . . 15, 16

Development, ...... . 44

Fairhaven, ... . iv . .... 101, 104

Fallacies, ... 73

Falmouth, 102

Family, ... . 11, 12
Fecundation: —

Natural, 25,26

Self, 26

Feeding habits, . 65, 66

Fertilization: —

Artificial 129, 130

Self, ... 26

Two-year-old scallops, .... . . 26, 27

Fishery, .... . 107-112

Methods of improving, ... . . 124, 125

Fishing grounds, ... ...... 97—103

Flagellum, ........... 30

Food value . 113-117

Foot: —

Anatomy, ....... . 18

Development, ........ 46

Footed larva, ........ . 34

Gastrula 29

INDEX.

147

Gates, W. H., .
Gathering by hand, .
Gills: —

Anatomy,

Development, .

Feeding, .

Glossary, ....

Growth : —

Artificial, ....

Average, ....

Buzzard's Bay, • / •

Cage, . .

Cape Cod,

Chatham,

Conditions influencing,

Current, ....

Eel grass,

Environment, .

Food and,

General, .

Line, . . .

Locality, .

Methods, .

Months, .

Natural compared with artificial,

Pen,

Salinity, ....'.

Sets of 1904, 1905, 1906, .

Shellfish

Size and, . ' .

Soil, . -.

Spawning season,

Temperature,

Variations,

Water, depth of,

Young scallops, ,

Harwich, .

Heart

Hinge, ... . .

Hinge line, .
History of fishery, .
Industry, statistics of,
Ingersolli Ernest,
Intestine, ...

Islands, ... .

Jackson, Prof. R. T.,
Kellogg, Prof. J. L., .
Kidney, ... .

Laws, ...
Life, length of, .

Light, effect of, .
Liver, ......

Locomotion, .
Macromeres, g •--. *.

Man,

PAGE

8, 11
. 107, 108

16
45, 46

66

. 139-141

92-96

. 74, 84, 85

85

. 89, 90, 96

85

. 99, 100

87-92

88-90
91

87

75

. "... 75

.14, 81, 82

85

. 74, 75, 130-133

76,77

93,94

. 94, 96, 97

. . . 92

85

76

95
91

82,83

. . 91

. . 76

92

. . 83,84
. . . . 100, 104
. . . 17

14

13
. 105, 106

103, 104

. . . 10, 12,72,77, 123

17,47

. . . - . . 85

10, 13, 18, 32, 36, 37, 51, 52, 58, 59, 64, 66

10-12, 17-19, 66

17, 18

117-120

77-81

66

17,47

54-60

...--. . 29

71-73

148 INDEX.

Mantle:— PAGE

Anatomy, . . . . . . . . 15

Development, . . . . . . . . 41,42

Veliger, . 35

Marion, . . - ... 83, 85, 102, 104

Market, . ... Ill, 112

Mashpee, . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Mattapoisett, . r . 101, 104

Measuring instrument, . . . . . . . • . . 131

Methods: —

Fishing 107-110

Improving industry, . . . . . . . . . 121-125

Investigation, . . . . . . . 11, 125-133

Micromeres, . . . . . . . . . 29

Migration, . . . . . . . . . ; 61-64

Monomoy, . „ 20, 21, 23, 83, 85, 86, 89

Muscle, adductor 16, 34, 46

Names, . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Nantucket, . . . ' 85, 102, 104

Nassa obsoleta, . ' . . . . 70,71

Natural supply, .......... 121-124

Nervous system, .......... 17

Net, plankton, 128

New Bedford, . . . 101, 104

Non-edible parts, . . . . . ... . . . 116

North Falmouth, . .... ... . . . 83, 85

Object of report, . . . . ... . . . 9

Openers, . . . Ill

Opening, method of, . . .... . . . . 111,112

Orleans, . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Otocyst, . .- . . 45

Outfit of scalloper, 110

Ovary, . , . . . . . . . . . . 18

Overcrowding and growth, . . . v • • • • 96

Oyster drill, . . . , . . . . . . . . 69, 70

Palps, . . . . . . ... . .. 16, 17, 46

Pelseneer, Dr. Paul, 20, 26, 30

Penalties for scallop laws, . .. . . , . . 119

Pens 94,96,97,132

Permits for fishing, . . ' . . . . . . . .119,120

Plicated stage, 39, 40

Polar cells 28

Powder Hole 11, 79

Power, scalloping by, 110, 111

Presentation of report 9, 10

Price, market, ........... 112

Prodissoconch, .......... 32

Propagation, 122, 130

Provincetown, .......... 99

Pusher, 108

Raft, biological, ... 11, 133

Range 12, 13

Readers, 8

Recovery from injury, . . . . . . . . 64, 65

Reproductive organs, 18, 19

Resting, ... .... ... 60, 61

INDEX. 149

/

PAGE

Restocking, ......... . 124

Rhode Island, 86

Ridges, 13, 14

Risser, Jonathan, . . 10, 77, 82, 83, 86

Salinity, ..'..- . 92

Savery, Charles L., . . . 8, 11

Seaweeds, ........... 14

Season, . 107, 118

Seed scallop 119

Senility, ... .78,79

Sense organs, . . / . . . . . . . 42-45

Sensory powers, . .... . 66, 67

Serpula, ... .... 14, 71

Set, . . 36,50,51,83,85,86

Shanties, . . Ill

Shell .... 13-15,31,47-49,116,117

Shipment, ... 112

Soaking 114, 115

Soil, ... ... .91

Spat collecting, .......... 54

Spawning, ... v ... ... 20-25

Age 22

Artificial .... 129

Growth, 82, 83

Methods of recording, ... . . 127-129

Monomoy Point, 20, 21, 23

Season, . ... . . 23-25

Temperature, .........

Spermatozoa, . . . . . . . . 19, 20, 127

Stage harbor, 90

Stages: —

Dissoconch, . . . . . . ... . . 36-39

Life, 78

Plicated, . . » . 39,40

Veliger, . . 31-35

Starfish, . .- .- .68,69

Stomach, 16, 47

Swimming ^ . . . .30, 57-60

Tables, ... . . . .... 133-138

Dissoconch phases, .- . . . ... . 135, 136

Life, - . '..,'.' . . . 133, 134

Volume, ....... .... 137, 138

Tagged scallops, . . . " . . . . . 63, 132

Temperature : —

Spawning, . . . . . . ... 22

Growth, .91,92

Tentacles, . .... 15,42-44

Terminology, ........... 9

Testis, . ., 18

Tisbury .... .104

Traveling, rate of, 57

Trochosphere larva, 30

Turning over, . L- 57

Two-year-old scallops, . 79

Ulva, ...... 14

Valves, . 13

150 INDEX.

Variation: — *A«E

Color, . . ' . . 48, 49

Growth, . . . . 95

Length of life, . 80

Veliger, ... ..... . 31-35

Velum . . . 33

Vinal, William G., 8, 11

Vineyard Haven, . . . . . . . ' . . . 103, 104

Visceral mass, . . 46

Vision, . . 67

Wareham, . . . 102, 104

Wellfleet, . . . 99

Yarmouth, . 73, 100, 104

Yolk lobe, . 28

ABBREVIATIONS.

a. — anus.

aa. — anterior adductor muscle.

b. — byssus.

bg. — byssal gland.

bgr. — byssal groove.

bn. — byssal notch.

d. — dissoconch.

di. — distal end.

er. — "ear."

/. — foot.

fc. — foot cleft.

fg. — foot groove.

fl. — flagellum.

fr. — foot retractor muscle.

Q* — gills.

h. — hinge line.

ht. — heart.

i. — intestine.

ig. — inner gills.

1. — liver.

Ip. — labial palps.

ra. — mantle.

mf — mantle flap.

mt. — mouth.

o. — otocyst.

og. — outer gills

ot\ — ovary.

pa. — posterior adductor muscle.

pc. — polar cells.

pd. — prodissoconch.

pi. — plicated growth.

pm. — primitive mouth.

pr. — proximal end.

ps. — pseudo-siphon.

r. — retractors of velum.

s. — stomach.

sg. — shell gland.

t. — tentacles.

te. — teeth.

is. — testis.

v. — velum.

vm. — visceral mass.

yl. — yolk lobe.

Fig. 1. — Mature egg ready for union with male cell. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 2. — Spermatozoa (male cells). Note length of tail and variation in shape
of head. The spermatozoon on the left is the most common form. No attempts
were made to study the minute anatomy. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 3. — Compressed egg. Shape due to pressure of eggs within ovary.
Shortly after extrusion it becomes spherical. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 4. — Egg enclosed in membranous case. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 5. — Egg, forty-three minutes after fecundation, showing the yolk lobe
(yl) and two polar cells (pc). The formation of the yolk lobe has given to the egg
a pear-shaped appearance. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 6. — Ring of spermatozoa with radiating tails held away from the egg by
a membrane. The entire surface of the membrane is covered by the sperma-
tozoa, but only those in one plane are here shown. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 7. — Two-celled stage, forty-six minutes after fecundation, showing unequal
division. The larger cell contains the yolk lobe (yl). Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 8. — Four-celled stage, sixty-seven minutes after fecundation. Magni-
fied 600 diameters.

Fig. 9. — Eight-celled stage, side view, eighty-one minutes after fecundation.
Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 10. — Sixteen-celled stage, viewed from below, one hundred minutes after
fecundation. Note large yolk cell. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 11. — Blastula stage, viewed from below, about nine hours after fecunda-
tion. The original egg has developed, by repeated divisions, into a mass of cells,
giving it a mulberry-like appearance. The large yolk cell has divided into four
macromeres, the rest of the cells constituting the micromeres. Magnified 600
diameters.

Fig. 12. — Ciliated gastrula, ten hours after fecundation. The embryo can now
swim through the water by means of the hair-like cilia. The larger cells have
become invaginated. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 13. — Optical section of ciliated gastrula. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 14. — Trochosphere stage, twelve to fourteen hours after fecundation.
The body has elongated and the cilia are now confined to the front end. Note
the long feeler or flagellum, which serves to guide the animal. The opening of the
primitive mouth can be seen on the lower side, while above is a slight indentation
corresponding to the beginning of the shell gland. Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 15. — Formation of the shell, which arises at two symmetrical points of
calcification, right and left of the median line, and gradually envelops the animal.
Magnified 600 diameters.

Fig. 16. — Early veliger larva, viewed from the side. The animal arrives at
this stage from seventeen to forty hours after fertilization, according to external
conditions. The duration of this stage is probably from five to six days, during
which the animal leads a free swimming life. Magnified 600 diameters.

H

15

16.

Fig. 17. — Early veliger swimming with velum extended. Viewed from side.
Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig. 18. — Late veliger or prodissoconch. Note change in form of shell, as
compared with Fig. 17. This stage marks the end of the embryonic period, as the
scallop now forsakes its free swimming life and attaches itself to objects by means
of its byssus or " anchor strands." Magnified 150 diameters.

Figs. 19 to 32, inclusive, cover the next distinct stage of development. This
form is called "dissoconch," i.e., double shell.

Fig. 19. — Dissoconch Phase 1. Early dissoconch growth after scallop has "set."
View of right or lower valve. Note beginning of byssal or foot notch (bn). Scal-
lop is now capable of byssal attachment. Right valve is slightly smaller than left.
Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig. 20. — View of left valve of same scallop as in Fig. 19. Anatomy shown
through transparent shell. Note increased number of gill filaments. Magnified
150 diameters.

Fig. 21. — Dissoconch Phase 2. About two days after "set." View of trans-
parent right valve through which the organs are seen. The right valve is less
convex than the left, for aid in crawling. The heart (ht) is observed for the first
time during this stage. Note the slower growth of the byssal or foot notch, which
is one period behind the growth of the rest of the shell. Note also the increase
in the number of gill filaments. Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig. 22. — Internal view of shell of scallop of same age as in Fig. 21, showing ten
pairs of small teeth (te), which interlock to form a firm hinge. The shell is inequi-
valved, i.e., the right valve (upper in illustration) is less concave than the left.
Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig. 23. — Internal view of same scallop as in Fig. 21, showing the adductor
muscle and foot, the rest of the soft parts having been removed. Scallops of this
age often open the shell to an angle of 90°, thus illustrating the flexibility of the
adductor muscle. Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig. 24. — Dissoconch Phase 3. View of right valve of scallop about four days
after "set," showing anatomy. The left valve projects slightly beyond the right,
and the hinge line is inclined slightly upward. Note increased number of gill bars.
Magnified 150 diameters.

Fig1. 25. — Dissoconch Phase 4. View of right valve of scallop about one week
after "set." Note contrast between the prodissoconch (pd) or embryonic shell
and the succeeding dissoconch growth (d). A groove has been formed by the
growth of the byssal or foot notch (bn), which is increasing in size to correspond
with the development of the foot. The right valve is smaller than the left. Mag-
nified 37 1/2 diameters.

Fig. 26. — View of left valve of same scallop as in Fig. 25, showing the lines of
growth and the formation of the pseudo-ear, which corresponds to the location of
the byssal notch. Magnified 37^/2 diameters.

Fig. 27. — Same scallop as in Fig. 25, with foot extended. Anatomy shown
through transparent left valve. Note increased number of gill filaments (ig) and
the well-defined heart (ht). The byssal gland (bg) and cleft have become promi-
nent on foot. The knob-like projections on the mantle are the beginnings of the
tentacles (t). Magnified 37 Va diameters.

Fig. 28. — View of soft parts of slightly older scallop of Phase 4. Note the
nine small tentacles (t), the two eyes (e) and the fourteen gill filaments (ig). Mag-
nified 37l/2 diameters.

Fig. 29. — Dissoconch Phase 5. Anatomy shown through transparent right
valve. This stage is characterized by one tooth in the byssal notch. The scallop
is represented as lying in a resting position, with mantle and foot retracted. Note
the formation of eight secondary tentacles between the primary, the relative posi-
tion of the eyes (e) and the tenatcles (t), and the beginning of the outer gills (og).
Magnified 37 1/2 diameters.

Fig. 30. — View of same scallop as shown in Fig. 29, as seen through left valve,
with mantle (m) expanded and foot (f) extended. The edges of the mantle have
joined posteriorly to form a pseudo-siphon (ps), through which water is expelled
from the shell. The byssal gland (bg) has a prominent position on the long foot
(f). Magnified 37l/2 diameters.

Fig. 31. — Dissoconch Phase 6. Characterized by two teeth on the byssal
notch. View of anatomy through right valve. Tertiary tentacles are developing
on the edge of the mantle, which is partially extended. At this age the scallop
has about twenty-two inner (ig) and ten outer (og) gill filaments. Magnified 37%
diameters.

Fig. 32. — Scallop of same phase as in Fig. 31, lying on left valve in an unnatural
position. The animal has extended his foot (f) for the purpose of turning over.
The eyes (e), tentacles (t) and guard flap (mf) can be seen on the edge of the mantle.
Magnified 37 1/2 diameters.

Fig. 33. — Early plicated stage. View of the right or lower valve. Note
the smooth prodissoconch (pd) and dissoconch (d) areas, with the beginning of
the sixteen plications (pi) of the adult. There are four teeth (te) on the byssal
notch. Actual size, 1.25 millimeters (l/2u of an inch).

Fig. 34. — Same scallop as in Fig. 33, viewed from left or upper valve. Actual
size, 1.25 millimeters (Mjo of an inch).

Fig. 35. — View of the anatomy of a slightly older scallop, size, 1.4 millimeters
(Vis of an inch), as seen through the right valve. Note primary, secondary and
tertiary eyes (e) and tentacles (t). The outer gill (og) has about twenty-five fila-
ments, and begins to resemble the inner gill (ig).

Fig. 36. — View of right or lov,*er valve of same scallop as in Fig. 35. Note
the five teeth (te) on the byssal notch (bn) and the beginning of the "ears" (er).
The two teeth back of the external border of the byssal groove are older, and have
rounded rather than the pointed ends of the last formed teeth. The valves have
become nearly equal, the hinge line straight, and the byssal groove (bg) can be
traced back to the asymmetrical prodissoconch. Actual size, 1.4 millimeters (Ms
of an inch).

Fig. 37. — View of upper left valve of same scallop as in Figs. 35 and 36. Actual
size, 1.4 millimeters (Vis of an inch).

Fig. 38. — Dorsal view of Pecten in plicated stage, showing umbones and
hinge line. The left valve is deeper than the right. The prodissoconch (pd) is
sharply marked off, the amount of separation between its two valves being well
shown. Magnified 32 diameters.

Fig. 39. — Plicated stage. A 2.15-millimeter scallop magnified 32 diameters.
View of corner of right valve, showing groove and notch. Nine teeth (te) can be
seen in the byssal area, six of which are within the external border of the groove.
There is a second furrow dorsal to the byssal groove, and a serrated structure near
the hinge line of seven sharply pointed teeth, which possibly may be an individual
variation.

Fig. 40. — Posterior view of scallop in the plicated stage, showing that the
shell has become more nearly equivalvular. The plicated (pi) and dissoconch (d)
areas are sharply differentiated. Magnified 32 diameters.

Fig. 41. — Prismatic structure of right valve of dissoconch shell highly mag-
nified. This structure is not found on the left valve, or on either valve of the adult.
Magnified 340 diameters.

Fig. 42. — Foot of 25-millimeter (about 1 inch) scallop, showing cleft (fc), disc-
like tip, byssal gland (bg) and groove (fg). Magnified 7 diameters.

Fig. 43. — Byssus of scallop of dissoconch stage after having been cast off by
the animal; distal (di) or attached end; proximal (pr) or gland end. Magnified
5 diameters.

Figs. 44-46. — Stages showing the development of the tenacle. Fig. 44 rep-
resents the first appearance, Fig. 45 further development, and Fig. 46 the tip of
a completely formed tenacle. The tenacles on the edge of the mantle are used as
sensory, clinging and crawling organs. Magnified 110 diameters.

Fig. 47. — Scallop (4 to 5 millimeters in size) drifting just below the surface
of water in aquarium (see page 60). Note the extended tentacles (t), open shell
and the reverse position, with right valve uppermost. Magnified 5 diameters.

Fig. 48. — Scallop (1.5 millimeters in size) attached to eel grass by a two-
stranded byssus (b), formed during the night. Magnified 7 diameters.

46

li

1 jj

48

I

Figs. 49-51. — Turning Over. — When lying on the left valve, as in Fig. 49,
the small scallop appears uneasy, as its normal position is on the right. After a
few minutes it thrusts out its foot, waves it around, as if seeking a foothold, and
finally applies the cleft tip to the bottom of the glass dish with a twisting motion.
By this movement the shell is so pulled that the hinge line rests upon the bottom
(Fig. 50), and the scallop pries itself over, naturally falling into its normal posi-
tion on the right valve.

Figs. 52-54. — These figures illustrate the strength of the byssal thread, which
permits the revolving of a young scallop at least 360° without breaking the strands.
The scallop is shown as it is turned around on its attachment by a pencil.

Figs. 55-57. — Crawling. — In Fig. 55 the young scallop, lying on its right
valve, has extended its foot, the tip of which is firmly set on the bottom. Fig. 56
shows the tipping of the shell forward by the contraction of the foot. Fig. 57
shows the completion of the movement, by which the animal has traveled three-
quarters of its length, and the extension of the foot for a second pull. The action
of the foot is strengthened by the clapping of the valves, which sends out a current
of water from the posterior side of the shell.

Figs. 58-60. — Spinning the Byssus. — In Fig. 58 the foot is extended, with
tip and byssal gland touching the bottom of the glass dish, in order to attach the
byssal thread. Fig. 59 represents the spinning or drawing out of the byssal thread
by the retraction of the foot toward the shell, and Fig. 60 shows the young scallop
attached by one thread, while the foot is in the act of extension for the purpose
of attaching a second strand at a point slightly removed from the fixation of the
first. The spinning of a single thread occupies about two minutes.

Figs. 61, 62. — Swimming. — Swimming is accomplished by the alternate
expulsion of water first from one "ear," as B, and then from the other, as D, which
forces the scallop ahead by a series of zigzag jerks or tacks in the directions C
and E respectively. (These two figures are from the illustrations of Prof. R. T.
Jackson, Figs. 8, 8a, Plate XXVIII., Memoirs Boston Society Natural History,
Vol. IV.)

Figs. 63, 64. — These figures illustrate a manner of avoiding enemies. In
Fig. 63 the scallop, when approached by a pencil at the free edge, darts quickly
away in the direction of the arrow by violently expelling water from its ventral
border. Darts can be likewise made in either a forward or backward direction,
as shown in Fig. 64.

61

62

Fig. 65. — External view of the two valves of the scallop. Left valve: A,
anterior border; P, posterior border; D, dorsal border; V, ventral border (free
edge) ; HH, hinge line; AP, width; DV7, height. Right valve: U, umbo; B, byssal
notch; E, ears; R, ridge; F, furrow.

Fig. 66. — Shows the method of recording the growth of individual specimens
and of obtaining data upon the migratory habits of the scallop. A small hole was
bored through the "ear" close to the hinge line with an awl. A numbered copper
tag was attached by a fine wire.

Fig. 67. — Generative gland: ov, ovary; t, testis; ep, ciliated epithelium on
surface of visceral mass; glc, gland cells; bm, basement membrane; ct, tissue of
irregular cells beneath epithelium; fep, follicular epithelium; d, ciliated ducts, the
one in the testis containing spermatozoa, and on its walls a gland cell being shown;
bv, blood vessel. (This illustration is a copy of a drawing by James L. Kellogg,
produced as Fig. 71, Plate LXXXIX., Bulletin, United States Fisheries Commis-
sion, 1890, and is published with the consent of Dr. Kellogg. Unfortunately, in
the reduction much of the fine detail of the original has been lost.)

Fig. 68. — The oyster drill (Urosalpinx cinerea). An enemy of the scallop, which
bores a fine hole through the shell and feasts upon the soft parts. Cases contain-
ing the eggs of this mollusk are shown on the right. Life size.

Fig. 69. — Scallop Food. — Typical diatoms found in Massachusetts waters,
(a, b, c) Navicula, (d, e) Pleurosigma, (f) Nitzschia, (g) Melosira, (h) Chcetoceras,
(i) Cyclotella, (j) Licmophora. Magnified 200 diameters.

Fig. 70. — A starfish opening a scallop by slowly dragging the valves apart by
means of small, sucker-like feet on the lower side of each of the five rays or "arms."
When the valves are forced apart the starfish rolls out its stomach, which envelops
the soft body of the scallop. Digestive juices are poured forth and the food is
digested outside the body of the starfish. This creature is the most destructive
natural enemy of the scallop, and in certain localities has made serious inroads.
It is best killed by steaming or bringing ashore.

Fig. 71. — Diagram of the wire cages in which scallops were suspended from
the raft at Monomoy Point. The cage consists of a framework of wood covered
with 1^-inch mesh wire netting.

Fig. 72. — Plankton net, made of silk bolting cloth, used to catch the swim-
ming shellfish larvae. The net is towed through the water behind a rowboat.

"^^^l"

65

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67

*

68

70

71

72

In general, the organs of Pecten lie at three different layers, viz., valve, mantle
and gills. Figs. 73, 74 and 75, which are one and one-quarter times the natural
size, represent the views disclosed as each of these layers is successively cut away.

Fig. 73. — View of Pecten with left valve removed. The gills (g), liver (1)
and palps (Ip) are represented in dotted lines as they are seen through the trans-
parent mantle. As the left lobe of mantle (m) has been detached from the shell,
it has contracted. The right mantle (m) lobe is shown fully extended.

Fig. 74. — View of Pecten with left valve and mantle removed, showing gills
(g), palps (Ip), foot (f) and liver (1).

73

— t

74

Fig. 75. — View of Pecten with left valve, mantle (m) and gills (g) removed,
showing the heart (ht), visceral mass (vm) and reproductive organs.
Fig. 76. — View of Pecten, showing the digestive system.

75

kt

i -

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76

Fig. 77. — Changes in form of shell. A series of drawings illustrating the
changes from the early veliger (the first shell), which is Vio of a millimeter in size,
to a 2-millimeter scallop. Note (a) change from flat-hinged veliger (1) to the pro-
dissoconch (2), with prominent umbones; (6) return to a straight hinge (3), width
greater than height; (c) width and height become equal (8); (d) formation of
"ears" (10).

-

Fig. 78. — Map of the Massachusetts coast, showing the distribution of the shal-
low-water scallop (Pecten irradians). The scalloping grounds are indicated by the
black areas.

PROVINCE-TOWN

WELLFLEET

ORLtANS

78

Fig. 79. — Plan of biological raft used at Monomoy Point for growth experi-
ments and spat collecting. The raft, 20 feet long by 10 feet wide, provided with
a central well and four trap-doors, was anchored in the Powder Hole in 20 feet of
water. Wire cages and wooden boxes were suspended at various depths from the
raft. Many kinds of mollusks were caught and raised in these spat boxes. The
raft proved particularly useful in the study of the post-embryonic life history, as
the scallops "set" in large numbers on the boxes, cages and ropes, where speci-
mens could be obtained in all stages of development for laboratory examination.
Also, many interesting growth experiments upon the quahaug, scallop and clam
were conducted in the sand boxes.

Fig. 80. — Type of pen used in determining the rate of growth of the scallop.
The sizes ranged from 40 to 400 square feet. The posts were made of 2 by 3 foot
joists, fixed in the soil and placed at sufficient intervals to hold the netting firmly
in position. Wire netting (IJ^-inch mesh) and old seines of a suitable height were
stretched around the posts.

Fig. 81. — Chart of the daily temperatures for the month of June, taken at the
Powder Hole at Monomoy Point in 1906 and 1907. The average of the daily
temperatures at 1, 10 and 20 feet, taken at 6 A.M., 12 M. and 6 P.M., is given. The
great irregularity of the curve is due to the fluctuation of this small body of water
with changes in the temperature of the air. The season of 1907 was nearly two
weeks behind that of 1906, as during the early part of June the temperature was
from 8° to 10° colder, but by June 19 the two became approximately the same
as is shown by the intersection of the curves on the chart. The principal fact
shown by the plot is the location of the "spawning" temperature, or the tempera-
ture necessary for spawning. In 1906 the scallops first spawned on June 12, in
1907 on June 21. In each case spawning did not occur until the water reached the
temperature of 61%°, although there was nine days' variation between the two
years.

Pig. 82. — The Food Value of the Scallop. — The relative proportion, by
weight, of the various parts of the average scallop is graphically represented by a
series of rectangles, corresponding to (1) the total weight, 1.5 ounces, or 100 per
cent.; (2) total non-edible part, 1.23 ounces, or 82.23 per cent., which includes
both shell and non-edible soft part; (3) shell, .74 of an ounce, or 49.43 per cent.;
(4) non-edible soft part, .49 of an ounce, or 32.8 per cent.; (5) actual food, .27 of
an ounce, or 17.77 per cent.

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TOTAL SCALLOP NON-ELDlBLt SHtLL NON-EDIBLE MEAT EDlBLE HEAT

PART _ ^^ R7oz

1'ooy 92.13^ Way- 32.807. 11.777°

FOOD VALUE OF SCALLOP

Fig. 83. — The Spawning Months. — The spawning season lasts from the
second week in June to the middle of August. This period is represented by the
shaded portion.

Fig. 84. — The Growing Months. — The scallop increases in size of shell
only during the summer months, as during the winter growth ceases. The shaded
portion represents the period of growth.

Fig. 85. — The Relative Value of the Growing Months. — The scallop
does not increase with equal rapidity during the seven months of growth. The
relative value of these months is graphically represented in terms of the increase
in volume during each month for a standard scallop. The slow growth during
June and July, as represented by the short columns, roughly corresponds to the
spawning season, and the decrease in growth is probably due to that cause.

'JAN. FEB. 'MAR- APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUg. SEPT. QC~T. NOV. DEC.

SPAWNING MONTHS

83

JAN. FEB. HAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUg SEPT. OCT. NOV.

GROWING MONTHS

84

DEC.

JUNE

JULY

AUg.

SEPT.

OCT

RELATIVE
OF GROWING

VALUE
MO N T H S

85

Fig. 86. — Age and Growth. — As the scallop becomes larger the rate of
growth, both in actual increase and gain in volume, becomes less. The three
columns represent the comparative gain in volume of (1) "seed" scallops (% of an
inch) of the 1906 set, 200 per cent.; (2) fourteen-month scallops of the 1905 set,
25 per cent.; (3) twenty-six month scallops of the 1904 set, 12 per cent., under
the same conditions.

Pig. 87. — Current and Growth. — The three columns represent the volu-
metric growth, for a definite period, of scallops in good, medium and poor currents,
and are formulated from measurements made at Stage harbor, Chatham, in 1906-
07. At the mouth of the harbor is a large eel-grass flat, extending from the shore
to the channel. The flat was arbitrarily divided into three areas, according to the
circulation of water: (1) near the channel (good current); (2) half-way to shore
(medium current) ; (3) near shore (poor current) ; and the rate of growth of the 1906
set was followed in each division. These figures demonstrate the great importance
of current in scallop growth.

Fig. 88. — Current and Growth. — The influence of current is again illus-
trated by comparing the volumetric growth of "seed" scallops of the same size at
(1) the raft, Monomoy Point (good current), 662 per cent.; (2) Stage harbor,
Chatham (medium current), 475 per cent.; (3) south side of Powder Hole, Mono-
moy Point (poor current), 293 per cent.; (4) east side of Powder Hole (no cur-
rent), 98 per cent. The comparative volumetric growth for a period of seventy-six
days during the summer of 1906 is represented for each of these localities by the
shaded columns. A knowledge of the relation of current to growth should prove
valuable to the prospective scallop culturist.

AGE AND GR OWT H

86

GOOD MEDIUM

CUB REN T

POOR

AND

87

G R OWT H

GOOD MEDIUM

CURRENT

a ^ 37.

POOR

AND

88

RIJ6

MONE

G R OWT H

Pig. 89. — Temperature and Growth. — The broken line represents the
curve of the average monthly temperature of the water during the year 1906 at
the Powder Hole, Monomoy Point, and the numbers on the sides indicate the
degrees. The other curve represents the growth of the 1905 scallop set during
the year 1906, and the same figures which corresponded to the degrees in tempera-
ture now stand for the size of the scallop in millimeters (25.4 millimeters equal
1 inch). Tracing the growth of the scallop, size 34 millimeters, January 1, no
growth is noticed until May 1, when the water assumes a temperature of about
49° F. During the month of May there is a rapid growth, which slackens during
June and July, the spawning months, as is shown by the drop in the curve, and
is again resumed during August, September and October. The growth perceptibly
slackens during November, and probably ceases altogether after the middle of
the month, when the water is about 43° F. To all practical purposes the growth
ceases November 1, at a temperature of 49° F., which is directly comparable to
temperature of the water when growth began, May 1. Therefore, it is apparent
that the growth of the scallop, as typified by shell formation, depends upon the
temperature of the water, at least 45° F. being necessary for growth. The ces-
sation of growth is not due to any decided fall in the food supply but rather to the
inactivity of the scallop, which becomes sluggish in cold water.

Growth {Millimeters).

May 1,
June 1,
July 1,
August 1,

34.00
39.71
42.12
45.10

September 1,
October 1,
November 1,
December 1,

. 51.00
. 56.80

. 62.90

Fig. 90. — The plotting shows the comparative growth of large and small
scallops of the same age during their second summer. Division B (38.50 milli-
meters) by the end of the season has gained the greater part of the difference at
the start between it and Division A (49.50 millimeters), reducing the margin from
11 to 3.27 millimeters. These scallops were confined in the same pen, and num-
bered Division A 125, Division B 200. This tendency perhaps accounts for the
uniformity in size of scallops in any particular locality at the end of the second
summer's growth, when the scallop is ready for market.

Growth (Millimeters) .

A.

B.

A.

B.

May 1, .

49.50

38.50

September 5, ...

56.72

51.90

June 1

52.25

43.25

September 25, .

59.79

55.67

July 10, .

53.55

46.25

November 3, .

62.88

59.46

August 1, .

54.60

47.85

November 22,

63.00

59.73

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Fig. 91. — The curve represents the growth of the average Massachusetts scal-
lop from 1905 to 1907. Notice the rapid growth from July to December in 1905,
and the complete cessation during the winter months. During the second summer
comes another period of rapid growth, which ceases about Dec. 1, 1906. The normal
life of these scallops ends some time in March or April, 1907, but a few often pass
the two years' mark. The growth of these old scallops is represented by the broken
line in the diagram, summer growth starting about May 1. The figures on the
right represent the size of the scallops in millimeters (25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch).

Average Scallop (Millimeters).

Aug. 1

1905, .

. 2.00

Aug.

1, 1906, .

44.57

Sept. 1,

1905,

. 12 66

Sept.

1, 1906,

50 08

Oct 1

1905, . .

. 23.20

Oct.

1, 1906, .

55.51

Nov. 1,

1905, .

. 33.11

Nov.

1, 1906, .

. 60.68

Dec. 1,

1905, .

. 34.24

Dec.

1, 1906, .

61.27

May 1,

1906, .

. 34.24

May

1, 1907, .

61.27

June 1,

1906, .

. 39.51

June

1, 1907, .

63.93

July 1,

1906, .

. 41.77

July

1, 1907, .

. 65.07

Pig. 92. — The three curves, A, B and C, represent the growth of the average
scallop in the three localities of Buzzard's Bay, Cape Cod and the islands of
Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, respectively. For convenience, the start is
considered as uniform, although there is several days' difference in the spawning
season. The difference in growth at the various dates can be determined by refer-
ring to the figures on the right, which represent the size of the scallop in milli-
meters (25.4 millimeters equal 1 inch).

Growth (Millimeters) .

DATE.

C.

The Islands.

B.

The Cape.

A.

Buzzard's Bay.

August 1,

2.00

2.00

2.00

September 1

10.48

12.52

15.03

October 1

18.93

22.88

27.86

November 1,

26.71

32.65

39.97

December 1,

27.60

33.76

41.35

May 1

27.60

33.76

41.35

June 1

33.44

39.03

46.27

July 1

35.90

41.25

48.34

August 1

38.95

44.00

50.92

September 1

45.98

49.43

56.01

October 1, . . .

50.91

54.28

61.03

November 1,

56.50

59.83

65.73

December 1,

57.13

60.40

66.27

May 1,

57.13

60.40

66.27

June 1,

60.01

63.04

68.73

July 1,

61.28

64.15

69.77

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92

Fig. 93. — Graphic representation of the growth of the average scallop and
its gain in volume. Starting September 1 with 1 bushel of V2-inch scallops, the
increase in volume is represented on the right in terms of bushels, corresponding
to the different sized scallops on the left: (1) two-month scallop, .5 of an inch,
1 bushel; (2) three-month scallop, .91 of an inch, 7.3 bushels; (3) five-month scal-
lop, 1.34 inches, 26.5 bushels; (4) thirteen-month scallop, 1.75 inches, 62 bushels;
(5) seventeen-month scallop, 2.41 inches, 185.6 bushels. The scallops are drawn
one-half actual size. This rapid increase shows the benefit of preserving the "seed "
scallop, as the yield in large scallops will more than repay the fisherman for his
foresight.

IncU*

/?*'

A.HI

V.3

(T*,«, m.-tu, )

93

Fig. 94. — Nassa obsoleta (the little black winkle of the tide flats) devouring
a scallop. These little scavengers swarm over the scallop. Occasionally one is
active enough to get between the valves, forming a wedge which permits the entrance
of others, which quickly consume the scallop. Owing to the alertness of the scal-
lop and its different habitat (Nassa usually being found on the tide flats) little
damage is done.

Pig. 95. — The oyster drill (Urosalpinx cinerea) boring the shell of a scallop.
Five drills were found on this specimen, but one rolled off when the photograph
was taken. The drill bores a fine hole through the shell by means of a ribbon-like
tongue lined with saw-like teeth, and then sucks out the contents.

Fig. 96. — Spat boxes, lowered from the raft at Monomoy Point, after having
been down for the summer. Notice the quantity of barnacles and silver shells
(Anomia) which have collected on the outside. Inside these boxes heavy sets of
clams and quahaugs were obtained, while on the outside were found numbers of
young scallops, which were removed before the photograph was taken.

Fig. 97. — Method of recording the spawning of the scallop. W. G. Vinal,
following the spawning of individual scallops, placed them in separate glass dishes.
In this artificial way the time and manner of spawning could be determined, and
the eggs obtained for artificial fertilization. Spawning was accomplished by rais-
ing the temperature of the water.

'

Fig. 98. — Young oysters, about three months old, attached to the upper valve
of living scallops, taken at Wellfleet in October, 1908. As these oysters increase
in size they prove detrimental to the welfare of the scallops, and finally may cause
their death.

^

Fig. 99. — Scallops over one year old, as shown by the formation of the annual
growth line, which is caused by cessation of growth during the winter months.
Any scallop which does not possess this annual growth line is less than one year
old, and is a "seed" scallop. The present legal definition of a "seed" scallop is
based on the annual growth line, as its absence indicates that the animal has not
as yet reached its spawning season, and is, therefore, an immature animal.

Fig. 100. — "Seed " scallops, with a small amount of white worm tube (Serpula)
attached to the shell. These scallops have not yet spawned, and, for the future
welfare of the scallop fishery, should be protected until they have passed the spawn-
ing period, which occurs when the scallop is one year old. The capture of these
immature scallops is a decided menace to the fishery, and is forbidden by law.

Pig. 101. — Variation in size of scallops. The two on the left are fifteen months
old, while the two on the right are "seed" scallops three months old. The dif-
ference in size in scallops of the same age, especially in different localities, renders
impossible the definition of a "seed" scallop by means of a size limit.

\

Fig. 102. — Young, yearling and two-year-old scallops. The small scallops
on the left are three months old "seed; " those in the center are eleven months
old, and have a growth line near the edge of the shell; while the large scallops on
the right are twenty- three months old, and have two growth lines, the second
being close to the edge of the shell. About one-half life size.

Fig. 103. — The scallop on the left, as indicated by the arrow, has been killed
by the oyster drill, which has pierced the shell with a fine hole. A year-old oyster
is attached to the scallop in the center, while a Crepidula (quarterdecker) has
fastened on the scallop on the right.

Fig. 104. — These scallops show two or three lines which indicate temporarily
arrested growth. A careful distinction should be made between such lines and the
annual growth line, which is caused by the non-growth of the scallop during the
winter months, appearing about May 1.

Fig. 105. — Instrument used for measuring the scallops. The scallop is passed
down the triangle until it touches on both sides, where the figures indicate its
length in millimeters (25.4 millimeters to an inch). The instrument possesses the
advantage of speed and accuracy for quick measuring, as many as 1,200 measure-
ments being possible in an hour.

-

Fig. 106. — The two scallops, each fourteen months old, illustrate the dif-
ference in growth between localities with good and poor circulation of water. The
scallops situated in the "current" receive more food than in the still water, and
naturally have a faster growth, as is shown by the greater size of the "current"
scallop.

Fig. 107. — The Scallop Pusher. — This implement consists of a wooden
pole, from 8 to 9 feet long, attached to a rectangular iron framework, 3 by 1^/2 feet,
fitted with a netting bag 3 feet in depth. The scalloper, wading in the shallow
water, gathers the scallops from the flats by shoving the pusher among the eel
grass. The photograph shows the correct position of the pusher in operation.
Only a small part of the pole is shown.

Fig. 108. — Scallop Dredge, — "The Scraper." — This implement has the
form of a triangular iron framework, with a curve of nearly 90° at the base, to form
the bowl of the dredge. On the upper side a raised crossbar connects the two arms,
while at the bottom a strip of iron 2 inches wide extends across the dredge. This
narrow strip acts as a scraping blade, and is set at an angle so as to dig into the
soil. The top of the net is fastened to the crossbar and the lower part to the blade.
The usual dimensions of the dredge are: arms, 2*/2 feet; upper crossbar, 2 feet;
blade, 2l/2 feet. The net varies in size, usually running from 2 to 3 feet in length
and holding between 1 and 2 bushels. Additional weights can be put on the cross-
bar when the scalloper desires the dredge to "scrape" deeper. A wooden bar 2
feet long buoys the net. The scraper used at Nan tucket has the entire net made of
twine, whereas in other localities the lower part consists of interwoven iron rings.

-

Pig. 109. — Scalloping boats between the wharves at Nantucket. The cat-
boats are moored in this fashion after the day's dredging.
Fig. 110. — The start. Leaving for the scalloping grounds.

s

Fig. 111. — The scalloping fleet at work on the beds.
Pig. 112. — "Dredging."

Fig. 113. — Emptying the contents of the dredge on the "culling" board, where
the scallops are separated from the eel grass and other debris.
Fig. 114. — "Culling."

...

Fig. 115. — Landing the catch on the wharf.

Fig. 116. — Carrying the scallops to the shanties, where they are opened.

-

Fig. 117. — Shell heap outside the shanties at the end of the season.

Fig. 118. — The finished product, packed in kegs, ready for shipment to market.

NOTE. — Figs. 109-118 are from an excellent series of photographs furnished
by Mary H. Northend, Salem, Mass.

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