I ,:.' mil UHIW RAYMOND Ll ill' IH 1 itt I I h Fu i I i DHM ill! ' II I Si \J _D r p- r=l O a r-=l a m CD THE REPTILE BOOK Nature Books With Colour Plates AMERICAN ANIMALS Vitmer Stone and Wm. Everitt Cram AMERICAN" FOOD AND GAMP: FISHES David Starr Jordan and Barton W. Everiwann BIRD HOMES BIRD NEIGHBOURS GAME BIRDS NATURE'S GARDEN THE BUTTERFLY BOOK THE FROG BOOK THE INSECT BOOK THE MOTH BOOK THE MUSHROOM BOOK THE REPTILE BOOK THE TREE BOOK A. R. Dugmore Neltje Blanchan Neltje Blanchan Neltie Blanchan Dr. \V. J. Holland Mary C. Dickerson Dr. Lcland O. Howard Dr. W.J.Holland Nina L. Marshall Raymond L. Ditmars Julia E. Rogers THE REPTILE BOOK A COMPREHENSIVE, POPULARISED WORK ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS OF THE TURTLES, TORTOISES CROCODILIANS, LIZARDS AND SNAKES WHICH INHABIT THE UNITED STATES AND NORTHERN MEXICO BY RAYMOND LEE DITMARS Curator of Reptiles in the New York Zoological Park EIGHT PLATES IN COLOUR AND MORE THAN FOUR HUNDRED PHOTOGRAPHS FROM LIFE GARDEN CITY NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1915 Copyright, 1907, by DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY All rights reserved, '•Deluding that of translation into foreign languages including the Scandinavian 5 3 3 TO WHOM ALL CREDIT IS DUE FOR PROVIDING ME WITH THAT GREATEST OF REQUISITES THE AMBITION TO ATTEMPT A GREAT TASK, THIS WORK IS DEDICATED ACKNOWLEDGMENTS IT is difficult, in type, to express my sincere appreciation for the hearty assistance I have received, in the preparation of this work. To Director William T. Hornaday, of the New York Zoolog- ical Park, I wish to express my thanks and esteem, for his en- couragement and suggestions. The most pleasant period of my life, has been the seven years past, spent in the Zoological Park in charge of the collection of reptiles. Nowhere else but in a reptile house like that erected by the New York Zoological Society, could one find such opportunities to observe reptiles at their best. A number of the photographs are of specimens that have been exhibited at the Park. My thanks are also extended to Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, Curator of Reptiles, at the United States National Museum for assistance in the identification of specimens. To Director Arthur Erwin Brown, of the Philadelphia Zoological Gardens, I am indebted for much helpful advice. For courtesies that have been valuable in the preparation of this book, I wish to thank Dr. Samuel Carman and Mr. Thomas Barbour, in relation to reptiles at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Cambridge, Massachusetts. Through the coopera- tion of these gentlemen, photographs of a number of very rare species were procured. To the following gentlemen I also wish to extend my thanks: Mr. C. S. Brimley, Raleigh, North Carolina; Dr. John Van Denburgh, San Francisco, Calif.; Mr. Herbert Lang, Am. Mus. of Nat. Hist., New York; Mr. Morris Pearsall, New York; Mr. Adam Dove, New York; Mr. Otto Eggling, New York; Mr. Wit- mer Stone, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Prof. E. L. Moseley, Sandusky, Ohio. In conclusion I wish to express my obligations to Keepers Charles Snyder and John Toomey, of the Reptile House, in the New York Zoo logical Park. New York RAYMOND L. DITMARS. vii PREFACE IN THE great procession of zoological events, we find elab- orate representations of all the branches of animate creation but that of reptiles. Occasionally, a technical work passes before the eager student, but its phraseology and complication fail to attract and it finds its way only to the library of the great institutions where it remains as a reference for a scientific few. The shelves of our libraries groan with masses of literature upon mammals, birds, fishes, insects and the lower forms of life- literature of a kind that may be comprehended by the Great Majority, but the gap — in the scale of classification between the birds and the fishes — has steadily remained unchanged. The descriptions of reptiles in the works of general natural his- tory, excellent though they may be, are mere bird's-eye views of a great subject. The works of the technical writers, voluminous enough, are imperatively necessary in the records of Science, but pure science is so far over the head of the average student, that without proper steps to reach it — popularised books — he would never know the reason for which it was created. But one condition can bring about more general knowledge and in- terest in the great Class of Reptiles and that is the special treat- ment of structure and habits in a manner sympathetic to the needs of the Many, who crave to learn. In the present work the writer has sought to compile a popular review of a great fauna — the Reptiles of North America. He has excluded technical phraseology and tried to produce two results: i. A popular book, that may be comprehended by the beginner and 2 — A book valuable in its details to the technical worker. Though some scientists scoff at all lan- guage except that which is obscure to everybody but them- selves, 1 feel sure that to even that Few, this book will be of interest, for the illustrations alone tell the story. My friend the Camera: Through the several years of prep- aration of this book, my most useful ally has been a camera. Preface All of the illustrations of the reptiles themselves, are photo- graphic; every photograph, of this large series, is an original. The illustrations were procured under the most varied con- ditions, but most of them are exposures of from one to five seconds, and were taken through a ray filter. With the exception of six illustrations* (of turtles), all of the photographs were taken by the writer. My camera has worked hard and faithfully and the details of structure have been fully portrayed, but in a work like this, colour value in the pattern is of great importance, and here the camera has its limitations, though assisted by the ray filter and colour-sensitive plates. A great amount of work was dene upon the negatives themselves, and in this, the use of restrain- ing dyes formed an important part; some of the developed plates were put through a half-dozen processes before they passed a satisfactory test. Those illustrations of snakes that are blotched or ringed with scarlet (a difficult problem for the camera) are good examples of the final result. * For these T am indebted to Mr. Herbert Lang. INTRODUCTION THROUGHOUT this work the writer has tried to assist the beginner — yet he feels that he has left out little that will interest the technical worker. He believes that the trend of scientific publications should be more in this direction. Let us consider but one argument, and that in relation to the study of reptiles. Suppose an intelligent farmer, with an inclination for the study of popular natural history, should find a snake upon his lands, and, wishing to find whether it was harmless or poisonous, opens a strictly scientific book, dealing with North American reptiles. What does he find? Elaborate descriptions of anatomical characters, many of these internal, and these descriptions under technical headings, each followed by a long list of synonyms and often a lengthy debate as to the former classification by other scientists than the author; about the only popular words in the description, are the articles "the" and "a"; even the colours are defined in intricate fashion. To this man, such a book is useless. He has no time to master the bewildering, new language he has discovered, so is unable to learn whether the snakes living on his farm are harmless or dangerous, bene- ficial or otherwise. In preparing. the descriptions, the writer has excluded com- plicated references to structure. Of these characters, his valu- able assistant, the camera, has described intricate details far better than if such were put in type; in fact, many of the species need little description beyond that of their colours and si^e, as the photograph of the animal and the attendant illustrations of the head (above and from the side) show most of the features of the structure and pattern. Use of scientific names. — The practice of often changing generic names, simply according to the ideas of this or that authority, is very confusing to any but the advanced student and adds to the steadily increasing list of synonyms. The writer has made no attempt to discuss the alleged good-standing of xi Introduction generic names, but has uniformly adopted technical names that have been well established. Thus there will be no lists of synonyms in this book. His policy has been to devote more time in pre- paring a popular presentation of his subject, than to add another, to the many searches for "priority." Following is an example of a title, and its different parts: PIGMY RATTLESNAKE, a Sistrurus miliarius, (Linn.), b a. — The popular name. b. — The technical name and authority. The parts of the technical or scientific name may be described thus: Sistrurus a. miliarius, b. (Linn.) c a. — The generic name. b. — The specific name. c. — The authority. In strictly scientific writings, the placing of the name of the authority in a parenthesis, signifies that the name of the genus has been changed from that in which the species was placed in the original description. Under the head of scientific names comes another subject. This is discrimination in the recognition of species and sub- species— varieties. In a purely scientific book, those species and varieties that have been rejected as doubtful, or forming mere varietal phases of well-established species, are placed in the list of synonyms, beneath the name; relating to their re- jection is usually an argument, explaining the cause of their exclusion. As this is a subject that will interest the technical herpetologist only, we will pass it with the explanation that such lists have not been treated in this work, and the final result of the writer's discrimination stands illustrated in the array of those species and varieties (sub-species) that have been recognised. System of measurement. — Nearly every description has a table of measurements; these lists have been prepared in uniform stvle throughout; most of them stand as average dimensions, taken from a series of specimens. The measurements of the length and width of shells of xii Introduction the turtles, are on a straight line (not following the curve of the shell) and were made with calipers in the fashion shown, in miniature, in the illustration. In procuring the width and length of the head; the width of a lizard's body or the greatest diameter of a snake's body, the calipers were necessarily em- ployed. The length of a serpent's head is from the tip of the snout to the back of the bulge, behind the mouth; by running the finger nail along the neck, near the base of the head, the junction of the jaw-bones may be felt; this is the end of the head. (See illustration). The width of the head, is always the widest part. "Si^f." -In the descriptive matter will be found the desig- nations, "very small," "small," "moderate" and "large." At the beginning, these sizes should be understood. Any of our fresh-water turtles having a shell 10 to 12 inches long, are designated as large species; a small species has a shell from 2 to 4 inches long. Lizards under 5 inches in length are small; those between 5 and 10 inches long are of moderate size; over 10 inches, they are of large size — for North American lizards. A snake under 14 inches long is small; over 14 inches and up to 3^ feet might it be described as of moderate size; serpents over 3^ feet long are large among the species em- braced in this work. References to structure. — In a few of the descriptions, con- cise reference has been made to certain parts of the structure; the resulting terms would be confusing without explanation and figures. Turtles. — The upper shell is known as the Carapace ; the lower one as the Plastron. For the sake of con- venience, these terms have been frequently used. Lizards. — As some of the species are more readily separated in the keys by using the arrangement of the head shields as distinguishing features, the student should have a general idea of the situation of the more important head-plates in case there be reference to such. (See illustration.) Snakes. — The serpents, being scaled reptiles, fall under much the same form of description as the lizards, and a general idea of the head-plates should be acquired. (See illustration.) xiii Introduction With both snakes and lizards the character of the scales of the upper surfaces, is important. The scales may be smooth or keeled (carinated) ; in the latter case, weakly or heavily keeled. A keeled scale has a distinct, line-like keel running from its base to the tip. Some of the lizards have a very fine, granular scalation above and large, square shields on the abdomen; others have large, keeled scales above and smaller scales on the under-surface. Many have the head plated, like the snakes; others have small scales on the top of the head. Such details of structure are easily understood and largely employed in the descriptions. It should be noted that the body scales of a snake are ar- ranged in symmetrical, oblique rows, from one side of the abdo- men to the other; the abdomen is covered with a single row of broad plates. By counting the scales in one of the rows, on the upper surface, we have another important point to be used in identification. The pupil of the eye of snakes or lizards, may be round or elliptical: this should be noted. Little more Can be said by way of explanation. Preced- ing each Part of the work is a classified list showing the arrange- ment of families, genera and the number of species of North American reptiles in each of the genera. Preceding the de- scription of each list of species of the various genera, is a key to those species. Thus the way is paved, step by step, to assist the beginner. Before examining the succeeding chapters, it is interesting to get a bird's-eye view of the subject involved. The Class Rcptilia is represented in North America by four Orders given below: The CHELONIA — Turtles and Tortoises. The CROCODILIA — Crocodilians. The LACERTILIA — Lizards. The OPHIDIA — Snakes. The total number of North American species of these Orders, is 254. Of these 44 are Chelonians, 2 are Crocodilians, 97 are Lizards and 1 1 1 Snakes. xiv CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . vii PREFACE . . ..... ix INTRODUCTION .... xi PART I: THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES Order CHELONIA CHAPTER PAGE I. CLASSIFICATION op THE NORTH AMERICAN TURTLES AND TORTOISES . . 3 II. THE SEA TURTLES; Families Sphargida and Chelcmidce Largest of the Chelonians. These Strictly Aquatic Reptiles May be Recognised by their Seal-like Flippers . . . .4 III. THE SNAPPING TURTLES; Family Chelydridce A Small Family, Composed of Three Large and Powerful Species . 1 1 IV. THE MUSK OR MUD TURTLES; Family Cinosternidce The Genera Aromochelys and Cinosternum, Com- posed of Small and Thoroughly Aquatic Species, the Majority Inhabiting North America . 17 V. THE TERRAPINS; The Genera Chrysemys, Malaco- clemwys, and Cbelopus. Family Testudinidce. A Group of Aquatic Chelonians Known Commonly as Pond Turtles and River Turtles. They are Characterised by their Broad, Flat Shell. Most of the Species are Edible . . 28 VI. THE Box TURTLES; Genera Emys and Cistudo Turtles with Divided, Hinged Plastrons — Descriptions of the Species — Their Habits . ' . . 54 VII. THE TORTOISES; Genus Testudo Strictly Terrestrial Chelonians. Represented in North America by Three Species . . . 65 xv Contents CHAPTER VIII. THE SOFT-SHELLED TURTLES; Genus Trionyx. Fam- ily Tnonycbida Strongly Characteristic Chelonians, with a Soft, Leathery Sheli 72 PART II: THE CROCODILIANS Order CROCODILIA IX. THE CROCODILIANS; Order Crocodilia An Order Represented by Two Species in the United States— The American Crocodile and the Alligator 83 PART ni: THE LIZARDS Order LACERT1L1A X. THE LIZARDS Classification of North American Lizards . 95 XI. THE GECKOS; Families Geckonidce and Eublepharida A Large Group of Granular-scaled Lizards, Repre- sented by Four Species in North America 97 XII. THE AMERICAN CHAMELEON; Genus Anolis The North American Representative of a Large, New World Genus of Lizards that are Re- markable in the Habit of Frequently Changing their Colours . 102 XIII. THE IGUANAS Large Species that May be Recognised by their Fine Scalation and Spine-like Crest. . 106 XIV. THE GENERA Sauromalus AND Crotaphytus. Fine-scaled Representatives of the Iguanidce . . \\\ XV. THE SPOTTED LIZARDS; ZEBRA-TAILED LIZARDS Small and Strictly Terrestrial Species of the Genera Callisaurus, Uma, and Holbrookia . . . iiO XVI. THE SWIFTS Two Genera — Ufa and Sceloporus — Small, Rough- scaled Lizards . .122 xvi Contents •HAPTER XVII XVIII. PAG* XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. THE HORNED LIZARDS; Genus Phrynosoma A Genus of Lizards that are Most Commonly Known as the Horned "Toads" . THE PLATED LIZARDS AND SNAKE-LIKE SPECIES The Families Anguidce and Aniellidce, Embracing the North American Genera Gerrhonotus— Plated Lizards, Ophisaurus — Glass "Snake" and Aniella — Ground "Snake" THE BEADED LIZARDS; Family H ' elodermatidce A Family Composed of but Two Species — The Gila Monster and the Mexican Beaded Lizard— Both of the Genus Heloderma. Descriptions of the Species — Their Habits THE FAMILY Xantusiidce A Small Family of Diminutive Lizards — Five Species Inhabit Southwestern North America THE STRIPED LIZARDS OR "RACE RUNNERS"; Family Teiidce — Genus Cnemidophoms THE WORM-LIKE LIZARDS The Families Euchirotida and Amphisbanida, Embracing the Most Degenerate of the Liz- ards— Descriptions of the North American Species . . . THE SKINKS OR SMOOTH-SCALED LIZARDS; Family Scincidee Small, Glossy-scaled Lizards of a Large Family, Represented in North America by Two Genera and Fifteen Species 1 60 169 .78 184 190 '95 PART IV: THE SNAKES Order OPHIDIA XXIV. CLASSIFICATION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SNAKES 207 XXV. THE BLIND SNAKES; Family Glauconiidce, AND THE DWARF BOAS; Family Boidce A Few Northern Representatives of Tropicai Families. . . 209 xvii Contents CHAPTER XXVI. PAGB THE STRIPED SNAKES — GARTER SNAKES; Genus Eutania A Genus of North American Snakes that are Noted for their Abundance and the Great Variation of Pattern Among Some of the Species — Key to the Identification of Species -Detailed Descriptions — Keys to the Iden- tification of Varieties — Habits . . -213 XXVII. THE WATER SNAKES; Genus Tropidonotus A Large Genus of Semi-aquatic Serpents that Occur in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres — Descriptions of the North American Species — Their Habits . . 241 XXVIII. SMALL, MISCELLANEOUS KEELED-SCALED SER- PENTS; Genera Clonophis, Tropidoclonium, Sem- inatrix, and Liodytes . . . . 261 XXIX. THE BROWN SNAKES Small and Secretive Species, Representing the Genera Storeria, Haldea, Amphiardis, and Virginia ...... 266 XXX. THE RACERS; Genera Spilotes and Zamenis Large Non-constricting Serpents, Characterised by their Great Agility . . . . 274 XXXI. THE FLAT-NOSED SNAKES; Genera Salvadora and Phyllorbynchus Unique Serpents of the Southwestern United States and Mexico . . 291 XXXII. THE RAT SNAKES OR COLUBERS; Genus Coluber Large and Powerful Constricting Serpents. They are of Considerable Economic Value in Destroying Animals that are Injurious to Agricultural Pursuits . . 294 XXXIII. THE BULL SNAKES; Genus Pituopbis Large Constricting Snakes that are Closely Allied to the Rat Snakes — Descriptions of the Three North American Species — Their Habits . 315 xviii Contents CHAPTER XXXIV. PAGE XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVII. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. THE GREEN SNAKES Representatives of the Genera Cydopbis and Liopeltis — Small Serpents that are of a Uniform, Pale Green Above, and thus Characteristic Among North American Snakes ...... 322 SMALL, MISCELLANEOUS SMOOTH-SCALED SER- PENTS; Genera Hypsiglena, Stilosoma, Rhadi- nea, and Contia .... . 327 THE RING-NECKED SNAKES; Genus Diadopbis Small, Smooth-scaled Serpents with Char- acteristic Markings .... 333 THE KING SNAKES; Genus Opbibolus Smooth-scaled Constricting Serpents of Small, Medium and Large Size, which Derive the Popular Title from their Habit of Killing and Eating Both Harmless and Venomous Snakes ...... 339 THE RAINBOW SNAKES Large and Brilliantly Coloured, Burrowing Serpents, of the Genera Abasior and Farancia . . . . . 365 THE SHARP-NOSED SNAKES; Genera Carpbo- pbis, Ficimia, Chilomeniscus, Cemophora, and Rhinocbilus Small, Burrowing Species, with Smooth Scales 369 THE HOG-NOSED SNAKES; Genus Heterodon Three North American Species that are Inter- esting from their Peculiar Form and Habits . . . -377 THE OPISTHOGLYPH SNAKES OF NORTH AMERICA A Division of Mildly Poisonous Serpents, with Grooved Fangs in the Rear of the Upper Jaw — The Many Species Occur in Both the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres . 386 THE ELAPINE POISONOUS SNAKES; Sub-family Elapince A Large Sub-family of the Colubridee, Embracing the Old Wori^ Cobras and their AHies, xix Contents CHAPTER PAGE and the American Coral Snakes — Resume of the Elapince — Descriptions of the North Amer- ican Species — Their Habits . . . 392 XLIII. THE VIPERINE SNAKES; Family Viperida The Thick-bodied Poisonous Snakes of the New World — Serpents Distinguished by their Long Fangs, which Fold Against the Roof of the Mouth when it is Closed .... 403 XLIV. THE MOCCASINS; Genus Ancistrodon Descriptions of the Species — Their Habits . . 414 XLV. THE RATTLESNAKES Poisonous Snakes of Two Genera — Sistrurus and Crotalus — That are Unique Among Serpents in the Possession of the Rattle . . . 426 INDEX ..... .... 467 LIST OF COLOUR PLATES PLATE i. DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus adamanteus. Lar- gest of the North American Poisonous Serpents and Second to Few of the Venomous Snakes of the World in Point of Deadliness . . Frontispiece FACING PAGE xii. EASTERN PAINTED TURTLE, Chrysemys picta . 32 WESTERN PAINTED TURTLE, Chrysemys marginata 32 xv. YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, Chrysemys scabra . 40 CUMBERLAND TERRAPIN, Chrysemys elegans . 40 xxx. ALLIGATOR, Alligator mississippiensis ... 88 AMERICAN CROCODILE, Crocodilus americanus . 88 xxxvii. COLLARED LIZARD, Crotaphytus collaris . .114 LEOPARD LIZARD, Crotaphytus wisli^enii . .114 liv. GILA MONSTER, Heloderma suspedum. The only Poisonous Lizard Inhabiting the United States 172 cv. MILK SNAKE, Ophibolus doliatus triangulus. (New York) . . 339 SOUTHERN MILK SNAKE, Ophibolus doliatus clericus. (Maryland) ...... 339 SCARLET KING SNAKE, Ophibolus doliatus coc- cineus. (Florida) ..... 339 cxviii. HARLEQUIN SNAKE; CORAL SNAKE, Elaps fulvius . 402 SONORAN CORAL SNAKE, Elaps euryxanthus . . 402 XXI LIST OF HALF-TONE ILLUSTRATIONS PART I: THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES Order CHELONIA PLATE FACING PAGE ii. TRUNK TURTLE, Sphargis coriacea. Largest of the Marine Turtles ...... 6 LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, Thalassochelys caretta . . 6 iii. GREEN TURTLE, Chelonia mydas. Esteemed as an Article of Diet . . . . 7 HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE, Chelonia inibricata. Valuable for its "Tortoise Shell" 7 iv. YOUNG LOGGERHEAD TURTLES, Thalassochelys caretta 10 Plastrons of LOGGERHEAD, GREEN, HAWK'S-BILL and TRUNK Turtles ... 10 v. Eggs of the ARIZONA MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum henrici ........ I Newly Hatched MUSK TURTLES, Aromochelys odoratus \ Eggs of the SPOTTED TURTLE, Chelopus guttatus i A Yearling MUSK TURTLE, A. carinatus. . i Very Young Box TURTLE, Cistudo Carolina . i A Young GOPHER TORTOISE, Tesiu do polypbemus . i vi. Common SNAPPING TURTLE, Chelydra serpentina . 12 Young SNAPPING TURTLE, Chelydra serpentina . 12 vii. ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE, Macrochelys lacertina. Reaches a Weight of 140 Pounds . . 13 Head of the ALLIGATOR TURTLE, Macrochelys lacertina. Could readily amputate a man's hand or foot 13 viii. Common MUSK TURTLE, Aromochelys odoratus . 22 Southern MUSK TURTLE, Aromochelys tristycha. . 22 ix. KEELED MUSK TURTLES, Aromochelys carinatus . 23 Common MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum 23 x. LOUISIANA MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum louisiance . 26 BANDED MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum hauri . 26 xxiii List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE PACING I'.M.K xi. YELLOW-NECKED MUD TURTLE, Cinosiernumfla'cescens 27 ARIZONA MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum benrid. Lur- gest of the North American Mud Turtles . 27 xiii. BELL'S TERRAPIN, Cbrysemys belli 34 CHICKEN TURTLE, Cbrysemys reticulata 34 xiv. Young Specimens of PAINTED TERRAPIN, FLORIDA TERRAPIN, LESUEUR'S TERRAPIN, and WOOD and SPOTTED TURTLES 35 xvi. TROOST'S TERRAPIN, Cbrysemys troosti. Sold Under the General Title of "Sliders" 46 Young of the YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, Cbrys- emys scabra 46 xvii. Young FLORIDA TERRAPIN, Cbrysemys floridana. . 47 FLORIDA TERRAPIN, Adult . 47 xviii. GEOGRAPHIC TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys geograpbica. 50 LESUEUR'S TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys lesueurii 50 xix. DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys palustns 51 WOOD TURTLE, Cbelopus insculptus. Protected from Capture in New York . 51 xx. SPOTTED TURTLE, Cbelopus guttatus . 62 MUHLEN BERG'S TURTLE, Cbelopus muhlenbergii 62 xxi. BLANDING'S TURTLE; SEMI-BOX TURTLE, Emys blan- dingii 63 PAINTED Box TURTLE, Cistu do ornata . . 63 Common Box TURTLE, Cistudo Carolina 63 xxii. THREE-TOED Box TURTLE, Cistudo triunguis . . 64 BAUR'S Box TURTLE, Cistudo bauri . . 64 xxiii. GOPHER TORTOISE, Testudo polypbemus ... 65 xxiv. DESERT TORTOISE, Testudo agassi^ii . . 68 Plastron of the DESERT TORTOISE . . 68 xxv. BERLANDIER'S TORTOISE, Testudo berlandieri . 6q Plastron of BERLANDIER'S TORTOISE . . 69 xx vi. Eggs of Trionyx spinijer . . 76 Head of Trionyx spinifer . . 70 Front of Carapace, SMNY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx spinifer . . 76 Young of the SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx ferox ~( > xxiv List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE xxvii. xxviii. FACING PACK SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Tnonyx ferox BROWN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx muticus SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx spinifer SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, From Beneath PART II: THE CROCODILIANS Order CROCODILIA xxix. THE HOME OF THE ALLIGATOR. An Inlet of the Savannah River ..... EGGS OF THE ALLIGATOR ..... PART III: THE LIZARDS Order LACERTILIA xxxi. METHODS OF MEASURING TURTLES, SNAKES, LIZARDS, AND SERPENTS xxxii. SCALATION OF THE HEAD. Snake and Lizard xxxiii. REEF GECKO, Sphcerodactylus notatus. The Only True Gecko Found in the United States BANDED GECKO, Eublepharis variegatus AMERICAN CHAMELEON, Anolis carolinensis . xxxiv. IGUANA, Cydura carinaia ..... DESERT IGUANA, Dipsosaurus dorsalis xxxv. CHUCKAWALLA, Sauromalus aier . xxxvi. SAND LIZARD, Uma notata ZEBRA-TAILED LIZARD, Callisaurus draconoides SPOTTED LIZARD, Holbrookia maculaia xxxviii. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS ... xxxix. BREEDING HABITS OF LIZARDS . xl. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS . xli. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS ....... xlii. STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS ...... XXV 77 77 80 80 81 81 99 I 10 I IO I 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 12 "3 "3 "3 1 16 117 118 "9 124 List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE FACING PAGE xliii. STANSBURY'S SWIFT, Uta stansburiana . . . 125 WHITE-BELLIED SWIFT, Via symmetrica . . 125 CLARK'S SWIFT, Sceloporus clarkii . . .125 xliv. COMMON SWIFT; FENCE LIZARD, Sceloporus undu- latus. SPINY SWIFT; TEXAS SWIFT, Scelop- orus spinosus . . ... 128 PACIFIC SWIFT, Sceloporus undulatus occidentalis ' . 128 BANDED SWIFT, Sceloporus undulatus consobrinus . 128 xlv. WESTERN SWIFT, Sceloporus biseriatus . . .129 COLLARED SWIFT, Sceloporus torquatus poinsettii. The Finest Species of its Genus. . . .129 xlvi. HEADS OF HORNED LIZARDS, Phrynosoma . . 144 xlvii. DOUGLASS'S HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosoma doug- lassii ........ 145 PAINTED HORNED LIZARD, P. douglassii orna- tissimum . 145 HERNANDEZ'S HORNED LIZARD, P. douglassii bernandesi . . . . . . 145 xlviii. DITMARS'S HORNED LIZARD, Pbrynosoma ditmarsii . 148 MEXICAN HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosoma orbiculare . 148 xlix. REGAL HORNED LIZARD, Pbrynosoma regale . . 149 PACIFIC HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosoma coronatum . 149 1. TEXAS HORNED LIZARD, Pbrynosoma cornutum. Commonest and Most Widely Distributed of the Horned Lizards. . . .156 ASHY HORNED LIZARD, Pbrynosoma calidiarum . 1 56 li. KEELED LIZARD, Gerrbonoius multicarinatus . 157 LONG-TAILED EXAMPLE OF THE KEELED LIZARD, Gerrbonoius multicarinatus 1 57 lii. BROWN LIZARD, Gerrbonotus liocepbalus . . 160 KING'S LIZARD, Gerrbonotus kingii. The Most Brightly Coloured Member of its Genus. . 160 liii. PLATED LIZARD, Gerrhonotus imbricaius . . .161 GLASS "SNAKE," Opbisaurus veniralis . . 16 xxvi List of Half-tone Illustrations PfcATB FACING PAGE Iv. SIX-LINED LIZARD; RACERUNNER, Cnemidopborus sexlineatus. The Smallest Species of a Genus Remarkable for the Activity of its Members . 188 SPOTTED RACERUNNER, Cnemidopborus gularis 188 TESSELATED LIZARD; WHIP-TAIL, Cnemidopborus tessellatus . . . . . . .188 Ivi. TWO-FOOTED WORM LIZARD, Bipes caniculatus Worm-like and Practically Blind. A Degen- erate Burrowing Lizard . 189 FLORIDA WORM LIZARD, Rbineura floridana . .189 Ivii. FIVE-LINED SKINK; "SCORPIAN," Eumeces quin- quelinealus . . . . . . 194 SKILTON'S SKINK, Eumeces skiltonianus . . 194 Iviii. FLORIDA SKINK, Eumeces egregius . . . 195 GROUND LIZARD, Lygosoma laterale . . 195 PART IV: THE SNAKES Order OPHIDIA lix. EGGS OF NORTH AMERICAN SERPENTS . . . 206 Ix. BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES . . . 207 Ixi. BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES. FRESHLY HATCHED EXAMPLES OF OVIPAROUS SERPENTS . . 208 Ixii. BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES .... 209 Ixiii. BLIND SNAKES ....... 210 Ixiv. HEAD OF THREE-LINED BOA, Licbanura trivirgata . 211 HEAD AND UNDER PART OF TAIL OF THE RUBBER BOA, Cbarina bottce . . . . .211 RUBBER BOA, Charina botttz . . . .211 Ixv. BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES . . . . 222 Ixvi. STUDIES OF HEADS. Genus Eutcenia . . . 223 Ixvii. RIBBON SNAKE, Eutcenia saurita .... 224 SOUTHERN RIBBON SNAKE, Eutania sackeni . . 224 WESTERN RIBBON SNAKE, Eutcenia proximo. . . 224 Ixviii. PLAINS GARTER SNAKE, Eutania radix . . . 225 BUTLER'S GARTER SNAKE, Euiania butleri . . 225 xxvii List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE FACING PAGE Ixix. WESTERN GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia elegans . . 228 ONE-STRIPED GARTERSNAKE, Eutcenia elegans; phase infernalis ....... 228 Ixx. GRAY GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia elegans vagrans . 229 MARCY'S GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia elegans marciana 229 Ixxi. BROWN GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia eques . . 236 Phases of the COMAION GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia sirtalis . . .... 236 Ixxii. RED-BARRED GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia sirtalis pari- etalis . 237 PICKERING'S GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia sirtalis pick- eringii. This is the blackest of the varieties 237 of E . sirtalis SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE, Eutcenia sirtalis ordinata 237 Ixxiii. HEADS OF THE WATER SNAKES. Tropidonotus leberis, Ohio. Tropidonotus fasciaiu s, Florida; Tropi- donotus grahami, Missouri; Tropidonotus tax- ispilotus, Georgia; Tropidonotus rbombifer, Illinois; Tropidonotus validus, Mexico: Semi- natrix pygcea, Florida . . 240 Ixxiv. QUEEN SNAKE, Tropidonotus leberis. (Young) . 241 QUEEN SNAKE, Tropidonotus leberis. (Adult) . 241 GRAHAM'S WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus grahami 241 Ixxv. BANDED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus fasciatus 244 RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus jasciatus eryibrogaster. ...... 244 Ixxvi. COMMON WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus fasciatus sipedon . 245 BLOTCHED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus jasciatus transversus . . . 245 Ixxvii. FLAT-TAILED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus compressi- caudus ....... 252 DIAMOND-BACK WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus rbomb- i/er 252 Ixxviii. GREEN WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus cydopium 253 BROWN WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus taxispilotus. Largest of the North American Water Snakes, Reaching a Length of Five Feet . . . 253 xxviii List of Half-tone Illustrations PACING PAGE PLATE Ixxix. THE HOME OF THE BLACKSNAKE . . . 256 WHERE THE WATER SNAKES BASK . . . 256 Ixxx. KIRTLAND'S WATER SNAKE, Clonopbis kirtlandi 257 STRIPED SWAMP SNAKE, Tropidoclonium lineatum 257 Ixxxi. BLACK SWAMP SNAKE, Seminatrix pygcea . 260 ALLEN'S SNAKE, Liodytes alleni .... 260 Ixxxii. HEADS OF MISCELLANEOUS SMALL SERPENTS . 261 Ixxxiii. DEKAY'S SNAKE, Storeria dekayi. . . 268 STORER'S SNAKE; RED-BELLIED SNAKE. Storeria occipitomaculata ..... 268 Ixxxi v. BROWN SNAKE, Haldea striatula . . . 269 VALERIA'S SNAKE, Virginia Valeria . . . 269 Ixxxv. HEADS OF NORTH AMERICAN RACERS . . 274 Ixxxvi. HEADS OF NORTH AMERICAN RACERS . . 275 Ixxxvii. INDIGO SNAKE, Spilctes corais couperi. The Largest Serpent of the Eastern United States, Attaining a Length of 9 Feet . . 286 CRIBO, Spilotes corais melanurus . . . 286 Ixxxviii. YOUNG OF THE COMMON RACER, Zamenis con- strictor ....... 287 BLACKSNAKE; RACER, Zamenis constrictor. Adult — Northern Phase ..... 287 Ixxxix. BLACKSNAKE ; RACER, Zamenis constrictor — South- ern Phase ...... 290 BLUE RACER, Zamenis constrictor flaviventn's . 290 xc, COACHWHIP SNAKE, Zamenis flagelliformis . .291 STRIPED RACER; WHIP-SNAKE, Zamenis taniatus 291 xci. FLAT-NOSED SNAKE, Salvidora grahamia . . 294 Fox SNAKE, Coluber vulpinus .... 294 xcii. HEADS OF NORTH AMERICAN COLUBERS . . 295 xciii. PILOT BLACKSNAKE, Coluber obsoletus . . 298 BLOTCHED CHICKEN SNAKE, Coluber obsoletus confinis ....... 298 xciv. YELLOW CHICKEN SNAKE; FOUR-BANDED COL- UBER, Coluber obsoletus quadrivittatus — Adult 299 EGGS OF FOUR-BANDED COLUBER, Coluber obso- letus quadrivittatus ..... 299 YOUNG OF THE FOUR-BANDED COLUBER . . 299 xxix List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATB PACING PAGE xcv. EMORY'S COLUBER, Coluber emoryi. A Powerful Example of the Useful, Rat-eating Snakes- Genus Coluber . . . . 300 xcvi. CORN SNAKE, Coluber guttatus . 301 SMOOTH-SCALED COLUBER, Rbinecbis elegans 301 xcvii. HEADS OF SMOOTH-SCALED COLUBER, Rbinechis elegans, Arizona . 304 PINE SNAKE, Pituopbis melanoleucus, New Jersey Phase. 304 PINE SNAKE, Pituopbis melanoleucus. Florida Phase. 304 BULL SNAKE, Pituopbis catenifer. California. . 304 xcviii. COMMON PINE SNAKE, Pituopbis melanoleucus . 305 PINE SNAKE, Pituopbis melanoleucus — Southern Phase . . 305 xcix. COMMON BULL SNAKE, Pituopbis sayi. Largest of the North American Serpents. . . . 320 PACIFIC BULL SNAKE, Pituopbis catenifer . . 320 c. KEELED GREEN SNAKE, Cyclopbis cestivus . 321 SMOOTH-SCALED GREEN SNAKE, Liopeltis vernalis 321 ci. ROCK SNAKE, Hypsiglena ochrorbyncba . . 322 PACIFIC BROWN SNAKE, Contia mitis . . . 322 cii. EASTERN RING-NECKED SNAKE, Diadopbis punctatus 323 WESTERN RING-NECKED SNAKE, Diadopbis amabilis 323 ciii. HEADS OF MILK SN\KE, Opbibolus doliatustriangulus, New York 334 RED MILK SNAKE, 0. d. clericus, Virginia . 334 BROWN KING SNAKE, 0. rbombomaculatus, Virginia 334 COMMON KING SNAKE, 0. getulus, Florida . 334 BOYLE'S KING SNAKE, O. getulus boylii, Cali- fornia. . 334 ARIZONA KING SNAKE, 0. %onatus, Arizona . . 334 civ. BROWN KING SNAKE, Opbibolus rbombomaculatus. (Young Adult) . . 335 BROWN KING SNAKE, Opbibolus rbombomaculatus 335 xxx List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE FACING PAGB cvi. RINGED SNAKE, Opbibolus doliatus gentilis. From Nebraska ....... 340 MEXICAN RINGED SNAKE, Opbibolus micropbolis 340 (Old Example). Adult Examples are a Rich, Golden-brown, with Obscure, Darker Brown Blotches. The Food Consists Mostly of Small Birds and Rodents . . . . . . 340 cvii. ARIZONA KING SNAKE; RINGED SNAKE, Opbibolus %onatus. From Arizona . . . 341 ARIZONA RINGED SNAKE; KING SNAKE, Opbibolus fonatus. From California . . . -34' SAY'S KING SNAKE, Opbibolus getulus sayi . . 341 cviii. COMMON KING SNAKE; CHAIN SNAKE, Opbibolus get- ulus. A notoriously cannibalistic reptile . 348 BOYLE'S KING SNAKE, Opbibolus getulus boylii . 348 cix. HEADS OF MISCELLANEOUS HARMLESS SERPENTS 349 ex. RAINBOW SNAKE, Abastor erytbrogrammus . . 368 RED-BELLIED SNAKE, Paranoia abacura . . . 368 cxi. WORM SNAKE, Carphopbis amcenus . . . 369 SCARLET SNAKE, Cemophora coccinea . . . 369 LECONTE'S SNAKE, Rbinocbilus lecontei . . 369 cxii. HEADS OF THE HOG-NOSED SNAKES . . . 376 cxiii. COMMON HOG-NOSED SNAKE, Heterodon platyrbinus 377 RLA.CK.HoG-NOSEDS>NAK.E,Heterodonplatyrhinus niger 377 cxiv. SOUTHERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE, Heterodon simus . 384 cxv. WESTERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE, Heterodon nasicus . 385 cxvi. CROWNED SNAKE, Tantilla coronata . . 400 MITER SNAKE, Tantilla gracilis . . . 400 cxvii. ANNULATED SNAKE, Sibon septentrionale . .401 HEAD OF HARLEQUIN SNAKE, Elaps fulvius . '. 401 HEAD OF SONORA CORAL SNAKE, E. euryxantbus . 401 cxix. HEADS OF SERPENTS ...... 416 cxx. HEAD OF RATTLESNAKE ..... 417 SKULL OF A PIT VIPER, SHOWING DEVELOPING FANGS 417 cxxi. COPPERHEAD SNAKE, Ancistrodon contortrix — (Com- mon Phase) . . . . . .418 COPPERHEAD SNAKE, Ancistrodon contortrix — (Texas Phase) 418 xxxi List of Half-tone Illustrations PLATE FACING PAGB cxxii. HEAPS OF COPPERHEAD SNAKE AND WATER MOC- CASIN. From Top and Side WATER MOCCASIN; "COTTON-MOUTH" SNAKE, An- cistrodon piscivorus ..... cxxiii. A COPPERHEAD "DEN" HOME OF THE WATER MOCCASIN. A Bayou in the Georgia Lowgrounds cxxiv. PLATES UNDER TAILS OF POISONOUS AND HARM- LESS SNAKES DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE RATTLE . LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE RATTLE cxxv. HEADS OF DWARF RATTLESNAKES cxxvi. PIGMY RATTLESNAKE, Sistrurus miliarius MASSASAUGA, Sistrurus catenatus cxxvii. A RATTLESNAKE "DEN" . ... A HAUNT OF THE DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE . cxxviii. TIMBER RATTLESNAKE AND NEWLY BORN LITTER cxxix. HEADS OF NORTH AMERICAN RATTLESNAKES cxxx. HEADS OF NORTH AMERICAN RATTLESNAKES cxxxi. TIMBER RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus horridus. Yellow Phase TIMBER RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus horridus. Black Phase cxxxii. WESTERN DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus airox RED DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus airox ruber ....... cxxxiii. MOUNTAIN DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus airox —Phase scutulatus . 452 BLACK-TAILED RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus molossus 452 cxxxi v. PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus confluenfus . . 453 PACIFIC RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus oregonus . . 453 cxxxv. HORNED RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus cerastes . . 460 HEAD OF THE HORNED RATTLESNAKE . 460 cxxxvi. GREEN RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus lepidus . 461 PRICE'S RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus pricei . . 461 419 419 422 422 423 423 423 426 427 427 430 430 43' 438 439 442 442 443 443 xxx:i PART I. THE TURTLES AND TORTOISES Order CHELONIA CHAPTER I: CLASSIFICATION OF THF NORTH AMERICAN TORTOISES AND TURTLES THE North American Chelonia is composed of Tortoises, Turtles and Terrapins. The two latter names are employed rather indiscriminately in different portions of this country, but the appellation — Terrapin, is generally applied to the hard- shelled, fresh-water species that are edible and consequently have a market value. The Tortoises are strictly terrestrial Chelonians. Following is a classified arrangement of the families and genera: SUBORDER Athecae Order CHELONIA FAMILY GENUS NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES SPHARGIDAE (Leather Turtles) Sphargis i Species Marine I rHFI YnRm „ \ Chelydra i " Fresh-water ) Macrochelys i (Snapping Turtles) en™™. |«££Z£:;;;;36 » ~ (Musk or Mud Turtles) ( f Chrysemys 15 " I Malacoclemmys. . 6 Fresh; brack Thecophora < T..TUDXN™ g^/- ; ; J ^J™^ (Fresh-water Turtles; ctstudo 5 Terrestrial the Tortoises) {Testudo 3 /-.„. \Chelonia 2 " Marine CHELONID^ 1 ThaL M ., ,. (Sea Turtles) TRIONTCHID^B •) Trionyx 4 " Fresh-water (Soft-shelled Turtles) ( Total number of Species: 44. CHAPTER II: THE SEA TURTLES Largest of the Chelonians. These Sir idly Aquatic Reptiles may be Recognised by their Seal-like Flippers All of the tropical and semi-tropical seas of the globe are inhabited by huge turtles, but with this great distribution, we find a peculiar condition relating to the number of species. Over these vast stretches of ocean, stupenduously rich in their variety of life — invertebrates, fishes, a large number of marine serpents, innumerable birds and many mammals — the chelonians are limited to five species ; with the exception of one, each spe- cies occurs in the warmer waters of both the Old and the New World; thus a list of the North American reptiles must include those marine turtles that are found in the vicinity of our coasts. While normally inhabiting the waters of the warmer lati- tudes, the sea turtles are often enticed northward, along our eastern coast, by the mild currents of the Gulf Stream; during the mid-summer months they enter the northern harbours and live comfortably enough, but during the approach of cold weather these wanderers become chilled and stupefied, and fall an easy prey to fishermen. Benumbed during the fall hurricanes, they are battered and cast lifeless upon the beaches of Long Island, Connecticut and Massachusetts, and by the very storms that originated over their native seas. Most of the big Leather- back Turtles in our northern museums, have met a fate like this. Classification. — The marine turtles are divided into two families. From a standpoint of relationship, these families are widely separated; the classified list of the families and genera of North American turtles and tortoises, in the preceding pages, will show the proper standing of these reptiles. The Leather-back Turtle, (Sphargis), seems to be the survivor of an extinct group, and must be placed in a family by itself, while the Loggerheads, the Green Turtle and the 4 The Sea Turtles Hawk's-bill Turtle are examples of evolution from the modern, fresh-water chelonians; development along the line of adaptation to a strictly marine life has produced a highly spe- cialised form, but the shielded carapace and plastron, and other parts of the structure, show close relationship with the Tes- tudinidce. Thus the student will appreciate that the family Sphargidcs — one species, and the Chelonidce — four species, are not alone widely separated in classification, but appeal to one an- other only in a form that is essential to the life the species lead. With this understood, it is not inappropriate to embrace all the sea turtles in a chapter by themselves. This arrangement popularises the subject and makes it possible to construct a general key. KEY TO THE SEA TURTLES General: Limbs long, flat and paddle-like — Flippers. A. Carapace with seven, heavy keels, running length- wise; covered with a leathery integument in place of shields. Uniform dark brown, or black. LEATHER-BACK TURTLE,' TRUNK TURTLE, SpharglS COriacea. B. Carapace covered with smooth shields, which do not overlap. *Front flippers with two claws. Head very large. Carapace uniform brown or black. Alveolar (crushing) surfaces of jaws without ridges — under horny sheaths. LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, Thalassochelys caretta. Head very large. Carapace dark brown or black. Al- veolar (crushing) surfaces of jaws with ridges — under horny sheaths. KEMP'S LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, Thalassochelys kempii. **Front flippers with one claw. Head of moderate size. Carapace olive or brown, mottled with yellow. GREEN TURTLE, Cbelonia mydas. C. Carapace covered with smooth, loosely-overlapping shields. Upper mandible beak-like. Carapace brown or black, mottled with yellow. HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE, Cbelonia imbricata. The Sea Turtles The Family Spbargida. — Composed of a single genus and one species — the largest of the chelonians, which attains a weight of 1,000 pounds. THE LEATHERBACK TURTLE; TRUNK TURTLE; HARP TURTLE; LUTH Sphargis coriacea, (Linn.) Told from the other sea turtles taken off our coasts, by the heavy, ridge-like processes, seven in number, running lengthwise on the carapace. Instead of the horny shields usually present on turtles, the carapace is covered with a leathery integument; on large individuals, this soft covering is fully an inch in thick- ness and saturated with oil, like whale blubber. The front flippers are enormous; like the rear pair and the head, they lack the coarse plates of the other marine turtles. Colouration. — Dark brown, generally uniform, but some^ times spotted with yellow. Very large individuals are often blackish. Dimensions. — The Leather-back Turtle is the largest of living chelonians. Following are the measurements of a fine example received at the American Museum of Natural History; it was harpooned, while floundering, in a benumbed condition, off the beach of New London, Connecticut: Total length, snout to end of tail 6 feet Length of Carapace 5 ' i inch Width of Carapace 3 i Width of Front Flipper i " 2 Stretch of Front Flippers, tip to tip 9 " Diameter of Head 10 Weight 715 pounds. Distribution. — Generally distributed in tropical and semi- tropical seas, but nowhere common; an accidental wanderer to the temperate coasts. Habits. — Approaching the beaches only to deposit its eggs, this sea giant does not seem to differ in its habits from the other marine turtles. It apparently subsists upon sea-weeds, crus- taceans, molluscs, and fishes — if it is able to catch the latter. Agassiz explains that it breeds every year, in the spring, on the Tortugas, the Bahamas and along the Brazilian coast. In 6 THE REPTILE BOOK r PLATE II "V « TRUNK TURTLE, Sphargis coriacea Largest of the marine turtles. It attains a weight of 1,003 pounds. The shell is covered with a leathery integument Occurs sparingly in all tropical and semi-tropical seas 1 LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, Thalassochelys caretla Sometimes confused with the Green Turtle, but distinguished by the proportionately much larger head. Its flesh is of considerable less value than that of the other species. Found in all of the warmer seas THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE III GREEN TURTLE. Chelonia mydas Esteemed as an article of diet and well known in the markets. Receives its name from the greenish hue of the fat. Large examples weigh 800 pounds. Inhabits all the warmer seas HAWK'S 111 1. 1. TfKTI.K. Cl,,l,»ii,i imhr: From this species is olit.unnl thr valnaMe "tortoise shell." It is the smallest of the nurme turtles. Found in the warm seas of l>oth hemispheres. Easily recognised by the overlapping shields The Sea Turtles * swimming it is very graceful and the massive flippers are em- ployed in seal-like fashion. The Family Chelonidce: Composed of two genera, each containing two species. Detailed descriptions follow * THE LOGGERHEAD TURTLE Tbalassochelys caretta, (Linn.) Carapace thick and heavy, covered with large, smooth shields, as is the plastron. Head very large, plated; flippers plated, the front pair usually with two nails. The Loggerhead might possibly be confused with the Green Turtle, owing to the similarity of the shells, but the larger head of the former, the two nails on the front flipper and the almost uniform hue of the carapace, are strong characteristics. Colouration. — Carapace dull, uniform brown; plastron dull yellow. Dimensions. — The largest example examined by the writer had a carapace 3 feet, 2 inches long; the animal tipped the scales at 303 pounds. Records of larger specimens are not rare. Distribution. — Tropical and semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres; an accidental wanderer along the Northern coasts. Habits. — Many of these turtles lay their eggs along the Florida coast. The female scoops a hole in the sand, deposits the eggs therein and shovels the sand back over them; she then retires to the sea, paying no more attention to them. These are the only times — in May and early in June, along our shores — that the adult turtle leaves the water; the eggs are deposited above tide-line. Six to eight weeks cover the period of incuba- tion, and as the young turtles hatch they at once seek the water. Their progress is seldom toward the open sea, for they have little power to battle with the surf. They seek shallow inlets and here find partial protection from their many enemies in the shape of the larger fish and the sea birds. While very young, their flippers are wing-like in motions; as the young reptile tires they are folded against the upper portion of the carapace, in much the same manner as a bird tucks back its wings. (See accompanying illustration). The number of eggs deposited is enormous; it varies from fifty to a thousand, according to the size and the age of the female. 7 The Sea Turtle* Commercially, the Loggerhead is of much less value than the Green Turtle, yet it is often seen in the markets. A steak from one of these creatures looks much like beef. KEMP'S LOGGERHEAD TURTLE Thalassocbelys kempii, (Carman) Structurally, this turtle is explained to differ from the preceding by the presence of ridges on the alveolar (crushing) surfaces of the jaws (beneath the horny coverings), which de- velopment closely approaches that of the Hawk's-bill Turtle; the bony, alveolar processes do not overlap the inner nostrils. Distribution. — Recorded from the Gulf of Mexico. THE GREEN TURTLE Cbelonia mydas, (Linn.) Very large examples weigh 500 pounds, but such are rare. Head proportionately much smaller than that of the Logger- head Turtle. Carapace with smooth shields — polished on old individuals. Head and limbs plated. Front flippers usually with a single claw. Colouration. — Carapace pale olive, richly marbled with yellow; the markings are often in the shape of bands, radiating from the centres of the shields. Plastron yellow. Head plates dull brown or olive, vividly margined with white. This attractive animal derives its name from the greenish colour of the fat; the markings somewhat resemble those of the Hawk's-bill Turtle, but that animal is unique in the shingle- like arrangement of the shields of the carapace. Dimensions. — A very large individual will have a carapace four feet long and will weigh about 500 pounds. This is much in excess of the thousands of turtles sent to the markets; such range in weight from 50 to 70 pounds; occasional hundred- pound specimens are seen in the rows of helpless animals turned upon their backs. Distribution. — Tropical and semi-tropical seas throughout the world; a frequent wanderer into the waters along our Northern coasts. Habits. — The practice, in the markets, of turning these animals over on their backs, is a necessary one. As the turtle 8 The Sea Turtles is adapted to a life in the water, the plastron is soft and unsup- ported; when placed upon it, the weight of the reptile so presses against the under shell that it is forced against the lungs and other internal organs; the turtle soon dies from an inability to breathe. From a lot of turtles that had been shipped north and were lying upon their backs for fully a week, the writer selected a specimen weighing forty-five pounds and placed it in a large tank containing manufactured salt water — enough salt added to fresh water to give it a brackish taste. On the second day in the tank the turtle began feeding, greedily taking large pieces of raw fish; it also ate the commoner kinds of sea-weed. Under these conditions it lived for nearly two years and would have thrived longer had it not been attacked by a small crocodile. The tank was ten feet long and eight feet wide and the animal swam about freely and gracefully; its deliberate motions, slow turns, the occasional stroke of the flippers and slow, gliding progress, were movements strikingly suggestive of the leisurely flight of a hawk or a turkey buzzard. The reptile seldom crawled upon the bottom of the tank, but skimmed over the gravel by a few inches; occasionally it came to the top, when it would expel the air in its lungs with a sharp hiss; the intake of air was more leisurely. Of the sea turtles, the flesh of this species is most esteemed. The shell is smooth, brightly marked and attractive, but of practically no commercial value. THE HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE Chelonia imbricata, (Linn.) Distinguished from the other sea turtles by the loosely- overlapping (imbricate) shields of the carapace. The structure of the shields on the plastron is like that of the Green Turtle. Head, limbs and flippers covered with shields; head elongated, the upper mandible terminating in a pronounced hook or beak— hence the popular name. (See accompanying illustration.) Two claws on each front flipper. Colouration. — Carapace dark brown or black, richly marbled with yellow; plastron yellow. Shields of the head and limbs dark brown or black, margined with yellow. 9 The Sea Turtles Dimensions. — Smallest of the sea turtles. The carapace of a very large animal will measure about two and a half feet in length; few examples of that length are captured nowadays. Habits. — Unlike its near ally, the Green Turtle, the present reptile is apparently carnivorous, living upon fish, crustaceans and molluscs. Like all of the marine chelonians, it lays its eggs on sandy beaches, above tide-line. It is from this sea turtle only, that the valuable "tortoise- shell" of commerce is obtained; this is the clear, horny substance, in the shape of shields, covering the bony carapace. I O THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE IV YOUNG LOGGERHEAD TURTLES, Thalassockelys caretta Very young sea turtles often seek shallow inlets to escape their many enemies. In such places they are sometimes very numerous PLASTRON OF TRUNK TURTLE, Spliargis coriacea PLASTRON OF LOGGERHEAD TURTLE, Thalassochelys earetla PLASTRON OF GREEN TURTLE. CMonia mydas PLASTRON OF HAWK'S-BILL TURTLE, Chdonia imbricata THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE V EGGS OF THE ARI/oXA MUD TURTLE. hi-nriri NEWLY HATCHED MUSK TURTLES, s mloralns EGGS 01- 'I III. SPOTTED TURTLE, Chclupus gultatus A YEARLING MUSK TURTLE, A.carinalus The back is very high -*&*&mi >TERY YOUNG BOX TURTLE. ri There is a very strong kcd A YOUNG GOPHER TORTOISE. Trsturlo pnly The sharply rlclineatcfi concentric grooves show a rapid growth YOUNG TURTLES AND TORTOISES CHAPTER III: THE SNAPPING TURTLES FAMILY CHELYDRID/E A~Small Family, Composed of Three Large and Powerful Species Classification. — Of the three species composing the family Chelydridce, two inhabit North America. The family is divided into two genera, Chelydra and Macrochelys. One species of the former is widely distributed and abundant in the United States and ranges southward to Ecuador; the other species inhabits Mexico and Guatemala. The single species of Macrochelys is confined to the Southern United States. General characters. — The Snapping Turtles are the largest of the fresh-water chelonians inhabiting the United States. Their general form is well known. The dull, rough carapace, with its heavy keels and marginal serrations, the proportionately huge and sinister head, and the long, fleshy tail, with its alligator- like crest combine to make these turtles unique. The plastron is insignificantly small and narrow and affords comparatively no protection — but these big turtles do not seek to withdraw the head and limbs like their smaller and weaker relations. They are bold and aggressive fighters and their massive, keen- edged jaws cause them to be the terror of most of the aquatic and semi-aquatic creatures. The Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentind), though larger than any other species of North American turtle, except its near ally, is dwarfed by the comparison of the latter species — the Alligator Snapping Turtle (Marcochelys lacertind). Adult specimens of this enormous, fresh-water turtle attain a weight of 130 and 140 pounds. The genera may be defined, thus: Under surface of tail with large shields. . . . Chelydra. Under surface of tail with large scales. . . Macrochelys. Besides these characters the following points may be em- ployed in separating the two species inhabiting the United States: The Snapping Turtles a. Three moderate keels on the carapace. Colour. — Very dark olive, or dark brown. COMMON SNAPPING TURTLE, Cbelydra serpentina. Distribution. — North America east of the Rockies; southward to Ecuador. b. Three very high keels on the carapace. Colour. — Pale brown or yellowish. ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE, Macrochclys laceriina. Distribution. — Rivers emptying in the Gulf of Mexico — Florida to Texas; northward to Missouri. The Snapping Turtles are herewith considered in detail: THE COMMON SNAPPING TURTLE Cbelydra serpentina, (Linn.) Large specimens will weigh about forty pounds and such would have a carapace about fourteen inches long. The carapace is very sharply serrated in the rear. There are three blunt, broken keels, rising as tubercles at the rear margins of the shields through which they pass. The carapace of old individuals is quite smooth. With young specimens there are radiating lines or ridges from the higher portions of the keels. Very young specimens are exceedingly rough. See Fig. — The plastron is small and narrow, exposing a great amount of the fleshy parts. The under-surface of the tail is covered with large shields. As with all of the very aquatic chelonians the feet are broad and extensively webbed. Both front and rear pairs are pro- vided with large and coarse nails. Most characteristic about this, and the allied species, is the huge, powerful head; the upper and lower mandibles ter- minate in strong hooks. Though the eyes are comparatively small, they are very keen of vision. The head cannot be com- pletely withdrawn into the shell, nor can the tail — nearly as long as the upper shell — be protected beyond folding against the lower margin of the shell. Colouration. — Carapace, dull olive or dark brown, with little or no markings; plastron dull yellow. The upper portion of the head is very dark as is the upper-surface of the limbs and tail; beneath, these members are yellowish. 12 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE VI COMMON SNAPPING TURTLE, Chdydra serpenlina Large examples weigh about 40 pounds. A vicious species, capable of inflicting severe wounds. Found from southern Canada to Ecuador YOUNG SNAPPING TURTLES, Chdydra serpenlina. Very young examples are grotesque in having an exceedingly rough shell THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE VII ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE, Macrochelys lacertina Distinguished from the common snapping turtle by the absence of broarh,lv> l,:,,ni,nt The jaws of a large specimen could readily amputate a man's hand or foot - J The Snapping Turtles Dimensions. — The figures given represent a fair-sized adult-: Total length, with Tail and Head outstretched 28 inches. Length of Carapace 12 Width of Carapace io| Length of Plastron 8f Length of Tail 1 1 Circumference of Head 10 Weight 32 pounds. Distribution. — Southern Canada and the United States generally east of the Rocky Mountains; southward through Mexico to Ecuador. Habits of the Snapping Turtle Sinister in appearance and equally vicious as its looks imply, the Snapping Turtle is one of the most familiar of the North American reptiles. It inhabits slow-running, muddy rivers and streams, ponds and marshes. Very old specimens are some- times so bloated and overburdened with fat that the fleshy parts protrude beyond the margin of the shell and so hinder the progress of the limbs that the reptile is almost helpless when removed from the water. Specimens in this condition are said to be excellent as food. Large numbers of snapping turtles are sold in the markets of Philadelphia and Baltimore. They fetch about ten cents per pound. With the exception of the soft-shelled turtles — genus Trionyx, the Snapping Turtles are rather unique among chelonians, in defending themselves in a like fashion to snakes; namely by "striking" at the object of anger. The rapidity with which the head is lurched forward rivals the dexterity of the rattle- snake. So quick is the movement that the eye is barely able to follow it. Backed up by a pair of keen-edged, cutting man- dibles and jaw muscles of tremendous power, the stroke of these dangerous brutes may be followed by anything but superficial njury. The amputation of a finger by a medium-sized specimen, >r a hand by a very large individual would be an accomplish- ment of no difficulty to the reptile. As in their native state :hese turtles lie partially embedded in the mud of the river- bottom, the rapid movements of the head and neck are important in the capture of fish which form the larger portion of the food. But the Snapping Turtle is an exceedingly voracious brute, 13 The Snapping Turtles and is not particular as to its fare. Young water fowl are stalked from beneath the surface, seized by a dart of the jaws and pulled below to drown and be quickly torn to pieces by the keen man- dibles assisted by the front limbs. The turtle is entirely car- nivorous. It never feeds unless under water, but it will some- times seize its prey on the bank of a stream, then retreat into the necessary element. To keep one of these reptiles in water so shallow that it is unable to entirely immerse its head and supply it regularly with the most tempting food, would ulti- mately result in its starvation. It appears that the reptile is unable to swallow unless the head is under water. As a captive the Snapping Turtle feeds readily and lives for many years. It will take food from the hand that feeds it, but most specimens resent undue familiarity and snap viciously when handled. The safest way to handle a large specimen is to pick it up by the tail and hold it well off from one's body. As the animal is able to throw the head well back over the shell and to strike a considerable distance sideways, it is altogether dangerous to hold a large specimen by the shell. Small indi- viduals may be safely handled by grasping them by the rear por- tion of the shell, which position removes the fingers from the play of the jaws. In the early summer, the female leaves the pond or stream so persistently haunted at all other times and prowls about for a place to deposit her eggs. She often wanders many feet from the water and, selecting a damp spot, scoops away the earth to form a hollow into which she crawls and moves about until the loose soil falls back over her. Thus she is hidden until the eggs are deposited and to the number of about two dozen. As she crawls forth the shell is reared to a sharp degree and the earth that has fallen upon it is left covering the eggs. They are perfectly round, white and with a thin, hard shell. As the Snapping Turtle is persistently aquatic the shells of many specimens become coated with moss. As they lie partially buried in the mud, in shallow water, they look much like flat stones. In such places they remain for hours, poking the ex- treme tip of the snout from the water to breathe. They are able to remain for long periods entirely submerged and will dive to the deepest portions of rivers where they prowl along the bottom in search of food. 14 The Snapping Turtles THE ALLIGATOR SNAPPING TURTLE Macrochelys lacertina, (Schweigger) Attains a maximum weight of about 140 pounds and a length of shell of about 28 inches. General structural characters much like the preceding species, but differing as follows: 1. There are no large shields under the tail, but in their place, small, rounded scales. 2. The presence of additional marginal shields (supramar- ginals). 3. The much higher keels on the carapace. Colouration. — Carapace, head and limbs, pale brown, or yellowish. The plastron is of a similar, though paler hue. Dimensions. — The measurements relate to a specimen captured in the Mississippi River: Length of Carapace 25 inches. Width of 20 Length of Plastron i6f Circumference of Head 24^ Length of Tail . . . 21 £ Weight 115 pounds. Distribution. — Rivers emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, from western Texas to western Florida. The species ranges northward to Missouri. Common in the Mississippi River. Habits. — This giant among fresh-water reptiles, is but a magnified duplication of the common snapping turtle, both in looks and actions. Its pale brown hues well match the muddy waters it inhabits. With its colours in perfect harmony, it lies motionless on the soft bottom, ready to seize, with a lightning- like dart the unsuspicious fish that comes its way. While thus resting it is able to entice its prey by a remarkable appendage attached to the inside of the lower jaw, close to the region of the tongue. This is a well-developed filament of flesh, white and distinct from the yellowish mouth-parts and resembling a large grub to such a degree of nicety that the popular-minded observer, seeing the object in the reptile's mouth would declare it to be the larva of some insect. More striking, however, is the reptile's power to keep this appendage in motion, giving it the aspect of crawling about in a small, circular course. The Snapping: Turtles With the mud-coloured shell lying close to the bottom, the jaws thrown open to a great extent, this organ is put in motion. Every other portion of the creature is as motionless as a rock. In this position of rigidity the shell looks like a great, round stone and blotches of fine, waving moss intensify the deception; the big head looks like another stone, beneath which there is a cavern and in this cavern crawls the white grub, to all ap- pearances an object dear to the hearts of finny wanderers. But woe to the luckless fish that swims within reach of those yawn- ing jaws! The strength of the Alligator Turtle is enormous. The specimen from which the measurements were taken upon being teased with the end of a broomstick, actually severed three inches from the end of this substantial material. A fair-sized shad was given the turtle every three days. Slowly crawling toward the food it would snap off a large section and swallow it with a gulp. The piece taken out of the fish was as sharply defined and quickly removed as if cut with a die. The entire fish was thus consumed, in clean-cut sections. Captive specimens are shy and feed sparingly unless pro- vided with means to hide. The specimen described was content to hide under a raft of small logs, tied to one corner of the tank and under which it lay for the great part of its time, occasionally protruding the tip of the nose from the water. Among other turtles (Cbrysemys) and a number of half-grown alligators it was perfectly friendly, a disposition which the writer can credit to other captive specimens of this turtle and the common snapping turtle as well. CHAPTER IV : THE MUSK OR MUD TURTLES FAMILY CINOSTERNID/E The Genera AROMOCHEL YS and CINOSTERNUM, Composed of Small and Thoroughly Aquatic Species, the Majority In- habiting Norlh America ALL of the species of the small family Cinosternidce, bear a general resemblance to one another. They are of small size- few attaining a length of five inches. The upper shell is bluntly oval in outline, rounded above, and possesses no trace of the flaring edge, or scolloped border as does the shell of typical pond and river turtles. It might be said that the carapace of these turtles looks like a smooth, flat stone. The under shell- plastron — is a distinguishing character. It is composed of a broad, rigid bridge, and two hinged, movable lobes, that may be drawn up against the carapace — slightly so with Aromochelys, but to such an extent with Cinosternum, that the species of the latter genus have sometimes been called "box turtles," an ap- pellation which rightly belongs, however, to a genus of strictly terrestrial turtles (Cistudo').* Classification and Distribution. — But two genera constitute this family. Aromochelys appears to be represented by three species, all of which occur in eastern North America. The larger genus, Cinosternum, comprises about eleven species, six of which inhabit the United States and northern Mexico; one occurs in Mexico generally except the northern portion, three in Central America, and one in northern Brazil and the Guianas. The structural differences of these species are but slight, and in technical nomenclature described principally from the shape of the shields forming the plastron. The greater number of the species of both genera display much the same colouration of the upper and lower shells. Some slight characters are exhibited * With Cistudo, there is no rigid bridge. The plastron is attached to the upper shell by a cartilaginous joint. It is divided by a central hinge —front and rear portions closing tightly against the carapace. The Musk or Mud Turtles in the markings of the head. Generally speaking, it must be explained that many of the species are very difficult to determine. As a large series of specimens demonstrate that the characters of the plastron are subject to considerable variations, it is pos- sible that the present number of species will be condensed, after further investigations. The student is advised to carefully examine the plastrons (lower shells) of the species figured and to become familiar with the distribution of these turtles. By working in this fashion the determination of specimens is rendered systematic and the detailed descriptions will impart their references in a thoroughly comprehensive manner. All of the Cinosternidce are thoroughly aquatic, frequenting slow-running streams or muddy rivers, from which they seldom venture. In such places they are admirably protected by their dull, mud-coloured shells, which are often coated with moss. These turtles exude a strong and musky odor when annoyed. They are much disliked by persons who fish in fresh-water, as they will greedily take a hook and perform such antics in the water that the sportsman is often lead to anticipate that he has captured a fish of prodigious size. When handled, they snap and bite fiercely, and, in fact, represent in miniature the actions of the formidable snapping turtle. TABULATED LIST OF THE NORTH AMERICAN MUD TURTLES I. Plastron very narrow; not protecting the fleshy parts. Genus Aromocbelys. a. Yellow stripes on head; carapace of adult not keeled. Two yellow stripes on side of head, from snout, above and beneath the eye to the neck. COMMON MUSK TURTLE, A. ddoratUS. Distribution. — Canada to Florida ; westward to Texas. Two yellow stripes on side of head; one from snout above eye to the neck; the other from above angle of jaw to the neck. SOUTHERN MUSK TURTLE, A. tristycbd. Distribution. — Georgia and Florida to Texas. b. Head spotted; carapace of the adult strongly keeled. Head olive or gray, with round, black spots. KEFLFD Ml'SK TURTLE, A. CarinatUS. Distribution. — Georgia to Arizona. 18 The Musk or Mud Turtles II. Plastron protecting the limbs and fleshy parts when lobes are closed. Genus Cinosternum. a. Plastron moderately wide — not entirely closing the shell. 1. Head with stripes or bands. Three yellow bands on carapace*; narrow stripes on each side of head. BANDED MUD TURTLE, C. bauri. Distribution. — Southeastern United States. Carapace olive or brown; two broad, orange bands on each side of head. LOUISIANA MUD TURTLE, C. louisiance. Distribution. — Louisana and Texas. 2. Top of head uniform — sides bright yellow. Carapace olive or brown; sides of head and neck bright yellow. YELLOW-NECKED MUD TURTLE, C. flavescens. Distribution. — Arkansas to Arizona. 3. Head spotted. Carapace olive or brown; head olive, speckled with black. COMMON MUD TURTLE, C. pennsylvanicum. Distribution. — Eastern and Western states. III. Plastron very wide, completely encasing limbs when lobes are* closed. Genus Cinosternum — continued Carapace brownish-yellow; head olive, with obscure markings. ARIZONA MUD TURTLE, C. henrici. Distribution.— New Mexico; Arizona. Carapace brownish-yellow; head gray, spotted with black. MEXICAN MUD TURTLE, C. integrum. Distribution. — Mexico generally, well into the northern portion. The Genus Aromocbelys. — Although some authorities have united this genus with Cinosternum, the writer believes that the very narrow plastron, so characteristic with the three species, constitutes an important point for the foundation of an indepen- dent genus. With this narrow under shell and the consequent exposure of the fleshy parts, together with the proportionately large head, these little turtles resemble in miniature, the large, vicious species of the Chelydridce — the snapping turtles. Three species of this genus are recognised. Their descriptions follow: * The only species with longitudinal bands on the shell. 19 The Musk or Mud Turtles THE COMMON MUSK TURTLE Aromocbelys odomtus, (Latr.) The upper shell is rather narrowly oval and arched to a considerable degree. With young specimens it is strongly keeled, but the keel disappears with the adult, or becomes very blunt and obscure. The plastron is very narrow and much shorter than the upper shell. Neither of the lobes are capable of being drawn upward to any extent. With young specimens they are rigid, and the rear portion remains immovable until the reptile is well grown. The head is proportionately large, with tapering, conical snout. The feet are broadly webbed. Colouration. — With young specimens the carapace is dull olive or brown, the shields showing narrow, black margins. Old specimens are of a dull, lusterless brown and usually coated with moss. The plastron is dark yellow or brown. The head markings are important. On each side of the head are two bright yellow stripes, both extending from the tip of the snout to the neck. One of these stripes passes over the eye; the other extends backward beneath the eye, run- ning parallel with the line of the jaw, thence bending slightly downward behind the angle of the mouth and running to the neck. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 3f inches. Widthof 2£ Length of Plastron 2j Width of Front Lobe at Hinge. ... ift of Rear " . . .. i^ Width of Bridge of Plastron 2 Length of £ Width of Head $ Distribution. — Southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico; westward to Illinois in the North, and to Texas in the southern portion of the range. The species is generally abundant. Habits. — Frequenting slow-running streams and muddy rivers, this pugnacious little reptile is in habits, as well as in looks, an understudy of the snapping turtle. When handled it emits a strong, though not highly disagreeable odour, which, contrary to many assertions, is not of so powerful a nature as to resist repeated washings in an effort to remove it. This 20 The Musk or Mud Turtles odour is characteristic of all of the Cinosternidce, though par- ticularly pronounced with the species of Aromochelys. Except for the purpose of coming to the shore to deposit its eggs, the Musk Turtle seldom leaves the water. It crawls about on the bottom of rivers and ponds, searching for food to satisfy its voracious and carnivorous appetite. Frequently it runs afoul of the fisherman's hook, baited with small fish or worm. Pulled to the surface it snaps viciously and emits the characteristic odour which gives the species its name. As a captive the Musk Turtle is rather timid and, like the snapping turtle, will take advantage of hiding places or dark corners of its tank. Its movements when crawling about the bottom of an aquarium or in swimming show deliberation and perfect ease and prove the creature's fitness for exploring the muddy beds of rivers. As an experiment the writer kept several specimens in a deep aquarium, without means of leaving the water, or obtaining a foothold at the top, to breathe. The test continued for several weeks. These turtles either crawled about the bottom of the tank or swam leisurely to the surface for a breath of air. They fed readily and from all indications would have lived indefinitely under such conditions. Pond turtles or river turtles — terrapin — if thus treated, would have soon become exhausted and ultimately succumbed by drown- ing. During the first warm days of Spring, the Musk Turtles seek very shallow water, and lie basking in the sun. At such times they may be taken in large numbers. THE SOUTHERN MUSK TURTLE Aromocbelys tristycha, ( Agassi z) At a glance this turtle at once appeals to the preceding species, but the head markings are different, the upper shell is more elongated, while the forward, central shield of the cara- pace is much narrower. Colouration. — Upper and lower shell like the preceding species. There is a narrow stripe from the snout, extending over the eye, thence back upon the neck. Beneath this is a second stripe, extending from slightly above the angle of the jaw, backward upon the neck. The chin has spots in place of the two light bands of A. odoratus. With some specimens the 21 The Musk or Mud Turtles head bands are very obscure. These are generally old individ- uals and the head is brown, streaked or speckled with black. Dimensions. — The measurements of an adult specimen from Enterprise, Florida, are given: Length of Carapace 4 inches. Width of 2j Length of Plastron 3 Width of Head i £ From these measurements it will be seen that the head is proportionately larger than with A. odoratus. Distribution. — The southeastern portion of the United States — Florida to Texas. Habits. — Similar to the preceding species. THE KEELED MUSK TURTLE Aromocbelys carinatus, (Gray) The carapace is high and wedge-shaped, with a strong keel upon the rear portion, a character existing with young specimens of the two preceding species, but retained in the adult form of the present species. The head is proportionately larger than that of A. odoratus and the jaws are more strongly de- veloped. Colouration. — Unlike the allied species the head is dark brown or olive, profusely spotted with black. There are no traces of stripes. The carapace is dull olive or brown, with black spots or streaks, or radiating bars. The plastron is yellow. Dimensions. — The Keeled Musk Turtle attains a length of shell of five inches, but the proportions of a smaller specimen are given. Length of Carapace 3$ inches. Width of 2$ Length of Plastron 2\ Width of Front Lobe at Hinge if Rear .. i-fr Distribution. — The southern portion of the United States, from Georgia (inclusive) to Arizona (inclusive). Habits. — The general habits appeal to the other species of the genus. 22 THE REPTILE BOOK COMMON MUSK TU-RTLE, Aromochelys odoratus Abundant in muddy rivers of eastern North America. Often takes the hooks of fishermen, and when handled gives out a strong, musky odour. v > '' • SOUTHERN MUSK TURTLE, Aromochelys tristycha Closely allied to the preceding species THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE IX KKKI.KI) MI'SK. TURTLE, AronnirlK-lys carinatus Found in sluggish rivi-rs from Georgia to Arizona. In the centre of the back is a high, sh;irn keel I . COMMON" Mt'l) TrKTI.K. Cinn<.t,-rnum A common turtle in eastern North AmiTii.i. Noli- the width of the [ilastron as compared with the species of Aromochclys The Musk or Mud Turtles The Genus Cinosternum. — Six species of Cinosternum occur in the United States and northern Mexico; they may be at once recognised from Aromochelys by the much broader plastron, the lobes of which can be drawn upward against the lower edge of the carapace, covering the limbs and fleshy parts. While the species of Aromochelys are usually known as Musk Turtles, the reptiles of the present genus are more generally called Mud Turtles, though they exude much the same musky odours as the former. Their habits are quite similar to those of the Musk Turtles THE COMMON MUD TURTLE Cinosternum -pennsylvanicum, (Bosc.) The upper shell is broader and more flat than with the musk turtles.* The plastron is nearly as wide as the opening of the shell — the front and rear lobes loosely hinged and capable of being drawn upward to protect the head, limbs and fleshy parts. Colouration. — Upper shell dull olive or brown, the shields with narrow black margins. The plastron is yellow or pale brown. With the exception of the jaws, which are of a uniform olive, the head is usually brown, with numerous, greenish-yellow spots. On some specimens these spots run together, forming yellowish stripes on the sides of the head, a condition which causes the head to resemble that of the musk turtle, (A. odoratus], but the broad plastron at once distinguishes this species from the former. Dimensions. — The Common Mud Turtle attains a maximum size of four inches. Following are the measurements of an av- erage sized specimen: Length of Carapace 3^ inches. Width " 2^ Length of Plastron 3J Width of Front Lobe at Hinge \\ " Rear " " i* Length of Bridge f Width of Head f * On the carapace of young specimens are three faint keels. On occasional adult specimens there is a blunt, central keel. 23 The Musk or Mud Turtles The range of the Common Mud Turtle must be given as the eastern United States, from New York to the Gulf of Mexico and westward to the Mississippi Valley. It may extend farther west- ward but there appears to be rather a mix-up of western records and a tendency to confuse this with an altogether different species. From this habitat, it will be observed that the Common Mud Turtle does not extend as far northward as its common eastern associate and ally — the musk turtle, nor does it occur so abundantly as that species. Habits. — The habits of this species, and, in fact of all of the Mud Turtles, have practically been described under the head of the common musk turtle. The Mud Turtles are at perfect ease for an indefinite time in a deep tank of water without foot- ing or support upon the surface. They are strictly aquatic in habits when in a wild state and prowl about the muddy bottoms of rivers and ponds in the search for food. THE LOUISIANA MUD TURTLE Cinosternum louisiance, (Baur) This turtle is most nearly allied to C. pennsylvanicum, but may be recognised by its more elongated shell and pronounced markings of the head — arranged in bands. Colouration. — Upper shell dull olive, the margins of the larger shields narrowly margined with black. Plastron dull yellow. The head is strikingly marked and in a fashion that causes the species to differ from all the others of the genus. Beginning at the snout and extending over the eye is a vivid, orange-yellow stripe, which widens and becomes broken at the rear portion of the head, thence continues on the neck as an orange blotch or band. Beginning at the angle of the jaw is a broader stripe of the same colour, running back to the neck. Dimensions. — The measurements given do not equal the maximum size attained, but illustrate the general proportions of the shell: Length of Carapace 3f inches. Width of 2* Length of Plastron 3! Width, Front Lobe, at Hinge. .. if Rear if 24 The Musk or Mud Turtles Distribution. — The exact range of this species is not well known. It has been given as Louisiana, from which state, all of the writer's specimens have been received. In Louisiana this species appears to take the place of the C. pennsylvanicum. It is very probable that further investigation will demonstrate this species to occur over a considerable area of the southern Mississippi Valley, and westward, well into Texas. BAUR'S MUD TURTLE; THE BANDED MUD TURTLE Cinosternum bauri, (Carman) In shape of shell, this reptile resembles the preceding spe- cies of mud turtles, but it may be easily recognised by the banded appearance of the carapace. Colouration. — The upper shell is brown or olive, with three dull yellow bands extending its entire length. There are two stripes on each side of the head, beginning at the snout and extending backward, above and beneath the eye to the neck. Very old and worn specimens show but little trace of the bands upon the carapace unless the shell is moistened. Dimension. — Length of Carapace .... 3f inches. Width " 2| Length of Plastron 3! Width of Front Lobe, at Hinge ... if " Rear " " " ... if Width of Head \ The measurements were taken from a specimen captured at Enterprise, Florida. Distribution. — The southeastern portion of the United States. THE YELLOW-NECKED MUD TURTLE Cinosternum flavescens, (Agassiz) From the standpoint of form, size and colouration, this species is similar to the common mud turtle, to which it is closely allied. From a technical view it is described as possess- ing differences in the outlines of the shields composing the plastron — the same pertaining to the sutures between the pectoral and humeral shields. These differences may be studied from the illustrations. Colouration. — With the greater number of specimens the upper shell is possibly lighter in colour than the carapace 25 The Musk or Mud Turtles of the common mud turtle, being yellowish-brown, yellowish- green or olive. The margins of the shields are narrowly bordered with black. The plastron is yellow. The upper surface of the head is generally uniform olive, while the sides of the head and neck are bright yellow. The eye is bright yellow, with a horizontal bar of black through the centre of the iris. Male specimens possess much longer tails than the females.* Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 4f inches. Width of 31 Length of Plastron 4! Width of Front Lobe, at Hinge. . . 2\ 1 Rear " ... 2\ Distribution. — The range of this species is from Arkansas (inclusive) through Texas and into Arizona. It probably in- habits several of the rivers of northern Mexico. THE ARIZONA MUD TURTLE Cinosternum henrici, (LeConte) This is a large species and might be described as inter- mediate between the species of the genus already considered and the Mexican and Central American species, with which the lobes of the plastron are very wide and the hinges so elastic that the shell closes as tightly as with the true box turtles (Cistudo), a character clearly seen in the illustration of the following species — C. integrum. Colouration. — The carapace is brownish-yellow; the plastron pale yellow. Above, the head and neck are dull olive; both are thickly sprinkled with yellow on the under surfaces. Dimensions. — The species attains a length of five or six inches. Distribution. — Arizona and New Mexico. THE MEXICAN MUD TURTLE Cinosternum integrum, (LeConte) Although this species does not occur in the United States, it ranges well into the northern portion of Mexico. Its descrip- tion is given as representing the type of the tropical species of this genus. * A character to be noted with all the species. 26 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE X LOUISIANA MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum loiasjanae Like all the species of its genus it is persistently aquatic. Immediately told by the bright orange bands on the sides of the head BANDED MUD TURTLE, Cinosternum bauri Distinguished from the other species of Cinosternum in having bands on the upper shell. Confined to Georgia and Florida THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XI YELLOW-NECKED MUD TURTLE, Cinostcrnum flavescens The upper shell is yellowish-brown or olive and the sides of the neck bright yellow. Inhabits the southwestern portion of the United States ARIZONA MUD TURTLE. Cinnttrrnum hrnrin Largest of the North American mud turtles. A full-grown shell is six inches long. The under shell has a crushcd-in appearance The range embraces the rivers of New Mexico and Arizona The Musk or Mud Turtles The lobes of the plastron are very wide and when closed against the upper shell, form such a perfect union that it is diffi- cult to insert a straw between any portion. The general effect of the under surface is quite different than with the species considered except C. henrici, as the bridge of the plastron is very flat — in fact, it cannot be termed a bridge, for the entire sur- face of the under shell is flush with the edge of the carapace. The characteristic notch at the rear of the plastron, is but feebly represented. This species has a large head and strong jaws. The tail of male specimens terminates in a nail-like spine. Colouration. — Like the majority of the species the upper shell is dull olive or brown, the shields narrowly bordered with black. The plastron is pale yellow, with clouded brown mark- ings at the edges of the shields. The head is dull yellow, speckled or marbled with black. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of an adult specimen (male) from Sinola, west coast of Mexico: Length of Carapace 6 inches. Width " 3! Length of Plastron 5^ Width of Front Lobe, at Hinge 2f " Rear " 2* Width of Head i| Distribution. — Mexico, generally in slow-running streams and rivers. CHAPTER V: THE TERRAPINS THE GENERA CHRYSEMYS, MALACOCLEMMYS AND CHELOPUS A Group of Aquatic Chelonians' Known Commonly as Pond Turtles and River Turtles. They are Characterised by Their Broad, Flat Shell. Most of the Species are Edible THE term "Terrapin" is a convenient one, for under this appropriate, popular head we may group all of the North American "turtles," or semi-aquatic chelonians, except the Soft-shelled Turtles (Trionychidce) , the Snapping Turtles (Chelydridce) and the Musk Turtles (Cinosternidce). Classification of the Terrapins. — The Terrapins are embraced in the large family Testudinidce; three genera are represented in North America. The largest genus is Chrysemys', it contains the largest species and its members range over the United States generally, though most of them inhabit the southeastern por- tion; others occur in Mexico, Central America, South America and the West Indies. Malacoclemmys is a small genus, con- fined to the central and eastern portions of the United States. Chelopus is also a small genus and the species occur only in the United States. The Terrapins frequent the borders of ponds, brooks and rivers — some, the salt marshes of the eastern coast. They are characterised by their broad, flattened shell — quite smooth with the majority of them. The hind feet are extensively webbed ; all of these animals are excellent swimmers. Many of the species of Chrysemys have very long, sharp claws on both pair of feet. Of all the Terrapins, the "Diamond-back," (Malacoclemmys palustris), is the most familiar, as it is a favourite though costly article of food and a by-word of the eastern markets. The larger species of Chrysemys and several of those belonging to Malaco- clemmys are sold in large numbers, but always at a far less price than the Diamond-back. The former turtles, often seen in large numbers in the markets where they are kept in cold 28 The Terrapins vats to prevent them losing fat, are known commercially and collectively as "Sliders." Large examples sell at $1.5010 $2.00, while considerably smaller Diamond-backs — about eight inches long — are worth fully $60.00 a dozen. The species of Chelopus are worthless for market purposes. Definition of the Genera A. Size moderate to large. 6/014 inches. Shell broad and flattened, with some species rising to a very blunt apex. No concentric grooves on shields, but numerous parallel furrows, extending lengthwise on many of the species. Claws very long. Genus Chrysemys. Shell flattened, but rising in the centre to rather a sharp apex, surmounted by a strongly-defined keel. Shields smooth, or with concentric grooves. Genus Malacoclemmys. B. Size smaller — from 3/08 inches. Shell low and bluntly rounded. Smooth or with concentric rings. Genus Chelopus. The Genus Chrysemys. — The exact standing of these turtles in the United States, as concerns the number of species, is doubt- ful. These terrapin are quite variable, both in the conformation of the shell and in colouration. The writer has before him a series of shells of the Cumberland Terrapin, (Chrysemys elegans). There is a degree of variation in the outlines of the carapace that might greatly confuse the novice. Some of the shells are quite high and have a tendency to be globular; others rise to a blunt apex and are surmounted by a strong keel; a few are decidedly flattened, with a blunt keel. The colouration of the series is likewise variable. Such conditions exist among most of the species. Thus it will be understood that the genus is a difficult one to describe in a popular manner. As little techni- cal work has been done with genus, since the writings of the late Dr. Baur, there are no books of reference to aid in the comparison of various specimens. The writer has given much thought to these terrapin, and has examined fine series of most of the species, but he has encountered many troublesome problems that would take many months of investigation — and many more specimens — to solve. Following his idea to exclude technical phraseology from this work, the writer has found it a hard matter to define one species from another. 29 The Terrapins KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CHRYSEMYS Division I. Carapace perfectly smooth and rounded without a keel and not serrated at the rear margin. Si^e, from 5/08 inches. a. Bright red markings on upper and lower marginal shields of carapace. Dark olive above; shields with wide, yellowish borders. Plastron immaculate yellow. EASTERN PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. picta. Distribution. — Eastern North America. Carapace dark olive, the shields with nariu\c. yellowish margins. Plastron yellow, with a ion* black -patch in centre. WESTERN PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. marginata. Carapace dark olive or brown; shields with very narrow, or no yellow margins, but trav- ersed by vein-like, yellow lines. Plastron yel- low, with symmetrical, black markings in the centre. BELL'S PAINTED TERRAPIN, C. belli. Distribution. — United States, west of the Miss- issippi and Ohio Rivers. b. No red markings on upper or lower margins of carapace: latter yellow, with or without black spots. Olive or brown above, with a net-work of fine yellow lines; plastron immaculate yellow. CHICKEN TURTLE, C. reticulatus. Distribution. — Southeastern United States. Division II. Shell smooth or with numerous parallel grooves; serrated at rear margin. Si%e, from 10 to 14 inches. c. Carapace flat, smooth, serrated at rear. Carapace olive, with large, black blotches; no yellow markings. Head dull olive. TROOST'S TERRAPIN, C. troosti. Distribution. — States bordering the Mississippi — to Illinois. Carapace olive, divided into various sized and shaped areas by yellow bands, the spaces contain- ing concentric, yellow lines. HIEROGLYPHIC TERRAPIN, C. hieroglyphic?,. Distribution. — Georgia, northern Alabama and Tennessee. d. Carapace flat, with numerous parallel grooves: serrated at rear. § Numerous parallel stripes on head and neck, all of which are yellow. 3° The Terrapins Shell broad and flat. Carapace olive or brown, with numerous, black-edged, transverse, yellow bands. Plastron yellow. Edges of jaws but slightly serrated. BARRED TERRAPIN, C. COntinna. Distribution. — Illinois to the Gulf States and east- ward. • Carapace higher and more constricted at sides than that of preceding; olive or black, with reddish cross-bars. Plastron red or deep orange. Edges of jaws strongly serrated. RED-BELLIED TERRAPIN, C. rubriventris. Distribution. — New York to Ohio; southward to Florida. Carapace similar to preceding in form; the paler markings run together, in reticulated fashion. Jaws serrated. TEXAS TERRAPIN, C. texana. Distribution. — Texas. §§ Broadest band on bead, red', narrow bands yellow. Carapace olive or brown, barred with yellow. Plastron yellow, blotched with black. CUMBERLAND TERRAPIN, C. clegaUS. Distribution. — Central States — Illinois to Texas. §§§ No longitudinal stripes on head of adult; a yellow bar behind eye. Carapace with thickly crowded, parallel fur- rows; blackish with dull yellow cross-bars. Plas- tron usually immaculate, lemon yellow. YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, C. SCabm. Distribution. — North Carolina to Georgia. Division III. Carapace high and globular in front; numerous parallel grooves. Carapace moderately high, richly barred with yellow, but slightly serrated in rear. Plastron yellow, clouded with brown. A broad band from below eye to throat; a yellow spot on each temple; other head markings in fine lines. PENINSULA TERRAPIN, C. nebulosa. Distribution. — Lower California. Shell distinctly globular. Markings of carapace similar to C. rubriventris: plastron yellow, with narrow brown markings. ALABAMA TERRAPIN, C. alabamensis. Distribution. — Alabama. 31 The Terrapins Similar to preceding, but the upper jaw is very finely, instead of coarsely serrated. MOBILE TERRAPIN, C. mobiliensis. Distribution. — Southern portions of the Gulf States. Division IV. Shell very high and globular in front; numerous parallel grooves. Head very small, with fine, yellow lines. Carapace black, with yellow bands. Plastron immaculate, lemon yellow. FLORIDA TERRAPIN, C. Distribution. — Georgia and Florida. THE PAINTED TERRAPIN: POND TURTLE Cbrysemys picta, (Herm.) Carapace flat and perfectly smooth, the borders evenly rounded. Plastron wide — no notches. Maximum length about six inches. Colouration. — Carapace dark olive, brown or black, the shields quite widely margined with greenish yellow; marginal shields of the carapace — above and beneath, bordered with crimson and containing blotches and crescentic markings of that hue. Plastron immaculate yellow. The crimson markings are particularly bright on young specimens; very young individuals have a broad, yellow band on the back. On very old specimens there is little or no trace of red on the upper marginal shields, though the lower shields nearly always show this characteristic colour. Head black, striped with yellow; the neck and the limbs are striped with a similar red as seen on the marginal shields. Dimensions. — A large example has a carapace about six inches long, but such is above the average dimensions, which are given: Length of Carapace 4f inches. Width of 3J Length of Plastron 4f Width of Plastron to junction with upper shell, 3& Distribution. — Eastern North America — from New Bruns- wick to the Gulf of Mexico. In the extreme South it extends westward to Louisiana. It is particularly abundant in the Middle Atlantic States. Habits. — Basking on a partially submerged log or minia- ture island of bunch-grass and plunging into the water when 32 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XII Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday. Page & Company EASTERN PAINTED TURTLE, Chrysemys picta. A familiar terrapin of eastern North America. The bright markings alone are sufficient for identification. Copyright, 1907, by Doublcday, Page tit Company WESTERN PAINTED TURTLE, Chrysemys marginata. Distinguished from the preceding species by the narrower yellow margins on the shields of the upper shell and an elongate black patch on the plastron. Found in the Central States. The Terrapins frightened, the Painted Terrapin forms a typical representative of the pond turtles, which depend upon the water to such an extent that they are unable to feed unless beneath the surface of this element. The food consists of aquatic insects, tadpoles, fishes and water plants. Not difficult to capture and very attractive in its colouration, this terrapin is frequently seen in a captive state, but as an in- mate of an aquarium it is not only annoying, but dangerous to the other life, as it will swim after the fishes, biting at their fins and tails, and, if they be small enough, overpowering and eating them. It is fond of raw chopped beef, chopped fish, earthworms and soft-bodied insect larvae. If lettuce leaves be left floating on the water, it will browse upon these. THE WESTERN PAINTED TERRAPIN Cbrysemys marginata, ( Agassi z) Size and structure of the shell, like the preceding. Differs only in the colouration. Colouration. — The brilliant red markings on the upper and lower marginal shields of the carapace, are present, but the yellowish borders of the larger shields are very narrow, as com- pared with C. pida. Another difference, is the presence of a large, blackish patch in the central portion of the plastron. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 5! inches. Width of 3£ Length of Plastron 5 The largest specimen examined had a carapace six inches long. Distribution. — The Central States, from western New York to Iowa; possibly extends as far south as Louisiana. BELL'S TERRAPIN Cbrysemys belli, (Gray) In shape the carapace is similar to the two preceding species, but this is a larger terrapin. It is most nearly allied to C. cinerea. Colouration. — Carapace dark olive or brown; the yellowish borders on the larger shields to be noted with the two preceding terrapin, are very narrow, or absent. On some specimens the shields are narrowly margined with black. Traversing the 33 The Terrapins carapace are irregular, vein-like lines, usually crossing the cen- tres of the shields. The markings of the under, marginal shields of the carapace are less brilliant than with the allied species; the red bars may be present but they are of a dull hue. The symmetrical, black pattern on the plastron, is character- istic. This is well illustrated in the photograph. The markings on the head, neck and limbs appeal to the Western Painted Terrapin, C. Cinerea. Dimensions. — A female specimen from St. Clair County, Illinois, shows the following measurements: Length of Carapace 5f inches Width " 4* Length of Plastron 5^ Total Width " 3* Width of Head . . i Distribution. — United States west of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers to British Columbia and eastern Oregon. THE CHICKEN TURTLE; LONG-NECKED TERRAPIN; RECTICULATED TERRAPIN Chrysemys reticulatus, (Bosc.) The Chicken Turtle belongs to the first group of the genus, but may be recognised by the following characteristics: 1. The exceedingly long, snake-like neck. 2. The absence of red markings on the upper and lower marginal shields. 3. The yellow bar on each upper marginal shield. 4. The broad, yellow band on the forelimb. 5. The narrow and rather globular shell. This species grows to a length of eight inches. The shell is narrower and proportionately higher than that of any of the terrapins. Though the neck is extremely long, the head is en- tirely retractile. Colouration. — Carapace olive or brown, with a net-work of fine, yellow lines; the under marginal shields are yellow and each contains a black blotch. Plastron immaculate yellow. On each forelimb is i wide, cream-coloured band; the under surface of the tail and limbs is yellow, as is the greater 34 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XIII BELL'S TERRAPIN, Chrysemys belli Found west of the Mississippi and the Ohio rivers. Note the characteristic markings on the under shell CHICKEN TURTLE, Chrysemys reticulata The neck is very long and snake-like. There is a net-work of fine yellow lines on the upper shell. This turtle is common in the southeastern portion of the United States. A very large shell is about ten inches long THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XIV 1 '•• . ! r t l *"""v 3 cJ j 7 I Younu Painter) Terrapin a Young Florida Terrapin 3, 4. 5 YounR Lesueur's Terrapin 6 Young Wood and Spotted Turtle* The Terrapins portion of the throat, though there are several pairs of black stripes. Above, the head is traversed by narrow stripes. Dimensions. — A moderate-sized example from Baker Co., Ga., shows these measurements: Length of Carapace 5 J inches. Width of 31 Length of Plastron 4f Width, Flat Portion, Plastron if Length of Head and Neck 4 Width of Head . . f The largest specimen examined by the writer was 8 1 inches long (carapace) and weighed 3! pounds. The shell was black and all trace of the yellow, reticulated pattern had faded with age; the en- tire carapace was so covered with small furrows as to appear dull and lustreless. This turtle was taken near Orlando, Florida. Distribution. — States east of the Mississippi River, from North Carolina to Florida (inclusive). TROOST'S TERRAPIN Chrysemys troosti, (Holbrook) Size large — carapace ten inches; shell flat. The carapace is bluntly rounded in front; more sharply rounded in the rear with dull serrations between the marginal shields and in the centre of each of them; upper shell usually quite smooth — sometimes furrowed on the sides. Colouration. — Owing to the lack of yellow stripes on the head, neck and limbs, this species is distinct from the others. On a few examples obscure, greenish stripes may be seen on the head and neck, but unless examined closely, these organs seem to be of a uniform hue. The effect is very different from the vividly-striped head of nearly all the larger terrapin. The colouration of the shell is also characteristic. The carapace is olive, profusely blotched with black and irregularly so, except on the marginal shields, where the black is present at their junctions. Plastron yellow, blotched with black. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 8^ inches. Width of 6£ Length of Plastron 7! Width, Flat Portion, Plastron .... 4 Height of Shell 2f Width of Head if 35 The Terrapins These measurements are an average from several hundred examples from Fulton Market, New York. As with most of the terrapin, the claws, particularly of the front feet, are very long; the longest claw on the front foot, of a reptile agreeing with the above measurements, was £ of an inch long. Distribution. — Missouri, Illinois, Tennessee and Mississippi. Large numbers are received at the markets from Illinois. HIEROGLYPHIC TERRAPIN Cbrysemys hieroglyphica, (Holbrook) Shell very flat; carapace of the adult perfectly smooth. Rear margin of the carapace more deeply notched than that of the preceding. In proportion to the size of the shell, the head is very small and narrow. Colouration. — Carapace olive-brown, traversed by rather broad, yellow bands that divide it into various-sized areas, each of which contains narrow, concentric lines of yellow. Plastron yellow; a dark blotch on the border of each marginal shield. Dimensions. — An adult example has a carapace about twelve inches long; the height of the shell is about three inches. Distribution. — Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee. THE BARRED TERRAPIN; RED-NECKED TERRAPIN; COOTER Chrysemys concinna, (LeConte) Shell broad and flat; bluntly serrated at the rear; carapace furrowed or wrinkled (rugose} on the sides. Colouration. — Carapace olive, with numerous, irregular wavy lines and bands extending downward; these are generally edged with a darker hue than the ground colour. There is a yellow, vertical line in the centre of each of the upper, marginal plates, and fine, yellow, ring-like (concentric) markings, cross- ing from one shield to another. Along the lower, marginal shields is a single row of large, dark blotches. Plastron usually uniform yellow. The markings on the upper shell resemble those of C. elegans — the Cumberland Terrapin, but the arrangement of the stripes on the head is quite different. Head Markings. — Head black, with rich, orange yellow or red 36 The Terrapins stripes. On the top of the head is a narrow bar, about five- eighths of an inch in length (on an adult of average size) ; back of this and to each side of it, are very narrow, forked stripes. A narrow stripe borders the eye above, thence extends over the temples where it broadens and runs to the neck; from behind the eye is another band, extending to the neck; beneath the eye is a wide stripe which forks, one portion passing toward the chin and the other backward to the neck. A broad, forked band on the middle of the chin. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 12 inches. Width of 8J Height of 4£ " Width of Head ij Distribution. — The Southeastern United States, from the Carolinas southward to Florida; westward to Missouri. THE FLORIDA TERRAPIN Chrysemys floridana, (LeConte) At once distinguished by the very high and dome-like cara- pace and the diminutive head. One of the largest species. Colouration. — Carapace black or dark brown, with wavy yel- low crossbars. Each of the marginal shields has a single, vertical yellow line in the centre; here we note a difference in pattern from the most nearly related species, the Mobile Terrapin* and the Cooler.* on both of which the marginal shields contain, besides the upright bar. numerous concentric lines of the same colour. The plastron of the Florida Terrapin is immaculate lemon yellow. Head intensely black, with a few, fine, yellow lines. The most vivid stripe is from behind the eye to the neck; the chin stripes are wide. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of an ex- ample from the St. John's River, Florida: Length of Carapace 13 inches. Height of Sheltf 5f Width of Carapace 9 Length of Plastron 12$ Width, Flat Portion, of Plastron 5 Width of Head\ i* Weight 14! Ibs. * Chrysemys mobiliensis and C. concinna. f Note the very high shell and the small head. 37 The Terrapins Small or even half-grown individuals do not exhibit the marked, globular formation of the carapace; their shell is much like that of C. concinna; the dome-like development appears with maturity. Distribution. — From the records at hand, this species seems to be restricted to southern Georgia and Florida. THE MOBILE TERRAPIN Cbrysemys mobiliensis, (Holbrook) Another terrapin characterised by the globular formation of the front of the carapace, though to a lesser degree than with C. ftoridana. This species is distinguished by the very fine serrations of the upper jaw. Colouration. — Markings very similar to C. concinna. Though the carapace is more highly arched than with that species, some authorities consider the Mobile Terrapin to be but a larger, Southern race of it. We will provisionally treat this reptile as distinct, owing to its higher shell and finely serrated upper mandible. Dimensions. — Attains a length of 14 inches. Distribution. — Southern portions of the Gulf States. THE ALABAMA TERRAPIN Cbrysemys ababamensis, (Baur) Carapace rather high and globular in the front. Head of fair size. Colouration. — The pattern above is much like that of C. rubrivenlris, but the plastron is yellow instead of deep orange or red, and is marked with brown reticulations. Dimensions. — The carapace of an adult example is about 12 inches long. Distribution. — The type specimens were taken near Mobile Bay, Alabama, which locality points to the species displaying a tendency to frequent salt marshes. THE RED-BELLIED TERRAPIN Cbrysemys rubriventris, (LeConte) DifTers from the preceding in the much narrower shell, which is well rounded at the front and rear borders; the jaws are deeply serrated. 38 The Terrapins Colouration. — The carapace is brownish or olive, with blotches, streaks or irregular bands of red. Each of the mar- ginal shields, both above and beneath, have a reddish band passing through the centre. Plastron usually dull red, or deep orange, tinged with red at the borders. Head markings. — Head and neck dark brown, with obscure, reddish bands; two distinct, narrow, reddish-yellow lines from behind the eye to the neck, broad, red bands on the throat. Dimensions. — Grows to a length of about twelve inches; the width of a specimen this size would be about 7^ inches and the height of the shell about 4^ inches. Distribution. — Occurs in eastern Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, the two Virginias and northern North Carolina. It is numerous in the Delaware River, in New Jersey and commonly sold in the larger markets. Habits. — This terrapin occurs principally in rivers with a rocky bed. THE YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN Cbrysemys scabra, (Agassiz) The carapace of this terrapin is the most deeply grooved of any of the species; this rugose characteristic is at once strik- ing, "upon a gross examination of the shell. There is a dull keel on the central portion; the rear border is notched. Head rather large. Colouration. — Carapace olive, brown or black, with dull, yellow bands extending downward from the central portion. The illustration of an example under water, clearly delineates these markings. With the adult, there are practically no narrow, yellow lines on the head, except a single yellow stripe on the crown. Behind the eye is a broad, upright, yellow bar — this, sometimes in the shape of a thick C — occasionally, though rarely, it is seen as a wide band, from the eye to the angle of the mouth; from the tip of the snout to the upper mandible is another yellow bar. Plastron usually immaculate yellow. Lower marginal shields of carapace yellow; a dark blotch in each. Dimensions. — Average length of carapace 10 inches; width, 6f ; length of plastron, 9! inches; height of shell, 3! inches. 39 The Terrapins Distribution. — The range of the Yellow-bellied Terrapin is restricted. It occurs from Virginia to Georgia. Holbrook says it does not extend into the interior. He was not aware of its existence two hundred miles from the coast. It lives about pools of stag- nant water and in marshes, where specimens may be seen sunning on derelict timber. Large numbers are brought to the Charleston markets, where they are sold at a much lower figure than the diamond-back terrapin — Malacodemmys palustris. THE CUMBERLAND TERRAPIN Cbrysemys elegans, (Wied) Outlines of the shell similar to the preceding, but the cara- pace is not so deeply furrowed. Colouration. — Markings on the carapace similar to C. scripta, but the colouration of the plastron and head is entirely different. Plastron yellow, densely clouded with black or dark brown. Head markings. — The pattern of the head is constant, vivid and characteristic. Top and sides of the head with crowded, pale greenish-yellow lines; from the eye to the base of the head is a broad band of rich crimson. Dimensions. — Average length of carapace, 10 inches; width, y£ inches; length of plastron, 9^- inches. Distribution. — Extends over a considerable area — Ohio to Kansas, southward to the Gulf States and to the lower Rio Grande River. Habits. — Very hardy as a captive. It eats chopped fish and meat, and very tender green vegetables that may be thrown upon the water. Large numbers may be seen in the markets, where they are sold as "Sliders." THE TEXAS TERRAPIN Chrysemys texana, (Baur) Shell rather flat; not deeply furrowed. Head of fair size. The original description* reads: "Skull small, similar to P.-f rubriventris. Upper jaw notched in the centre, with a rounded tooth on each side, not so prominent as in P. rubriventris. Lower jaw similar to P. rubriventris. * Proc. Am. Philosophical Society. Phila. XXXI, No. 141, page 223. t Stands for Psendemys — a generic name proposed for the terrapins. 40 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XV Copyright, 1907. by Doubleday, Page & Company YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, Chrysemys scalra. One of the market terrapins. A full-grown shell is about eleven inches long and characterised by numerous parallel furrows. Found in the coast region — North Carolina to Georgia. Copyright, 1907. by Doubleday, Page & Company CUMBERLAND TERRAPIN, Chrysemys elegans. Closely allied to C. scabra, though at once distinct by the red band on each side of the head. Occurs in the Central States — Illinois to Texas. The Terrapins Colouration. — "The colouration of the head is quite different from the other species. A yellow, longitudinal spot behind the eye; behind this a yellow line, ending in a long longitudinal spot above the temples; from the lower, posterior portion of the eye a yellow line appears, sending a branch upward in front of the tympanic cavity, and continues behind on the neck. Three very strong yellow and some slender yellow stripes on lower face of neck." Distribution. — Texas and probably northern Mexico. Has been taken at San Antonio and along the Pecos River. THE PENINSULA TERRAPIN Chrysemys nebulosa, (Van Denburgh) Allied to a Mexican and Central American species — C. ornata. The shell is of moderate height, bluntly keeled and rugose on the sides. Colouration. — Carapace olive, with numerous yellow and irregular yellow bands and blotches. A black blotch in each marginal shield, above and beneath. Plastron yellow, clouded with brown in the central portion. Head dark brown, marked with fine, wavy lines on the top; a broad band from beneath the eye to the throat; a yellow blotch on each temple, continued backward on the neck as a narrow band. Dimensions. — Reaches a length of 12 inches. Distribution. — Southern portion of the peninsula of Lower California. The Genus Malacoclemmys: The six species comprising this genus are of large size — from 8 to 12 inches in length. Ex- cluding one species, which has a very rough shell — the Diamond- back Terrapin — these turtles exhibit a strong similarity to the species of the preceding genus, and like them, are sold in great numbers in the markets as "Slider" terrapin, with the exception of the "Diamond-back." That species is the choice, over all other terrapin, by the epicures, and brings four or five times the price of species that are included within the genus to which it belongs, though the former may considerably exceed it in size. The species of this genus are characterised, among the terrapin, by the strong keel upon the carapace — this usually 41 The Terrapins protruding so abruptly from the shell as to produce a bluntly serrated margin to the curve of the back. The species have very large and extensively webbed hind feet. The claws of the front feet do not exhibit the extensive development to be noted with the species of the preceding genus. From Chrysemys, this genus is technically separated by the structure, in the latter, of the inner margin of the jaws, which, im- mediately within the sharp edge of the mandibles, are provided with very broad and flat crushing surfaces. Upon an examination of these crushing surfaces, theory would point to a food consist- ing of molluscs. Such is actually the case. Most of these tur- tles have been found to feed largely upon small species of snails. Male and female specimens differ considerably in size, the females being much larger and with proportionately larger heads than the males. The tail of male speciments is long and thick, proportion- ately longer than with any species of Chrysemys. Following is a key to the species of Malacoclemmys: Shell broad and flat with all the species; not globular: rising to rather a sharp apex which is surmounted by a broken keel, rep- resented by high, ridge-like nodules. a. Shell smooth, with a dull lustre. *Keel moderately developed, not rising in the form of tubercles. Olive, sometimes with black blotches. A net-work of fine, yellow lines. GEOGRAPHIC TERRAPIN, M. geographica Distribution. — Mississippi Valley and western por- tions of Atlantic states. **Keel rising in the form of tubercles, giving line of back a serrated appearance. Olive, with large, round, black blotches. No yellow net-work. Head with narrow, yellow lines and a wider, yellow crescent behind eye. LESUEUR'S TERRAPIN, M. lesueurii. Distribution. — Mississippi Valley. Carapace like preceding. A large yellow spot behind eye. A narrow line from above eye; short- er lines beneath. KOHN'S TERRAPIN, M. kohnii. Distribution. — Lower Mississippi Valley. Pale, olive; no large blotcnes; marginal shields marked with yellow. Space between the eyes with a broad, yellow figure, splitting into bands behind the eye>. BAUR'S TERRAPIN, M. pulchra. 42 The Terrapins Distribution. — Taken only on the Alabama River. Olive; each of the shields enclose a yellow ring bordered inside and outside with dark brown. A yellow spot behind eye and two yellow stripes to the neck. OCCELLATED TERRAPIN, M. oculijera. Distribution. — Lower Mississippi Valley. b. Shell rough, the shields enclosing raised, concentric areas. Dull brownish or olive. Head pale gray with black dots. DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN, M. palustris. Distribution. — Salt marshes of the Atlantic coast and Gulf of Mexico. Detailed descriptions of these species follow: THE GEOGRAPHIC TERRAPIN; MAP TURTLE Malacoclemmys geograpbica, (Lesueur) The species grows to a considerable size — 10 to 12 inches. The females are considerably larger than the males and have proportionately very large heads. The carapace is rather flat and flaring at the rear margin, where the junction of the shields form moderate notches. On the centre of the carapace is a well-defined, but dull keel. The surface of the carapace is quite smooth and exhibits a dull lustre with adult specimens, though faint ridges are usually to be seen on the sides. Colouration. — The carapace is dull olive, with a fine and irregular net-work of yellow lines. These markings are very indistinct on some specimens and show only when the shell is moist. Some specimens have many dark blotches on the carapace. The marginal shields of the under side of the cara- pace are peculiarly marked; they are yellow and contain round, olive markings, consisting of one ring within another, but on very old specimens these markings may be present merely in the form of a dull blotch. The plastron is yellow and immaculate, with the exception of very narrow borders of darker colours following the edges of the shields across the shell. Head markings. — The head and neck are very dark olive, with many narrow and parallel, greenish-yellow lines. These lines are more numerous than is the case with the other terrapin. A short distance behind the eye is a triangular spot of the same colour as the stripes. The tail of male specimens is long — almost half the length of the plastron — and brightly striped with yellow. 43 The Terrapins Dimensions. — The measurements quoted are from a fair- sized female specimen, taken near Sandusky, Ohio: Total length of Carapace 9^ inches. Width of Carapace yi Length of Plastron 8 Width, Flat Portion, of Plastron 4 Width of Head ij A specimen of this size will weigh about three and a half pounds and sells for about seventy-five cents in the eastern markets. Distribution. — The species is abundant in the Valley of the Mississippi, whence, in the North it extends eastward into Penn- sylvania and New York to Lake Champlain. It occurs as far south as Louisiana. Habits. — Judging from his experiences with several hundred specimens of this turtle, both in the tanks of the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park and with specimens that were liberated in small ponds of the Park, the writer believes this to be a delicate species when removed from its native environ- ment. It will eat chopped fish, meat and mealworms, also earth- worms and various soft-bodied grubs, dragging all its food into the water and devouring it beneath the surface. The writer has also observed it to eat the edges of water-lily pads. None of the specimens liberated in the Park ponds passed through the winter alive — all floating up dead in the spring. The ponds appeared to be very favorable for the life of such creatures as there was a soft mud bottom in which they could burrow for the winter. The experiment was continued for several winters, but with a like result. It appeared that some item of their food was lacking and without it they could not summon sufficient strength to pass the winter months. LESUEUR'S TERRAPIN Malacodemmys lesueurii, (Gray) Attains the same length as the preceding species. The carapace is flaring at the rear and strongly notched at the sutures of the marginal shields. The centre of the carapace rises rather sharply and is surmounted by a high keel, broken into a series of tubercles — one in each shield. This formation produces a strongly serrated outline to the curve of the back. The surface 44 The Terrapins of the carapace is quite smooth, with a dull lustre, although blunt ridges are discernible on the sides. Colouration. — The carapace is dull olive, or brownish above, with a few coarse and indistinct yellow lines. On each of the shields is one or two large blotches of black or dark brown. These blotches impart a characteristic appearance and greatly assist in separating the species from the Map Terrapin, although the much heavier and tubercular keel is another strong character. The marginal shields of the underside of the carapace show the dark, concentric blotches like the former species. The plastron is immaculate yellow; occasionally marbled or lined with gray or brown. Head markings. — The head is large, with' sharply-pointed snout and the colouration is quite distinct. There are but few lines on the top of the head, which is dark olive or black. The lines are vivid yellow. One of these begins at the snout and extends backward for a little distance past the eyes where it abruptly terminates. Behind each eye is a bright yellow mark in the form of a crescent, which connects with parallel lines extending along the head and neck. Behind the crescents are finer markings, which on many specimens, fork in vein-like fashion. The limbs and tail are brightly striped. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace of inches Width of 7| Length of Plastron 8J Width, Flat Portion, of Plastron . . 4! Width of Head 2 It will be noted, on comparing the different measurements that the head of this species is proportionately large. The measurements are of a female specimen. It was taken in Illinois and weighed exactly four pounds. Specimens like it were sell- ing in the eastern markets — in November — at $1.25 each, under the title of "Sliders." Distribution. — Valley of the Mississippi River. The species occurs from Ohio to Mississippi, inclusive. Habits. — Captive specimens are delicate and live but a few months. They do best if supplied with running water, with means of leaving the same — rockwork or a log. Market- men tell the writer that to keep a large number of specimens alive for some time, it is necessary to keep them very cold — at 45 The Terrapins a temperature of about 45° F. They are very fat when received at the markets in the fall and in the cold vaults in which they are usually stored they remain so sluggish that this fat is not "worked off." Placed in an ordinary room temperature they rapidly emaciate. KOHN'S TERRAPIN Malacoclemmys kobnii, (Baur) This species was described by the late Dr. G. Baur in 1890.* He explains that the form of the shell is much like that of an- other of his new species, technically called M. oculifera, and which the writer has popularly termed the Occellated Terrapin. Colouration. — The carapace resembles that of Lesueur's Terrapin, but the colouration of the head is quite different. There is a large, yellow spot behind the eye, and a thin yellow line, connecting with a shorter one, extending backward from the upper portion of the eye. Distribution. — The species appears to inhabit those states in and adjacent to the lower Mississippi Valley. It has been taken at Bayou Lafourche, Bayou Teche and St. Martinsville, Louisiana; also near Pensacola, Florida. BAUR'S TERRAPIN Malacoclemmys pulcbara, (Baur)t The head markings of this species are the strongest charac- ters for identification. The original description states: "The whole space between and behind the orbits is characterised by a continuous, yellow figure, which sends backward, on each side, behind each orbit, a strong process of the same colour." The carapace is pale olive, with yellow markings about the margin; the plastron is yellow, with darker markings. The species attains an average size for this genus. Distribution. — The exact range of the species is not known. The type specimens were taken on the Alabama River, near Montgomery. Alabama. * Sc^ence. November 7, 1890. Vol. 16. t Described by G. Baur in the American Naturalist of 1893, p. 675. 46 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XVI . . " ^ TROOST'S TERRAPIN, Chrysemys troosli One of the larger terrapins sold in the markets under the general title of "Sliders." Among the bigger species of Chrysemys, this is the least attractive in colouration YOUNG OF THE YELLOW-BELLIED TERRAPIN, Chrysemys scabra The young of the various terrapins are vividly marked. The illustrations are life-size THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XVII r FLORIDA TERRAPIN, Chrysemys floridana. Young FLORIDA TERRAPIN". r/;ry.«-mv.t floridun*. Adult Very distinct among the species of Chryatmya. The shell is very high — dome-like — and the head proportionately small The Terrapins THE OCCELLATED TERRAPIN Malacodemmys oculifera, (Baur) Owing to the striking markings of the carapace, this species should be readily indentified. The conformation of the shell appeals to Lesueur's Terrapin, but the tubercles on the back are yet more highly developed. Colouration. — Upper shell olive. Each of the shields con- tains a yellow ring, which is bordered on ihe inside and outside with dark olive-brown. The plastron is yellow with darker markings in the central portion. There is a yellow spot behind the eye and two yellow stripes from the eye backward. Beneath, there is a yellow band cover- ing the whole lower jaw. Distribution. — The species has been taken at Mandersville, Louisiana, and at Pensacola, Florida. THE DIAMOND-BACK TERRAPIN Malacodemmys palustris, (Gmel.) The species differs from all the others of its genus in the rough character of the carapace. Each of the shields contains a number of concentric grooves, rising in step-like fashion. It is owing to the angular, and concentric areas embraced by the shields that the popular name — "diamond-back" —has originated. A well-defined keel is represented by a blunt ridge, rising within each of the central shields; the highest of these ridges is in the central or middle shield of the back. Examined from the side, the keel appears as a series of serrations. Colouration. — The carapace is grayish or olive, sometimes with darker concentric markings which appeal to the arrange- ment of the grooves. The lower border of the carapace is olive, each plate embracing hollow black squares or blotches. The plastron is deep yellow, with numerous black dots in rows and dusky bands extending crosswise. With very young specimens the upper shell is almost white, with black, concentric markings. The head markings of the adult are strong and constant. There are no stripes. The head, neck and all the exposed, fleshy parts are slaty gray, profusely covered with rounded, black dots. 47 The Terrapins Dimensions. — The present species is the smallest of the genus. The maximum size is ten inches, and this is consider- ably above the average, which is about eight inches. Speci- mens of the latter size are now becoming rare. Following are the measurements of a specimen now con- sidered in the markets to be of fair size, and selling for about $6 each: Length of Carapace 7^ inches. Width " 54 Length of Plastron 6\ Width, Flat Portion, of Plastron 3^ Weight 2 pounds. For every half an inch over these measurements, the mar- ket prices soar upward substantially. A specimen slightly over eight inches in length, from the same lot as the specimen measured was marked at $8. The man selling these turtles informed the writer that the prices for specimens over seven inches in length might actually be said to increase $i for every additional half an inch in length. Specimens under 6 inches are of but slight value in the markets. A turtle about five inches in length will sell for about $1.50. Every year these turtles are becoming scarcer and the prices higher. Distribution. — Salt marshes of the Atlantic Coast and southern borders of the Gulf States, from Massachusetts to Texas. Habits. — In its habit of persistently selecting salt and brackish waters, this species differs from the other terrapin. It occurs principally in the salt marshes along the coast, but not a few specimens are found well up the rivers, though always within tide line. On the Hudson the writer has taken them as far north as Newburgh. The species does not live long in captivity unless provided with salt water. Kept in fresh water its skin becomes infected with fungus which soon kills the reptile. If provided with a tank containing artificial "sea-water" it seems hardy enough and lives for an indefinite period. The water may be prepared by adding common salt until it yields a brackish taste. Chopped clams and oysters are foods of captive specimens, though they will also take small fish and raw meat. They are also fond of the small "periwinkle" snails so common on the mud flats exposed by the shore tides and the writer has observed a wild 48 The Terrapins specimen voraciously eating a small "fiddler" crab. As the jaws are very powerful they have no trouble in crushing the shells of such creatures. Judging from the tendency of captive specimens to nibble at lettuce leaves that are thrown into their tank, wild individuals undoubtedly feed in part upon the various species of sea-weed. Like the other terrapin the species always takes its food under water. Owing to the very broad, extensively webbed hind feet this turtle is perfectly at home in the water and has a habit of floating with just the tip of its snout above the surface, the shell being kept in a perpendicular position by a slow, treading motion of the hind feet. Although this species ranges well into the North, it is more abundant and attains a larger size in warmer waters. It occurs most commonly in those numerous indentations of the Atlantic coast from the Chesapeake, to Savannah, Georgia. Its great favour as an article of diet threatens its ultimate extinction. The Genus Chelopus: The small species of this genus are fairly aquatic, though not to such an extent as the larger terrapin. One species evinces a decided inclination toward terrestrial habits, though it is seldom found away from damp areas. Three of the species inhabit the Eastern states and one, the Pacific Region. The Wood Terrapin, C. insculptus, is the largest species, attaining a length of about eight inches. The Western Pond Turtle, C. marmoratus, is but slightly smaller. The remaining two species grow to a maximum size of about four inches — in length of. shell. The feet of these turtles are not extensively webbed. The characters of the four species may be thus outlined: a. Shell quite smooth; not serrated in rear. Carapace black, with scattered, round, yellow spots. Head black, with small yellow blotches. SPOTTED TURTLE, C. guttatus. Distribution. — Eastern States. Carapace black or brown, each shield with a dull, readish blotch. A large, orange blotch on each side of head. MUHLENBERG'S TURTLE, C. muhlenbergii. Distribution. — New York, New Jersey, and Pennsyl- vania. 49 The Terrapins Carapace black, each shield enclosing a cluster of fine, yellow spots. WESTERN POND TURTLE, C. marmoratus. Distribution. — Pacific Region. b. Shell with coarse, concentric grooves; serrated in the rear. Carapace brown. Neck and limbs brick red. WOOD TERRAPIN, C. Distribution. — Eastern States. Detailed descriptions follow: THE SPOTTED TURTLE; POND TURTLE Chelopus guttatus, (Schneider) Carapace smooth, quite flat and oval in outline. The edges are evenly rounded with no indications of serrations. An adult specimen is from three to four inches long. The feet are sparsely webbed; the upper jaw deeply notched. Colouration. — Upper shell black, with numerous, irregularly scattered, round, yellow spots. The plastron and lower margin of the carapace are black, with patches of faded yellow. Above, the head is black, with a few yellow spots in front and a larger spot, of a deeper yellow (orange) over the region of the ear. Lower surfaces of the limbs and the fleshy parts, pale salmon. Dimensions. — The following measurements represent an average-sized specimen : Length of Carapace 3£ inches. Width " 2l " Length of Plastron 3! Width, Flat Portion, Plastron 2\ Width of Head f Male specimens have a much longer tail than the other sex. The tail of a male individual with upper shell slightly under 4 inches long, shows a length of if inches; the tail of a female speci- men of the same length, is but f of an inch long. Distribution. — An abundant species in the Eastern States, ranging from Maine (inclusive) to northern North Carolina and westward to Indiana. Habits. — The familiar Spotted Turtle is one of the most aquatic species of its genus. It is common about ponds, marshes and small streams, where numerous specimens may be seen, sociably assembled on a floating log or other objects that pro- trude above the water, whence there is an undignified tumble 5° THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XVIII r GEOGRAPHIC TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys geographica An abundant species in the Ohio and the Mississippi valleys. The females are much the largest, having a shell about 10 inches lonj This terrapin is often sold in the eastern market; under the tit.e of "Slider" I LESUEUR'S TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys lesueurii By the high, serrated back, the peculiar head markings, and the absence of a reticulated pattern, this species is distinguished from the Geographic Terrapin. Common in the Mississippi Valley THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XIX DIAMOND BACK TERRAPIN, Malacoclcmmys paluslris. Adult DIAMOND BACK TERRAPIN, Malacoclemmys palustris DIAMOND BACK TERRAPIN, Malacoclcmmys palustris Voung; above Young ; beneath Greatly esteemed as an article of diet. Specimens with a slu-1! 8 inches long bring from $60 to $75 per dozen. The species frequents salt marshes of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts WOOD TURTLE, Clirlnptis insnilptus By a bill passed recently in the state of New York, this species is protected from capture and sale in the markets The Terrapins and dive for safety upon the slightest disturbance. The writer has found many specimens along brooks that here and there spread into thick grassy spots. It is in this water-grass that the turtles delight to hide, after feeding. The species always feeds under water and, in fact, appears to be unable to swallow unless the head is submerged. The food consists largely of dead fish and the larvae of aquatic insects. Captive specimens will eat the tender leaves of lettuce if these be thrown upon the surface of their tank. It therefore appears probable that they feed upon various water plants as well, while in a wild condition. MUHLEN BERG'S TURTLE Chelopus muhlenbergii, (Schweigger) Carapace very similar to that of the preceding, but nar- rower, and showing fine, concentric grooves on small specimens and young adults. Colouration. — Carapace black or dull brown, with dull yellowish or reddish markings in the centre of each of the larger shields. These markings look like the outlines of a drop of fluid that has fallen from some height and splashed irregularly in all directions. The plastron is black with yellow blotches. The head is black, with a large patch of brilliant orange- yellow on each temple. The higher and narrower carapace, the absence of yellow dots, and the presence of the large and brilliant orange blotches on the temples, at once distinguish this species from the Spotted Turtle. Dimensions. — Length of Carapace 4 inches. Width " 2| Length of Plastron 3^ Width, Flat Portion, Plastron ... if Length of Tail (Male) if Width of Head f Distribution. — Restricted to the southern portion of New York state, New Jersey generally, and eastern Pennsylvania. It is very rare in some localities and fairly abundant in others. The writer has captured several specimens on the palisades of the Hudson River and received several dozen specimens from Staten Island, New York. Habits. — In habits Muhlenberg's Turtle occupies a position The Terrapins midway between the spotted turtle and the wood terrapin — one quite aquatic; the other addicted to roaming over swampy areas. Mulenberg's Turtle is partial to clear, narrow streams, which spread at intervals, forming marshy patches. All of the specimens taken by the writer were discovered in the latter situations. When alarmed, the reptile makes for the water and endeavours to secrete itself in the aquatic Vegetation. Its movements are not very quick and it is readily captured. Un- like the spotted turtle it feeds as readily out of the water as it does beneath the surface. In this respect it appeals to the wood terrapin, and like that species feeds largely upon tender green food, insects and worms. As a captive it is hardy, taking chopped meat, earthworms, mealworms, lettuce and berries. THE WESTERN POND TURTLE Cbelopus marmoratus, (B. & G.) When fully mature this western species is about eight inches long. The general proportions and structure of the shell appeal to the spotted turtle, (C. guttatus). Young specimens have a single, blunt keel upon the centre of the carapace. This usually disappears altogether with maturity. Colouration. — Carapace, dark olive, brown or blackish. Each shield encloses an aggregation of yellow dots or dashes— if the latter these tend to radiate from the centre of the shield. The central portion of the shields of the plastron is yellow. These shields are bordered with black, particularly about the margin. The limbs are brown, closely spotted with black- sometimes yellow; the head is similarly marked. Dimensions. — Adult specimens are from six to eight inchr> long and quite smooth. Distribution. — This is the only fresh-water turtle of i he- Pacific Region — with the exception of a species in Lower Cali- fornia. It occurs commonly in ponds and rivers in Washington, Oregon and California, west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains. Habits. — Similar to the Eastern spotted turtle. It is quite aquatic and very shy; specimens are commonly seen sunning upon logs and rocks but drop into the water at the least alarm. These turtles often take the hooks of fresh-water fishermen. 52 The Terrapins THE WOOD TERRAPIN Chelopus insculptus, (Le Conte) Carapace with a strong keel ; each of the shields contains many concentric grooves, rising, one above the other, to an extent that produces a bulging formation. The entire carapace has a rough, chiseled aspect, hence the specific name — insculptus. On the rear margin the carapace is serrated. There is a deep notch at the rear of the plastron. Colouration. — The upper shell is dull brown, each plate marked with narrow and radiating yellow lines and spots. On the lower edge the carapace is yellow with large, black patches. The plastron is yellow, each plate containing a large patch of black. The fleshy parts, with the exception oj the top of the head and limbs, are bright brick red. Dimensions. — The measurements of an adult, female speci- men are given: Length of Carapace 6* inches. Width " 5i Length of Plastron 6^ Total Width of Plastron 4 Eight inches represents the length of a large specimen. Distribution. — The Northeastern United States, from Maine to Pennsylvania (inclusive) ; westward to Ohio. Habits. — The Wood Terrapin is not aquatic in habits, al- though it usually frequents damp places and can swim readily. It prowls in damp woods and swamps, feeding upon tender vege- tation, berries and insects. In the spring it is usually found about streams and at that time is often seen in the water. Captive specimens are fond of berries and lettuce. They will also devour chopped fish and the larvae of beetles, coming to the hand that feeds them and taking food from the fingers. S3 CHAPTER VI: THE BOX TURTLES GENERA EMYS AND CISTUDO Turtles with Divided, Hinged Plastrons — Descriptions of the Species — Their Habits. IN the consideration of the genera Emys and Cistudo, the student has passed, in the classification of the Chelonia, the strictly aquatic species, and is referred to the connecting links between the former and the true tortoises — terrestrial reptiles, of Testudo and allied genera. The structure and habits of the species of the present chapter afford admirable examples of transition, in the scale of evolution. The Box Turtles derive their popular name from the struc- ture of the plastron, which is attached to the carapace by an elas- tic, cartilaginous joint. The plastron is divided by a central hinge, which permits both the front and rear portions to be drawn against the lower surface of the carapace. Thus, in time of danger, the creature draws in the head and limbs and closes the shell in box-like fashion. The genus Emys is composed of but two species, one of which inhabits Europe and Asia and is very aquatic in habits. The other species, Blanding's Turtle, occurs in the United States, and although possessing fully webbed feet and being partial to the neighborhood of water, is given to the habit of wandering over swampy areas. The genus Cistudo is composed of five* North American species that are strictly terrestrial although several of these species display distinct traces of webs be- tween the toes, while others have feet like the true tor- toises. Thus we trace our way along the links of the chain, and can understand why the species of Cistudo, al- though quite terrestrial, cannot properly be termed tortoises, as their structure demonstrates that they are more closely allied to the turtles. * A sixth species occurs in Mexico — C. mexicana. It has three claws on the hind foot. 54 The Box Turtles Following is a key to aid in the identification of the North American Box Turtles: I. Feet fully webbed. Carapace elongated and globular. Genus Emys. Black, with numerous yellow dots. BLANDING'S TURTLE, "SEMI-BOX" TURTLE, E. Uandingii. Distribution. — Central States; eastward to New England States. II. Feet club-shaped, or sparsely webbed. Carapace short and globular. Genus Cistudo. a. Hind foot with four claws. Carapace without a keel. Brown or black with yellow, radiating spots. PAINTED BOX TURTLE, C. Omata. Distribution. — Central States to the Rockies; south into Mexico. Carapace with a keel. Brown or black with ir- regular, yellow spots. COMMON BOX TURTLE, C. Carolina. Distribution. — Eastern United States, north of Georgia. Carapace with a keel.* Brown or black, with yellow, radiating lines. LARGE BOX TURTLE, C. major. Distribution. — Georgia to the Rio Grande. b. Hind foot with three daws. Carapace like two preceding species. Olive, with obscure yellow markings. THREE-TOED BOX TURTLE, C. triungllis. Distribution. — Georgia to the Rio Grande; north- ward to Missouri. Carapace very high and globular — keeled. Brown or black, with greenish, radiating lines. BAUR'S BOX TURTLE, C. bauri. Distribution. — Southern Georgia and Florida. The "Semi-box" Turtles — Genus Emys: The two species of this genus are characterised by a rather long, globular shell. The plastron is attached to the upper shell by a cartilaginous joint. It is divided by a central hinge and both the front and rear portions are movable — the former to a considerable degree and the latter but slightly so; thus the popular title, "semi-box" turtles. The species of Emys are aquatic, living about ponds and rivers, where they bask upon derelict timber and plunge into * The largest species of the genus. 55 The Box Turtles the water at the slightest alarm. Their feet are broadly webbed. Although the two species of this genus are widely separated in distribution — one occurring over a vast area comprising Europe, Asia and northern Africa, and the other inhabiting the central and eastern portions of the United States, they are remarkably similar in structure and colouration, though the Old World species is considerably the smaller. It is the common Pond Turtle of Europe, Emys lutaria (obicularis). A description of the North American species is given: BLANDING'S TURTLE; THE "SEMI-BOX" TURTLE Emys blandingn, (Holbrook) The shape of the upper shell is higher (globular) and longer than with the other water turtles. Except with very young specimens the shell is smooth. The general structure of the plastron is much like that of the typical box turtles, although the rear half closes but partially and is bluntly notched. Both front and hind feet are broadly webbed, as with the typical pond turtles. The head is cylindrical, with sharply notched upper mandible, and the neck is very long. Colouration. — Upper shell black, with numerous pale yellow or whitish spots. The plastron is yellow in the centre, with large black blotches about the pale area. Above, the head is black, with many yellow dots. The chin and throat are bright, immaculate yellow. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a mature specimen, from North Judson, Indiana: Length of Carapace .... 7! inches Width - .... 5 Length of Plastron • • 7$ Length of Front Lobe 3} Width at Hinge 4 Height of Combined Shell 2$ '' Distribution. — Blanding's Turtle appears to attain a centre of abundance in Indiana, thence it occurs in lesser numbers in Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio and on the north shores of the Great Lakes in Canada. Eastward X TURTLE, Cislitdo ornal.i A typii al representative of its gemis. The plastron lias a central hinge. Both lobes close tightly in time of clanger This spciies ranges from the Mississippi Valley to the Kmkics COMMdV !!<>X TURTLE. Ci^tu,l» ,-,m>!in,i Inhabits the Eastern States. Note the specimen on the left having the lobes of the plastron completely closed The Box Turtles THE THREE-TOED BOX TURTLE Cistudo triunguis, (Agassiz) In the general form of the carapace, this species is pre- cisely like the Common Box Turtle, from which it differs in pos- sessing but three claws on the hind foot, and the extreme nar- rowness of that extremity. Colouration. — The colouration of the upper shell of the majority of specimens is dull olive, with obscure, yellowish markings. Some specimens are darker and show yellow mark- ings that appeal strongly to C. Carolina. The head is generally brownish, with but obscure markings. Distribution. — Georgia and Florida westward to the Rio Grande; in the Mississippi Valley this species extends north- ward into Missouri. BAUR'S BOX TURTLE; FLORIDA BOX TURTLE Cistudo bauri, (Taylor) Like the preceding species, this box turtle is characterised by three claws on the hind foot. The shell is very high and narrow — considerably more globular than that of the preceding species. There is a distinct keel on the central portion of the carapace, and but a slight tendency to flare upwards on the rear margin. Colouration. — In its general colouration, this turtle appears to be quite distinct. The carapace is dark brown, with many narrow, greenish, or greenish-yellow radiating lines. With the greater number of specimens the plastron is immaculate, greenish-yellow. The head markings are fairly constant and distinct. Male specimens have the head dark brown or black, with the exception of the mandibles, which are yellowish, and an indistinct band, extending from behind the eye to the neck. This pale shade on the mandibles is fre- quently absent from female specimens, although the throat is speckled with a pale hue and several indistinct and broken bands appear on the head. The young are strongly marked, having vivid, sharply delineated, radiating lines. Combine these markings with an extremely high carapace and the make-up is markedly grotesque. 63 The Box Turtles Dimensions. — The measurements given are of a specimen taken in Marion County, Florida: Height of Combined Shell 2| inches Length of Carapace 5^ Width of 3f Length of Plastron, open 5} Width of Head ij Distribution. — Southern Georgia and Florida. Habits. — This box turtle frequents the pine barrens. In habits it resembles the common species. Captive specimens are very hardy and live for indefinite periods. '4 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXII f • THREE-TOED BOX TURTLE, Cistudo triunguis Closely allied to C. Carolina, from which it differs in having only three claws on the hind foot. Markings on the shell are usually obscure i BAUR'S BOX TURTLE, Cisludo banri Confined to Georgia and Florida where it inhabits the dry pine woods. The close-set, radiating bands on the upper shell are distinctly greenish t k. = x .£ 'rt S | O to a 1 .•3 3 XI -3 — 5 a 5 3 - y> H 2 -a a a .9 CHAPTER VII: THE TORTOISES Strictly Terrestrial Chelonians. Represented in North America by Three Species THE greater number of the true Tortoises inhabit the Old World. They comprise four very closely allied genera. The largest genus is Testudo, which is made up of about thirty-eight species. All of the New World species belong to this genus. Three occur in North America proper (in the extreme southern portions of the United States); three inhabit Mexico, Central America and northern South America, and a number are con- fined to the Galapagos Islands. The latter are huge tortoises, whose generations are supposed to have survived the Age of Giant Reptiles. The Tortoises are easily distinguished from the turtles, by the club-shaped feet of the former, in place of the webbed feet of the latter, and the high, dome-like shell. The skin is dry and wrinkled. Their method of placing the hind feet, when walking, and the peculiar formation of these appendages, at once suggest (in miniature) the feet of an elephant. All of the Tortoises are strictly terrestrial and if forcibly thrown into water, are clumsy and almost helpless. A large num- ber of species frequent arid situations — some, the deserts proper. Many dig deep burrows, in which they retire during the great heat of mid-day. The larger part of the food of these creatures consists of vegetation and fruit. The three species of Tortoises inhabiting the United States are remarkably similar in colouration, all being of a dull, brown hue. They evince similar habits in selecting dry, barren areas, and digging long burrows in which to shelter. A key to assist in their identification is given: A. Shell much longer than wide. Some greatly enlarged scales on inner surface of fore- arm. Front lobe of plastron bent abruptly upward. GOPHER TORTOISE, Testudo polyphemus. 65 The Tortoises Distribution. — South Carolina to Florida; west- ward to western Texas. No enlarged scales on inner surface of forearm. Front lobe of plastron but slightly directed upward. AGASSIZ'S TORTOISE, Testudo aggassifi. Distribution. — Deserts of Arizona and southern California. B. Shell nearly as wide as long. Front lobe of plastron nearly straight. BERLANDIER'S TORTOISE, Testudo berlandieri. Distribution. — Southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. Detailed descriptions of these species follow: THE GOPHER TORTOISE Testudo polyphemus, (Daudin) Size large. Shell rather high, but flattened on the top; bluntly rounded at front and rear. Upper surface quite smooth with old individuals, but showing many sharp, concentric grooves in the shields of young specimens. The head is blunt and rounded ; the tail is very short. The plastron is thick and heavy, the rear portion notched, the front projecting beyond the edge of the carapace in the shape of a thick and narrow process, which is bent sharply upward, owing to the upward slant of the front lobe of the plastron. The front portions of the forelimbs are covered with large and thick scaly plates. The terminal joint of the limb is flat and along the margin are very large, horn-like scales; at the bend of the limb there is one of these spines considerably more developed than the others; it is usually attended by several spines irreg- ularly larger than those of the marginal row. The hind limbs are covered with a finer scalation and resemble, in miniature, the feet of an elephant. All four feet possess very stout, blunt claws. The general make-up is as strongly suggestive of a ter- restrial life, as that of a flat-shelled, web-footed turtle points toward an aquatic existence. Colouration. — The shell of the adult specimen is dull brown, perfectly uniform in colour with those individuals that possess smoothly-worn shells, but with obscure, dull yellow blotches in the centres of the shields (one in each shield) on younger specimens. These blotches may be intensified by moistening 66 The Tortoises the carapace. They are pronounced on very young specimens. The plastron is uniform, dull yellow. The skin of the limbs is a dull brown or gray; that of the head is darker. The eyes are dark and bead-like. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of an adult, female specimen, from Marion County, Florida: Length of Carapace 1 1 \ inches Width of 8 Length of Plastron 1 1 £ Width of 7^ Width of Forearm 2 WidthofHead 2 The weight of a specimen showing the preceding dimensions — these representing one of fairly large size — would be about nine pounds. From the measurements, it will be seen that the length of the shell is considerably in excess of the width. This character is important in distinguishing the species from Berlandier's Tortoise, which extends into the former's habitat, in the western portion. Distribution. — South Carolina to Florida (including both states) and westward into western Texas. Habits. — In this reptile we have a typical example of the true tortoise — a terrestrial, slow-going, herbivorous, and, in proportion to its size, wonderfully strong creature. While lacking in agility as compared with the turtles, the Tortoises exhibit considerably more intelligence than the former. The Gopher Tortoise is most abundant in dry, sandy areas, where it burrows long tunnels in which to retreat. The writer made several trips into areas frequented by these reptiles. One region in particular, he well remembers. It was a great, barren stretch of sandy country in Hampton County, South Carolina. This region was known as the "sand hills" and was quite useless for agricultural pur- poses. Over this gently undulating waste was scattered a sparse growth of scrub oak, wire grass, and isolated, stunted weeds. During the middle of the day, the heat upon this miniature desert was almost unendurable for a man. At such times the Tortoises were usually secreted in their burrows. They were found prowling during the very early morning, or on cloudy days. Their burrows were quite numerous. Eight 67 Th« Tortoises or ten would frequently be counted within a radius of one hun- dred feet. The location cf a burrow is easily noted by the mound of sand that has been thrown to the surface. From the height and diameter of this mound, the depth of the burrow may be estimated. On these "sand hills," but three or four inches of the surface is dry and shifting; beneath this slight depth, the sand is damp and well packed. Through the damp strata, the Tortoise extends its burrow in a gentle slope from the sur- face, and, curiously enough, in the exact shape of a transverse section of the creature's shell. The footprints of the Tortoises are readily followed, and by this method a number of specimens were captured. If a Tortoise has not emerged from its burrow since the night pre- ceding, the fact is made evident by ambitious spiders, which daily spin their webs over the mouths of the shafts. Several of the burrows were measured by running a slender pole into their depth, and were found to extend, in a gently sloping down- ward direction, for a distance of fourteen feet and over. Re- cently, investigations have been made of the homes of these creatures and energetic digging was rewarded with results at least interesting to the entomologist, for several species of beetles, belonging to a family popularly known as "rolling beetles," or "tumble bugs" were found living upon the excreta of the tortoises, and, strange to explain, these beetles proved to be a species entirely new to science. It has since been demonstrated that they inhabit only the burrows of this species of tortoise. In captivity the Gopher Tortoise is hardy and thrives for an indefinite number of years if given the proper care. Captive specimens are fond of such tender vegetables as lettuce and celery; they take all kinds of fruit voraciously and will also eat raw meat. They soon learn to recognise the one who feeds them and take dainty morsels from the fingers without signs of fear. Considerable warmth, and absolutely dry quarters are the most important factors in keeping these reptiles in good health. Without sufficient warmth (from 75 to 85 degrees Fahr.) they will not feed, and the least bit of dampness brings on symptoms that resemble an ordinary cold, when they gradually become weak and die. They display little inclination to burrow and hide, in captivity. 68 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXIV DESERT TORTOISE, Testudo agassizii Inhabits the deserts of the southwestern United States PLASTRON OF THE DESERT TORTOISE, Testudo agassizii THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXV 1 L UKRLANDIER'S TORTOISE, Testudo berlanditri Owing to its short and broad shell — the length and breadth being very similar — this species is unique among the tortoises PLASTRON OF BERLANDIER'S TORTOISE. Testudo bcrlandicri The Tortoises This reptile buries its eggs in the sand in a situation exposed to the full rays of the sun. During the breeding season, the males utter a short, rasping call, repeated at intervals of about two seconds apart. AGASSIZ'S TORTOISE Testudo agassi^i, (Cooper) In general outlines, size and in colouration, this species is very similar to the preceding. The enlarged scales or spines on the forearm that are so noticeable with the preceding tortoise, are absent from this species, the scales of the forearm being large and coarse, but of fairly uniform size. The head is narrower and the front lobe of the plastron slopes but gradually upward in place of the abrupt, upward inclination to be noted with the Gopher Tortoise. Dimensions. — The measurements of a fair-sized specimen from the desert south of Phoenix, Arizona, are given: Length oi" Carapace 9^ inches Width of " 7 Height of 41 Length of Plastron o£ Widthof 6 Width of Head ij Width of Forearm if These measurements show much the same conformation as the preceding species — the considerably greater length over the width of the shell. By this character, the two species con- sidered differ from Berlandier's Tortoise. Distribution. — Deserts of Arizona and southern California. Habits. — The writer's specimens have exhibited considerable intelligence, becoming exceedingly tame within a few days after their arrival from the deserts. They learn to take food from the hand and appear to possess actual affection. Two specimens, at the time of writing, have the liberty of the writer's room. They insist upon crawling over and about his feet and when desiring to rest, often crawl under his chair, where they stretch their limbs backwards, in alligator-like fashion, out- stretch the head and neck to the fullest extent, when their dark, beady eyes peer about curiously without an intimation of fear. Tney have regular trails about the floor, which they follow for 69 The Tortoises hours, seldom deviating an inch, this way or the other from imaginary lines, though daily, they appear to change the routine of their marching. On one day the larger specimen traversed the centre of the room in circular fashion. In the centre of the circle, which measured about eight feet in diameter, was a small table. Around this object the tireless reptile continued its seemingly aimless journey for hours, its bluntly-clawed feet clicking regularly upon the hard-wood floor. On another occasion the writer dropped a small book and neglecting to imme- diately pick it up, was attracted to it a moment later by hear- ing one of the tortoises crawl over it. A minute later, the tor- toise recrossed the book. When a third time the writer's at- tention was called to this sound, he watched the creature. It had changed its previous line of march to a straight course, up and down the room, which trail led directly over the book— and this was clambered over with some effort. Fourteen times the eccentric reptile stepped the length of the room in a straight path, turned deliberately at each end and on its return clambered over the book, which lay in a well cleared area. The book was removed and developments awaited. When the tortoise re- turned and reached the spot where the book had been, it paused in what appeared to be deep thought, then continued as before and for half an hour longer marched up and down, when it re- turned to its favourite corner (near the neater) to sleep. What reason the reptile has for these peculiar promenades, the writer is unable to guess. Certain it is that these creatures pace over certain areas with the regularity and persistence of caged cat animals. Like the other species of tortoises inhabiting the United States, this reptile walks upon the claws only, of the front feet, while the hind feet are planted flat, exactly like the feet of an elephant. It is by no means sluggish in its actions, but its activity depends upon warmth. In a temperature of from 85 to 95 degrees Fahr., it can get over the ground as fast as a man at a slow walk. Unless kept very warm and dry, it never dis- plays such vivacity. If these desert creatures be placed in damp quarters, though the temperature be high, they cease feeding and die within a few weeks. The writer's specimens are very fond of lettuce, celery, berries and bananas. They also eat clover and begin by picking out the blossoms. 70 The Tortoises BERLANDIER'S TORTOISE Testudo berlandieri, ( Agassi z) This species is very distinct from the two preceding ones, owing to its very broad and high carapace, which produces a very globular aspect. While the upper jaw of the two former species is notched, this tortoise has a book on the upper mandible. The shell is nearly as broad as long and is proportionately high and globular. Compared with the preceding species the forelimbs are narrower and the head smaller. The front lobe of the plastron, which in front extends beyond the margin of the upper shell, terminates in a narrower, deeply notched pro- cess and is but slightly directed upward. Colouration. — Dull brown, the centres of the shields yellow- ish though this character becomes obscure with age. The plas- tron is dull yellow. The fleshy parts of this tortoise, particu- larly the hind limbs, are paler than with the two preceding species. Dimensions. — The measurements are of a rather small specimen, from Brownsville, Texas: Length of Carapace 6 inches. Widthof " 5f Height of 3i Length of Plastron 6J Width of Plastron 4J Width of Forearm f WidthofHead ii Distribution. — Southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. Habits. — Much like the preceding species. As the writer looks back upon his general experience with living reptiles of all the orders, he considers the various species of tortoises that have come under his observation to have dis- played the most marked symptoms of intelligence. Among all reptiles they are the most docile, and even with the huge species from the Galapagos Islands and their allies from the Aldabra Islands, which creatures have power enough in their great jaws to sever a man's hand at the wrist, we find the same docility, combined with an intellect that approaches the mental capacity of warm-blooded creatures. CHAPTER VIII: THE SOFT-SHELLED TURTLES GENUS TRIONYX Strongly Characteristic Chelonians, with a Soft, Leathery Shell Classification. — The family Trionychida is composed of about twenty-seven species embraced within six genera. A few species inhabit North America; the majority occur in south- ern Asia and the East Indies; several species inhabit Africa. The largest genus is Trionyx. All of the North American species belong to this genus; the other species inhabit both Asia and Africa. Structure. — From all of the other chelonians the Soft-shelled Turtles are strikingly distinct. The shell is exceedingly flat and in its outline is either bluntly oval or almost circular. Lack- ing the hard shields of other turtles, the carapace and the plas- tron are soft and leathery: the former bends freely at the edges, and droops, like a flap, over the orifice through which the head and neck are withdrawn in time of danger. The neck of the Soft-shelled Turtle is very long, the head is narrow and the snout is provided with a slender proboscis, at once imparting a characteristic aspect. While the general appearance of these creatures is fleshy and inoffensive, and the jaws are provided with lip-like folds of skin, the latter cover powerful and keen-edged mandibles and these reptiles bite with the energy of the snapping turtles. The head and neck are completely retractile. As the species are very aquatic, the feet are broad and extensively webbed. General Habits. — All of the Soft-shelled Turtles inhabit rivers, ponds and lakes with a soft, muddy bottom. They seldom or never leave the water unless to deposit their eggs— a short distance above the waterside. These reptiles frequently take the hooks of fishermen. They are uniformly agile and vicious; large individuals are dangerous. In the areas inhabited by these turtles in the United States, they are commonly called the ' flap-jack tur- 72 The Soft-shelled Turtles ties." The title is a harsh one, but it conveys the right impression of their structure, as removed from the water they present a ludicrous impression of large and ani- mated pancakes. Their progress under such conditions is clumsy and the soft plastron becomes bruised and lacerated on a hard, rough surface. A key to the North American species is given:* A. Front margin of carapace with conical tubercles. Carapace brown or olive, with dull blotches or black rings. Two pale bands on bead, forking a sbort distance in front of eyes. SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, T. ferOX. Distribution. — Georgia to Florida; westward to Louisiana. Carapace olive, with numerous black rings. Two pale bands on bead, forking at base of proboscis. SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, T. Spinifcr. Distribution. — Central and northern tributaries of the Mississippi and St. Lawrence Rivers. B. Front margin of carapace smooth. Carapace brown or olive, unicolour or with obscure, line-like blotches. Head markings obscure, but forking at base of proboscis. BROWN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, T. mutlCUS. Distribution. — Similar to T. spinifer. Carapace olive, usually with numerous black dots. Head bands uniting a short distance in front of eyes. EMORY'S SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, T. emoryi. Distribution. — Tributaries of the Rio Grande River. The markings on the carapace are usually lacking on old individuals of all the species. The descriptions of these turtles, when dealing with struc- tural characters alone are difficult problems for the beginner. The colouration of the carapace cannot be relied upon owing to the fading of the markings on old specimens, as explained, * Two alleged species are excluded. These are Trionyx asper and T. nuchalis, both of Agassiz. The range of the former has been given as 'The Mississippi" — the latter as occurring in the Cumberland and the Tennessee Rivers. The writer has been imable to examine specimens of either and is not convinced as to their standing as full species. Both appear to be related to T. mutica. 73 The Soft-shelled Turtles but the head markings are important. As but four species are to be described, and these may be separated, as seen by the key, into two groups, according to the structure of the carapace, the descriptions may be concise, and identifications should be made readily. THE SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE Trionyx jerox, (Schweigger) Largest of the North American species; attains a length (of shell) of 1 8 inches and a weight of about 30 pounds. The carapace is not much longer than broad; on the front margin is a row of conical tubercles; these are but little developed on young specimens. When the animal is out of the water, the edges of the carapace droop about it. The central portions are much harder, as the skeleton — the ribs and vertebrae, lies close to the surface; the outlines of these bones may be detected on very old or thin examples. The tail is very thick and moderately long, with the vent situated near the tip. When the head and front limbs are withdrawn, the forward, thin flap of the carapace, closes against the plastron; the hind limbs are unprotected. Colouration. — Perfectly adult specimens have a uniform, dull brown carapace. The head is brown, with very indistinct pale bands, but these may be seen to join immediately in front of the eyes. The plastron is immaculate white. Specimens not fully grown have an olive or pale brown carapace, marked with dull, black spots, or dots, disposed in rings. On each side of the head and neck is a yellowish band; this extends forward through the eye, and unites with its fellow on the top of the head a short distance in front of the eyes. The character evinced by these bands is important in distinguishing the species from the Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle, on the top of the head of which, the bands unite way forward — at the base of the proboscis. Very young specimens are gaily coloured. Dimensions. — The writer's largest specimen had a carapace 18 inches long and 15^ inches wide. It weighed 29 pounds, and was captured in an inlet of the Indian River, Florida. Distribution. — Georgia and southward throughout Florida; westward through Louisiana — in rivers and ponds with a muddy bottom; often in brackish water. The species is edible and 74 The Soft-shelled Turtles sold in considerable quantities in the markets of both the South and the North. Habits of ike Soft-swelled Turtle Old logs, protruding a moist and slimy surface a few inches from the water, sometimes tempt these creatures from the ele- ment for which they are specially provided. In such situations they lie taking a sun-bath, with limbs withdrawn beneath their flabby "shells" and their long necks stretched to the fullest extent, imparting the idea of as many snakes, emerging from under flat stones. At the least alarm they scramble frantically for the water, but upon reaching it their clumsy movements are instantly transformed. Against the resisting surface, the broad, fin-like feet take great purchase and the frightened rep- tiles disappear with almost the agility of a scurrying school of fishes. While displaying the same habits as most reptiles — the flight for shelter if the coast be clear — the soft-shelled turtle at bay is one of the most vicious of cold-blooded creatures: moreover, the knife-like edges of the jaws of large individuals are formidable weapnos, capable of badly lacerating a man's fingers, or possibly severing a finger if seized at the joint. The soft-shelled turtle darts at the offending object with the rapidity of the serpent's stroke. This vicious nature has elicited for the animal, in many parts of the South, the title of "soft-shelled snapping turtle." It frequently takes the hooks of the fisher- men and in its frenzy to escape is always an object to prompt cautious manipulation. The food of the soft-shelled turtle is varied. It is among the worst enemies of fish, frogs and even young fowl. Fresh- water mollusca are devoured in large quantities, particularly by the larger individuals. During the early summer, the female leaves the water to seek a sandy spot exposed to the glare of the sun. Once a suit- able place is found she scoops away the sand and burrows into it to the depth of three or four inches until she is completely covered and hidden, with the exception of a small opening through which she pokes her tubular snout. Here she remains for some days, until all the eggs have been deposited, usually 75 The Soft-shelled Turtles to the number of several dozen, when she crawls from the burrow in a fashion that leaves the eggs covered and makes her way back to the water. The eggs are white and perfectly spherical; the shells are hard and brittle, but very thin. The diameter of an egg of average size is i£ inches, and looks much like the egg of the common snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina). See illustration. In captivity, the soft-shelled turtle will live for years, if provided with a deep tank and means of occasionally crawling from the water. The resting places should be perfectly smooth or the reptiles bruise the tender plastron causing sores to develop which ultimately result in the animal's death. Hence rock- work or concrete should not be used. Old, water-soaked logs or pieces of bark, fastened in such positions that they slope very gradually from the water, form the best resting places. The bottom of the tank should be covered, for three inches or more, with fine sand, as in this, the turtles will burrow and remain for some time beneath the surface. They should be fed chopped fish, or small minnows, raw beef and earthworms. It is always advisable to procure young, or half-grown specimens. They are not alone brighter in colouration, but appear more hardy. As captives, the writer has had admirable opportunities of studying the species. Some large specimens — about fifteen inches in length of shell, were placed in a tank twenty feet long and eight feet wide. On one side of this capacious basin was a slanting runway, but during the several months that the turtles were kept here, they spent their entire time in the water, which was about five feet deep. When undisturbed their swimming movements were very deliberate and graceful, recalling the actions of the marine turtles. After crawling about the bottom of the tank for a time, a specimen would slowly rear itself upon the hind feet, and then, with a single sweep of the front limbs, rise to the surface, where it floated about with the slender tip of the snout protruding from the water. If alarmed, while in this position, all signs of grace disappear. Working the broad, paddle-like feet in alternation, he would dart through the water in lively fashion to seek a dark corner and there to hide. Every three days, each of these turtles was given a fair-sized shad. It was devoured by a series of clean-cut bites, the sharp jaws cutting the fish as readily as a cleaver. 76 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXVI EGGS OF TRIONYX SPINIFER Owing to their spherical form, the eggs are much like those of the snapping turtles HEAD OF TRIONYX SPINIFER The fleshy lips cover keen-edged and strong mandibles L ! FRONT OF CARAPACE— SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx spinifer The spiny tubercles are only present on old specimens YOUNG OF THE SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx ferox The bright markings on the shell disappear with age — in fact, after the creature is a year old THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXVII SOUTHERN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Tritmyx /ma- in the rivers of Florida this species attains ;i weight of 30 pounds. A IMR specimen is dangerous to handle, as the head darts at an offending object with the quickness of a serpent's stroke BROWN SOFT-SHF.l.I.KIi 'I IK 111. 1 rinnyx muli.us Mature examples are uniform pale brown or olive, which Inn- admirably matches the muddy river-bottom and aids the . f.ilurr in • ilitaininK its prey The Soft-shelled Turtles THE SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE Trionyx spinifer, (Lesson) A smaller species than the preceding, but the general char- acters are very similar. The conical, spiny tubercles on the front margin of the carapace are very pronounced. Colouration. — Dull olive, with a narrow yellow border, internally margined with black.* There are numerous black rings scattered over the carapace — a character vividly apparent on young specimens, which are green. The plastron is immacu- late white. Head markings. — The head is olive — not brown as with the preceding species. On each side of the head, and the neck, is a yellow, black-bordered stripe, extending forward and through the eye thence uniting with its fellow at the base of the snout. The head-markings alone will immediately separate the species from the Southern soft-shelled turtle. The limbs are olive, spotted and marbled with black. Dimensions. — A mature, female specimen, taken at Quincy, Illinois, shows the following measurements: Length of Carapace 14 inches Width of 12 Length of Plastron 10 Length of Tail 3i Width of Head if " Width of Spread, Hind Foot 3i Weight 7l fts. Distribution.— An abundant species in the Central States. It inhabits the tributaries of the Mississippi River in the states of Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsyl- vania and western New York. It also occurs in the tributaries of the St. Lawrence River, the lakes of northern New York State, and has been taken as far east as Lake Champlain. Owing to the existence of the several canals in the upper part of New York State, avenues offering an extension of distri- bution have been taken advantage of by the soft-shelled turtles. Thus we may understand why occasional specimens are found in the Hudson River. The headquarters of this species should be given, however, as the Central States. Here the turtles are so numerous as to be a real nuisance to the angler. * Seen on all the species. 77 The Soft-shelled Turtles THE BROWN SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE; OR UNARMED SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE Trionyx muiicus, (Lesueur) From the two preceding species,* this soft-shelled turtle differs in the absence of spiny tubercles on the front margin of the carapace. It is also of smaller size and the head is pro- portionately narrower. Colouration. — The head markings are like the Spiny Soft- shelled Turtle — the bands uniting at the base of the proboscis ; on many specimens the head markings are very obscure. The carapace is brown or olive, and with but faint mark- ings. They may be in the shape of short, line-like spots, or dull blotches. Dimensions. — The smallest cf the North American species, seldom attaining a length of shell of over ten inches. The meas- urements of a specimen taken in the Mississippi River, near St. Louis, Mo., are given: Length of Carapace 6J inches Width of 6J Width of Head f Distribution. — Central and northern tributaries of the Mississippi River and tributaries of the St. Lawrence. The species is not so widely abundant as the Spiny Soft-shelled Turtle. EMORY'S SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE Trionyx emoryi, (Agassi z) Though this species is closely related to the Southeastern soft-shelled turtle, (T. jerox) there are no tubercles on the front margin of the carapace. The proboscis is rather short. Colouration. — Carapace olive, with the usual, pale margin. In place of the ring-like markings of the allied species, there are numerous black dots. The head markings appeal to those of jerox. The pale lines unite in front of the eyes, but they fuse into a pale, trian- * It must herewith be explained that the arrangement of the species is not according to technical classification, but in a fashion that will be most readily comprehended by the less advanced worker. In reality, T. muticus is most nearly allied to T. spinifcr and should thus follow it, while the same condition relates to T. fcrox and T. emoryi. 78 The Soft-shelled Turtles gular blotch, extending from between the eyes to the base of the proboscis. Dimensions. — The shell of an adult specimen is about twelve inches long. Distribution. — Tributaries of the Rio Grande River, in Texas and Mexico. THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXVIII F SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx spinijer The specimen figured is half-grown. At maturity the ring-like markings become quite obscure. Abundant in the Central States SPINY SOFT-SHELLED TURTLE, Trionyx spinifer The plastron is soft and easily lacerated if the turtle leaves the water to crawl over a hard, rough surface THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXIX THE HOME OF THE ALLIGATOR An inlet <>f the Savannah River, Hampton County, South Carolina The nest consists of a moun'l I GGS <>F THK AI.I.Ii; \I"U dead leave- ami twin-. It i- al»>ut eight fret in iliameter and two or three feet high. The eggs are well burieil. ilusely |>aike <*«—«• Glass Snakes) HELODERMATID^; -1 Heloderma i " (Beaded Lizards) (_ XANTUSIID^E | Xantusia 5 " TEIID^; ^ Cnemidophorus 8 " •• (Includes the Striped Lizards) [ 95 Classification FAMILY GENUS r EUCHIROTID/E •{ Euchirotes. (Two-footed Worm Lizards) (^ NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES Species Subterraneous AMPHISB^NID/E 1 Rhineura. (Worm Lizards) ( SCINCID/E (The Skinks) Eumeces . . Lygosoma (A limbless species) Total number of species: 97 A niella . .14 . i Mostly terrestrial Terrestrial Subterraneous CHAPTER XI: THE GECKOS FAMILIES GECKONID/^ AND EUBLEPHARID^ A Large Group of Granular- scaled Lizards, Represented by Four Species in North America Classification and Distribution. — The Geckos form a very large group of lizards. They are divided into three families and these comprise over fifty genera. The species are distributed throughout the semi-tropical and tropical portions of the globe. They abound, in varied form, in the tropical portions of the Old World, some frequenting the dense jungles, others living upon burning, desert wastes practically devoid of other signs of animal life. A vast majority of the species are nocturnal. Structure. — The Geckos have not the scaly aspect of mos; lizards. Their skin appears soft, like that of a toad; this is caused by their very minute scales. The eyes are usually large, with an elliptical pupil. With most of the species the toes are much flattened, or expanded in the form of adhesive disks, thus ena- bling the reptile to run up a smooth, perpendicular surface. The tail is characteristic in its thick, swollen outlines; it is easily separated from the body. Many of the tropical Geckos attain a large size — a foot or more. All of the North American species are diminutive. Two families of this group are represented in the United States — the Geckonidce and the Eublepharidce, by a total number of four species. The families are separated by a slight difference of the skeleton. The North American species may be recognized from other lizards by the flat, pointed head which is swollen at the temples, the minute scales of the body and the short, very thick tail. The usual length is from three to four inches. One species occurs in Florida; another is found from Texas to California and .two species inhabit the peninsula of Lower California. Following is a key to the four North American Geckos : 97 The Geckos FAMILY GECKONID/E A. Scales coarsely granular. Brownish yellow, with small, dark spots. REEF GECKO, Spbaerodactylus notaius. Distribution. — Key West, Florida; Cuba; Bahamas. B. Scales exceedingly small. *io — 12 rows of enlarged, separated, wart-like scales on the back and sides. Brownish yellow; 8 — 10 darker bands (transverse) on each side. TUBERCULAR GECKO, Phyllodactylus tuberculosus. Distribution. — Lower California. **No enlarged, tubercular scales. Gray; 5 broad, black cross-bands with pale centres. CAPE GECKO, Phyllodactylus unctus. Distribution. — Lower California. FAMILY EUBLEPHARID/E Brown, with pale yellow cross-bands or blotches. BANDED GECKO. Eublepbaris variegatus. Distribution. — Texas to California. The Genus Pbyllodactylus: Twenty-five species are con- tained within this genus. They occur in Lower California, Mexico, Central America and tropical South America, Africa and Australia. Following are details concerning the two species found in North America: THE TUBERCULAR GECKO; WARTY GECKO Pbyllodactylus tuberculosus, (Wiegmann) From the other North American Geckos this lizard may be told by the rows — loto 12 — of enlarged, separated, wart-like or tubercular scales, running lengthwise on the back and the sides; between these the scales are very minute. The toes are much flattened and expanded at the tips, the under sides of which form adhesive disks to aid the creature in running over smooth, upright surfaces. The eye is extremely large, with upright (elliptical) pupil. Colouration. — Pale, brownish yellow or reddish-yellow above, with eight to ten darker transverse bands on each side of the body; a dark brown streak on each side of the head passing 98 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXI In this work the length of a turtle's shell is the straight length from end to end- no/ following the curve The length of a lizard's head is from the tip of the snout to the rear margin of the ear opening The length of a serpent's head is from the tip of the snout to immediately behind the junction of the jaw bones METHODS OF MEASURING REPTILES THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXII SCALATION OF THI. IIK.\I>. SXAKl. A\li I.I/.ARD r., Rostral; j. »«., Intrrnasal; />. /., I'refrontal; /., Frontal; s. ».. Supniocular; />., Parietal; ii. I.. l'p|K-r Laliials; f>r. <>., 1'rroc ular; lnr., I.orcal; />. <>.. I'n^ti K ular; «., Xasal; /., Trni|Kiral; /. /.. Lower I.aliial>; /. />., Fnnito Parietal (The head of the serpent i> that ol tin- I "\ Snake, ( 'uliihrr -.ulfiinis; that of the lizard represents a Skink, Eumeeet nuinqurlintatus) The Geckos through the eye. The tail is ringed with a darker hue than that of the body. Lower surfaces white. Dimensions. — Total Length 4f inches. Length of Tail 2^ " Width of Head £ " Distribution. — Lower California, Mexico and Central America. THE CAPE GECKO Pbyllodactylus unctus, (Cope) The scalation of the body is uniformly small. As with the preceding species, the toes are much expanded at their tips and form adhesive climbing organs — "suckers." As the species is confined to the Cape Region of Lower California, where but one other gecko is found — the preceding — and that is distinctly different in scalation, no lengthy description of the present rep- tile is necessary. Colouration. — Gray above.with five broad, blackish cross-bands on the body, which are paler in their centres; tail also banded. A dark band on each side of the head, passing through the eye. Dimensions. — Similar to the preceding species. Distribution. — The Cape Region of Lower California. The Genus Sphczrodactylus: About twenty species are known. They inhabit southern Mexico, Central America, Colom- bia and the West Indies. One occurs in southern Florida. THE REEF GECKO Spbaerodactylus notatus, (Baird) A very small species, but with much coarser scalation than the preceding ones; the scales are keeled. Tail thick and short; limbs small and with expanded toes. Colouration. — Brownish yellow, with scattered, circular spots of reddish-brown; these spots fuse, on some specimens, producing dull bands, extending lengthwise; usually a central, dark marking on the head, becoming broader in the rear. Dimensions. — Total Length 2| inches. Length of Tail if Greatest Diameter -A- " WidthofHead 1 Length of Head f Length of Hind Limb J Length of Front Limb -^ 99 The Geckos Distribution. — Key West, Florida; the Bahama Islands; Cuba. The family Eublepbaridce: The members of this family are closely allied to the Geckonida, differing from the typical geckos only in superficial characters of the skeleton. There are seven species of the Eublepbarida, these comprising three genera. Most curious about the family is the distribution of the species. One inhabits the Southwestern United States; three are found in Central America, two in Southern Asia and the remaining species in Africa. Concerning this remarkable scattering of members of a small family, Boulenger remarks, in his Catalogue of the Lizards of the British Museum: "This extraordinary distribution seems to indicate that the few representatives of this small family are the remnants of some ancient, more gener- ally dispersed group; it nevertheless remains a matter of won- der how forms, now so widely separated, have retained so great a resemblance, not only in structure, but also in the pattern of colouration." A description of the only species occurring in North America proper, is given: THE BANDED GECKO Eublepbaris variegatus, (Baird) Small in size; the form is similar to the other small, North American geckos. Colouration. — This very pretty creature displays, among different individuals, considerable variation of pattern. The arrangement of the colours may be divided into two phases— banded and spotted. With the former, the ground colour is rich yellow, crossed by broad bands of chestnut brown. On the body, these bands terminate on the sides; they completely encircle the tail however, which is thus vividly ringed with the light and dark hues. The head is dark, the eyelids margined in yellow. The spotted form is brownish yellow, with small and irreg- ularly scattered, brown blotches. The eye-lids are bordered with yellow; there is a light spot on the snout and a row of yel- lowish spots on the upper jaw. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of an adult specimen from Eagle Pass, Texas: 100 The Geckos Total Length 3 inches. Length of Tail i £ Width of Body •& " Width of Head tV Distribution. — Appears to be restricted to Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. It is rather abundant. Habits. — Both the spotted and the banded forms occur in the same localities. The animal is rather nocturnal and may be found issuing from among loose stones or from cavities in the rocks about twilight. Its movements are fairly active, but seem slow when compared with the swifts and the "race- runners" or other lacertilians with long, powerful limbs. The food consists of small insects, carefully stalked, then taken by a rush. When caught, these creatures emit a faint, squealing sound, something like that produced by certain beetles (the "longhorns") when held in the fingers. A number of specimens from Tucson, Arizona, were very sluggish, unless disturbed, when they appeared quite anxious to bite one's fingers, turning the head upon the side and opening the mouth widely, which position would be maintained for about ten seconds. Several letters are at hand warning the writer of the very poisonous nature of this lizard. It seems that over a considerable portion of the distribution, the species is thought to be more dangerous than a poisonous serpent. This is a curious fallacy, for the lizard is in every way harmless. Its bright colours have possibly excited the idea of venomous properties. 101 CHAPTER XII: THE AMERICAN CHAMELEON GENUS ANOLIS The North American Representative of a Large, New World Genus of Lizards that are Remarkable in the Habit of Frequently Changing Their Colours THE American "Chameleons" are members of the family Iguanida and represent the genus Anolis, to the number of over a hundred species. They are in no way related to the true chame- leons (Chamaleontidce) of the Old World, but rival those lizards in the characteristic of frequently and completely changing the body hues — an involuntary process, mainly influenced by light and temperature. Anolis is a New World genus, distributed throughout Mexico, Central America, tropical South America and the West Indies. But one species occurs in the United States. With it, the trait of changing the body hues is most developed of any of the North American Iguanidce. THE AMERICAN CHAMELEON; ALLIGATOR LIZARD; FENCE LIZARD; "GREEN" LIZARD Anolis carolinensis, (Cuvier) A superficial glance at this lizard shows it to closely resemble the outlines of a young alligator — in miniature. The head is proportionately large and very distinct from the neck, but the tail is long, round and slender. From all other North American lizards — except the geckos —this species may be immediately told by the formation of four of the toes on each foot; these are expanded, flattened and form adhesive pads; they enable the animal to traverse smooth, vertical surfaces with the same facility as the geckos. The body is covered with minute scales, above and beneath; they are larger on the head and tail. On the top of the head is a ridge-like prominence of shape similar to a javelin head and 102 The American Chameleon pointing toward the snout. The skin of the body is rather loose and hangs in a fold at the throat; with male specimens, this fold is dilatable into a "fan," and when fully expanded shows a bright red skin between the scales separated by the distension. In proportion to the reptile's size, the limbs are long, par- ticularly the hind pair. They are more developed for jumping and climbing than for running over the ground. Compared with the diameter of the orbit, the eyes are very small; this condition is caused by the surrounding skin or eye-lids, giving the eyes an independent, rolling movement and, consequently, great scope of vision. Owing to the varying hues, no definite colour or pattern can be applied to the species. The colour varies according to the mood of the individual from different shades of brown into emerald green; during the darker phases, there is usually a pale, clouded band on the back. The colour changes are described under Habits. Dimensions. — The measurements of an adult male specimen are given; the female is smaller, with a narrower and more pointed head. Total Length 7i inches. Length of Tail 4! Length of Head f Width of Head & Length of Hind Limb if Distribution. — Principally, the coastal region of the south- eastern United States — in the northern portion of the range — from the Neuse River, in North Carolina, southward throughout Florida and westward to the Rio Grande, in Texas. Abundant in Mexico. Also found in Cuba, where it grows to a considerably larger size than in the United States. Habits. — The American Chameleon acquires its name from the trait of changing colour to a remarkable degree. In this respect it rivals the true -chameleons, cf Africa. The most com- mon hues of the Anolis are brown and green. It curiously dis- plays the latter brilliant hue quite persistently in connection with conditions that widely differ. When sleeping, it is invariably pale green, the abdomen immaculate white. When pug- naciously fighting with its fellows, the same bright hue appears. If badly frightened, the green soon suffuses the entire body. 103 The American Chameleon At other times, the lizard may be of a dark, rich brown. This is often the hue assumed in the brighest hours of sunlight. In collecting these lizards and placing them in wire-covered boxes the writer has always noted their change from various hues, prior to capture, to a scrambling collection of several dozen emerald green lizards. If the gauze cage be laid down for half an hour or so while the collector rests the lizards soon take on a brownish tinge, but as soon as the box is again carried about, and the occupants are shaken up and frightened, the brilliant colour appears among them all. During the early morning or as the afternoon wears away, the prevailing tints are slaty or yellowish. The change of colour is rapid. A dark brown example will fade to a pale leaf-green within three minutes time. Dur- ing the colour changes the varying hues are striking; the brown gives way to a beautiful, golden yellow; this, in turn may fade to slaty gray and a general peppering of white dots appear over the back. In describing these colour changes it is appropriate to cor- rect a widespread and incorrect idea; this is to the effect that the change of colour is influenced by the shade of the object on which the reptile rests. There is no relationship or influence be- tween the lizard's colours, and its surroundings. A brilliant green individual may often be seen resting upon a weather-stained fence rail, or a dark brown specimen hopping from one green leaf to another. The writer remembers an enterprising dealer who exhibited a number of these reptiles in a glass-fronted cage; the back of the cage was divided into four squares of vivid colour -yellow, red, green and blue. Continually annoyed by curious observers the lizards showed the brightest shades of green, but inconsistent with the dealer's idea, for they huddled together on the square of vermilion which was situated in the most secluded corner of the case. The change of colour is brought about principally through temperature and light and their influences on the creature's activity; also by anger, fear and sleep. The most repeatedly observed colour is the green of the sleeping reptile. When poorly fed and in an enervated condition the skin shows dark spots and blotches. At death, the body is usually green, with scattered patches of black. 104 The American Chameleon The males are provided with a peculiar throat pouch. This may be expanded at will, to the accompaniment of an emphatic nodding of the head. At best but an ornament and perfectly flat when extended, it is exhibited during times of love-making or previous to combats — and vicious indeed are the fights between rival males for an exceptionally desirable stretch of fence-rail; the fight is called off with the loss of a tail on one side or the other; with his writhing souvenir, the victor struts about for some time, repeatedly nodding his head and dilating the throat fan while his body glows in a resplendent tint of emerald. Strictly diurnal, the "Chameleon" appears with the rising of the sun, from where it has been sleeping; the resting place is generally a horizontal twig, well hidden among the leaves. The morning prowl is prompted by a hungry stomach. A large and tempting fly is stalked in the same fashion as a cat does a bird. Slinking forward, with body close to the bough, the lizard nears the victim, then quivers for the rush; there is a dash, with open jaws, and the prey is caught. Before the fly is swallowed the sharp little teeth are employed to masticate it. The Anolis confines its food entirely to insects. It will not eat earthworms, nor will the majority of small lizards. In captivity the "Chameleon" makes a pretty and amusing pet, soon learning to take food from one's fingers. Mealworms and flies are the favorite food; it will also take roaches. The sugar and water diet so often imposed upon these reptiles by kindly-intentioned but misinformed people, is only taken by the lizard to quench a killing thirst, for these little animals drink much and if deprived of water will rapidly weaken and die. Their method of drinking is to lap the drops of dew from vege- tation. The quarters of captive lizards should be sprinkled daily that the reptiles may drink in this manner; they do not readily find a dish of water. While it is agile and favoured by the adhesive foot pads that enable it to run over smooth surfaces, at various angles, this lizard is not nearly so difficult to capture, if a little strategy is employed, as the swifts (Sceloporus) or the race-runners (Cnemi- dophoms). Compared with those lacertilians, its gait is very tardy. 105 CHAPTER XIII: THE IGUANAS Large Species That May be Recognised by Their Fine Scalation and Spine-like Crest THE true Iguanas are represented in North America by two species that barely come within the limits of this work. One inhabits Lower California; the other extends northward from Mexico into southern Arizona. Distribution of the Iguanas. — The large and powerful lizards, comprising several genera and known collectively as Iguanas, occur in tropical South America, Central America, Mexico and the West Indies. Cyclura and Metopoceros are restricted to the West Indies; Conolophus and Amhlyrhynclms occur in the Galapagos Islands; the species of Ctenosaura inhabit Central America, Mexico and the extreme southwestern portion of the United States. The genus Iguana has the most extensive distribution, ranging from Mexico into Brazil. General Structure. — Most of the species are of very large size — some growing to a length of six feet. The body is heavily built, the head is large and blunt, with powerful jaws, and the tail is long. Most characteristic is the scalation of the body. The scales are minute, but upon the back is a crest of large, flat spines. The Spiny-tailed Iguanas — Genus Ctenosaura: Two species of this genus are the only Iguanas occurring in North America proper. The genus may be popularly defined by the structure of the tail. The appendage is covered with rings or whorls of large, spiny scales. As may be appreciated, such a scalation is really formidable and the tail is employed as an offensive weapon, in dealing quick, lashing blows. The feet are provided with long toes and strong claws and these lizards are very agile climbers, in fact, partially arboreal in habits. Ctenosaura is composed of six species. 106 The Iguanas Key to the North American Iguanas I. A row of upright spines on the back; tail with rings of large spines. Genus Ctenosaura. Si%e large — three to four feet. a. Crest extending a little more than two-thirds the length of the back. Brown, with blackish cross-bands. CAPE IGUANA, Ctenosaura bemilopba. Distribution. — Lower California. b. Crest extending to the rump. Black, above and beneath. BLACK IGUANA, Ctenosaura multispinis* Distribution. — Southern Arizona to Mexico and Central America. II. A row of flat, enlarged scales on back; tail with rings of small scales. Genus Dipsosaurus. Si%e small — about twelve inches. Pale brown, a net-work of darker brown. DESERT IGUANA, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. Distribution. — Deserts of the southwestern United States; Mexico. The Cape Iguana, Ctenosaura bemilopba, Cope. As this large species is confined to the Cape Region of Lower California, where it is the only reptile of its kind, it cannot be confused with other lizards. The spiny crest on the back extends but a little more than two-thirds the length of the body on male specimens, barely two-thirds on the female. The tail is covered with alternate rings of very large spiny scales, and small, smooth scales; on the top of the tail the spines are upright, forming a crest, though they are less developed than the spines on the side. Colouration. — Olive gray, or greenish above, with blackish crossbands on the forward portion of the body. Dimensions. — Total length, 4 feet; length of tail, 32 inches; greatest width of head, 3 inches. Distribution. — The Cape Region — Lower California. The Black Iguana, Ctenosaura multispinis, Cope. General structure similar to the Cape Iguana, but the spiny crest extends farther back — to the rump. Colouration. — Usually uniform black, above and beneath. Four specimens received by the writer were of an intense, jet- 107 The Iguanas black; the crest of spines and the ringed, thorny tail, as polished as ivory. Occasional specimens are blotched with brown. Young individuals are often bright green. Dimensions. — Like the preceding. (See measurements.) Distribution. — Extreme southern Arizona, to Central Amer- ica. Habits. — If cornered, a large, Spiny-tailed Iguana is a really dangerous creature. The brute's offensive powers are quite in keeping with its looks. Sombre in colouration, powerful of body, the head thick-set with swollen jowls, the eyes dark and keen with blood-red corners and, to add to the general fighting aspect, the formidable tail; this appendage bristles with coarse spines. If the creature has a chance to escape, it always flees from man. It may be surprised while basking in the open, when it rushes for cover; most frequently it is seen stretched upon a fallen tree, or on a low branch, and then the escape is precip- itous— utterly without dignity; the reptile actually hurls itself to the ground and tears through the undergrowth with a crash- ing that might be produced by a frightened cow. If the lizard is cornered, it flashes into a state of viciousness that might stand off a well-trained dog. The tail is lashed from side to side and the powerful jaws are open and ready to seize the enemy in a bulldog grip. As captives, these lizards require a great amount of sunshine and very large cages. They are omnivorous feeders and are fond of tender vegetables, such as lettuce and celery tops; they will also eat various fruits, but among these prefer bananas. Most specimens feed voraciously upon young birds and small rodents, and are surprisingly agile in catching the prey. It is shaken to death, then quickly swallowed entire. In a wild state, the Iguanas are undoubtedly carnivorous to a great extent. In Mexico, Central America and South America, Iguanas are brought to the market in large numbers. They are regarded as an excellent food and alleged to taste like chicken. The Genus Dipsosaurus: One species — probably a de- generate iguana — forms this genus. It is a desert reptile, oc- curring in the southwestern portion of the United States and in Mexico. In structural characters it seems to be closely allied 108 The Iguanas to the large, arboreal iguanas of Mexico and Central America. The general aspect and size appeal somewhat to the lizards of a succeeding genus — Crotaphytus. THE DESERT IGUANA; KEEL-BACKED LIZARD Dipsosaurus dorsalis, (Baird & Girard) The body is stout and rounded, with very long, gradually tapering tail. In proportion to the size of the body the head is very small; it is thick-set and rounded. On the centre of the back, from immediately behind the head and extending down the greater length of the tail, is a single row of enlarged scales; these are distinctly keeled. This char- acteristic scalation shows a close relationship to the typical iguanas. The general scalation of the body is fine and granular; the scales on the tail are larger than on the body, are keeled and arranged in ring-like series. Colouration. — Pale brown above, with wavy, parallel dark brown or black lines — running lengthwise; these lines tend to form a net-work or reticulate pattern, enclosing yellowish spots. The tail is generally yellowish, with dark, ring-like markings above. Pale and immaculate beneath. Dimensions. — An adult specimen from southern Arizona, was measured as follows: Total Length \\% inches. Length of Tail y£ Greatest Diameter i f Width of Head* £ Length of Head — ear to snout f Length of Hind Limb 2 £ Length of Front Limb if Distribution. — Desert regions of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The species occurs in Lower Cali- fornia, the desert regions of southern California and in the Colo- rado and Mojave Deserts of Arizona; it is also found in the Amargosa Desert, Nevada. Habits. — Like the other thick-bodied desert lizards, this species is largely herbivorous. It feeds upon buds, small flowers and tender leaves. Captive specimens will greedily eat the * Note the proportionately small head. 109 The Iguanas blossoms of red clover, swallowing each flower practically en- tire, after but superficial attempts at mastication. The tail of this lizard is very brittle and if the creature is picked up by that member, parts with it readily by a quick twist of the body. uc THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXIII -. REEF GECKO, Sphaerodactylus notatus The only true gecko found in the United States. Occurs near Key West, Florida BANDED GECKO, EuUepharis variegatus Represents the family Eublepharidae, which differs from the Geckonidae in the structure of the skull and in having functional eye-lids AMERICAN CHAMELEON, Anolis carolinensis Male with the throat fan extended THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXIV IGUANA, Cydura carin,it,i \ UVst Indian species, closely allied to the Iguanas that inhabit the extreme southwestern portion of the United State hi — I.KI KH'ANA, Dipstisaiirut Traces of a dor imw the relationship of this lizard to the larger Iguanas ni the tropics. It is mostly herbivorous CHAPTER XIV: THE GENERA SAUROMALUS AND CROTAPHYTUS Fine-scaled Representatives of the Iguanidce The Chuckawallas — Genus Sauromalus: Of the two species, one is little known; the other is a desert reptile and fairly com- mon in the southwestern portion of the United States. The Chuckawallas are very stout, with a fine, granular scalation, both above and beneath, and on the top of the head; the scales on the neck are spiny. One of these lizards attains a considerable size — two feet or more; the tail is short and blunt. Fully adult specimens are of a dull, uniform brown. Definition of the Species. Scales of the upper surface of neck much enlarged and spiny. Scales of the back terminating in a sharp point. Attains a maximum length of about two feet. ISLAND CHUCKAWALLA, Sauromdlus Mspidus, (Stej.) Distribution. — Has been found on Angel Island, Gulf of California. Scales of the upper surface of neck, small and granular. Scales of the back rounded. Attains a length of about fourteen inches. COMMON CHUCKAWALLA, Sauromalus ater, (Dumeril). Distribution. — Deserts of the Southwest. Following is a detailed description of the common species: THE CHUCKAWALLA Sauromalus ater, (Dumeril) The largest lizard of the southwestern desert region, with the exception of the Gila Monster (Heloderma). Body very broad; head proportionately large. Both pairs of limbs are stubby; the tail is thick, flattened (horizontally) and but slightly longer than the body. Colouration. — Mature individuals are practically uniform in 5auroma/us and Crot&phytus in colour, being dull brown, olive or black above; abdomen rusty red, dotted with black. The young are usually olive, marbled or spotted with black on the back; some are banded with reddish, this intermixed with yellow dots. The pattern is more pronounced on the tail. Dimensions. — The measurements given are from a specimen taken a few miles south of Phoenix, Arizona: Total Length 12 inches. Length of Fail 5 Width of Body 3 Width of Tail, at base i £ Width of Head \* Distribution. — Desert regions of the southwestern United States — southern Nevada and Utah, Arizona, eastern California, Lower California, and northern Sonora, Mexico. Habits. — Little is known about the habits of the Chuck- awalla or "Chuck-walla." It inhabits rocky places in the deserts. The single living specimen in the writer's collection lived but a few months. When sleeping it was dark brown, but as the sun shone upon the sand of its cage and it became more active the body hue grew much lighter — almost yellow. This lizard had a very poor appetite. It occasionally nibbled at tender leaves of lettuce and celery. Dissection of the stomachs of preserved specimens shows the Chuckawalla to be quite her- bivorous. The Genus Crotapbytus: The three species are confined to the southern United States and northern Mexico; they are of moderate size. Body stout, head large; tail very long, cylindrical and slen- der. Above and beneath, the scales are fine and granular. Top of the head covered with small, granular scales — larger than those of the body; scalation of the tail in narrow rings. Ear drum large; a fold of skin on the throat. Key to the Species I. Head very large; body short and stout. Pale, with numerous white or yellow dots; a double black collar on neck. COLLARED LIZARD, Crotapbytus colldris. 112 X X w < PH O O s r I -3 a G -B U D a u K THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXVI SAND LIZARD, Vma notata A desert species that differs in its peculiar pattern from other American lizards +£• • * •:•*••''.••' ZEHI<\ I \II.I.h 1,1/AKl). Callisaunu dracoHoides \Vhcn running, this desert SJXM irs carries llu- tail curled over tin- hack SpriTTF.P I.T7ARP, ffnlbrookia marulata A species of the sub-arid rejjions of the Central and Western States. It is a very swift runner, and feeds on small insects Sa.urom.alus and Crotaphytas Pale, with a yellow or white net-work (reticulate pattern) on body. Faint indications of a double black collar on neck. . . . No white dots on body. RETICULATED LIZARD, Crotaphytus reticulatus. II. Head of moderate size; body more elongated. Yellowish, with large, rounded, dark blotches; spaces spaces between the blotches dotted with red or yellow. LEOPARD LIZARD, Crotaphytus wisli^enii. Detailed descriptions: THE COLLARED LIZARD Crotaphytus collar is, (Tay) Body short and stout; head very large and distinct from the neck. Hind limbs long and powerful; much longer than the front pair and of a development to assist the animal in jumping. Colouration. — While the colours are variable, the double black collar is a strong distinguishing feature. The body colour may be yellowish, pale gray or bright green. Scattered over the back and the sides are numerous white or yellow dots; at the edge of the abdomen, these are often of a brick red. Behind the head are two, wide, jet-black bands, separated by a white or yellowish space — thus forming a double collar. The abdomen is greenish; the throat deep orange. With most female examples, the black collar is less pro- nounced than on the male; on some it is merely represented by narrow strips of black. Most of the females are gray, or clay colour. During the breeding season they are spotted with bright, brick red; at such times the males assume vivid tints of green or yellow. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of an adult male: Total Length 12 inches. Length of Tail 81 " Width of Body U " " Head it " Length of Front Limb if " Hind . . 3^ Distribution. — Generally distributed and abundant through- out the Western states from Arkansas and Missouri to eastern California. Southern Idaho seems to be the most northern portion of the range; southward, the species extends intoSonora "3 Sauromdlus and Crotaphyius and Chihuahua, Mexico. It is most abundant in dry, rocky districts; it teems on the sub-arid plains of western Texas. Habits. — Pugnacious, greedy and very active, this hand- some lizard is in many ways interesting. It is cannibalistic and will greedily devour fair-sized specimens of the spiny, horned lizards (Phrynosoma), though the diet is often varied with blos- soms and tender leaves. When alarmed it dashes away on its bind legs, in kangaroo fashion. As a captive, the Collared Lizard is bright and hardy. It delights in a bed of dry sand, heated by an all-day flood of sun- shine. Among examples of their kind, these lizards are peace- ful enough, but no smaller lizards are safe in a cage with them. They will greedily consume swifts, horned "toads" and even young snakes. Their method of eating at once suggests that of the frogs, as the mouth is capacious, and the food is tucked into it with the front feet, in frog-like fashion. It is surprising to. note the size of a lizard that one of these reptiles will swallow; it will engulf a swift that is longer than its head and body. One of the writer's specimens was found choked to death after it had tried to swallow a spiny swift (Sceloporus) that was nearly as big around as itself. The voracious animal had stuffed the head and shoulders of the prey into its mouth and down the throat, but there it became immovable, too large to go farther and too spiny to be ejected. Aside from the cannibalistic habits, the Collared Lizard is fond of small flowers. It will devour the blossoms of red clover and the dandelion. Insects form a portion of the diet and cap- tive lizards will eat grasshoppers, crickets and mealworms. If an avenue of escape be open, these lizards will invariably dart away when startled. The method of locomotion is curious. For several feet the reptile skims over the ground in normal fashion, but as it attains full speed the tail is sharply raised and the body rears upward in kangaroo fashion; thence the creature rushes off on its powerful hind limbs. In this position it may run for a hundred feet or more. If it encounters a hole or small gully, the body is pressed against the ground, the hind limbs fold like those of a frog and a long jump follows. When cornered, the lizard turns quickly, opens the mouth widely and discloses a cavernous, black throat. The jaws are strong enough to pro- duce a fair blood blister upon one's fingrr. 114 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXVII Copyright. 1907, l>y Doubleday, Page & Company COLLARED LIZARD, Crotaphytus collaris. A wonderfully active species of the sub-arid regions and the deserts proper. It often rears the body upward, running swijtly on the hind legs. Copyright, 1907. by Doubleday, n'§fe & Company LEOPARD LIZARD, Crotaphytus wislizenii. Similar in habits to the Collared Lizard. It is both herbivorous and cannibalistic, preying largely upon the grc d switts and horned "toads." Note protective colouration. Sa.uroma.lus and Crotaphytus The writer's specimens dug hollows in the sand, under flat, shelving stones. They retreated to these hiding places shortly before sunset and always remained in them on cloudy days. One of the largest females — u inches long — deposited 21 eggs, during the early part of August. The eggs were T7g- of an inch in diameter and f of an inch long; their covering was as thin and soft as paper. THE RETICULATED LIZARD Crotaphytus reticulatus, (Baird) Form very similar to that of the Collared Lizard; head large and very distinct from the neck. Colouration. — Yellowish brown or grayish; head, body, limbs and tail covered with a net-work of pale gray or yellow; there may be traces of the double collar, but this is usually absent. Dimensions. — Like the preceding. Distribution. — Texas. THE LEOPARD LIZARD Crotaphytus wisli^enii, (B. £ G.) Head much narrower than that of the preceding lizards. Body more elongated; tail very long and slender. Colouration. — Yellowish brown, with large, rounded, black or brown blotches on the body and limbs. Between these blotches are numerous brick-red dots; the blotches may be outlined with borders of dots. There are usually pale, narrow lines crossing the back; the tail is coarsely reticulated with light and dark hues. Throat barred with black. Dimensions. — Total Length 12 inches. Length of Tail 8* Width of Body f Width of Head H Length of Head. . . H Distribution. — The Great Basin. Occurs from eastern Oregon to northern Mexico. Most abundant in the desert re- gions of eastern California, Nevada and Arizona. Does not range as far east as the Collared Lizard; the distribution in the East does not appear to extend beyond New Mexico and extreme southwestern Texas. CHAPTER XV: THE SPOTTED LIZARDS ; ZEBRA- TAILED LIZARDS Small and Strictly Terrestrial Species of the Genera GALLIC SAURUS, UMA and HO LB ROOK I A THIS chapter embraces a number of small, ground lizards that live in dry and open places — the plains, sub-arid regions and the deserts. To match the pale sterile soil, their colours are light; the pattern of none is rich in hues, though some have the under side of the tail alternately barred with black and white and such species when running, carry the tail curled over the back, hence the popular title — the Zebra-tailed Lizards. In the colouration, Callisaurus is precisely like Holbrookia— yellowish or grayish above, with two rows of darker, angular blotches on the back, but these genera are separated by Uma, according to the structure. Outline of the Genera General Characters. — Body rather stout; tail of moderate length, scalation of the body and tail, above, fine and granular; abdomen covered with larger, rounded scales. Top of the head with numerous rounded scales — not plates. Gray, yellowish or green, with two rows of angular blotches. Usually one or two ink-black spots on each side of the abdomen. Tail uniform white beneath, or barred with black. I. Ear Drum Exposed. Toes long, without spiny fringes. Genus Callisaurus. Distribution. — Deserts of the Southwest. Toes long, with spiny fringes. Genus Uma. Distribution. — Deserts of the Southwest. II. Ear Drum Concealed Under The Skin. Toes long, without spiny fringes. Distribution. — Central and Western States. Genus Holbrookia. The Genus Callisaurus: A single species is recognised. It is confined to the arid regions of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. 1x6 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XXXVIII Holbrookia propi,iqita and Callisaurus ilniconoidts. From above and beneath these small lizards appear very similar. The species of Holbrookia, however, may be immediately recognised by the absence of an ear-opening Collared Lizard, Crotaphytus collaris — ftinale. Note the narrow collar, as compared with the markings of a male specimen, on another plate Desert Iguana, Dipsosaurus dorsalis. The row of enlarged scales on the back represents the crest of the tropical iguanas STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS, Iguanidae X ^H X X X The Spotted Lizards; Zebra- tailed Lizards THE ZEBRA-TAILED LIZARD Callisaurus draconoides, (Blainville) Head small and flattened. Limbs very long; the hind leg applied forward reaches to or beyond the snout; tail flattened. Colouration. — Grayish, dotted with white; two rows of angular, or V-shaped blotches on the back, fusing into angular bands on the tail. Abdomen white, with a bluish patch on each side; each blue area contains two, sometimes three, ink-black bands. Lower surfaces of the tail of male specimens white, with black bars; the female lacks these bold markings, or they are but little evident. The colouration is much like that of the Texas Zebra-tailed Lizard, Holbrookia texana, but the present species may be easily told by the exposed ear drum — tympanum. Several varieties have been recognised — gabbii (Cope) and ventralis (Hallowell), but their varietal characters are not strik- ing enough to appeal to the student. It should be remembered that the ear drum at once separates this lizard from all the species of Holbrookia. Dimensions. — Total Length 5f inches. Length of Tail 2\ Widthof Body f Width of Head TV Length of Head TV Distribution. — Western Texas to California; Lower Cali- fornia; northern Mexico. Principally abundant in the desert regions of eastern California, Arizona, southern Nevada and southeastern Utah; in these areas it is the most common of the various species of lizards. Habits. — Like most of the terrestrial lizards this is a won- derfully active creature, running with such speed that the human eye can barely follow it. It usually curls the tail over the back when running, showing the vividly marked under-surface. Some- times it runs for a short distance on the hind feet, a habit al- ready explained in connection with the species of Crotaphytus. The food seems to consist partly of insects and of small blossoms and tender leaves. The Genus Uma: Four species have been named. All seem to be rare. The genus differs from Callisaurus in a peculiar 117 The Spotted Lizards; Zebra-tailed Lizards development of the feet. Along the inner and outer margin of most of the toes, is a fringe of flat spines; this character is seemingly Nature's provision to aid these lizards in rapidly traversing the desert sands; to assist in this arrangement, t In- lander portion of each claw is hollowed out — cup-like — and has sharp edges. The same development is found with some of Old World desert geckos. It is interesting to find such pro- nounced examples of adaptation, on exactly similar lines, in forms so far removed from one another both in classification and habitat. Similar conditions have been described under tlv head of the Horned Rattlesnake, Crotalus cerastes. Following is a key to the species of Uma, embracing some of the definitions of Cope, who named three of these lizards. I. Two black crescents on throat; a black spot on each side of abdomen. Blackish, covered with pale and perfectly round blotches, the borders nearly touching; in the centre of each disk is a black spot. Abdomen white, with a black spot on each side. Two black crescents on throat, their points directed forward. Length about 8 inches; head and body, 4 inches. ROUND-SPOTTED DESERT LIZARD, Uma SCOparia, Cope. Distribution. — Has been found near Tucson, Arizona. II. No black crescents on throat; a black spot on each side of abdomen. Brownish, with black, longitudinal lines; the brown between the dark bands often broken up into rounded blotches, each containing a reddish spot. A large, black spot on each side of the abdomen; throat with narrow, black, longitudinal lines. Length about 7^ inches. RED-SPOTTED DESERT LIZARD, Lima rnjopunctata, Cope. Distribution. — Deserts of southern California, south- western Arizona and Lower California. Colouration above, like U. scoparia. Abdomen white with a black spot on each side; chin and throat with a few blue or black spots. OCCELLATED DESERT LIZARD, Uma notata, Baird. Distribution. — Mohave Desert, Arizona. III. No black spots on abdomen, or black crescents on throat. Greenish, with darker spots. No black spots on the the abdomen; seven black spots on under surface of tail. COPE'S DESERT LIZARD, Uma inornata, Cope. Distribution. — Colorado Desert. 118 THE RFPTJLE BOOK PLATE XL PLATED LIZARD, Gerrhonotiis multicarinatus GLASS "SNAKE," Ophisaurus venlralis. A limbless member of the A nguida- GILA MONSTER, Hdodcrma suspectum STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS. Anguida: and Helodcrmatida ~? - - <« I g « .« I u, W .• a i_ ., _ J3 X fe Sis o «. C « rt S H L) »• — Si u ;"-.'. •- '. ' ^ , ^£11 !ft ^ * ^rf .— A H CJ The Spotted Lizards; Zebra-tailed Lizards Habits. — Regarding the habits of the Occellated Lizard— Uma notata, is the following extract from an article by S. E. Meek* and representing the field notes of Edmund Heller. "This species was taken only in the drifting sand areas of the bed of the Mohave River, where it is a common form. It has the peculiar habit of burying itself in the sand when pursued. The peculiar fringe of scales along the toes evidently serves to give the lizard sufficient speed over the loose sand to force its body beneath the surface. The sharp, depressed snout is evidently another mod- ification to aid in getting beneath the sand. Usually the entire body is buried, but occasionally1 the tip of the tail protrudes. Their peculiar, mottled colouration does not render them protect- ively coloured on the white sand, but their peculiar mode of elud- ing pursuers renders this unnecessary, and at the same time limits them to areas covered with fine, drifting sand. "The food of the species consists largely of the leaves of a forget-me-not (Cryptombe), which is abundant among the sand dunes. The young leaves of the desert willow (Chilopsis) are also eaten. The insect food consists of caterpillars, ants, bees, etc. One species was seen several feet up on an oblique limb of desert willow, in search of the young leaves which were just budding. "Specimens were secured at Daggett, California." The Spotted Lizards — Genus Holbrookia: The five species comprising this genus are rather small, moderately slender in proportions, though of distinctly flattened form. They are covered with very minute scales. All are pale in colour, and usually with two rows of large, wavy blotches on the back, and a row of similar, though less distinct blotches on each side. On most of the species there are two bluish or blackish bars on the lower portion of each side. This genus differs from the closely allied genera by the ab- sence of external ear disks, these being entirely concealed by the fleshy folds of the head. The limbs are well-developed, with long and slender toes. From the following key, together with the illustrations, the student should be able to easily distinguish the species, which inhabit an extended area of the central and western United States and northern Mexico: * Vol. VII, No. i, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 111. Zoological Series — Publication 104. 119 The Spotted Lizards; Zebra-tailed Lizards Key to Ihe Spotted Lizards. General markings of all the species. — Pale brown, yellowish or gray with two rows of dark blotches on the back, these bluntly triangular, with the points directed toward the tail; on the tail they fuse together, forming V- or W-shaped blotches or bands. Similar, though more obscure blotches on the sides. I. Tail flat for nearly its entire length. Black cross-bars on under surface of tail; a pair of black crescents on each side of abdomen. ZEBRA-TAILED LIZARD, Holbrookia texana, Troschel. II. Tail flat at base; greater part round. a. Black cross-bars under tail; no black spots on abdomen. WHITE-BELLIED LIZARD, Holbrookia lacerata, Cope. b. No black cross-bars under tail; a pair of black spots on each side of abdomen. Tail longer than head and body; limbs very long. MEXICAN SPOTTED LIZARD, Holbrookia propinqua, B. & G. Tail shorter than head and body; limbs moderate. COMMON SPOTTED LIZARD, Holbrookia maculaia, Girard. c. No black bars under tail; no black spots on abdomen. Limbs very long. SLENDER SPOTTED LIZARD, Holbrookia elegans, Boucourt. There is no marked difference in the size of the different species. All vary in the intensity of the markings — the blotches on some examples are very obscure. Several varietal names have been proposed, but intergradations are too numerous to permit these to stand. Dimensions. — The Zebra-tailed Lizard is perhaps the largest species. It attains a length of eight to ten inches. Following are the measurements of an average-sized adult of the Common Spotted Lizard (H. maculata): Total Length 4* inches. Length of Tail 2 Width of Body |J " Width of Head $ Length of Hind Limb i§ Distribution. — Of the different species the Common Spotted Lizard has the most extended distribution. It occurs from Kansas to California, and southward into northern Mexico. The Zebra-tailed Lizard is common in Texas whence it extends westward to California; it occurs also in northern Mexico. The 1 20 The Spotted Lizards; Zebra-tailed Lizards Mexican Spotted Lizard inhabits northern Mexico and the south- ern border of Texas. The Slender Spotted Lizard is a Mexican species and does not occur in the United States. Holbrookia lacerata is found in Texas. It seems to be most nearly allied to H. maculata. Habits. — Although these small reptiles are very active and capable of climbing rocks with great agility, they pass most of their time upon the ground. They are generally found in dry, rocky situations, and dart away with bewildering speed when disturbed. The H. texana evinces the peculiar habit of running with the tail curled sharply upward, and, as this appen- dage is vividly marked with alternate black and white bars on the under side, imparts a unique appearance, hence the popular name — "Zebra-tailed" Lizard. The food consists of insect prey, usually in the nature of beetles and grubs, for these lizards scamper about with too much fuss and rustle to capture flies and the like as do the velvet- footed "chameleons" and geckos. J2F CHAPTER XVI: THE SWIFTS Two Genera— UTA and SCELOPORUS— Small, Rough-scaled Lizards THE genera Via and Sceloporus are closely allied. All of the species are of small or very moderate size. Those of the former genus may be termed the Small-scaled Swifts, owing to the minute character of the scales covering the greater portion of the back, while the species of Sceloporus may appropriately be considered under the title of the Spiny Swifts, as their scales are large, coarsely keeled, and terminate in sharp points of a bristling character. The species of both genera appeal to one another in form, though the species of Uta are the most slender as a rule and have proportionately longer tails than the Spiny Swifts. Uta is essentially a genus of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico, while the species of Sceloporus are widely distributed, occurring in the central and southern latitudes of the United States, from the At- lantic to the Pacific Ocean and abounding throughout Mexico and Central America. The Small-scaled Swifts, Uta: Sixteen species of this genus are recognised. The body is rather stout and flattened; the head is proportionately quite small. With some species the tail is of moderate length; with others, very long and slender. The greater area of the back and sides is covered with very small scales, but some species have enlarged rows of scales on the cen- tral portion of the back. The generally minute scalation at on:e distinguishes the members of this genus from Sceloporus — the latter having large, coarsely keeled and sharply pointed scales over the entire upper surface. The few rows of large, keeled scales seen on the central portion of the back of many species of Uta, resemble the general scalation of the Spiny Swifts. Many of the species of Uta have coarse, spiny scales on the tail like the members of Sceloporus. One of the striking points of similarity to be observed with species of both genera is a colour 122 The Swifts character of the males. These exhibit a brilliant patch of blue on each side of the abdomen. The species of Uta are exceedingly active— hence the popular name of Swift. The general colouration is gray or brown, with darker transverse bands or blotches. With individual speci- mens, the ground colour and intensity of the pattern varies greatly, according to light, temperature and the general activity of the reptile itself. As this is a rather large genus and none of the species evinces any marked differentiation of colours, the writer has prepared a concise list of descriptions, which somewhat appeals to the form of key employed elsewhere in this work. The divisions, in this list, are based upon the formation of the scales of the back. The key embraces only those species occurring in the United States and Lower California.* Division I. Scales of the back small, smooth and of about equal size. Scales of the tail small and smooth— not spiny. This division contains the largest species: they attain a length of twenty inches. Three black cross-bars on body. THREE-BARRED SWIFT, U. thalassina, Cope. Body stout ; tail very long. Dark green, with three black cross-bars. Abdomen greenish. Under side of tail and limbs yellow. The largest and handsomest species of the genus. Attains a length of 2of inches, of which the tail forms 13! inch. Distribution. — Cape Region of Lower California. Four black cross-bars on body. FOUR-BARRED SWIFT, U. repens, Van Denburgh. Very similar to the preceding, but with four black cross- bars. The measurements of the type specimen are smaller than those given for the Three-barred Swift. Distribution. — Rare. Taken in Lower California. Division II. Scales of the back, small, smooth and of about equal size. Scales of the tail of much larger size— -keeled and spiny. MEARNS' SWIFT, U. mearnsii, Stejneger. Body olive, with irregular, blackish cross-bands, between which are pale spots. A jet black band across the shoulders. Terminal third of tail blackish; remainder brownish with wide, black cross-bands. Abdomen greenish-white — bluish on the flanks. Attains a length of about 9 inches; tail 6 inches. * In preparing this list, the writer has practically popularised Prof. E. D. Cope's very complete, technical key to the genus Uta. 123 The Swifts Distribution. — Lower California and extreme south- ern California. Division 111. Scales of back small and of uniform size— bluntly keeled. Tail with larger, spiny scales. STANSBURY'S SWIFT, U. stansburiana, Baird & Girard. Dark green or grayish, with two series of small, dark blotches on the back, which are surrounded by scat- tered, bluish dots. A pale band on the side, and frequently a dark, brownish blotch behind the fore- limb. Abdomen pale. One of the smallest species. Following are the measurements of an adult specimen: Total length, 4] inches; length of tail, 2.V inches; width of body, i an inch; width of head, § of an inch. Distribution. — The most abundant species of the genus. It occurs from western Texas to Cali- fornia, inclusive, and northward to Nevada. Very common in the deserts of Arizona and eastern California. PALMER'S SWIFT, U. palmerii, Stejneger. Larger than the preceding. Bluish-drab, with numerous, small, whitish dots, two to three scales large, irregu- larly scattered over the body. No dark blotches on the back. A dark spot behind the forelimb. Attains a length of about 6 inches. Distribution. — San Pedro Martir Island, Gulf of California. Division IV. Middle of the back with four to six rows of much enlarged, keeled scales. Sub-division a. Enlarged scales of the back in five or six irregular rows — smaller intermixed with larger ones. i. A row of sharply conical, close-set scales on each side. ORNATE SWIFT, U. ornata, Baird & Girard. Gray, with wavy, black cross-bands. Males with a large blue patch on each side of the abdomen. Head broad. Hind limbs shorter than the distance from vent to fold of skin under neck. Attains a length of six to eight inches. Distribution. — Arid regions of New Mexico, Arizona and California. I a. No row of raised scales on the sides. OLIVE SWIFT, U. levis, Stejneger. Large scales of the back very feebly keeled. Greenish above, without traces of other markings. The male has a blue patch on each side of the abdomen. Distribution. — New Mexico. Rare. 124 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLII BLACK-THROATED RACERUNNER, Cnemidophorus gidaris, anJ SIX-LINED LIZARD, Cnemidophorus scxlineatus 1 Same as above RED-HEADED SKINK., Eumeces quinquelineatus Tail Chin and Throat Side of Head Top of Head FLORIDA WORM LIZARD, Rhineum floridana STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS OF NORTH AMERICAN LIZARDS. Teiida. Scincidtr, and Amphisbcenida THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLIII • v^fl STANBURY'S SWIFT, {//a stansburiana Abundant in the sterile ureas of the Southwest. Note the equal-sized scales of the back WHITE-BELLIED SWIFT, Via tymmetrica Common in Arizona anil New Mexico. Note the rows of enlarged scales on the back CLARK'S SWIFF, So-loporus rlartii One of the largest of the swifts. Tin-re is a spot of blue or green in each of the scales on the back The Swifts Sub-division b. Enlarged scales of the back in four, regular rows — two rows on each side of a central row (or two) of minute scales. A row of enlarged, bristling scales on each side. WHITE-BELLIED SWIFT, U. symmetrica, Baird. Head proportionately broad and flat. Hind limb as long or longer than the distance from the vent to the fold of skin under throat. Grayish or brownish, with darker, wavy cross-bands. Abdomen white; throat frequently yellow. Dimensions: Total length, 5^ inches; tail, 3f inches; width of body f of an inch; width of head, TV of an inch; length of head, £ an inch; length of hind limb, if of an inch. Distribution. — Common in the desert regions of Arizona and eastern California. Sub-division c. Enlarged scales of back in from five to seven regular rows of about uniform si^e. A series of but slightly enlarged and scattered, conical scales on each side. BLACK-TAILED SWIFT, U. nigricauda, Cope. Brown or gray, with wavy, black cross-bands. Tail black- ish. Throat of the male orange. One of the smallest species — total length, 3! inches; tail ijf of an inch. Distribution. — Lower California. Abundant. BLACK SWIFT, U. parviscutata, Van Denburgh. Sooty black above, with a few, irregularly scattered, light dots and indications of cross-bands of a deeper black. Male specimens differ from the preceding, to which this species is closely related, in possessing a blue patch, in place of orange, on the throat. Attains a length of 4f inches ; tail occupying 3^ inches of that measure- ment. Distribution. — Lower California. Rare. LONG-TAILED SWIFT, U. graciosa, Hallowell. The most slender species of the genus. Tail excessively long — two and a half times the length of the combined head and body. Ashy-gray or reddish, with a series of darker, wavy cross-bars on each side. A band ex- tending lengthwise on neck. Males with a blue patch on each side of the abdomen. Attains a length of eight inches, of which the tail occupies 5! inches. Distribution. — Arid regions of southern Nevada, Arizona and eastern California, in the vicinity of the Colorado River. Habits. — The Small-scaled Swifts are terrestrial lizards, living among rocks in the deserts and sub-arid regions of the Southwest. They are wonderfully agile and fairly skim over the ground when pursued, but do not appear to adopt the habit 125 The Swifts of running on the hind limbs, as do some of the lizards already described — Crotaphytus, Callisaurus and Holbrookia. Although the feet are not provided with adhesive disks or pads, these creatures find a footing upon almost perpendicular cliffs, over which they may be commonly seen darting about, in search of insect food or scurrying away from the human intruder. Cap- tive specimens are hardy if kept perfectly dry and very warm. Their cages should be so situated as to have sunlight for the greater part of the day. If deprived of the sun they seldom show a desire to feed. Mealworms and grasshoppers form a good diet. To provide the specimens with water, it is best to take a small branch, dip this in a pail and place it in the cage. They will be attracted to and drink the hanging drops, while a small pan of water in the cage might pass unnoticed for days. The Genus Lysoptychus : Following the Small -scaled Swifts comes a genus containing a single species, which, in general characters of scalation, stands midway between Uta and Scelo- porus. The scalation of the head and body appeals more strongly to the latter genus, but 1here is a fold of skin under the throat. The species is brown above, with faint darker markings in the form of transverse blotches. There is a blue patch on each side of the abdomen. It measures seven inches in length and is technically known as Lysoptychus lateralis, Cope. But one specimen is known. It was taken near San Diego, Texas. The Spiny Swifts, Sceloporus. The species of this genus are considerably more difficult to identify than the lizards of the genus Uta. The arrangement of the latter in the form of a descriptive key is greatly facilitated by the strong characters displayed in the scalation of the back. Among the species of Sceloporus, there are no such sharply defined characters and in order to correctly identify the confusing array of North American spacies the student must note the different phases of scalation of the head. With this knowledge at hand it will be found that the different species fall into several groups, and identification is greatly simplified. There is, however, a considerable amount of variation to be seen among these lizards and the observer may be confronted with frequent specimens that defy adaptation to the groups in which they really belong. It might be said that this genus and Cnemidophorus, are by far the most puzzling, 126 The Swifts as regards identification of species, among the North American lizards. Distribution. — About thirty-five species of Sceloporus are recognised and of these about one-half the number inhabit Mex- ico and Central America, which countries might be termed the headquarters of the Spiny Swifts; they have extended their range into the southwestern portions of the United States, while a few species have reached such northern limits as Oregon and others have extended southward into the peninsula of Lower California. The range eastward has not been pronounced, for with the exception of two species the Swifts do not extend be- yond Texas. Of these, one (5. spinosus) extends eastward from Mexico and Texas along the southern borders of the Gulf States to about Pensacola, Florida. The other (5. undulatus) abounds throughout the Eastern States, from southern New Jersey to Florida, where it may be seen in the country, scamper- ing over every fence and stone wall or upon the trunks of fallen trees — particularly in the pinelands. It is the most widely dis- tributed of any of the Spiny Swifts, being found from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. General characters. — As members of their genus, the Spiny Swifts are readily recognised. They are covered above with large, lustreless and coarsely keeled scales, terminating in sharp, spine-like points — particularly on the limbs and tail. So sharply pointed are the scales of some of the species, that the reptiles appear to bristle all over, with needle-like spines. The abdomi- nal scales are smooth and polished. The prevailing colours of all the species, above, are gray, brownish, or olive, with darker and wavy cross-bands. The throat and abdomen of male spec- imens display large patches of rich blue, which colour varies in hue according to atmospheric conditions and the activity of the individual. Female specimens exhibit little or none of the blue. A few words regarding more precise anatomical characters are necessary before presenting a key to the identification of the species. The characters of the pattern are too weak and monotonous to be alone employed; they are secondarily impor- tant in the sub-divisions of a key. It is from the scalation of the head that we must draw the characters for the formation cf an analytical table of the species. (See figures.) These 127 The Swifts characters are of rather a technical aspect and need some ex- planation. Enlarged figures of heads among the illustrations should be thoroughly consulted. They show portions embracing the combinations of scales that are of the greatest importance —the supraocular scales — so called because of their covering the area directly above the eye. From the illustrations it will be noted that the supraocular plates or scales are arranged in a in a large, central series, which are bordered on either side by a row of minute scales. The inner row of these small marginal scales, arranged in crescentic form are, among all the species, in a single row. The outer marginal scales, how- ever, may be present in one, two or three rows, according to the species. Hence we have an important distinction upon which to base a key. The genus has been treated with more detail than Ufa, and a concise, descriptive list of the species follows the key. All complicated phraseology has been carefully omitted from the former, for the writer believes that the beginner should consider a difficult genus like this from a bird's-eye point of view for the most satisfactory results, rather than plunge into a be- wildering mixture of comparisons. The key follows: Division A. A row of large supraocular plates, with a single internal border and one external row of small scales. Sub-division I. Internal border of small scales extending around forward two-thirds only, of cres- centic margin. Color phases. — Grayish or brownish, with transverse, dark wavy bands. No complete black collar. Greenish-gray or scales with green centre; traces of black collar on sides of neck. Size large. CLARK'S SWIFT, S. clarkii. Yellowish, with a wide, reddish band on each side; indistinct, brown cross-bars. Size large. BANDED SWIFT, 5. {osteromus. Brown to blackish; scales spotted with blue or green, and red. One of the largest species. ORCUTT'S SWIFT, 5. orcuttii. 138 THE REPTILE BOOK- PL ATE XL1V COMMON SWIFT; FENCE LIZARD, Scelopoms widulatus SPINY SWIFT ; TEXAS SWIFT, Scelopoms spinosus The species figured live mostly on fie trunks of fallen trees, scurrying about in search of insect prey. On the throat an! abdomen of the males are brilliant blue patches PACIFIC SWIFT, Scelopoms undulatus oecidentalis BANDED SWIFT, Scelopoms undulalus consobrinus THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLV WKSTKRN SWIFT, Sccloporus Insfriatus The additional tail on this specimen is an irregularity resulting from an injury to the original member COLLARED SWIFT. Sccloporus lorgualus poiiisctlii The finest species of its genus. Attains a length of 10 inches. May be rnognised by the extremely coarse scales and broad black collar The Swifts Sub-division II. Internal border of small scales, extending completely about the margin of supraorbital crescent. Sometimes an additional, but fragmental, external border. Gray, with wavy black cross-bands; an oblong, black patch on each shoulder; a broad, pale band on each side; size large; scales coarsely bristling. SPINY SWIFT, S. spinosus. Division B. A row of large, supraocular plates, with a a single internal border and two external rows of small scales. Larger head plates smooth. Colour phases. — Grayish or olive with wavy, dark cross- bands. Usually a plate band (or two) on each side. Sub-division I. Traces of black collar on sides of neck. Bluish-black; a greenish or yellow spot in each scale; a broad black collar on sides of neck. Size large. YARROW'S SWIFT, S. yarrovii. Sub-division II. No collar. Pale bands on sides. Greenish-gray, with two series of narrow dark blotches (wavy) on back. Size moder- ate.* Bands on sides obscure or lacking. WESTERN SWIFT, S. biseriatus. Dark green, with faint traces of a pale band on each side. Scalation rather fine; size small; apparently confined to southern Cali- fornia and Lower California. VAN DENBURGH'S SWIFT, S. vandenburgianus. Greenish-yellow, with obscure cross-bands; a very distinct, pale band, on each side; scales moderately coarse; size small. YELLOW-BANDED SWIFT, S. undulaius var. consobrinus. Division C. Very similar to Div. B. in arrangement of the supraocular plates; but tbe larger plates of the bead are wrinkled longitudinally (rugose}. There are occasionally three external borders of small, supraorbital scales. Colour phases. — Grayish, with darker cross-bands. No collar. Pale bands on sides. * Species of this genus that attain an average length of nine inches, may be termed large species; those reaching an average length of seven inches may be considered as of moderate size, while species growing to a maximum length of about five inches are designated as the small members of Sceloporus. 129 The Swifts Large supraocular plates numerous — six; marginal scales numerous and minute; dark green, with a pale, greenish band on each side — these separated by about fourteen rows of scales; two series of obscure blotches; size large. VARIABLE SWIFT, S. variabilis. Gray, with wavy, darker cross-bands. An indistinct stripe on each side — these separated by about ten rows of scales. Size small. Head plates not always corrugated. Occurs from Atlantic to Pacific Coasts. COMMON SWIFT, S. uiidulatus. Scales more bristling than preceding; blotches rather triangular. Occurs on the Pacific coast only; size small. PACIFIC SWIFT, S. undulaius, var. occidentalis. Pale bands separated by six or eight rows of scales; otherwise very similar to 5. undulaius. Size small. Restricted to Texas. THAYER'S SWIFT, 5. tbayeri. Olive-gray; a very narrow, but bright yel- low line on each side — these lines about twelve scale rows apart. Two series of dark crescents on back; size small. STRIPED SWIFT, S. scalaris. Division D. A double series of moderate-sized, supraocular plates, bordered internally with a row of smaller scales and externally by one or two rows of small scales — which latter rows may be of ir- regular formation. Sub-division I. A broad, jet-black collar, completed above. Scales very large and bristling. Obscure, dark cross-bands on olive ground; a broad, black collar, margined with yellow and com- pleted above. Size very large. COLLARED SWIFT, S.torquatus, var. poinsettii. Sub-division II. No collar; pale bands on sides. Olive gray. A pale band on each side, about two scales wide and separated by about eight scale rows. Obscure cross-bands. Size moder- ate. SAGE-BRUSH SWIFT, S. graciosus. Following is a descriptive list of the species: The first group of the Spiny Swifts to be considered, is Division A of the key, with which the inner border or margin of small scales along the edges of the supraocular plates is in- 130 The Swifts complete — extending only about two-thirds around the crescent- shaped margin — the rear supraoculars being in contact with the larger plates of the head. There is a single outer margin of small scales. The colouration of the members of this group is in no way characteristic. Clark's Swift, Sceloporus clarkii, (Baird & Girard), is a fine species, with large, sharply pointed, bristling scales. It is rather characteristic from the large and very regular scala- tion of the head, the shields being so sharply outlined that the scale formula may be noted by the novice without the least difficulty. Each body scale contains a greenish or bluish patch and is usually edged with gray. The spots within the scales vary greatly in intensity according to the activity of the individual. If the lizard is active the greenish spots assume such decided hues that the entire body appears to be of a greenish or bluish tinge. If it is sluggish, the gray edges of the scales suffuse the brighter colours and the prevailing hue is dull gray. On some specimens there is a series of dull, wavy cross-bars of a dark hue on the back; others have no trace of these, but on all there are indications of a broad, black collar on the sides of the neck; this is not margined with a lighter colour, nor is it visible from above. The under-side of male specimens is dull whitev with a patch of vivid blue on each side of the abdomen and a similar patch on the chin. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a speci- men taken near Tucson, Arizona: Total Length 9 inches. Length of Tail 5 Width of Body if Width of Head i Distribution. — Inhabits the deserts and sub-arid regions of the southwestern United States. It occurs in southern Cali- fornia and in Arizona generally, New Mexico, southern Nevada, southwest Utah and northern Mexico. Habits. — Although an abundant lizard, it is difficult to cap- ture. It skims over the desert soil if pursued, and, if decid- ing to stop for a moment to reconnoitre, will actually slide a few inches from the great momentum of its scampering pace. If near a "pole" cactus or a yucca tree, it darts upward at a The Swifts bewildering speed. The collector stands about as much chance of catching specimens with his hands alone — possibly assisted by a net — as he would if trying to collect birds in such primitive fasnion. The up-to-date collector who is after such specimens, to preserve them, carries a small-bore shot gun and shells loaded with very fine shot. This swift seems to be particularly abundant about Tucson, Arizona. A collector sent the following, in a letter to the writer: " I have been after those big swifts for some time, but would rather catch rattlers. Not that the latter job is the most pleasant, but the trouble expended is well repaid by the character of the specimens captured. Although these swifts are common enough, there is generally about as much labour and excitement in catching a few as rounding up a bunch of wild steers. If you do get near enough to make a grab, the brute seems determined to make your efforts as fruitless as possible, by twisting off most of its tail, 'i hey can run up the yuccas a great deal faster than a squirrel can get up a tree. I am sending you four — all without tails." The tailless specimens arrived safely in New York and were placed in a cage at a south window. Here they obtained sun- light for the greater part of the day. On cloudy days, or during the early morning before the sun shone into their cage, they were dull and sluggish, either lying flattened against a log or clinging in the dark corners. As the first few inches of sunshine crept into the cage, they took immediate advantage of it, first basking, so as to thoroughly warm their bodies, then begin- ning to frisk about in the liveliest fashion. Their sombre gray tints of the early morning changed to a rich, greenish hue, or, if one of the males became greatly excited after being chased about the cage by one of his sex, the green gave way to a pro- fuse sprinkling of pale blue over the back and tail, while a broad band of jet-black appeared on each side of the neck as indications of the broad collar to be seen on several of the larger species of swifts. At such times, when the head was raised, the vivid blue patches on the chins of the males were strikingly brilliant. These blotches appeared to vary almost momentarily from the richest emerald green to a light purple, thence to a pale, sky blue. As the sun crept out of the cage again, these creatures of the light once more retired to the log and the dark corners, to flatten, with eyes half closed and colours fading into dull gray hues. Apparently the sun was half their life. They fed 132 The Swifts only during the hours of the brighest light and highest tempera- ture, taking mealworms, grasshoppers and various caterpillars, shaking the larger ones violently, in much the same fashion as a terrier treats a rat. They could not be induced to feed on cloudy days, even though the temperature was high. About two months after the arrival of these specimens, each of them exhibited about a quarter of an inch of a new tail, growing from the broken stump of the original member. This second tail grew slowly. On one specimen it attained a length of about two inches, but on the others grew to lesser propor- tions, though all were large — nearly four inches long in com- bined length of head and body. Eight months after their arrival, no further growth could be noted. The new tails were abruptly pointed and covered with a different and much finer scalation than the lost appendage. These lizards passed the winter in a well-heated room at a sunny, south window, and were fully as active during the cold months as in the summer. They lived for several years. The Banded Swift, Scelopoms fosteromus, (Cope), is one of the three species of the former portion of Division A in the key. Occasional specimens exhibit two external rows of small, supra- ocular scales. The scales of the body are large, keeled and bristling. It is one of the largest species of the genus, attain- ing a combined length of head and body, of 3^ inches. Ground colour olive; a broad, reddish band on each side of the back. On some specimens there are narrow, dusky cross- bands. Throat and abdomen tinged with bright green or blue. Distribution. — The Peninsula of Lower California. Orcutt's Swift, Sceloporus orcuttii, (Stejneger), is another species of Division A, and readily distinguished by its smooth scales, which are large and terminate in a sharp point. This lizard grows to a length of over eight inches; with a specimen 8| inches long, the combined length of the head and body would be about 3f inches. There are a series of enlarged scales imme- diately in front of the ear opening. In its colouration this is one of the most striking of the swifts. The ground colour of adult specimens is brownish upon the back and blackish upon the sides, although little of this ground colour is apparent, owing to the remarkable spots and blotches upon the scales. The scales of the back have a bright, i33 The Swihi bluish spot at their base and are tinged with red at their margin. Those of the sides are more finely spotted (speckled) with these colours. The limbs and tail are usually of a rich, blue tint. Al- together the effect is that of a stained glass window, in miniature. The greater portion of the abdomen is greenish-blue. Distribution. — Mountain regions near the coast of south- western California. Sub-division II of the first group of Spiny Swifts, contains but one species (north of Mexico). It differs from the preceding in having the inner margin of small scales completely border- ing the crescentic margin of the supraocular plates. There is a single row of external scales with the majority; occasional spec- imens have fragmental indications of a second row. The Spiny Swift, Sceloponis spinosus, (Wiegmann), is one of the large species. The scales are large, strongly keeled and terminate in very pronounced, spiny points, presenting a decidedly bristling aspect. Dull olive or grayish, sometimes greenish or yellow; a series of narrow, wavy, black cross-bands on the back, continued in closer formation on the tail, in ring-like fashion. On each side of the back, but particularly distinct upon the shoulders, is a pale band, the width of a single row of scales and a half row on each side. Male specimens have a large, oblong, black patch near the region of each shoulder. The abdomen of the male is marked on each side with a large purple blotch, margined with black; little or no blue on the under surface of the female, and on neither sex is there an indication of a black collar. Dimensions. — Total Length 9} inches. Length of Tail 5-V Width of Body U Width of Head i" Distribution. — Abundant in Mexico and extending north- ward, and commonly, throughout western Texas and New Mex- ico. As far east as Dallas it becomes rare, but the distribution in the United States is continued eastward to Pensacola, Florida. Habits. — The Spiny Swift lives most frequently upon the trunks of trees, mostly on fallen timber, over which it runs with an amazing show of speed. Friends of the writer, who have collected the species in Mexico, tell him that it ascends the trunks of trce> with a great alacrity until a short distance over The Swifts one's head, when it dodges from one side of the trunk to the other as the observer is trying to locate the reptile, keeping out of the line of vision in the same fashion as a squirrel. Like many of the swifts, these lizards often burrow in the sand at the bases of the trees, to pass the night. In this habit they resemble the horned lizards (Pbrynosoma'). The majority of captives, if kept in a cage with a few inches of gravel, burrow just deep enough to cover the back, beginning this operation as the afternoon sun leaves their cage. Group B. — We now arrive at the second group of the Spiny Swifts. There is a single row of large, supraocular plates, with a single internal border and two external borders of small scales. The species are of fair or moderate size. Yarrow's Swift, Sceloporns yarrovii, (Cope), is one of the handsomest of the genus. Above it is a dark, rich purple, or bluish-black — the sides and limbs distinctly bluish. Each of the scales of the upper surface contains a pale greenish or yellow- ish spot. There is a broad, black collar on the sides of the neck, bordered by a pale hue. Behind this collar is a V-shaped band of black, extending over the shoulders. The chin and sides of the abdomen are blotched with blue. Dr. Stejneger explains that specimens of this lizard, when sluggish, will assume an almost blackish hue that is quite uniform. The species attains a length of 8 inches. The scales are weakly keeled and not so bristling as with others of the genus. Distributions. — Fairly abundant in the southern portions of Arizona, whence it appears to range a short distance into Mexico. It lives among rocks and takes refuge in fissures when pursued. The Western Swift, Sceloporus biseriatus, (Hallowell). This is the commonest and most widely distributed of the Western species. It is of moderate size. The scales are proportionately small, and the scalation, will, at a glance, appear considerably finer and smoother than many other Scelopori. The usual ground colour is light, greenish-gray. There are no indications of a collar. Across the back are two series of distinct, narrow and wavy bars. These are blackish and narrowly margined in the rear with a much paler hue than the ground colour. The sides of the abdomen and chin of the males are blue — on very old specimens, blackish. The Swifts The species somewhat resembles the common swift (5. undulatus), but differs in reaching a third larger size, having proportionately smaller and smoother scales and much longer limbs. The specimen photographed was remarkable in having two tails. Dimensions. — Total Length 6f inches. Length of Tail 3* WidthofHead J (Not fully grown) Distribution. — The Great Basin and the mountain ranges of the Pacific region from Oregon to San Diego County, Cali- fornia, inclusive of both. Habits. — Mr. D. D. Streeter informs me that he observed many specimens of this lizard on the ground, in rocky districts. They rushed away with great speed when alarmed, making for the clefts under shelving rocks where they invariably defied capture. Van Denburgh's Swift, Sceloporusvandenburgianus, (Cope), grows to a length of only five inches. The scales are proportion- ately small. Dark green above.with faint traces of a pale band on each side, and obscure, darker cross-bands on the back. The greater por- tion of the under surface of the male is blue. Distribution. — This seems to be a rare swift and confined to southern California. The Yellow-striped Swift, Sceloporus undulalus, variety consobrinus, (Baird & Girard). A variety of the common swift and abundant in many portions of the Western States and in northern Mexico. The very distinct stripes, of a pale hue, on the sides, render it rather characteristic. The scales are small and not heavily keeled, although their spiny tips are rather bristling. It represents one of the smaller species. The commonest phase of ground colour is greenish-yellow. On each side of the back are two very distinct and narrow yel- low stripes — the upper the most vivid, covering a width of two and a half rows of scales and separated from its fellow by about eight scale rows. On many specimens there is a dusky band between the stripes, on the sides. There are usually but slight indications of cross-markings and these are very fine. 136 The Swifts Dimensions. — Total Length 5 inches. Length of Tail 2^ Width of Body f Width of Head £ " Distribution. — The Yellow-striped Swift is widely distrib- uted. It occurs all over Texas and extends northward into Nebraska, southward well into Mexico and westward into Utah, Nevada and California. Group C. — The species of group C are very similar to those of the preceding division and might appropriately be included within it, but usually exhibit a wrinkling of the larger head plates, which are corrugated in a longitudinal direction. With a genus like the present one, beset with difficulties for the beginner, we must take advantage of even such slight characters to assist in unravelling the general tangle. The members of this group show no trace of a black collar. The Variable Swift, Sceloporus variabilis, (Wiegmann), has acquired its name from the difference in colouration between the male and the female. The large supraocular plates are nu- merous and narrow; they are bordered externally by two rows of very small, almost granular scales. The larger head plates are strongly wrinkled — rugose. The scales of the body are pro- portionately small. Olive, or dark green, with a pale, greenish band on each side; two rows of blackish spots on the back. The pale bands are separated by about fourteen rows of scales. Male specimens have an elongated, black ellipse on each side of the abdomen and a blackish band beneath the stripes on the side. The females lack the abdominal black marking and the dark band on the side as well. The species attains a moderate size. Distribution. — In the United States this swift seems to be confined to Texas; in that state it occurs as far north as San Antonio. It is common in the eastern portions of Mexico. The Common Swift, Sceloporus undulatus, (Latrielle), one of the smaller species. The scales are of moderate size, well- keeled and moderately bristling; most specimens have the head scales strongly wrinkled — rugose. Gray, sometimes brown or greenish, with narrow and wavy black cross-bands on the back — often in the shape of irregula' The Swifts Vs. On each side of the back is an indistinct, paler band; these bands are about ten rows of scales apart. The males have a black blotch under the chin, enclosing more or less blue, also two large, bluish patches on the abdomen. There is little or no blue on the underside of the female. Illustrated. Dimensions. — The measurements represent the average- sized specimen: Total Length 5^ inches. . Length of Tail 2| Width of Body Width of Head . . T\ Distribution. — The typical form occurs abundantly from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts, from about the latitude of south- ern New Jersey, southward; in the extreme West it ranges as far north as Oregon. Habits. — It is in the dry and sandy pinelands of the south- eastern United States that this sombre little lizard is found in the greatest numbers. The writer has taken many dozens of specimens in the coast regions of South Carolina and Georgia; they show a marked preference for the fallen pines or sections of cut timber, as about such trunks, with their loosening bark, insect life is more numerous than on the living trees. We took the largest numbers of specimens in the saw-mill yards, for the swifts were always abundant on the piles of logs. Few spec- imens were observed running up the living trees and these were usually lizards that had been frightened from derelict timber and taken to the tree in flight. Their movements upon a large, fallen tree trunk, were very amusing. When approached they would dart to the opposite side of the trunk to that upon which one was approaching. As the collector's body loomed over the trunk the lizard would shift its position until it was directly beneath. If every movement of one's approach were slow and cautious, capture was comparatively simple, for all to be done was to make a rapid grab with the hand on the opposite side of the log from that on which the bulk of the collector's body ap- peared. But alas! This grab could not be regulated to the nicety as if you were actually looking at your object, and, although the hand approached with lightning-like rapidity, the lizard started away from it at the same rate. The result was, in many cases, 138 The Swifts that you did grasp the creature, but by the tail. A second later a dark object scurries over the sand in direct line for a tree, and up it darts, while you ruefully examine a wriggling tail from which the original owner has twisted itself free. The writer remembers a section in Fairfax County, Vir- ginia, that teemed with these reptiles. They were especially abundant upon an old rail fence that ran a mile or more around a pasture. The stiles of the fence were old and weather-stained and the lizards were in perfect harmony, in their dull, gray tints, with their surroundings. These specimens were not readily captured. They appeared to realise the opportunities of escape offered by the lengthy span of fence. If approached they darted to the opposite side of the fence-rail, then ran for fifty feet or more along the fence, finally peering over to the side of the pur- suer, but, if finding him nearby, repeating the performance. There was another family of lizards living on the rough stonework of the bridge over Bull Run Creek, in Virginia, and these were more elusive than the former specimens for they darted in and out of the crevices between the masonry in a fashion that made capture impossible. Captive specimens remain quite timid, but they are hardy and will live for years. They require an abundance of sunlight and a perfectly dry cage. The food should be mealworms and other soft-bodied insects. The eggs of this species are from three-eighths of an inch to half an inch in length, according to the size of the female. They are oval and covered v/ith a very thin, papery shell; it is in- dented upon the slightest pressure of the fingers. The eggs may be hatched by placing them in moderately damp — not soggy — sphagnum moss, and keeping them in an ordinary room temperature, where their period of incubation is from six to eight weeks. The Pacific Swift, Scelopoms undulatus, variety occiden- talis, (Baird), differs from the typical form in having more brist- ling scales, while the V-shaped blotches of the back are almost solidly black, thus appearing as dark triangles. This form is confined to the Pacific coast region. Thayer's Swift, Scelopoms ihayeri, (Baird & Girard), seems to be closely allied to the preceding, but the pale bands — one on each side of the back — are nearer together, or about 6 to 8 The Swifts scale rows apart, while male specimens have two bluish patches on the throat in place of one, as is usually the case with the com- mon species. Moreover, the abdominal plates of this lizard are keeled; in this character it is unique among all the species of the genus. It is of small size. Distribution. — Apparently restricted to southwestern Texas. The Striped Swift, Sceloporus scalaris, (Wiegmann), should be enumerated among the moderate-sized species. The head plates are strongly wrinkled and the scales of the body are small, narrow and sharply pointed. Olive gray, with a very narrow, but vividly defined stripe of yellow or white on each side of the back, extending along the centre of a single row of scales. These stripes are separated by about six or seven scale rows. Two rows of dusky crescents on the back. Resembles the sage-brush swift, (5. graciosus), of Division D, and several other species that have pronounced, pale bands on either side of the back, but may be distinguished by the very narrow bands, traversing the centre only, of a single row of scales. On the other species the bands either cover the entire width of a single row of scales, or embrace a half row of scales each side of the former. The width between these bands (num- ber of scale rows) is also an important point to be used in deter- mination. The Striped Swift has a round, and jet black spot at the base of the forelimb. Distribution. — Southern Arizona and Mexico generally. Division D. — In the fourth group of those species of Spiny Swifts that occur within the limits of the United States, we have our largest and most showy species and one other, of con- siderably smaller size. With these two species there are two rows of the large, supraocular plates over each eye, bordered internally by a single row of smaller scales and externally by one or two rows. The Collared Swift, Sceloporus iorquatus, variety poinsettii, (Baird & Girard),is a northerly phase of a Mexican species. It is characterised by a broad, jet-black collar, bordered on each side with yellow and extending entirely around the upper surface of the neck. The general proportions of this fine swift are illustrated by 140 The Swifts the photo of an adult specimen upon a man's hand. The form is stout and heavy, the tail short and blunt, while the scales are exceedingly coarse, with needle-like bristling points, a char- acter as pronounced on the tail as the formation of the spinous stalks of many plants. When the scales are examined individu- ally, they appear like feathers — being sharply serrated along their edges. The colouration of the body is dull olive, brown or gray, with indistinct and wavy cross-bands on the back, at a con- siderable distance apart. Around the neck is a broad, jet-black collar, bordered on either side with yellow. The chin of male specimens is blue and there is a bluish patch on each side of the abdomen. From the other species of swifts occuring within the United States and showing traces of a black collar, this lizard may be told by the collar being complete above. Dimensions. — Total Length 9^ inches. Length of Tail 4^ Diameter of Tail, at base f Width of Body if Width of Head .. ij Distribution. — Southern Arizona, New Mexico, southwest- ern Texas and northern Mexico. Dwells principally in rocky places. The Sage-brush Swift, Scelopoms.graciosus,($aird &Girard), differs from the preceding not only in its considerably smaller size, but in colouration. The scalation of the head is quite similar, but the scales of the body are proportionately small. The ground colour is brown or olive. On each side are two dis- tinct, yellow stripes, these enclosing a dusky band. On each side of the back is a series of dark and narrow crescents. Be- tween the stripes on the sides, is another series, of similar size. All of these crescents are bordered at their rear with yellow, this hue greatly accentuating their outline. In front of the forelimb and almost in contact with its base, is a round, black spot. The abdomen of male specimens is marked with two blue blotches and the chin is tinted with the same colour. Resembles the striped swift (S. scalaris), but may be at once separated by the scale formula of the head and the smooth- ness of the larger head plates. 141 The Swifts Distribution. — Abundant in the Great Basin. It occurs as far north as Oregon and is common in the mountains of eastern California, Idaho, Nevada and Utah to an altitude of 8,000 feet; most abundant on the sage-covered plateaus. Southward it extends through the deserts, into northern Mexico. • •••••*• Regarding identification. — At no part of this chapter has the writer gone into elaborate details concerning the possible necessity of a distinct, varietal name for certain variations, or combating the validity of some species that bear a close resem- blance to others. Before commencing the chapter, he examined a large series of specimens and compared the various species with the technical descriptions in the regular works of scientific nomen- clature. His decisions resulted at the time, in omitting certain alleged species that he did not consider strong and distinct. That part of the work was then looked upon as a closed chapter, and it is not the writer's idea to burden the student with long explanations as to how he arrived upon the list of species as they stand. The point has been to treat a very confusing genus in a manner that will present it to the student from the stand- point of a bird's-eye view. The genus Sceloporus is worthy of an elaborate monograph, but the proper compilation of this would take half a lifetime and study of the combined collections in the museums of the world — besides many additional specimens to solve certain problems now standing. In comparing specimens of Sceloporus the student should count the scale rows, note the proportionate size of the body scales, study the head plates and compare the colouration of one series with another. The locality is also an important factor and will aid in the case of old specimens of exceedingly brilliant colours, as the dots and splashes of brilliant hues will fit into none of the descriptions. An occasional specimen will exhibit a head scalation that seems to be outside the definitions of all the divisions. In such a case, locality counts and helps in removing the puzzling individual from its indefinite status. 142 CHAPTER XVII: THE HORNED LIZARDS GENUS PHRYNOSOMA A Genus of Lizards that are Most Commonly Known as the Horned "Toads" FROM all the other genera of the North American Lizards, the Horned Toads are very distinct. Their very wide, much- flattened and toad-like bodies, the short tail and the develop- ment among most of the species of sharp, conical horns upon the back of the head and the temples are unique characters. The scalation is also peculiar, as the back is covered with minute, granular scales, among which rise, almost vertically — greatly enlarged and sharply-pointed scales, which are imbedded like miniature pyramids at their bases. Altogether, these lizards are so spiny in their general make-up as to appear quite formidable to the observer uninitiated in their habits. The Horned Lizards are found only in the western portions of the United States and in Mexico. The number of species generally recognised is 17, of which 4 are exclusively Mexican. Several other species occur commonly in Mexico and range but a very short distance northward over the boundary line of the United States. Owing to the fact that the ear drum of several species is covered with a thin skin studded with minute scales, certain writers have seen fit to place these in a separate genus — Anota. This character appeals to the writer as too superficial for the division of these peculiar lizards into two genera and he has decided to include them all under the head of Pbrynosoma. In studying the species of this genus, the following char- acters should be observed, (i) The formations and propor- tionate length of the head spines. (2) The character of the spines upon the back and whether these are surrounded by a rosette of smaller spines, at their bases. (3) The character and number of rows (whether one or two) of fringes of spiny scales The Horned Lizards along the edge of the body. (4) Whether the scales of the ab- domen are smooth or keeled. (5) The arrangement (if any) of enlarged scales upon the chin. This latter character is a valuable one. Habits. — Unlike the vast majority of lizards, the Horned "Toads" are viviparous — producing living young and to the number of from six to a dozen. The young are born in the same fashion as the viviparous snakes. They are encased in a trans- parent envelope through which they soon break. They are at once active and fully able to care for themselves. At birth they possess rudimentary horns and do not exhibit the rough, spiny appearance of the parent. In an illustration accompany- ing this chapter the size of the newly born young may be com- pared to that of the parent. The Horned Lizards are creatures of hot and dry, sandy or sub-arid situations. Many of the species inhabit the deserts proper where the sun, beating without obstruction upon ground destitute of moisture, produces a heat practically unendurable to the human. In these burning, silent and desolate wastes of the Southwest, the little waifs of the sand dart here and there with wonderful rapidity, subsisting entirely upon insect life. It is during that part of the day when the sun is at its highest that they display the most vivacity. Long before the sunset, while the heat waves yet quiver upward from the bleached soil, they prepare themselves for the night. This is a curious process. The little creature imbeds its nose in the sand like the blade of a plow, when it quickly works its way forward a few inches, scooping vigorously with the head in order to produce a furrow. Thus having worked its way a little distance into the sand it flattens the body and employing the sharp, spiny borders of its sidr- 'in shovel-like fashion, digs its way deeper and casts the sand over its back. The head is again employed, then the sides again and finally the queer little reptile is entirely covered. Some- times it digs its way some two or three inches beneath the sur- face. At other times — and more frequently — the back is covered but the top of the head is visible and just level with the surface of the sand. In several ways these reptiles are so toad-like that the original and popular name may be readily appreciated. The mcthrd of eating is much like that of the toad, a condition strengthened 144 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLVI • .. 10 II I. 5 2,6 3,7 Hernandez's Horned Lizard, P. douglassii hernandezi. Douglass's Horned Lizard, P. douglassii (typical). Ditmars's Horned Lizard, P. ditmarsii. 14 15 HEADS OF HORNED LIZARDS, Phrynosoma p, 13 Texas Horned Lizard, P. cornulum. 4, 8 Mexican Horned Lizard, P. orbiculare. 10, 14 Ashy Horned Lizard, P. calidiarum. 11, 15 Regal Horned Lizard, P. regale. 12, 16 Pacific Horned Lizard, P- cnronatum. THE REPTILE BOOK. PtATE XLVII DOUC.LASS'S HdRXKD LIZARD. 1'hryiwsxm.i dmifLi^ii The horns are reduced to mere tubercles. Inhabits the northern Pacific region I'AI.Yn.l) HOKM.Ii I.I/AK'h. /' ..'."< i-/.; is,.. ' ,>r,:.iti«imnm This desert variety shows in its markings remarkable similarity t» the soil 1 1 IK \ AXDEZ'S HORNED LIZARD, P. dovglassiihernandesi ( >n this variety the horns are much more developed than with the typical form. Common in the Western Plains region The Horned Lizards by the character of the tongue. The Horned Lizards do not procure their prey by a scampering rush as do the majority of the North American lacertilians. In coming in close proximity to the food, the head is bent deliberately, the thick, viscid tongue is quickly protruded and like a flash the morsel has disappeared within the lizard's mouth. Although these actions are very toad-like, all similarity to the movements of the batrachian may a few seconds later be dispelled, when the lizard, taking fright, darts away with the speed of a startled mouse. If caught and handled, the average horned "toad" is rather a spiritless creature. It seldom attempts to bite, although it may vigorously employ the spines of the head in an endeavour to produce injury which is quite impossible, beyond a superficial scrarch. The average specimen shuts its eyes and feigns a state of indifference, or death. Some specimens puff up prodigiously, while others perform to the extreme reverse, flattening the body to such an extent that they seem devoid of internal organs. Oc- casional specimens, when handled, exhibit a remarkable habit. This consists of the ejection of jets of blood from the corner of the eye. It was after examining several hundred specimens, that the writer's inclination to become sceptical about the alleged habit suddenly received a startling reverse. He received an unusually large and fat specimen of a Mexican species — Phryno- soma orbiculare, of a rich, reddish hue — almost a crimson. After photographing the specimen, it was measured. The latter process seemed to greatly excite the creature. It finally threw the head slightly upward, the neck became rigid, the eyes bulged from the sockets, when there was a distinct sound like that pro- duced if one presses the tongue against the roof of the mouth and forces a small quantity of air forward. This rasping sound, consuming but the fraction of a second, was accompanied by a jet of blood at great pressure. It hit the wall, four feet away, at the same level as that of the reptile. The duration of the flow of blood appeared to be about one and a half seconds and toward its termination the force gradually diminished, as noted by a course of drops down the wall and along the floor to a posi- tion almost under the spot where the reptile had been held. The stream of blood seemed to be as fine as a horse-hair and to issue from the eye-lid, which was momentarily much swollen. For some time after the performance the eyes were tightly closed The Horned Lizards and nothing could induce the lizard to open them. Within two minutes after it was placed on the ground the protruding aspect of the eye-balls and the swelling of the eye-lids had dis- appeared. Most surprising was the amount of blood expended. The wall and floor showed a course of thickly-sprinkled spots about one eighth of an inch in diameter. There were 103 of these spots. In captivity the Horned Lizards are highly interesting and will long survive if properly cared for. They require a screen cage, of fair dimensions, with several inches of fine sand (building sand) and must be kept dry and very warm. A flood of sun- shine, for the greater part of the day, is absolutely necessary to keep them in good health and feeding. Without the sun they exhibit a general lassitude and feed indifferently. Water should be given them in very shallow dishes, sunk in the sand, but care should be taken in filling these that the sand itself is not moistened. Mealworms, which may be obtained at any bird store, form a good food, but specimens are also fond of ants, small, soft-bodied grubs, roaches, grasshoppers and crickets. They will not eat earthworms. A key to the genus follows: Division I. Head spines rudimentary or small — represented by mere tubercular scales, or spines that are little longer than the horizontal diameter of eye-opening. Area inside of the two large rows of plates on chin, com- posed of small, uniform scales. a. Ear drum exposed. t A single row of spiny, marginal scales on body. Head spines reduced to tubercles, or with some varieties, spines that are shorter than the diameter of the eye. DOUGLASS'S HORNED "TOAD," P. douglassii — and varieties. Central head spines about equal in length to the hori- zontal diameter of eye-opening. MEXICAN HORNED "TOAD," P. orbiculare. ft No fringe of spiny scales on sides. Central head spines about length of diameter of eye- opening. Abdominal scales smooth. LITTLE HORNED "TOAD, " P. modestum. No head spines. Head very wide and flat at the tem- ples, with ridges forming crown-like process above. Abdominal scales keeled. DITMARS'S HORNED "TOAD," P. diimarsii. 146 The Horned Lizards b. Ear drum covered with granular scales. Head spines rudimentary. Body spines little developed. Colour pinkish or dull red. SMOOTH HORNED "TOAD," P. platyrhinum. Division II. Head spines well developed. a. Ear drum covered with granular scales. f A single series of marginal, spiny scales. Size rather small; head proportionately small, with large, central spines directed upward. ASHY HORNED "TOAD," P. calidiarum. ft Two series of marginal spiny scales, the lower but slightly developed. Head spines moderate. No enlarged scales on central portion of chin. GOODE'S HORNED "TOAD," P. goodei. Head spines large. Two rows of slightly enlarged scales on central portion of chin. MACCALL'S HORNED "TOAD," P. maccallii. b. Ear drum exposed. * A row of large, projecting plates beneath each series of lower labials, and between these, two double rows or triple rows of enlarged scales. Head spines large, of regular arrangement. One series of marginal spines. CERROS ISLAND HORNED "TOAD," P. CCrroenSC. Head spines large, of regular arrangement. Body spines very bristling. Two series of marginal spines, of equal length. PACIFIC HORNED "TOAD," P. COronatUM. Four large central horns and three upon each temple, forming a perfect circlet or crown upon the rear of head. One large and one very small series of mar- ginal, spiny scales on sides of body. REGAL HORNED "TOAD," P. regale. **A row of large, projecting plates beneath each series of lower labials; between these, two single rows of en- larged scales. Two large, central head spines, directed upward; three temporal spines. TEXAS HORNED "TOAD," P. Concerning a name. — Thus far, in this chapter, the writer has used freely the name "horned toad," but he realises how inappropriate is that appellation in connection with a genus of lizards. However, he feels, that to introduce the beginner to any group of reptiles, it is best to employ a well-known, popular title at the start. Now that we understand our subjects, let us The Horned Lizards altogether drop this misleading title and call these creatures the horned lizards, as they literally are. Among the batra- chians there are actually a number of species of horned toads — true horned toads. The South American genus Ceratophrys furnishes startling examples in size and grotesque development. Thus we can understand why the name "horned toads," if ap- plied to the present genus of lizards, might be very misleading to a general naturalist. A descriptive list of the Horned Lizards follows: DOUGLASS'S HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma douglassii, (Bell) Of the first group comprising the greater portion of this genus — the members possessing an exposed ear drum — Douglass's Horned Lizard exhibits the most rudimentary horns. Three phases of this species may be recognised. With the typical form and one of the varieties, the horns are reduced to mere tubercles. The third phase has very short horns — shorter than the horizontal diameter of the eye. The limbs are proportion- ately shorter than of the other horned lizards. As the accompanying illustrations very clearly delineate the various characters of the three phases, elaborate details would be superfluous. These points distinguish the three varieties; all of which have smooth abdominal scales, and small, equal-sized scales upon the chin: Size small, limbs short. Horns reduced to tubercles. Snout very blunt. DOUGLASS'S HORNED LIZARD, P. douglassii, typical, Bell. Length o} adult. — 4! inches. Distribution. — The northern and Pacific district including the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Range. Size moderate. Horns more developed, although of tubercular form. Pattern vivid. Snout more pointed. ORNATE HORNED LIZARD, P. douglassii, variety ornatissi- [mum, Girard. Length of adult. — 5! inches. Distribution. — Desert regions and dry plateaus east of the Si .-IT. i Neva 'i Range, from Canada to Mexico. X48 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLVIII '*' -^ */f DITMARS'S HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosoma dilmarsii The horns are reduced to tubercles and the back lacks the spiny aspect of most of the species. Has been found in northern Sonora, Mexico MEXICAN HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosoma orbiailare A large Mexican species. Most examples are of a dull red hue THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XLIX REGAL HORXED LIZARD, Phrynosoma regale A showy species of the southwestern deserts. The only member of its genus having four central occipital horns. These and the temporal horns produce the effect of a circlet or crown. The horns are often pinkish I'M'H |C ]|()|<\KD LIZARD, rhryiwwma coronal urn Most nearly allied to the Regal Horned Li/.tnl. hut differing in the more elongate body, the thicker and longer tail, and in having only two occipital horns. Inhabits southern California and Lower California The Horned Lizards Size moderate. Horns more developed and nearly as long as the horizontal diameter of the eye. HERNANDEZ'S HORNED LIZARD, P. douglassii, variety ler- [nandesi, Girard. Length of adult. — 5! inches. Distribution. — The Great Plains and Rocky Moun- tain district generally — an abundant form. This species is interesting in demonstrating, in all its phases, the remarkable similarity of the colour of individuals to the soil on which they live. It is illustrated to an extraordinary degree with specimens found in areas where the soil is of an unusual shade. Several specimens of the desert form ornatissi- mum collected for the writer were examined with surprise; they were distinctly pink, with white spots. A letter received from the collector contained the following explanation: "The horned toads sent you were taken in a region where the soil was pinkish, scattered with fine white pebbles. They were very difficult to see, unless mov- ing. Dr. Stejneger described specimens of the typical form from the San Francisco Mountains, that exactly match in their ground colour the soil and rocks, while their paler markings are perfect imitations of the lichens covering the rocks. He further explains that even more remarkable are the specimens collected by Dr. Merriam in a black lava belt. These specimens were satiny black, with rich, yellow markings — even the gloss of the lava was imi- tated. A female specimen of this phase and her young are fig- ured in an accompanying photograph. Through the courtesy of D. D. Streeter, Jr., the writer has received a number of living female specimens of the variety hernandesi, from Wyoming. This afforded an admirable op- portunity of studying the young horned lizards, which are pro- duced alive and a few minutes after birth are able to scurry over the ground with an agility equal to that of the parent. The average brood of young among these specimens numbered ten. The young creatures appeared quite smooth. Their skin v/as soft and delicate. All of these young reptiles were born during the early part of September. THE MEXICAN HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma orbiculare, (Wiegmann) This species falls readily into the first group of the genus, by reason of its short horns and exposed ear drums. The scales 149 The Horned Lizards of the abdomen are smooth, and the chin scales are small and regular with no enlarged rows. The enlarged scales of the back are but slightly bristling. The horns are barely larger than those of Hernandez's Horned Lizard; the central horns are the larger and of about the same length as the horizontal diameter of the eye opening. As with Douglass's Horned Lizard and its varieties, there is a single row of spiny, marginal scales on the side of the body. Colouration. — Dark reddish brown above, with four trans- verse brown or black spots on each side of a pale band from the back of the head to the tail; these spots are generally bordered with yellow. The tail is banded. The abdomen is yellow, spotted or marbled with black. Dimensions. — Total Length 5} inches. Length of Tail, Male, 2 £ Greatest Width of Body if Length of Central Horns £ The tail of the female is much shorter than that of the male. Distribution. — Extreme southern Arizona — possibly New Mexico and southwestern Texas. Northern and central Mexico, generally. THE REGAL HORNED LIZARD Pbrynosoma regale, (Girard) In every character, this is the finest species of the genus. It attains a considerable size (for the genus) and the circlet of large, flat spines upon the rear of the head at once impart a unique aspect. There are four large central head spines and three spines upon each temple. All of these spines or horns are in such perfect alignment that a crown-like effect is pro- duced. Of all the species of Phrynosoma, this stands unique in the possession of four central head spines (occipital spines). The plates beneath and parallel with the lower lip plates (labials) are exceedingly projecting. There are two rows of enlarged scales on each side of the chin. The scales of the abdomen are smooth. There is a single row of spine-like scales along the side, and beneath this, for a portion of the body's length, a much smaller fringe. The Horned Lizards The large scales of the back have four keels, which combine in forming a sharp point. Colouration. — Pale brown, with a narrow, pale band on the back. There are two obscure, dark blotches on the neck and three or four dark blotches on each side of the back. All the markings are obscure. Beneath, the colour is yellowish white, with or without spots. Dimensions. — Total Length (Grows to 7 inches). . . 5^ inches. Length of Tail if Greatest Width cf Body 2\ Length of Outer Pair of Central Horns f Distribution. — Southern Arizona — the Gila and Colorado Deserts; Sonora, Mexico. This species has usually been considered very rare and is seldom seen in collections, and the writer was much surprised to examine a dozen living specimens, received in one shipment, from Phoenix, Arizona, that had been collected by Mr. George F. Breninger. Following is a portion of a letter from Mr. Brenin- ger: 'The horned toad I am now sending you is the true form of the desert/' (This refers to a specimen of Phrynosoma calidiarum). "It is quite a different 'toad' from those taken about the city" (P. regale) "which, I believe, have been brought from elsewhere, for ten years ago they were rare." The writer has also received several specimens of the Regal Horned Lizard from Tucson, Arizona. These were especially large specimens, with quite distinct markings and pink horns. Habits. — As a capti /e, this is one of the most hardy species of the horned lizards. When handled it tries to defend itself by thrusting its head upward and backward, thus bringing the spines vigorously into contact with one's fingers. CERROS ISLAND HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma cerroense, (Stejneger) The present species seems to be closely allied to the Pacific Horned Lizard, from which it differs in having but a single row of the spiny, marginal scales, and having rounded horns. There are two central horns, and three successively enlarged horns on each temple. On each side of the chin are three rows of enlarged scales. The abdominal scales are smooth. The Horned Lizards Colouration. — Brownish gray. A dark patch on each side of the neck, and three irregular cross-bands on the back. Ab- domen cream colour, with dusky spots. Dimensions. — Total Length 4^ inches. Length of Head and Body 3-^- Distribution. — The type specimen was taken on Cerro? Island, off the west coast of Lower California at about the mid- dle of the peninsula. The species has not been found elsewhere. THE PACIFIC HORNED LIZARD; CALIFORNIA HORNFD LIZARD Pbrynosoma coronatum, (Blainville) The Pacific Horned Lizard is narrower of body than other species and the proportionately longer tail accentuates this character. The large and numerous spiny scales of the back and tail, impart by much the most bristling appearance of any of the North American species. There are two large, cen- tral head spines, and three successively larger spines on each temple. All of the horns are flat. There are from three to four rows of enlarged scales on each side of the central line of the chin. On each side of the body are tivo rows of fringe-like spiny scales, the upper series the larger. The scales of the breast and abdomen are smooth. Some specimens have one, some two rows of spiny mar- ginal scales on the tail. Upon this variation was based a species known technically as Phrynosoma blainvillei, (Gray). As other distinctive characters are lacking and as specimens of this alleged species show the same peculiar body outlines of this very dis- tinct Western lizard, we must place the name in the category of a synonym, under the head of the present species. Colouration. — Pale grayish or brown above, with a large, reddish-brown patch on each side of the nape; three, transverse bands of similar colour on the back, often bordered in the rear with white or yellow spots. Abdomen yellow, with dusky gray patches. Many examples have horns of a decidedly pinkish tinge. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of. an adult specimen from San Diego County, California: The Horned Lizards Total Length 6\ inches. Length of Tail 2 J Greatest Width of Body if Length of Central Horns f The tail is very broad at the base and tapers very gradually for the greater part of its length. Distribution. — Southern portion of the Pacific region. The ranges of the species is from immediately south of San Fran- cisco, southward into the peninsula of Lower California and into Sonora, Mexico. It is particularly abundant in the desert regions of San Diego County, California. Habits. — A very hardy lizard in captivity. Of the various species of Pbrynosoma observed by the writer, specimens of this reptile have lived the longest and adapted themselves most readily to captivity. They are very fond of mealworms, but will also take ants, grasshoppers and crickets. THE TEXAS HORNED LIZARD* Pbrynosoma cornutum, (Harlan) Most widely distributed and abundant of all the horned lizards. It is the proverbial horned "toad" brought back by the Eastern traveller from his trip to Texas. The head spines are large. There are two central horns, rounded and directed rather sharply upward. On each temple are three successively larger horns, the last or rear one slightly smaller than the central pair (occipital boms'). Slightly beneath the lower lip plates (labials') is a row of enlarged and projecting plates. On each side of tbe central region of the chin is a single row of enlarged scales. Among the great majority of specimens, the scales of the abdomen are keeled; a few have faintly keeled or smooth scales. There are two well-developed series of mar- ginal, spiny scales. This is a very stout, rounded species, with a small, thin tail. Its outlines are in strong contrast to the preceding one. Colouration. — The markings are very distinct. A vividly- defined, yellow band on the back, extends from immediately behind the head and down the tail. On each side of the nape is a large, dark blotch. Three dark rounded spots on each side of the back, usually bordered in the rear with a narrow crescent of bright yellow. On the top of the head are The Horned Lizards three dark bands; beneath the eye are three wider bands. Ab- domen yellow with numerous dark, round spots. Dimensions. — Following are the dimensions cf a large spec- imen from Texas: Total Length 6 inches. Length of Tail i| " Width of Body 2 Length of Central Horns 7 1 G Distribution. — In the Central States this species occurs as far eastward as Missouri, and has been recorded in western Illi- nois, though it does not, at the present time, appear to exist as far east as the locality of the latter record. Farther south, its most easterly limit is western Arkansas and thence on a line southward to Galveston, Texas. Westward the species ranges throughout the great state of Texas, through New Mexico, Ari- zona and into eastern California. Its most northerly limit in the United States, appears to be Nebraska. In Mexico it occurs in the states of Chihuahua and Sonora. It is most abundant in Texas. Habits. — The habits are in no way different from the other horned lizards described. It is fairly hardy in captivity, but does not live so well as the California species, or the fine, Regal Horned Lizard of the Arizona deserts. DITMARS' HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma ditmarsii, (Stejneger) In considering this recently discovered species, we arrive at what might be termed the second group of horned lizards. The general size of the species is rather smaller than those pre- viously described, while the scalation of the body is finer. Thus these species appear much smoother and less bristling than the former lizards. With several of the species, the ear drum is covered with granular scales and is not visible externally. Like that portion of the genus already treated this latter portion is so arranged that the species with rudimemtary horns precede those with well developed head spines. The present species is practically hornless and has the widest head of any of the genus. The head is considerably wider than long. The region of the temple is produced into a flat, crest- like prominence, bordered in the rear with large scales, but no The Horned Lizards actual horns. On the lower jaw are two rows of enlarged, very keen-edged plates, which, instead of being parallel with the lower lip plates as with other species, extend obliquely from them, downward. The central chin scales are small and of uniform size. The scales of the abdomen are strongly keeled. The back of this species is quite smooth, and sprinkled with enlarged, keeled scales laying quite flat against the skin. There is no margin of spiny scales. Lacking the head spines and bristling, spiny exterior of most of the species, the aspect is very toad-like. The tail of the female is much shorter than the male. Colouration. — Sandy red, with obscure, dark cross-bands on central portion of the back. Dimensions. — Total Length (Male Specimen) .... 4 inches. Width of Body if Width of Head ij Length of Head | Distribution. — But two specimens ara known — a male and a female. They were taken in Mexico, in the state of Sonora, a short distance south of the southern border of Arizona. Habits. — The writer has observed but one living specimen. It was an interesting creature and lived about a year. It would feed only when the sun was shining brightly upon the sand of the cage, when it took large ants, grasshoppers, crickets and mealworms. The ants were snapped up in a manner appealing much to the habits of the true toads — namely, the bending of the head downward toward the prey, the instant protrusion of a pink tongue and the sudden disappearance of the insect in a movement so quick that the human eye was unable to fol- low it. This movement was attended by a single gulp on the part of the reptile. There was no subsequent mastication. The swallowing of larger prey was attended by a curious series of manoeuvres. There was the same momentary, downward pointing of the head and the prey was conveyed to the jaws like a flash, but as it was too big to be drawn entirely into the jaws by the action of the tongue, it was roughly masticated and worked into the mouth by an extraordinary process of wip- ing the jaws from one side to another upon the sand and with such vigor and rapidity that numerous grains were thrown against the glass sides of the cage. After swallowing a large The Horned Lizards insect, the reptile assumed an astonished expression, opening the eyes widely, then nodding the head violently up and down, six or eight times. Although the general demeanour of the horned lizards is timid and inoffensive, occasional specimens make ludicrous attempts at self defence. The present specimen was curious in this regard. When annoyed it would arch its back, point its snout downward, then make jumps of fully an inch from the ground, from this position, each jump being accompanied by a miniature hiss, which sounded like a sneeze. The performance was altogether clown-like and far from alarming. When the lizard discovered that its efforts were unsuccessful in driving the intruder away, it resorted to flight, in a scamper for a dark corner. Late in the afternoon it so buried itself in the sand, that only its nostrils and the crown-like top of the head were visible, and these so closely matched the colour of the sand that a close inspection was necessary to find it at such times. The animal died from inflammation of the intestines, a condition that kills many of the captive horned lizards and may result from the change of environment, from the absolutely dry and warm sands of the desert — the home of most of the species — to the general clamminess that pervades sand or gravel in our damp, Eastern climate, unless the bottom of the cage is heated by steam or hot water pipes — rather a difficult provision in a private collection. The rarity of this horned lizard might be accounted for in the consideration of its relatively smooth skin and absence of head spines, rendering it an easy prey for various snakes. Thus the general abundance of those species with bristling body spines and long horns upon the head might also be explained. THE LITTLE HORNED LIZARD Pbrynosoma mode stum, (Girard) Appeals to Ditmars's Horned Lizard in the absence of the marginal, spiny scales, at the edge of the abdomen. It is a comparatively smooth species, and the head spines are small. Thus it lacks the spiny, bristling appearance of the larger species. Like the preceding, the ear drum is exposed or but partially covered with granular scales, a character which removes it from all of the succeeding horned lizards. The scales of the abdomen 156 Ti RKPTILE BOOK PLATE L TEXAS HORNED LIZARD, Phrynosi.ma cornulum Commonest and most widely distributed of the horned lizards. Found from Missouri to Texas and westward to California ASHY HORNED LIZARD, Plirynosoma calidianim A rare species. Found in the deserts of Arizona and eastern California THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LI KEELED LIZARD. Grrrhonotus mullitarinatits An abundant lizard in the Pacific Region. Its shingle-like scales and the deep fold on each side — characteristic of the Anguida — readily distinguish it from lizards of other families in the United States LONG-TAILED EXA^LE OF THE KEKI.KD LIZARD. Grrrl,r»wt,t* multieaHnatUi The tnt.nl IcnRth of tlii- --iK-rinii n i- i ;\ inrhcs. of whirh the tail Ukes up 10 inches The Horned Lizards are smooth and there are no enlarged rows of scales in the cen- tral portion of the chin. Colouration. — Pale, yellowish, or pinkish. A large black patch on each side of the nape — but this is sometimes indistinct. There are practically no cross-bars on the back, although the tail is usually banded. The abdomen is yellowish-white and, with the exception of the region of the vent, is immaculate; there are frequently several small patches of black both in front and behind the vent. Dimensions. — Total Length 3! inches. Length of Head, including Horns. . . |£ Width of head, including Temporal Horns if Distribution. — Western Texas, New Mexico and Arizona; the states of Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico. THE ASHY HORNED LIZARD Pbrynosoma calidiarum, (Cope) The ear drums are not visible, being covered with fine, granular scales. Among those species that follow, all of which exhibit this character, the present one may be recognised by tbe single row of marginal, spiny scales. Back quite spiny; head spines well developed, particularly the central horns, which are directed quite sharply upward. Upon gross examination this resembles the Texas Horned Liz- ard, P. cornutum. The central portion of the chin is covered with small scales, of uniform si%e. The scales of the abdomen are perfectly smooth. Colouration. — Ashy-gray, with wavy black cross-bars. Ab- domen immaculate white; on the chin and at the base of the tail are a few black spots. Dimensions. — The measurements of an adult male, from the Gila Desert, are given: Total Length 4! inches. Length of Tail i J Greatest Width of" Body i£ Length of Central Horns J Distribution. — Appears to be very rare. The type spec- imen was taken in Death Valley, eastern California. The writer received a specimen from the Gila Desert, south of Phoenix, Arizona. The Horned Lizards GOODE'S HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma goodci, (Stejneger) Goode's Horned Lizard is one of the smallest species of the genus. It attains a slightly larger size than the P. modcstnm. the Little Horned Lizard. The spiny scales of the back are but slightly protruding and the general aspect is that of a toad- like creature with quite smooth, granular skin. The ear drum is covered with granular scales. Two rows of marginal, spiny scales, but the lower is very fine and small. Scales of the ab- domen perfectly smooth. The head spines are peculiar; they are of fair size, but the two rear temporal horns are quite the size of the central (occipital) horns. Colouration. — Alcoholic specimens are grayish above and white beneath. There is a blackish spot on each side of the nape, and a series of black spots on each side of the back. The abdomen is white and immaculate. Dimensions. — Total Length 4! inches. Length of Head and Body 2'-[ Distribution. — This is a desert species. It has been taken in Sonora, Mexico, and possibly occurs in southern Arizona. THE SMOOTH HORNED LIZARD Phrynosoma platyrhinum, (Girard) This abundant species differs from the other horned lizards having the ear drum covered with granular scales and possessing a fairly smooth skin, in the structure of the head spines, which are rudimentary. They are barely longer than the horizontal diameter of the eye-opening. There are two single rows of slightly enlarged scales on that portion of the chin embraced by the sharp, projecting plates beneath the hncer labial*. Scales of the abdomen smooth; two series of marginal, spiny scales at the edge of the abdomen — the lower but slightly developed. Colouration. — Pinkish-gray or brownish-gray; a large, dark patch on each side of the nape. The back is marked with dark, wavy cross-bands, which may be very indistinct. Abdomen immaculate white. Dimension. — Total Length 5 inches. Length of Head and Body 158 The Horned Lizards Distribution. — Abundant in the desert and sub-arid regions of eastern California, Arizona, Utah, Nevada and southern Idaho. MAcCALL'S HORNED LIZARD Pbrynosoma maccallii, (Hallcwell) The last lizard of this genus is of rare occurrence. It has the longest head spines of any of those species with concealed ear-drums. There are two series of spiny, marginal scales on the body, the upper of which is the longer. In the central region of the chin are two single rows of slightly enlarged scales. The scales of the abdomen are smooth. The skin of the back appears very smooth as compared with other horned lizards. The head spines are peculiar. There are two very large central spines; only the two rear spines of the temples are large —this in place of the three successively larger temporal spines of most species. Colouration. — Ashy-gray; a narrow, brownish line upon the back; on each side this are two rows of round, brown spots each containing a paler centre,which in turn is centered with a brown dot. Dimensions. — Total Length 3f inches. Length of Head and Body 2|f Width of Body i^ " Distribution. — The Colorado Desert. The United States National Museum has specimens from Fort Yuma, Arizona. It appears to be a very rare species. Habits. — Nothing is known of the habits. • ••••••• The desert fauna of the United States is not only distinct, but highly interesting. One of the most fascinating exhibits in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park, is the "desert room." Here, even the most casual observer will at once note something peculiar about the lizards and the snakes —their pallid hues, their remarkable similarity to the sand and their adaptability to the dry, loose soil, in their movements of burrowing or progressing at great speed over a surface where many reptiles would be clumsy. At a temperature in which some reptiles thrive, these creatures of the deserts are sluggish. They flourish and are most active in a heat that is practically un- endurable to the human. This phase of reptile life is worth much space — much more than can be given to it in the present work. 159 CHAPTER XVIII: THE PLATED LIZARDS AND SNAKE-LIKE SPECIES The Families ANGUID/E and ANIELL1D/E.. Embracing the North American Genera GERRHONOT US— Plated Lizards; OPHI- SAURUS— Glass "Snake" and AN 1 ELLA— Ground "Snake." FAMILY Anguida; the Plated Lizards and Glass "Snakes:" With this family, the student is referred to a group of degener- ate lizards, all of which are elongate and serpentine in form, and either possess small and rather weak limbs, or are externally wholly devoid of these organs. The latter species are often mistaken for snakes, which is a natural consequence, owing to the methods of progression and the serpentine outlines, in every way appealing to the snake rather than to the lizard. There are forty-four species of this family; they inhabit both the New and the Old Worlds. They are most abundantly represented in Mexico and in Central America. The species are characteris- tic from the presence of a deep fold on each side of the body. The Plated Lizards; Genus Gerrhonotus: The body is slender, with large, square scales above, arranged in regular, ring-like rows; with most of the species, the scales of the middle portion of the back are strongly keeled. Along each side of the body, from behind the ear to the base of the hind limb, is a strip of soft flesh, containing small, granular scales; against the lower border of this strip, the edge of the abdominal sheet of scales fits loosely, forming a deep fold. The head is distinct from the neck and pointed at the snout. The limbs are rather small and the tail very long and brittle— frequently twice as long as the head and body. Four species of this genus inhabit the extreme western and southwestern portions of the United States. Nineteen species are recognised, the greater number occurring in tropical Mexico and Central America. Like many other genera among the reptiles these Ii7ards have encountered a share of the undue enthusiasm displayed 1 60 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE L1I BROWN LIZARD, Gerrhonotus liocephahts May be identified by the several rows of smooth scales on each side • - > -. f KING'S LIZARD, Gerrhonotus kingii The most brightly coloured member of its genus. The scales are faintly keeled THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LII1 1'l.A I Kl) I.I/.ARI), Gerrhonotus.imbricatus Distinguished from the three preceding species by two (2) i -irs of plates anterior to the frontal plate — that between the eyes A \ . cstern species I GLASS SNAKE," Opkisaurus venfralis t A snake-likr rrpn-si-ntativr nf the Anguiilir, inhahititiK thr Soulhcrn States. Srvi-ral very simil.ir SJK-I ii-. an fnuinl in Europe an'l Asia The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species in founding new species and sub-species upon variations that are of little importance. There has been a number of species described as occurring in the United States and the descriptions of them have been based upon slight differences of scalation and distribution. If these obscurely different specimens were mixed among varying individuals of the really staple species and the locality labels removed, it is doubtful if the observers of their "distinctly" different characters could pick them out again. Thus it appears that the different species described as occurring in the United States must simmer down to four, a key of which is herewith presented: I. Three shields arranged in triangular fashion, in front of the large shields between the eyes. Scales of the back and the sides strongly keeled. KEELED LIZARD, G. multicarinatus. Habitat. — Widely distributed. The Pacific Coast region, from British Columbia to Central America. Scales on the back strongly keeled; those of the sides smooth. BROWN LIZARD, G. liocephalus. Habitat. — Texas and Mexico. Scales of the back feebly keeled; those of the sides smooth. KING'S LIZARD, G. kingii. Habitat. — Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas and northern Mexico. I 1. Three pairs of shields in front of the large shields between the eyes. Scales of the back keeled; those of the sides smooth. PLATED LIZARD, G. imbricatus. Habitat. — Western Texas ; Mexico. Detailed descriptions of these species follow: THE KEELED LIZARD Gerrhonotus multicarinatus, (Blainv.) Slender in form, with very long and gradually taper- ing tail. The scales of the upper surfaces are very strongly keeled, particularly on the back and top of the tail. The scales of the abdomen are oblong in shape and highly pol- ished; they are arranged in the same ring-like formation as those above. Colouration. — Above, the colour is brown or olive, with numerous dark and wavy cross-bands, many of which are bor- dered with white spots. The soft strips of skin on the sides The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species are much like the general ground colour and usually contain rounded patches of white. 1 he abdomen is greenish-white. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a specimen of average size, from California: Total Length 1 1 £ inches. Length of Tail y£ Greatest Diameter £ Width of Head f Length of Head i in. (to behind ear.) Length of Hind Limb if inches. Length of Front Limb ITV The largest specimen examined furnished the dimensions given below: Total Length 1 5 J inches. Greatest Diameter i Width of Head f Distribution. — This is the only species of the genus that is widely distributed north of Mexico. It occurs throughout the Pacific Coast region from British Columbia southward to Lower California — inclusive. It ranges eastward into Texas, thence into Mexico and Central America. Synonyms. — The following technical names have been applied to this species: G. ccendeus, G. burnetti, G. wiegmannii, G. scincicauda, G. principis, G. grandis, and others that have appealed to alleged sub-species or varieties. Habits. — As the species of this genus appeal closely to one another in habits, these may be generally summed up under the head of the present reptile. The different species inhabit a variety of country, being found in forests, rocky situations and belts of chapparal. They are frequently found at an elevation of from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. These lizards are less agile in their movements than other lacertilians of their size — such as the swifts and skinks — though they are by no means sluggish. However, they are more easily captured than the majority of their kind. While progressing leisurely over rough places, they are often quite snake-like in actions, the slender body and long tail following the outlines of the declivities, and, although the small limbs are constantly in use, the effect resembles a gliding movement. Such actions 162 The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species demonstrate the close relationship of these lizards to the serpent- like — limbless species. All of the species of Gcrrhonotus are provided with a well- developed and thick tongue, forked at the tip. When progress- ing— if not frightened, and hurriedly seeking shelter — the tongue is frequently protruded, generally to touch lightly the surface over which the creature crawls. After eating, the lizard em- ploys the tongue vigorously to wipe the lips, and even though the prey be a small beetle, that has been swallowed practically entire, the same elaborate proceedings follows. The food con- sists mostly of insects, such as grubs, and the slower-crawling kinds. Captive specimens are very fond of mealworms. Oc- casional specimens are cannibalistic, devouring small lizards of other species, that may be placed in their cage. The Plated Lizards evince the habit of parting with their tails upon the slightest provocation. Captive specimens with perfect tails are rather in the minority. Although many lizards will suddenly part with the tail by twisting themselves from one's grasp and leave the greater part of the caudal appendage writh- ing violently, to engross the enemy's attention, while the crea- ture scampers off, the species of the present genus appear to be able to discard the tail voluntarily by a sudden throw of the appendage, as they are pursued and running for shelter. The abandoned tail twists, wriggles and undergoes such lively move- ments that if cast off in dried leaves or grass would cause enough commotion to cause the pursuer to stop and investigate it. Thus the tail may be said to play the part of a decoy in retarding the progress of the enemy. At the part where it has broken from the base, the cast-off portion looks remarkable, as it displays protruding, swollen filaments of flesh, these spreading from the member like the petals of a flower. If the lizard be examined, the stump of the tail will be found to contain cavities to represent these protuberances. One might be led to imagine that the broken portions of the tail could be fitted together, but close investigation will show that the petal-like filaments are swollen in proportion to their original bases as is a champagne cork to the mouth of the bottle. The operation of shedding the tail is a bloodless one. Some weeks after the tail has been lost, a new member starts to grow slowly, appearing in abrupt, pointed fashion from the 163 The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species thick base of the original member. (Illustrated.) The new tail rarely attains more than half the length of the first appendage. When first captured these lizards will bite viciously, inflicting a decided pinch. They are hardy as captives and ultimately become very tame, learning to take flies and mealworms from the fingers without any signs of fear. To successfully maintain them, they should be kept in a warm and dry place, and pro- vided with sand and rocks. They thrive best if their cage is exposed to a few hours sunlight daily — a rule however, which does not apply to the intense heat of the sun in mid-summer. The species of Gerrbonotus give birth to very active young; the young are born in a membraneous sac, like the viviparous snakes. They are much paler than the parent and look smooth and glossy. At this stage they are strikingly like the Eastern Ground Lizard, Lygosoma laterale. THE BROWN LIZARD Gerrbonotus liocepbalus, (Wieg.) Size and outlines similar to preceding species, but the scala- tion is different. Eight to ten rows of scales on the back are strongly keeled. The scales of tbe sides are smooth. Colouration. — Above, the colour is greenish-brown, with wavy, dark cross-bands, bordered with white spots. In the soft patch of skin above the fold, are usually black spots or rings. With the majority of specimens there is a yellowish streak ex- tending from below the eye to the angle of the mouth. Distribution. — In the United States, this species occurs only in western Texas. In Mexico, it is widely distributed. Like the other allied species, it exhibits considerable varia- tion of colour and scalation, but the differences noted in a large series of specimens are not sufficient to warrant varietal names. KING'S LIZARD Gerrbonotus kingii, (Gray) General outlines and size similar to the preceding, but the scalation is quite different. The scales of the back — from six to eight rows — are very bluntly keeled; with some specimens these scales appear smooth, unless closely inspected. The scales of the sides are smooth. 164 The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species Colouration. — The pattern is strongly defined — the ground colour being ashy gray or pale olive, crossed by bars of pale brown that are narrowly bordered with black. The tail is brightly ringed above. Distribution. — Southern Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas and northern Mexico. THE PLATED LIZARD Gerrhonotus imbricatus, (Wieg.) Differs from the two preceding species, in its more obsolete pattern, proportionately shorter tail and broader head. In front of the large shields between the eye are three -pairs of smaller shields, in place of the three shields arranged in triangular fashion that will be noted with the majority of the species. The scales of the back are strongly keeled to the number of eight or ten rows; those of the sides are smooth. Colouration. — The pattern is very indistinct, and the majority of old specimens are uniform brown. Dimensions. — Total Length io£ inches. Length of Tail 4f Greatest Diameter i £ Width of Head i Length of Head (to back of ear) ... i J Distribution. — The extreme southwest portion of Texas, and possibly southern Arizona and New Mexico; northern and central Mexico generally. Occurs to an elevation of 1 1 ,000 feet. The Genus Opbisaurus. — But one species of this genus is known. It is the familiar Glass "Snake," quite snake-like in aspect; having no traces of external limbs. In North America, it is the only limbless representative of the Family Anguidce. The limbless species of this family occur principally in southern Europe, Asia and Africa. The Sheltopusic (Pseudopus apus), and the Blind "Worm" (Anguis fragilis), are familiar Old World examples. A description of the New World species follows: THE GLASS "SNAKE" Opbisaurus ventralis, (Linn.) The body is slender, elongated and very serpentine, with no traces of limbs. From a snake, however, this creature may at 165 The Plated Lizards and Snake -like Species once be told by the presence of well-developed eye-lids and ear-open- ings, while the abdomen is provided, in place of the broad, crawl- ing scutes of a snake, with numerous rows of smooth and over- lapping scales, which are of no use in locomotion. The scales of the back are arranged in ring-like rows. Along each side of the body is a deep fold, this dividing the dark ground colour of the upper surface with the pale hue of the abdomen. The fold extends from behind the head to the base of the tail and defines the proper beginning of the latter appendage, which forms about two-thirds the entire length of the reptile. The upper surface is smooth and glassy. Although the general formation of the body appeals to a snake, this reptile is more rigid in body than a serpent and thus incapable of as- suming the many graceful, lateral undulations of the ophidian. It progresses by means of a few, rather stiff, undulatory move- ments from side to side. Colouration. — Ground colour above, olive, brown or black, with several dots of bright green, within each scale; on the neck these spots form lines. The head is speckled with the same bright colour. Beneath, the colour is uniform, greenish-white. On some specimens the spots on the sides fuse in a fashion that produces the effect of narrow and serrated greenish stripes. On occasional specimens the spots of both the sides and the back thus fuse, imparting a narrowly striped pattern over the entire upper surface. Dimensions. — The measurements of an average-sized adult are given: Total Length ... .27 inches. Length of Tail . . . 17} Greatest Diameter Width of Head. Length of Head i The largest specimen examined measured 37 1-2 inches in length, which was considerably in excess of the normal. This specimen is in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass. Distribution. — The Glass "Snake" is widely distributed and occurs well into the North, although not along the Atlantic coast, in the most northern part of its range. In the extreme 166 The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species East it is common from North Carolina to Florida. In the cen- tral portion of the United States, however, it occurs in Nebraska (its western limit of distribution), Wisconsin and Illinois. It extends southward through Texas and into northern Mexico. Habits. — That the Glass "Snake" is able, after being shat- tered into many fragments, to collect itself together again and continue to exist as before the injury, is an old, but wholly erroneous idea. The species is odd only from the fact that a true lizard can be so destitute of crawling appendages. Its habits are quite ordinary, despite the eccentric form. Like the character observed among many lizards to a more or less marked degree, the Glass "Snake" may readily divest itself of its tail in case of emergency. As it happens with this particular species, the body parts with the tail with more facility than is noted among most lizards. The reptile cannot be ap- propriately described as "brittle" for the loss of the tail is largely voluntarily and in many instances permits the lizard to make its escape from an enemy, and ultimately grow a new, though abbreviated caudal appendage. When pursued, this creature glides away at anything but a rapid gait as compared to the dash of most lizards. It stands but little chance of escape by ordinary flight. Let us suppose the creature to be pursued by a very common enemy — the king snake. As the pursuer overtakes his prey, he grasps it at once. There is a sudden, twisting movement on the part of the Glass "Snake," and the victor finds that the smooth, scaly length he holds in his jaws is so vigorous that it requires much atten- tion, for it twists and wriggles with great energy. Swallowing all his prey head first, the cannibal works his jaws along the victim to engulf it from such a position, when, after much manoeuvring with the writhing quarry, the snake stops in some embarrassment. There is no head. The object that has engaged so much attention is simply the long tail of the lizard and the abbreviated owner has glided to safety. Rather retiring in habits, the Glass "Snake" spends much of its time in burrowing. Its food consists of earthworms, slugs, and the larvae of insects. When prowling it sometimes ransacks the nest of some small bird that builds upon the ground, and breaking the egg-shells with its strong jaws, laps up the con- tents with the flat, bluntly forked tongue. 167 The Plated Lizards and Snake-like Species The Family Aniellidce: The family is composed of a single genus and but one species, which is probably a much degenerated form of the Anguidcz. BLIND "WORM"— WORM "SNAKE"— WORM LIZARD Aniella pulchra, (Gray) Small and worm-like. Ears concealed; eyes covered with transluscent skin, and useless. Scales smooth and shining, arranged the same beneath as above; head pointed. The species looks somewhat like the European Blind "Worm " (Anguis fragilis). Colouration. — Brown, or silvery gray; a dark band on the back and a band on each side of the body. Scales often edged with brown. Variations. — A dark, purplish variety is sometimes found. It is yellowish beneath. Dimensions. — Total length, 7^ inches; length of tail, 2$ inches. Distribution. — Southern California, from San Francisco southward. The majority of specimens are from San Diego County. Habits. — A burrowing form. 168 CHAPTER XIX: THE BEADED LIZARDS FAMILY HELODERMATID^E A Family Composed of but Two Species — The Gila Monster and the Mexican Beaded Lizard — Both of the Genus HELODERMA Descriptions of the Species — Their Habits HEAVY-BODIED, vividly marked, and with skin possessing closely set, bead-like tubercles, the two species comprising the family Helodermatidce are quite unique in form and thus easily distinguishable from the other North American lacertilians. They are, moreover, poisonous, being provided with grooved fangs, which appeal much in their make-up to the poison conduct- ing teeth of those serpents belonging to the division Opistho- glypha. These creatures are the only known poisonous lizards inhabiting the New World. One is confined to southern Ari- zona and New Mexico; the other is found in western Mexico and northern Central America. The latter species really occurs far south of the limits embraced by this work, but it is included in order to present a perfect outline of this family. Considerable has appeared in print concerning the poisonous nature of the Beaded Lizards. Different opinions vary to a great degree. Some writers allege that they are but mildly poisonous, with a venom but slightly dangerous to mankind, and these authors are usually men of technical knowledge, but unfortunately given to theory after the examination of alco- holic specimens. Other, and more popular writers, who have actually observed the lizards in the wild state and noted their actions upon capture, declare them very poisonous. And yet there are others, and among them scientific men, who have scoffed at the idea of these reptiles being in any way venomous. Similar assertions have been frequent in relation to certain snakes that are actually dangerous — simply because persons bitten by these snakes have suffered no ill effects beyond a few superficial lacerations produced by the teeth — a condition 169 The Beaded Lizards followed by an emphatic declaration that the particular creature was wholly innocuous. As is usual, such hasty conclusions are of but little or no value and the incident in question may be easily explained. The person bitten was luckily seized only by the solid teeth, with which all snakes are provided, and not by the fangs, as the poison-conducting teeth, with that kind of snake, are situated in the rear of the upper jaw. But to return to the Beaded Lizards. These reptiles do not always eject their venom when biting. The fangs are on the lower jaw bones, and as they are simply grooved, do not constitute the perfect instruments for the forcible injection of poison as those possessed by the Crotaline* and Elapinef snakes. Thus it may be understood how accidents have happened, serious consequences avoided and consequent and energetic denials of the venomous nature of these lizards have followed. After years of observation the writer unhesitatingly states that he considers the Beaded Lizards to be dangerously poisonous to man, and should be quite as much respected with that regard as the majority of venomous serpents. As very appropriately in line, he quotes an excellent authority on the poisons of rep- tiles— Dr. Gustav Langmann:t "The first confirmation of its" (the Gila Monster's) "poison- ous nature seemed to be established by the discovery of grooved teeth, about 3-4 mm. long, four on either branch of both maxilla and mandibular. . . . The mandibular appears somewhat swollen, owing to the projection of its disproportionately large, elongated submaxillary glands, whose four separate ducts lead to the base of the above-described grooved teeth. The buccal secretion is whitish, transparent, slightly turbid, somewhat viscid, alkaline. ... It has the fragrant odour of ca'amus" (sweet- flag). . . . "When biting on a rubber :ord an animal yields on the average five to six drops; a large animal once gave twenty-two drops. The saliva dries in grayish-white scales to one-eighth or one-tenth of its original weight. "The arrangement of the teeth and of the glands makes us understand why opinions as to the poisonous nature of heloderma have differed so widely. When an animal seizes its victim only with the front teeth, or does not lie on its back while biting, none, or very little of the buccal secretion may enter the wound. When, * The thick-bodied poisonous serpents — the rattlesnakes, copper- head, moccasin and fer-de-lance. t Represented in the New World by the Coral Snakes. J Reference Handbook of Medical Sciences. 170 The Beaded Lizarda however, a vigorous bite has been inflicted, the consequent phe- nomena have proven the venomous character beyond any doubt, and the hypodermic application of the pure saliva in sufficient doses has invariably proved fatal to the animals experimented upon — rabbits, mice and frogs. "The first effect of the injection — an inability to sit or stand —is manifested after a short time, about ten to fifteen minutes in frogs, thirty minutes in rabbits. A certain drowsiness, similar to a narcosis, overpowers the animal; paralysis and insensibility seem to proceed from behind forward. The respiration is not laboured, but becomes gradually slower and superficial until the animal expires after a few hours with some hardly noticeable twitchings. The heart has first a period of increased activity, which is followed by gradual paralysis and a great fall of arterial pressure, due to vascular dilatation. While these symptoms appear after a small dose of venom, large doses seem to act directly upon the heart muscle, the animals dying within ten to twenty minutes with dyspnoea and convulsions. . . . The local symptoms, with rare exceptions, are entirely wanting; it is even difficult to find the spot where the venom has been injected. Yet it ought not to be forgotten that a few cases of persons bitten by a heloderma are on record in which extensive and painful local swell- ing is noted. "The autopsy shows nothing but a very much dilated heart and an enormous venous congestion of all internal organs. The microscopical examination of the spinal cord, however, reveals extensive changes in the ganglion cells of the anterior horns; in fact, Baily found the changes almost identical with those de- scribed as due to the action of snake venom. It is not hard to believe, therefore, that snake venom and the saliva of heloderma are almost identical in chemical composition. . . . "Treatment. — It is to be expected that the persons bitten by a heloderma will seldom exhibit grave symptoms, except when accidentally a blood vessel has been struck directly. A treat- ment after general surgical principles will suffice to subdue the local phenomena, while the organism has time to overcome the effects of the injected toxin. Yet a ligature ought not to be omitted, and otherwise the use of anti-venomous serum should be resorted to as well. The similarity of the toxins of snake venom and the saliva of heloderma justifies the administration of the same antidote." The two species of Beaded Lizards may be generally dis- tinguished, as follows: Pink, or reddish yellow, and black. Head mottled with the lighter hue. GILA MONSTER, H. 171 The Beaded Lizards Pale yellow and black Head entirely black. MEXICAN BEADED LIZARD, H. Detailed descriptions are given herewith: THE GILA MONSTER* Heloderma suspectum, (Cope) Form and surface unlike other lizards; in place of scales, the body is covered with bead-like tubercles or points. Body stout, with short, stubby limbs. Tail short and thick — rounded. Colouration. — Very variable as to pattern. The head and body are marbled with black and a pale hue, which may be salmon pink, flesh-colour, pinkish, white, or pale yellow. With some specimens the pale hue predominates — with others, the black. The top of the head generally shows considerable of the pinkish or yellowish markings. Beneath, the colouration is much the same as above. Dimensions. — The largest specimen of the Gila Monster that the writer has had the opportunity to examine, showed a total length of twenty-four inches, which is considerably over the average — this being given in the table of measurements: Total Length 19 inches. Width of Body 3f Length of Tail 6 Diameter of Tail I \ Width of Head 2} Length of Head z\ Distribution. — Desert regions of southern Arizona and New Mexico — the valleys of the Gila River and its tributaries. A few specimens have been taken in extreme northern Mexico. Habits of the Gila Monster In a wild state this creature is vicious and not nearly so sluggish in actions as is generally believed. It will turn and snap with the agility of an angry dog. In captivity, where it thrives and soon becomes accustomed to its surroundings, this lizard becomes the most docile of creatures and will permit itself * Pronounced "Heeln Monster." 172 I I § fe fl g *.l £V2 O C/3 •O o I CIO a .a (D i I The Beaded Lizards to be handled in the most unceremonious manner without dis- playing a trace of bad temper. A wild Gila Monster is a really formidable creature, if human arm or limb be within reach of its powerful jaws. The reptile's sudden twists as it snaps from side to side are wonderfully agile and difficult to avoid. During such demonstrations it gives voice to sharp hisses and opens its jaws widely, disclosing the black mouth-parts. Unfortunate indeed is the unwary one seized in those fang-studded jaws, for the lizard retains its hold with a tenacity rivalling a bulldog. The jaws must be actually pried or torn apart in order to free the object grasped, but to do this is beyond the power of the unaided fingers. If the head of the reptile be severed from the body, the vise-like grip remains the same. It is when the jaws are thus engaged and the fangs of the lower are imbedded that the poisonous saliva flows from the swollen glands of the chin, fills the grooves of the venom- conducting teeth and is absorbed into the wounds caused by them. The writer remembers an experience with four freshly captured specimens that were snapping and hissing, when a stout strap was placed within reach of one of them. The strap was seized quickly, when another portion of its length was placed in front of a second specimen, which also took hold. This was continued until all four lizards had grasped the strap when it was suspended from a hook in the wall, the pugnacious creatures hanging by their jaws for ten minutes or more, when they dropped off, one after another. Subsequently, one of these same lizards seized a large rat snake (Coluber obsoletus lindheimeri), by the middle of the body. The snake writhed and coiled about its adversary in its efforts to escape, but these struggles appeared to infuriate the lizard, which retained its hold until the serpent was all but dead. The snake died a few hours after, either from the effects of the lizard's poison, or from internal injuries pro- duced by the powerful jaws of its adversary — possibly a com- bination of both. The four specimens described became very tame after a few weeks in captivity — a condition observed with most spec- imens. If approached suddenly and thus startled, they would quickly raise their heads and turn to ascertain the condition of affairs. They seemingly enjoyed the process of having their backs scratched and would lie motionless while this attention The Beaded Lizards was bestowed. At the time of writing the specimens have been over four years in captivity and share a cage with a number of colubrine snakes, over which they walk or are crawled upon by the serpents amid a display of good nature on either side. As is the case with the majority of reptiles, the effects of outdoor air and unadulterated sunshine exercise a peculiar influence over the Gila Monster. Tame and docile specimens may be taken from an indoor cage and placed on a sandbank, well heated by a summer sun, when a quick mental change is noted. Within a few minutes they are actively nosing about, or digging burrows and when disturbed flash into a state of vicious- ness equalling that of perfectly wild specimens. This demeanour soon vanishes when the reptile is again placed indoors, although the temperature of the cage may fully equal that of the sandbank. In its progression, the Gila Monster is rather slow and me- thodical. The body is not raised from the ground, but rather dragged along by the stout limbs. The actions are, however, by no means clumsy, and when annoyed but not inclined to fight, it moves with some show of agility, though no actual speed. During its progress the forked tongue is frequently em- ployed to examine the ground over which the creature crawls. Like other lizards, the skin of this species is shed in patches, although these are often large. Sometimes the skin of the en- tire under surface, and a great part of that of the back, strips off in one section, while that covering the limbs, head and tail is shed a day or so later. The food of this species while in a wild state, is not definitely known. Many speculations have been advanced as to its char- acter. Some allege that the natural food consists of ants; others assert that these reptiles feed only upon the eggs of birds and reptiles. Certain it is that in captivity the Gila Monster shows a decided liking for the eggs of fowls and reptiles and likewise decided indifference for insects and their larvae. It is an inter- esting spectacle to see a number of captive specimens grouped about a pan containing beaten eggs, greedily lapping the con- tents with their long, flat tongues, then raising their heads to permit the fluid to run down their throats. Chopped meat may be mixed with the eggs, forming a wholesome combination on which the reptiles thrive. They will consume the crumbled pieces of hard-boiled eggs. If given an egg entire, they break 174 The Beaded Lizards a hole through one end of the shell and lap out the contents. The small, soft-shelled eggs of lizards and the smaller snakes are masticated and taken as a whole. Relative to the feeding habits, the structure of the tail of this lizard must be explained. It acts as a reservoir for the storage of nourishment, when food cannot be obtained. Among various specimens of both species of the Beaded Lizards, there is usually to be noted a marked difference as to the thickness of the tail. This either appeals to well-fed specimens, or to those that have been fasting and absorbed the fat from the tail. After a lizard of this genus has been feeding steadily, the tail becomes very thick and round. A specimen with the caudal appendage in this condition can fast for some months with- out discomfort, but during that time the tail steadily decreases in circumference. Thus it appears evident that Nature has provided the Beaded Lizards with a reservoir for surplus nourishment, and that they experience difficulty at certain times of the year in procuring food. The Gila Monster is oviparous, depositing rather large, soft-shelled eggs, which are buried in the sand of its native home. A captive specimen deposited five eggs. One is figured. Illustra- tion of a female and egg. Concerning the breeding habits of the Arizona species, Walter Ralston, a sympathetic observer of reptiles, has given the writer valuable information. Mr. Ralston has collected many Gila Monsters in Arizona and explains that the eggs are laid in July and August. The female scoops out a hole in damp sand, and deposits her eggs therein, when the sand is shovelled back again, entirely cover- ing the eggs. A number of nests were discovered, and in these the eggs varied from six to thirteen. The majority of the eggs were buried to a depth of from three to five inches. The situa- tion generally selected was open and exposed to the sun for the greater part of the day, though the nest was usually dug near a stream, were the infiltration kept the sand continually moist- ened. The adaptation of such conditions for the development of a reptile egg may be readily appreciated — moisture combined with the heat of the sun. Several specimens captured by Mr. Ralston deposited eggs and he thus had admirable opportunities of studying the period The Beaded Lizards of incubation. Of the batch obtained half of them were placed in damp sand and exposed to the sun. The other half was buried in dry sand and likewise placed in the sunlight. The eggs that were kept damp hatched within a period of from twenty- eight to thirty days. Those placed in the dry sand shrivelled into small, hard and shapeless masses. Upon first hatching the youngsters were of stout appearance and about four inches long. Their colours were more vivid than those of the adults. Mr. Ralston further informs me that he examined some of the freshly laid eggs and found them to contain minute but well-formed embryos. THE MEXICAN BEADED LIZARD— "ESCORP1ON" Heloderma horridum, (Wiegmann) In form, this heavy-bodied lizard is very similar to the pre- ceding species, though the tail is considerably longer in propor- tion to the creature's length. Colouration. — The general pattern and colours are quite different from the Gila Monster. The upper and lower surfaces are black or dark brown, with scattered spots and blotches of rich yellow. With the majority of specimens, the black pre- dominates, and with many specimens the yellow is confined to single, scattered tubercles. The head is usually uniform black.* With young individuals the tail is broadly and vividly ringed with yellow, a character that appears to give way with maturity to narrow and broken rings. Young specimens are jet black, with vivid yellow markings. The older specimens show a brownish body colour, while the yellow is rather dull and not sharply defined on many. Although the writer has examined over fifty specimens of this species before compiling this description lie has not noted a suggestion of the peculiar pinkish shades so often seen with the Gila Monster. Dimensions. — The Mexican Beaded Lizard attains a larger size than the species inhabiting the United States. Following are the measurements of an adult specimen, from Guerrero, Mexico: * An important character of differentiation from the Gila Monster \vitli which the head is generally well blotched with the lighter hue. 176 The Beaded Lizards Total Length 26^ inches. fLengthofTail \2\ Width of Head :. 2f From these dimensions, the proportionately much longer tail of this species than with the preceding one may be ap- preciated. Distribution. — Between the habitat of this species and that of the Gila Monster, is a wide, dividing area. This reptile in- habits central and western Mexico, from latitude 25, southward to northern Central America. Habits. — In its mode of life and disposition, the Mexican Beaded Lizard appears in no way to differ from the Gila Monster t Note the proportionately long tail. 177 CHAPTER XX : THE FAMILY XANTUSIID/E A Small Family of Diminutive Lizards — Five Species ' nhabit South- western North America Classification and Distribution. — The Family Xantusiida is a small one, comprising three genera and a total number of seven species. Lepidophyma contains a single, Central Ameri- can species; Cricosaura is also composed of one species, which inhabits Cuba; Xantusia contains five species — all inhabiting California and Lower California. The family is most nearly allied to the Old World Lacertidce. The North American species are diminutive, with rather cylindrical body and very short limbs. On the back and sides the scales are fine and granular; the abdomen is covered with plates; on the tail the scalation is in fine rings. The top of the head is covered with large, symmetrical shields. There are three folds of skin on the throat. The species have no eye-lids and with most of them the eye is very large; all have a vertical (cat-like) pupil. The habit of frequently changing colour has been noted among these lizards; this is mainly influenced by light and temperature. The species of Xantusia inhabit barren or desert regions. They are nocturnal in habits. Key to the Species I. Limbs very short. a. Length about ^\ inches. Eyes large. Pale brown, speckled with dark brown. XANTUS'S LIZARD, X. Vlgilis. Distribution. — Southeastern California. Eye small. Dark clay color, with black specks. A yellowish band on each side of back. GILBERT'S LIZARD, X. gilberti. Distribution. — One specimen known; from Lower California. b. Length about 5 inches. 178 The Family X.a.ntusiida.e Eye large. Blackish brown, irregularly marbled with cream-coloured lines. HENSHAW'S LIZARD, X. henshawi. Distribution. — San Diego County, California. II. Limbs proportionately longer. Eye large. Pale brown ; two rows of large, pale-edged brown spots. COPE'S LIZARD, X. picta. Distribution. — One specimen known; from southern California. c. Length about 7 inches. Eye large. Gray or brown, dotted with black. RIVERS' LIZARD, X. riversiana. Distribution. — Santa Barbara Island, coast of Cal- ifornia. Mr. John J. Van Denburgh has added valuable information to the previous scanty descriptions of these lizards and their habits. In the following detailed list, the writer has drawn freely from Mr. Van Denburgh's paper on the genus.* Xantus's Lizard, Xantusia vigilis, Baird. This is the smallest species. Together with the three succeeding species, it shows a single row of small plates directly over the eye. The remaining species, X. riversiana, has two rows of these scales. The plates of the abdomen are in twelve (longitudinal) series. Colouration.— 'The ground colour on different specimens varies from smoke gray, through many shades of yellow and brown, to clove brown. Scattered granules are brown or black. At times these dark granules are so numerous as to become con- fluent with a tendency to form longitudinal lines. In other individuals they are scarcely visible. ... A yellowish line usually runs back on the neck from the outer edges of each occipital plate. Two similar lines are sometimes present on the nape. The lower parts are creamy white, sometimes clouded with brown toward the sides. The young average much darker than the adults." (Van Denburgh.) Dimensions. — Total Length 3^ inches. Length of Tail if Length of Hind Limb f Front TV Distribution. — Concerning the distribution, Mr. Van Den- burgh has explained fully, thus: "The first representatives of * Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Ser. 2, Vol. X. 170 The Family Xa.ntusiida.e Xantusia vigilis were found at Fort Tejon, California, by Mr. John Xantus, who furnished the three specimens upon which Prof. Baird based his original description, published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1858. Nothing more concerning it appeared until May, 1893, when Dr. Stejneger recorded two specimens, secured by the Death Valley Expedition in 1891. Nothing has been known about its habits and this very interesting species has been con- sidered one of the rarest of our reptiles. "Distribution. — In reality, X. I'igilis is the most abundant lizard in the territory it has chosen for its home. It seems to be peculiarly dependent upon the presence of tree yuccas. A glance at Dr. Merriam's map* shows that these weird plants grow in each of the localities from which the species has been recorded, viz.: Fort Tejon in the Canada de las Uvas, and Hes- peria, in California, and Pahrump Valley, in Nevada. "Dr. Charles H. Gilbert and the writer collected speci- mens near Mojave, and found a portion of a cast skin at Victor, California, in November, 1893. In September of the following year, the writer found this species common at Mojave and Hes- peria, and secured a single specimen near Cabazon on the eastern slope of San Gorgonio Pass, California. The first three of these localities are situated in the great Yucca arborescens belt, which extends along the southwestern edge of the Mojave Desert. The last is in a small and apparently isolated grove of smaller tree yuccas, seemingly of another species. "Habits. — Mojave, California, Nov. 4, 1893. About a mile from the station, there is a considerable forest of Yucca arborescens. The many trees and wind-broken branches, which lie decaying on the ground, afford a home to numerous colonies of white ants, scorpions, vicious-looking black spiders and several species of beetles. In a deep crack of one of these branches a small lizard was discovered which, when caught, proved to be a young Xantusia vigilis. Probably it had not yet learned how to hide from the day, for I have never seen another undisturbed individual. 'The key to their home once discovered, the collection of a large series of these lizards was merely a matter of physical exertion. Every fourth or fifth stem that was examined gave up its Xantusia, and in one instance five, as many as were pre- viously known to collections, were found under a single tree. 1 80 The Family Xantusiidae "Most of the lizards were found between the bark and the ground, but many had hidden in the thick clusters of dead leaves, from which it was very difficult to dislodge them. When first exposed to the light, they were dark coloured, and seemed dazzled for a moment, during which they made no attempt to escape. They were not at all sluggish, however, and, if not caught imme- diately, made for the nearest cover as fast as their very short legs would permit. This cover was often the collector, and the little lizards either hid under his shoes, or climbed his legs, some- times even reaching his shoulders. They showed no desire to enter the numerous holes in the ground about them, or to escape by burrowing. Put into a glass bottle they became very light coloured in a few minutes, but began to turn dark again imme- diately after sundown. Young specimens were numerous, and remained dark longer than adults. Many fragments of cast skins were found, but never a whole skin in one place. The stomachs of several individuals contained the wings of some small dipterous insect, the elytra of a little brown beetle, and some very small white bodies which resemble spiders' eggs. "Several specimens were taken alive to the Leland Stan- ford Junior University, and kept for some months in a large glass jar in which some fine sand and pieces of wood and bark had been placed. At first, they ventured out from their retreat only at dusk unless disturbed, but after a few days they seemed to become more restless, and, urged perhaps by hunger, showed themselves many times each day. At night, when they were always more active, they often climbed to the top of a piece of yucca stem placed upright in the middle of their cage. No de- sire to burrow was observed. All declined to show any interest in the small beetles and flies, both dead and living, which were placed in the jar, and finally became greatly emaciated. They were chloroformed in March, 1894. "Mojave, Cal., Sept. 17-18, 1894. As it was not practicable to learn by actual investigation whether or not X. vigilis hid, during the day, among the thick-growing leaves of the living yuccas, the localities examined in 1893, still clearly marked by the displaced rubbish, were searched with great care. The fact that very few specimens were now secured in this previously worked area while the species were very common just outside its limits, is evidence that the specimens found on the ground under 181 The Family Xantasiidae the dead branches were in their true diurnal home, and not mere stragglers from the living yuccas. "The specimens were all caught alive and put into a large glass bottle, but were soon killed by the heat, although care was taken to keep them in the shade as much as possible. Count was kept as the lizards were placed in the bottle, and showed later that several more were taken out than had been put in. This may have been due to a mistake in the record, but was more probably caused by the birth of young after capture. The adults were afterward carefully examined and three were found to con- tain young, showing that the species is ovoviparous. One of the three contains two fetuses, and the others have one each. These total specimens are about the size of the young found under the dead branches. "Hesperia, Cal., Sept. 26th, 1894. Xantusias were very abundant. Young were as numerous as at Mojave, Sept. 17-18, 1894, and the habits observed were the same as recorded there. "Cabazon, Cal., Sept. 28, 1894. A single specimen, secured after several hours searching, was shaken from the dry leaves of a dead but still standing yucca about two feet high." Cope's Lizard, Xantusia pida, Cope. — In his description of this lizard, Cope explains that it may be recognised by its pro- portionately longer limbs and tail, and by the colouration. It is most nearly allied to Xantus's Lizard. Colouration. — Light, pinkish gray, with two rows of large, purplish brown spots, which are separated by narrow lines of ground-colour. The tail is similarly marked with smaller spots — these farther apart. Dimensions. — Total length, 4^ inches; tail, 2? inches. Distribution. — One specimen known; from Tejon Pass, south- ern California. Gilbert's Lizard, Xantusia gilberti, Van Denburgh, has a scalation rather similar to the preceding species, but there are two frontal plates, instead of a single frontal. The eye is much smaller than that of the preceding. Colon ral ion. — Above dark, brownish clay colour, dotted with black on single scales or granules. A pale brownish band, the width of two scales or granules, extends backward on each side of the neck, from tlv head shields; it becomes obscure on i- • The Family Xaniusiidae the back, but may be again discerned over the thighs. The abdomen is yellowish white. Dimensions. — Total length about 3 inches; tail, i^ inches. Distribution. — One specimen known and taken at San Francisquito, Sierra La'guna, Lower California. Henshaw's Lizard, Xantusia henshawi, Stejneger, differs from the species already described in having fourteen (longitudi- nal) series of plates on the abdomen. The eye is large. Colouration. — Blackish brown above, irregularly marbled with cream-coloured lines; on the tail these show a tendency to form cross-bands. White beneath. Dimensions. — Total Length 5f inches. Length ofT ail 3! Distribution. — The species has been found only at Witch Creek, San Diego County, California — in the chaparral belt. Habits. — Concerning the habits, Mr. Van Denburgh remarks: "Here this species lives among the numerous granite boulders, and comes out into the narrower crevices between them a few minutes before dark. It is, therefore, practicable to hunt for it only about fifteen or twenty minutes each day. If a bit of string or a straw be introduced into the domain of one of these lizards it will often be seized, the reptile apparently mistaking it for some stray insect." Rivers' Lizard, Xantusia riversiana, Cope. — The largest species. Differs from the others in having two series of small plates over the eye and the plates of the abdomen in sixteen (longitudinal) series. Colouration. — Gray or brown with irregularly-scattered brown or black spots. On some specimens the spots fuse into lines. Dimensions. — Total Length 7 inches. Length of Tail 3i Length of Front Limb i£ " " Hind " ii Length of Head H Distribution. — San Clemente, San Nicholas and Santa Catalina Islands, off coast of California. 183 CHAPTER XXI: THE STRIPED LIZARDS OR "RACE RUNNERS" FAMILY TEIID^E — GENUS CNEMIDOPHORUS THE Teiidce is a fair-sized family of lizards and its members are confined to the New World. The majority occur in Central America, South America and the West Indies. Some attain a large size. The family is most nearly allied to the Old World Laceriidce. Species of but one genus are found in North America. The Genus Cnenridopborus. — The Striped Lizards or "Race Runners." Collectively, these lizards may be readily recognised. They are slender and graceful in build, with strong limbs, long and gradually tapering tail, and rather pointed head. The upper portion of the head is covered with large, symmetrical shields; the scalation of the upper part of the body is very fine and granular; beneath, the body is plated, in alligator-like fashion; the tail is covered with rings of coarse scales. Strongly forked at the tip, blackish and snake-like, the tongue is a use- ful organ and frequently employed in examining the ground over which the creature walks. It is by the colouration that the species generally may be readily recognised. The ground-colour is olive or brown; ex- tending from the back of the head to the base of the tail are nar- row, but sharply defined yellow stripes, from four to six in num- ber— on young examples. With maturity, some of the specicr lose the stripes and become spotted or cross-banded. The Striped Lizards are among the most familiar reptiles of the southern United States and northern Mexico. An abun- dant species occurs in the Last; t lie Southwest is rich in species. These lizards are strictly terrestrial. They frequent dry and open places exposed to an all-day glare of the sun. Here they literally skim over the ground when startled. So great is their activity in running that the human eye is unable to follow the progress of the smaller individuals beyond tracing a blurred 184 The Striped Lizards or " Race Runners " streak over the ground. When the animal terminates its dash for safety, it stops so abruptly that it seems to vanish. In the preparation of a resume of the species of Cnemi- dophorus, the writer finds himself confronted by the most difficult proposition of any yet encountered in this work. Provided with a fine series of specimens, he has attacked the obstacle from every side — and with little success. For this genus he is unable to construct a popular key and he will not presume to offer any but concise descriptions of the alleged species. To go into detail would be to construct descriptions that could be comprehended only by the most advanced technical worker. The definition of the species is the greatest puzzle of North American herpctology. American writers have undoubt- edly expended an excess of energy in naming species and sub- species— varieties. Single specimens have been provided with full specific names and the descriptions have been founded upon petty characters of pattern or scalation. Among lizards where a certain amount of variation is marked, this course seems al- together unwise. Foreign writers have worked in such extreme opposition that a comparison of the two methods is quite be- wildering. Nothing can straighten out this problem but the work of some one who makes a specialty of the genus, gathers about him elaborate series of all the species (?) and notes his observations impartially. The student should remember, in examining the list that follows, the characteristic of some species in retaining a striped pattern through life, and the loss of the stripes and consequent marbled or cross-banded pattern of others. The Cape Striped Lizard, Cnemidophorus byperytbrus, (Cope). — This, and the succeeding lizard, C. sericeus, may be told from the other species by the scalation of the head. Behind the central region — between the eyes — is a single plate, a condition technically described as "frontoparietal plates fused together." It has been employed to establish a separate genus — Verticaria of Cope. The other striped lizards have this plate divided. (See illustrations). Colouration. — Light brown or olive above; sides black. Two yellow stripes on each side and two pale stripes on the 185 The Striped Lizards or " Race Runners " back. Abdomen red. Appears to retain the striped pattern through life. Attains a length of eight inches; tail 5^ inches. Distribution. — The peninsula of Lower California, and as far north as San Diego, California. An abundant lizard. Van Denburgh's Striped Lizard, Cnemidopborus sericeus, (Van Denburgh). — Closely allied to the preceding, as it has a single plate behind the frontal — between the eyes. Colouration. — Dark brown above, with a central, bluish- white stripe, forking on the neck; two similar stripes on each side. Sides much paler than the back. Abdomen bluish. Attains a length of about eight inches. Distribution. — Recorded from San Jose Island, Gulf of California. The Large Striped Lizard, Cnemidopborus maximus, (Cope). — This, and all of the succeeding North American species of Cnemidopborus, have a pair of plates behind the large frontal — between the eyes. Largest species of the genus; grows to a length of two feet and occasionally longer. Plates of the abdomen in eight rows. Scalation of the back exceedingly fine. Colouration. — Olive brown above, with three brown bands on each side, about as wide as the intervals between them; these are often so broken by spots of the ground-colour as to resemble rows of light spots or confluent variations of the ground- colour. (Cope). Upper surface of tail and sides of neck black. Shields of the abdomen tipped with black. Under surface of tail and hind limbs, bright yellow. Old specimens are so strongly barred with light and dark hues that the pattern lacks all traces of stripes. The young have strongly defined and uninterrupted light and dark bands. Distribution. — The Cape Region, Lower California. The Tessellated Lizard, Cnemidopborus iesscllatus, (Say).— Attains a length of sixteen inches. Differs from the large striped li/ard by the coarser scales on the back, the narrow and brighter stripes and its smaller si/r. Colouration. — Young, dark olive, with four to seven pale yellow stripes on the back and sides, which are narrower than the dark spaces between them. As the lizard grows larger, a 186 The Striped Lizards or " Race Runners '* row of yellow dots appears on each dark area between the stripes; these spots finally fuse across the dark area and into the lines, entirely breaking up the striped pattern and bringing about an effect of wavy and narrow, yellow cross-bands, alternating with dark ones; as the alternate light and dark patches are fine and irregular, the effect is a marbled or tessellated pattern — hence the technical name. Variations. — Five varieties have been described, these re- lating to colouration. They appear to represent different stages in the colour metamorphosis, only. In some portions of the range the process seems to be incomplete; in others it continues to an extreme degree and the change from a striped example to one with a marbled pattern, is striking. Dimensions. — Total Length 18 inches. Length of Tail 12 Width of Head i Length of Head i£ Length of Hind Limb 3f Front 2 Distribution. — Northern Mexico and southwestern Texas; New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, eastern California and Lower California. Occurs most commonly in sub-arid regions and in the deserts. Graham's Lizard ; Tiger Lizard, Cnemidophorus grahami, (B. & G.). Differs from the tessellated lizard in the much coarser, light and dark markings. The limbs are vividly blotched. Grows to a length of fourteen inches. Distribution. — Apparently a rare lizard. Several examples have been taken in Texas, between Antonio and El Paso. A variety is recorded from Lower California. The Spotted Race Runner, Cnemidophorus gularis, (B. & G.). Closely allied to the succeeding species, but each of the dark spaces between the stripes contains a row of pale dots or blotches on the adult; these dots do not encroach upon the stripes as is the case of the two preceding reptiles. Snout considerably more pointed than that of the near ally — C. sexlineatus. Colouration. — Brown, or olive, with six sharply defined yellow stripes; these are persistent through life. Young individ- uals are simply striped; as they grow older, a row of pale dots 187 The Striped Lizards or «< Race Runners " appears in each of the dark areas between the stripes; throat of the male, black. Seven varieties have been named. Most of these are found in Mexico. Dimensions. — Ten to twelve inches. Distribution. — The form described is found in central and western Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. It is an abundant reptile. The Six-lined Lizard ; Race Runner, Cnemidophorus sex- lineatus, (Linn.). — One of the smallest species, attaining a length of about ten inches. Retains the striped pattern through life. The muzzle is considerably more blunt than of any of the other species. Colouration. — Dark brown, with six bright yellow stripes, beginning at the head and running to the base of the tail, where they become less distinct, though the stripes of the sides may continue on the tail for about one-fifth its length. On the centre of the back, is a broad, pale brownish band, extending from behind the head to the base of the tail; it is about an eighth of an inch wide on a mature specimen. Abdomen greenish or bluish. Dimensions. — Total Length 9f inches. Length of Tail 7 Width of Head TV Length of Head f Length of Front Limb i Length of Hind Limb 2 Distribution. — Extends over a large area. Found along the Atlantic Coast from Delaware, southward throughout Florida; westward to California. In the Central Region, it extends as far north as northern Nebraska. Cerros Island Striped Lizard, Cnemidopborus labialis, (Stejneger). — A small species, apparently striped through life. "Nasal in contact with second supralabial; post nasal and first supralabial not in contact." (Stejneger). Colouration. — Dark brown, with six pale lines; a central, clay-coloured band of same width as top of head. Abdomen white, or suffused with blue. Dimensions. — Six to eight inches. Distribution. — Cerros Island, off coast of Lower California. 1 88 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LV • - W*l* W **^^^r~. SIX-LINED LIZARD; RACERUNNER, Cnemidophorus sexlineatiis The smallest species of a genus remarkable for the activity of its members. The present species retains the striped pattern through life SPOTTED RACERUNNER, Cnemidophorus gularis With the young the pattern consists of stripes. The adult has both stripes and spots • • ' j TESSELLATED LIZARD; WHIP-TAIL, Cnemidophorus tessellatus Young individuals are striped. Note the entire change of pattern on the adult THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LVI TWO-FOOTED WORM LIZARD, Bipes canicttlatus Worm-like and practically blind, this degenerate lizard leads a subterraneous life, burrowing long tunnels, through which it moves backward or forward FLORIDA WORM LIZARD, Rhinrura flaridana A diminutive, worm-like species of the degenerate family A mphisbanida The Striped Lizards or " Race Runners " Habiis of the Striped Lizards Ground-loving reptiles, the "Race Runners " — as these lizards are often called — are among the most active of the North Amer- ican lacertilians. They seldom show a desire to climb, but frequent dry, sandy places and the borders of dusty roads; they teem in the sub-arid plains of western Texas and occur in the deserts of the far West; in these places they dig burrows, in which to shelter at night. When pursued, they seemingly keep these locations in mind, for they speed over the ground and usually straight to a hole, darting into it with lightning-like activity. That these fleet-footed creatures have keen eyes and wits the writer has many times noted. In chasing the Eastern species over sandy stretches — after heading a specimen away from fur- rowed ground — he has often seen a lizard turn, after pursuing a straight course, then rush at a speed equal to a man on a run, straight for the burrow of a mouse, or for a small thicket, and disappear in an instant. These lizards were abundant in the district where he collected for several weeks, but their activity was so pronounced, that barely a dozen specimens were captured alive. The Race Runners show none of the changes of colour to be noted with many of our lizards. For the most part, they are insectivorous, but the adults are not averse to feasting upon the eggs of small birds that build their nests on the ground. The lizard cracks the shell with its strong jaws and laps up the contents, with the long, flat, forked tongue. All of the species lay thin-shelled eggs. The female scoops out a hollow in the sand, and, carefully covering the eggs, leaves them to be hatched by the sun's heat. CHAPTER XXII: THE WORM-LIKE LIZARDS The Families EUCHIROTID/E and AMPHISBCENID/E, Embrac- ing the Most Degenerate of the Lizards — Descriptions of the North American species AFTER the consideration of the several families of agile and strong-limbed lacertilians that followed the glass "snakes" and their allies — Anguidcr, the student is again referred to a group of degenerate lizards, the majority limbless, which, instead of being serpentine in aspect as were the species of the Anguidce and Aniellidce, are distinctly worm-like. To the popular eye they are wholly unlike a reptile; moreover, their methods of locomotion at once suggest their lowly position in the scale of reptile life. These lizards possess no scales, as is the case with other lacertilians. The integument is made up of narrow, ring-like segments, which add to the worm-like aspect. Most of the species are provided with large shields on the top of the head and on the chin. It is by means of the segments that these creatures pro- gress. They are movable, and carry the reptile slowly forward or backward with equal facility. The segments are employed in sections, with wave-like movements that recall the crawling of a millepede, or the use of the "foot" muscles of a large snail that is observed upon a pane of glass. Frequently these lizards progress by a series of many slight, vertical undulations, which are always, however, largely assisted by the movements of the segments. In a subterraneous existence eyes are superfluous. The sense of smell and functions of the delicate and invaluable reptilian tongue are greatly developed. The entire integument is also extremely sensitive. All of the species included in this chapter are burrowers and lead an underground life. They are practically blind, as the eyes are hidden under the skin and barely discernible. The two families embracing these species may be easily separated, thus: 190 The Worm-like Lizards 'A pair of forelimbs. . Eucbirotidce Distribution. — Lower California and Mexico. Body worm-like. Integument in ring-like -j segments. Limbless ^ Amphisbanida Distribution. — Southern North America; South America; southeastern Europe; Asia Minor and Africa. The Two-footed Worm Lizards — Family Eucbirotidce: The members of this family are very strange. They are worm-like, practically blind and subterraneous in habits, but possess one pair of well-developed limbs. These limbs are on the anterior portion of the body and spring from what might be termed the throat of the creature. The well-developed toes, bearing sharp claws, tend to make this pair of limbs appear quite incongruous, in the case of such a degenerate, elongated reptile. At the same time, the strange characteristic renders these lizards at once distinguishable. Three genera of the Eucbirotidce are known — Eucbirotes, of Lower California, Bipes and Hemicbirotes: both of the latter occur in Mexico. Cope has concisely separated these genera, as follows : Toes five; all with claws Eucbirotes. Toes five; one smaller and clawless Bipes. Toes three; all with claws Hemicbirotes. Each of these genera includes but a single species. Like the members of the succeeding family of lowly reptiles, the Two-footed Lizards show the surface of the body to be divided into numerous rings, like the segments of an earthworm; these rings are in turn divided into minute, scale-like squares. There is a furrow on each side of the body, which has led some author- ities to separate the segments into the "abdominal series" and the "dorsal series," which arrangement is valuable in detailed, technical description relating to superficial variations. Some writers have included this family within the Am- pbisbcenidce but the possession of the forelimbs is too strong a character to admit their presence in a family where the large number of species are without vestiges of limbs. 191 The Worm-like Lizards As the three genera are so closely allied, but one species is described. The brief key, preceding, together with the follow- ing details and illustrations, should enable the student to readily identify the three representatives of the family. THE TWO-FOOTED WORM LIZARD Bipes caniculatus, (Lacepede) Stout, and much like a very large earthworm in size and form. The head and tail are blunt and much the same in out- line. The mouth is very small. On the top of the head and on the chin are numerous and symmetrically arranged scales or plates. The remainder of the body, as well as the tail is covered with narrow, shining rings, which are so lined as to be divided into minute squares. Buried under the skin and transluscent scales of the head, the eyes may be faintly seen as obscure dots. They are practically of no use to the creature. A short distance behind the head is a pair of small, though well-developed limbs which are very flat, and terminate in four well-formed toes; these are provided with moderately long and very sharp claws. There is a fifth and smaller toe, the same clawless. The tail is about three times the length of the head. Colouration. — Above (just half the circumference of the body) dull, purplish brown. The lower half is yellowish-white. Dimensions. — The measurements given are from a specimen taken near the City of Mexico. Total Length 9 inches. Length ofTail i \ Greatest Diameter f Length of Limbs y\ Dimensions. — This species is confined to Mexico, as is the allied species known technically as Hemichirotes iridadylus, which has a very short tail — but little longer than the head. The third species of the family, Euchirotes biporus, appears to be restricted to Lower California, where it is recorded from La Paz. Habits. — Beyond the fact that these creatures burrow in soft soil, feeding upon worms and insects, their habits are un- known. 192 The Worm-like Lizards The Worm Lizards — Family Amphisbanida: Differing from the preceding family, which is small and covers but a limited area in its distribution, the Ampbisbcenidce comprises some ten genera, these representing between sixty and seventy species which are distributed over extensive areas in both the New and the Old Worlds. Nearly forty species occur in the tropical latitudes of the Western Hemisphere; four inhabit the regions bounding the northern Mediterranean, and the remainder are African. But one species occurs in North America. The largest genus of the family is South American — Ampbis- bcena. The majority of the species attain a length of about two feet and a diameter of about an inch. All are strictly subter- raneous, and though possessing but rudimentary eyes that are covered by translucent scales and skin, are not strictly blind, as they distinguish the presence of a hand waved over them and will endeavour to bite. Captive specimens are quite hardy, and while displaying a marked repugnance for the light, will live indefinitely in a box that provides no medium in which to burrow. They feed voraciously upon earthworms, slugs and small pieces of raw beef. A gentleman from whom the writer has received several specimens, explains that young individuals may often be exhumed from ant-hills. A description is given of the only North American repre- sentative of this family. THE WORM LIZARD Rbineura floridana, (Baird) This reptile is limbless and worm-like in form, with scarcely the diameter of a large earthworm, for which, at a glance, the creature might readily be mistaken. The body presents a ringed, segmented appearance. The head is of the same width as the neck and is covered with shields; it lacks the presence of ex- ternal eyes and ears. Very coarsely ringed and corrugated, the tail is blunt and resembles the head in general outlines. Colouration. — In life this species is of a uniform lavender, over which plays an iridescent bloom, varying in intensity in different degrees of light. Preserved specimens quickly fade to a pale and lustreless yellow. Dimensions. — The measurements of an averaged-sized spec- imen are given: 193 The Worm-like Lizards Total Length 8* inches. Length of Tail TV Greatest Diameter £ Distribution. — The species appears to be restricted to Florida. Habits. — Among the many and varied phases of reptile life existing in North America, the Worm Lizard appears to be the most rudimentary in structure and secretive in habits. Its helplessness above ground may be appreciated after the examina- tion of a specimen, and the absence of the eyes is noted. The subterraneous habits render sight unnecessary. Sluggishly boring long tunnels in soft ground, through which it wriggles its way forward or backward with equal ease, it searches for prey of a like helpless nature as itself — the soft-bodied larvae of small insects, and small earthworms — an adult would rival the reptile itself in size. Seldom venturing from the soil except after heavy rains, this creature's visits to the light are few and consist of an aimless wandering for a short distance and nosing over the ground for a suitable spot in which to begin a new burrow. When such is found the snout is called into play and the reptile bores its way down and out of sight in a manner very suggestive of an earthworm. Specimens are often found during the ploughing season, when they are uncovered from a distance of about four or five inches, from beneath the surface. In captivity the species is uninteresting, as it passes all of its time in hiding, if soil is provided, and soon dies if not given a medium in which to burrow. Few captive specimens can be induced to partake regularly of the grubs or worms that may be offered. If uncovered from their hiding places, and scratched with the finger, they wriggle about uneasily, often opening a diminutive mouth and assuming an amusing attitude of self defence. At such times the tail is elevated from the ground, and the tip held aloft in a manner that might cause the novice to readily mistake it for the head, which lies flat upon the ground. 194 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LVII FIVE-LINED SKINK; "SCORPION," Eumeces quinquelineatus Young examples are black, striped with yellow, and have a brilliant blue tail. The adults become brownish, with a fiery red head Until a comparatively recent time the young and adult phases were regarded as distinct species SKILTON'S SKINK, Eumeces skiltonianns A distinct and handsome species of the Western States. The tail is brilliant blue THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LVIII FLORIDA SKINK, Eumeces egregius Found only in the vicinity of Key West, Florida. The scales have a metallic lustre GROUND LI/.ARD. r.ygnsnma lalrrnlr This tinv lizard is common in the Southern States, livinR among leaves and under logs CHAPTER XXIII: THE SKINKS OR SMOOTH SCALED LIZARDS FAMILY Small, Glossy-scaled Lizards of a Large Family, Represented in North America by Two Genera and Fifteen Species Classification and Distribution. — The Scincidce is one of the largest families of the lizards and its members occur abundantly in both the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres. The largest number of species inhabit the Old World. The family is richly represented in Australia. The Skinks are of small or moderate size and usually have smooth — generally shining scales. The scalation is quite hard as the scales cover bony plates. Like the Anguid.ce, the Skinks present interesting phases of evolution. Most of the species have short limbs but are agile runners; others are serpent-like in body and have extremely minute limbs with which they drag the body when progressing leisurely, but in time of danger fold them against the sides and glide away like a snake; some have a minute pair of forelimbs only, and a few have but a pair of useless hind limbs. A num- ber are limbless and snake-like. The North American species have well-developed limbs and are very agile. Two genera are represented in the United States, namely: Eumeces, with fourteen species, and a single species of Lygosoma. All of these species are of small or very moderate size, with smooth, shining scales. Their glossy aspect at once distinguishes them from other lizards. Of the two genera, Eumeces is the smaller; it contains about thirty species, the majority inhabiting the New World: the others are found in Africa and Asia. Lygosoma is a large genus, containing over 1 60 species; these are generally distributed throughout the temperate and tropical portions of the globe and among them The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards are many of the forms with minute and comparatively useless limbs. In preparing popular descriptions of the North American Skinks, the writer finds himself confronted by a difficult prop- osition, as old individuals of most of the species fade to a dull, olive hue with little or no trace of pattern. Most of the young are vividly striped and the pattern is retained well into maturity. The following arrangement of the species is the writer's only alternative unless he plunges into a mass of what would be to the beginner, a confusing mix-up of technical details: Division A. Eight pale lines on a darker ground-colour. Many-lined Skink, Eumeces multivirgatus, (Hallowell).— Limbs small and far apart; the length of the hind limb applied twice forward, fails to reach the base of the front limb. Twenty- four to twenty-six rows of scales round the body. Colouration. — A broad, central olive band, bordered on each side by five dark brown, and four pale olive stripes; first and fourth of the dark stripes the widest. Distribution. — The Central States. Nebraska to Kansas; Mississippi Valley to the Rocky Mountains. Division B. 5 pale lines on a dark ground-colour. Five-lined Skink, Eumeces quinquelineatus, (Linn.). — The common species of the Eastern and Central States. It attains a length of ten inches. Owing to the two distinct phases of colouration — the young and the adult — it is known under several popular names. There are 28 — 34 rows of scales round the body. The body is moderately stout; the length of the hind limb applied twice forward reaches beyond the ear. Colouration. — Very young specimens are jet-black, with a vivid yellow line on the back and two similar lines on each side. The central stripe forks on the head. These five stripes extend to the tail, where they are lost in a shade of brilliant blue. This young phase is popularly called the Blue-tailed Lizard and the Five-lined Lizard; it is represented by specimens 4-5 inches long. The Red-headed Lizard or " Scorpion " is the adult phase. As the creature grows older, the black gives way to a dull brown 196 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards * and the stripes rapidly fade; those on the sides are the longest to remain well defined. Female specimens retain dull stripes through life, but the males become a uniform, dull olive-brown on the body and bright red about the head. With maturity the head becomes very wide and swollen at the temples. The transformation from a coal-black, vividly striped liz- ard having a brilliant blue tail, to a plain, brownish creature with a bright, reddish head, has incited some technical writers, who have not appreciated the exact conditions, to name two distinct species. (See illustrations). Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a fair- sized specimen of the "Red-headed" Lizard — the adult phase of the species: Total Length 9^ inches. Length of Tail 5 Greatest Diameter i Width of Head (temples) 1 1 Length of Front Leg if Hind i| These measurements are from an example taken near Savan- nah, Georgia. It is only in the Southern States that the species attains such large proportions. North of South Carolina the size is moderate and in the Virginias, Pennsylvania, New York and New Jersey the average length of adult specimens is about six inches. Distribution. — The species occurs from Massachusetts to Florida and westward to central Texas. It is rare in the Northern States. The writer has taken occasional specimens in Connecticut. In New Jersey it is more common. Throughout the dry, pine woods of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida it abounds, attains the largest size and undergoes the most complete colour metamor- phosis. Habits. — Described at the end of the list of species. Hayden's Skink, Eumeces leptogrammus, (Baird). Similar to the preceding, but has a lesser number of scale rows — 24 to 26. The young are black, with five dotted lines; tail blue. Adult olive. Dimensions. — A small species, attaining a total length of about six inches. 197 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards Distribution. — The Central Region — Nebraska to northern Texas. The Sonora Skink, Eumeces obsoletus, (Baird and Girard). A large species, attaining a length of 1 1 to 12 inches. Scales in 26 to 28 rows round the body. Limbs short; twice the length of the hind limb carried forward reaches only to the base of the arm. Colouration. — Young black with five very faint stripes. Adult yellowish, or olive; margins of the scales darker; head reddish. Distribution. — Kansas and central Texas, to Utah and Ari- zona; northern Mexico. Division C. Four pale lines on a darker hue. Skilton's Skink, Eumeces skiltonianus, (Baird and Girard). Attains a length of six to seven inches. Scales in about twenty- six rows. Twice the length of the hind leg applied forward reaches between the base of the foreleg and the ear. Colouration. — Young olive, with two whitish lines on each side, embracing a dark band. The upper stripes are bordered by a black band (very narrow). Adults olive, with fainter stripes. Dimensions. — Total length, 5^ inches; tail, 3^ inches. Distribution. — The Pacific Region. Vancouver Island and extreme southwestern Canada, Washington, Oregon, California, western Nevada and Lower California to Cape St. Lucas. An abundant species. Gilbert's Skink. Eumeces gilberti, (Van Denburgh). Struc- tural characters like Skilton's Skink, but the colouration is different. Young dark brown above, the scales with pale centres. Four pale lines, the lower not distinct, between ear and base of fore- limb. The upper lines are broader than with Skilton's Skink and closer together. Adult brownish olive, tinged with red; head bright red. No traces of stripes. Scales often with green centres. Dimensions. — Larger than its near ally. Total length, 8£ inches; tail, s:s inches Distribution. '\Vestern slope of the Sierra Nevada in the vicinity of the Yosemite Valley, California." (Van Denburgh). Habits. — Mr. Van Denburgh explains that the species is 198 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards very active, and is found in grass and fallen leaves, retreating to holes under stones and boulders. The Black-banded Skink, Eumeces septentrionalis, (Baird). Size moderate. Scales in about 28 rows. A pair of white stripes on each side, embracing a black band. Four black stripes on the back, the two outer of these bordering the upper of the white stripes. Distribution. — The Central Region — Minnesota and the Dakotas to Kansas. The Florida Skink, Eumeces egregius, (Baird). Smallest and most elongated species of the genus inhabiting the United States. Body and tail cylindrical, almost worm-like; limbs small and weak. Ear opening minute. Scales in 22 rows round the body. Colouration. — Olive to reddish brown. Four, equally dis- tant white stripes — two on each side of the body and traversing the centres of single rows of scales; the stripes are margined with obscure, dotted lines. Attains a length of three and a half to four inches. Distribution. — Southern Florida and the Keys. The Black Skink, Eumeces anthracinus, (Baird). Attains a length of about six inches. The scales are in 24 rows around the body. Form elongated and cylindrical. Colouration. — Dark, olive green on the back; two distinct white lines on the sides. In the centre of each pair of stripes and bordering them above, is a coal-black band. Olive below the lower stripe. There is no marked difference between the young and the adult; the head of the adult is reddish. Dimensions. — Total length, 5^ inches; tail, 3^ inches. Distribution. — Most abundant in the Alleghanean region; occurs from Pennsylvania to Texas. The Texas Skink, Eumeces tetragrammus, (Baird). Form and colouration similar to the preceding, but the scales are in 26 to 28 rows. Olive above, with two greenish stripes on each side; darker between the stripes. The stripes are separated by six rows of scales, instead of four, as is the case with E. anthracinus. Some specimens are black with very obscure stripes. Attains a length of 6 to 7 inches. Distribution. — Known only from Texas and northern Mexico. 199 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards The Pluvial Skink, Eumeces pluvialis, (Cope). Form rather stout; scales in 26 rows round the body. Size moderate. Dark olive, almost blackish above; two green stripes on each side, these separated by a black band. Rich green beneath. Distribution.— -One specimen known. Taken near Mobile, Alabama. Cope's Skink, Eumeces pachyums, (Cope). A moderate- sized and very elongate species. Scales in 26 rows round the body. The tail is very long and almost as thick as the body for a considerable distance. Limbs small and widely separated. Colouration. — Light brown above. A dark brown band on each side of the body bordered with pale lines; the pair of pale lines narrowly bordered above and beneath with dark brown. Abdomen greenish. Dimensions. — Length of Head and Body 3^ inches. " Front Limb fV Hind $ Distribution. — One specimen known; from Texas. The Short-lined Skink, Eumeces brevilinealus, (Cope). A very slender, long-tailed species. Scales in 26 rows. Lead-coloured above, with two pale lines on each side, ex- tending from the side of the head to a short distance beyond the base of the fore limb. One of the lines extends along the upper lip and backward; the other begins at the end of the snout and runs backward over the eye. Dimensions.— Total length, 5$ inches; tail, 4! inches. Distribution. — Texas. Has been taken near San Antonio. Division D. No pale stripes. The Blue-spotted Skink, Enmeces guthdatus, (Hallowell). A small species.- The length of the hind leg applied twice for- ward reaches the ear. There are thirty scale rows round the body. Colouration. — Young specimens entirely black on the body, the end of the tail becoming bluish. A row of bluish-white spots over the eye and a similar row along the upper lip; also a row on each side of the chin. With maturity the black gives way to olive and the spots become fainter. Attains a length of about six inches. Distribution. — Western Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. 200 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards Habits of the Species The habits of the various species of Eumeces are so similar that the writer simply gives his observations of the Blue-tailed Skink (Red-headed Skink). This lizard is so difficult to capture that species of other genera, rarer and more restricted in habitat, are the most fre- quently seen in captivity. While collecting in the South in mid-summer, with Red-headed Lizards or "Scorpions" abun- dant on all sides, the writer succeeded in procuring less than a dozen living examples during two weeks' time, although every device from a fine snare of copper wire to a baited hook was tried. They would allow one to approach to within a distance of about ten feet, then scurry for cover. The reptiles invariably bask or hunt for insect prey within a short distance of secure hiding places, such as a burrow under a fallen tree or a cavity in the trunk itself. Unlike many species of lizards that run for an indefinite distance when disturbed, then stop and peer back at the object of their fright, the Skink flashes out of sight at the slighest shadow. As it emerges from its burrow, it looks cautiously about to ascertain whether all danger is past and the movement of a finger will send it back again. Interested in studying the transition of colour from the young to the adult phase, the writer went again to the collecting grounds, but in the early spring when the nights were cold and the lizards were yet seeking their hibernating quarters, after the sun had gone down. Much time was given to stripping the bark from dead trees and during the process large numbers of snakes and lizards were obtained. These were snugly buried in the soft, rotting wood beneath the bark in the company of centipedes, scorpions and ants. On the second trip there was no difficulty in collecting large numbers, though no time could be wasted when a specimen was once exposed in its hiding, as the creature would endeavour to rush to the bottom of the tree trunk and burrow in the debris beneath it. Within ten days over two hundred of the desired examples were taken, showing all phases of the colour variation from the young individual to very old specimens. With the rapid development of the Southern spring, came increasing activity of the reptiles and before the writer left for the North, the capture of a "Scorpion," would have been a difficult matter as the lizards no longer sought shelter 2OI The Skinks or Smooth-scaled in decaying logs, but were living in their summer holes in the tree trunks. Although gradually changing its colours and pattern with age, the Skink shows none of the momentary, varying hues, so commonly observed among the North American species of Iguani- dce — the "Chameleon," the Swifts and Horned "Toads." The Skink is strictly diurnal, seeking its hiding place with the setting of the sun. The food consists largely of insects, but well-grown specimens will feed upon the eggs of birds, or newly born wood mice, often discovered by the lizard as it in- vestigates the crevices of fallen trees. Provided with strong jaws, the adult males bite vigorously if handled and, retaining their hold with considerable tenacity, inflict a painful squeeze. If grasped by the tail, they instantly twist off that appendage. When thus unhesitatingly discarded, the bright blue tail of the younger specimens, wriggles in such an energetic manner that the brilliant, writhing object will often engross the captor's attention for the instant that it takes the original owner to find a hiding place. During observations on a large series of captive specimens, the writer noted a characteristic that appears unique among lizards. Several large strips of bark has been placed upon the gravel of the cage, to form hiding places. On lifting these strips of bark to examine the specimens, a number of the lizards were found lying in circular, coiled positions, a most unusual attitude for lizards to assume. Upon closer inspection it was discovered that each of these reptiles was a female lizard coiled about her eggs. The number of eggs to each example was three or four. These lizards remained in their curious positions until imme- diately prior to the eggs' hatching, ignoring the bright sunshine in which their companions basked and sported, and, during the several weeks' time, taking no food. When the young emerged they paid no attention to them, and the little creatures seemed fully able to shift for themselves. This guarding of the eggs, if such it were, is rarely seen among reptiles. The pythons coil about their eggs until the time of hatching, but the vast majority of snakes and lizards are quite indifferent to the con- dition of the eggs after they have been carefully deposited. The female alligator is alleged to protect her nest by remaining 202 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizards constantly by it, but no guardian parent was ever seen in the vicinity of the 'gator nests collected by friends of the writer or himself. As the eggs of the Skink hatch quickly as compared with those of many lizards and snakes, these reptiles may be said to stand midway between the strictly oviparous species and those which produce the young alive. In their reproductive habits, lizards may be separated into three groups: i. The strictly oviparous species. 2. Those which deposit eggs with a thin integument, containing rapidly developing embryos, and 3. The truly viviparous forms, producing fully developed, living young, like the species of Phrynosoma — Horned "Toads." The Brown-backed Skink ; Ground Lizard, Lygosoma laterale, (Say), is a diminutive, elongated and cylindrical lizard, with minute limbs, and looks more like the smaller species of salaman- der than a true lacertilian. The tail is long and almost as thick as the body at its basal third. Colouration. — Back, and upper portions of tail and head bronze, sometimes olive, with minute dots — on the body — in lines. On each side of the bronze area, is a dark band. The abdomen is yellowish. Dimensions. — Total Length 3 inches. Length of Tail if Diameter of Body i Distribution. — In the eastern United States the species ranges from southern New Jersey southward throughout Florida; in the Central States it occurs as far north as southern Illinois. It ranges westward to central Texas, thence southward into Mexico. Habits. — While hunting for this miniature reptile the writer has always noted that it is very secretive in habits — in fact leads a burrowing life. Large numbers of specimens were found under the loose bark of fallen trees. When uncovered they displayed considerable agility, half running, half wriggling away in a series of rapid, lateral undulations to disappear among dead leaves or burrow their way into mould or wood-pulp. The snappy, undulating movements assist the lizard to a great extent in its locomotion, as the limbs are too short to be of use in actual running. Many times has the writer mistaken these reptiles 203 The Skinks or Smooth-scaled Lizardt for the small salamanders — Spehrpcs or Pletbodon. If they are grasped by the tail, they turn quickly, twisting that member from the body and leaving it as a wriggling souvenir while the lizard wastes no time in scurrying to shelter. Ultimately, a new tail is grown, but it is always shorter than the original. Very few specimens were actually seen abroad, and these were exceedingly timid, darting into the leaves and grass upon the slightest disturbance. Although well protected by its sombre hues, these closely matching the ground, the Brown-backed Lizard has many enemies in the shape of snakes, particularly the young of the genus Opbibolus; the Scarlet Snake (Cemophora), also feeds largely upon it. The Ground Lizard thrives in captivity if provided with an abundance of the proper food — ants and their larvas and the grubs of the smaller wood-boring beetles. As most specimens pass their time in hiding they are poor subjects for purposes of observations. 204 PART IV. THE SNAKES Order OPHIDIA u 5 CH n s a 0, a a O O w THE REPTILE BOOK FOX SNAKE, Coluber vulpinus, AND HER EGGS «)!• 'I HI- OiKX SXAKK. C,,IHl;r Xult,,l,is i EGGS OF TH! GR1 EN SXAKK. f.wfti-liis ••rrnnlia \IIF.K SXAKK, Of>liih,>lu< ,l,,lial,,s tri.infulus. A\O HER EGGS HRKKDIXC. M Mil Is c ,| SX \KI > CHAPTER XXIV: CLASSIFICATION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SNAKES North America is Rich in Serpent Life, as Will h? Seen From the Following Classified List: § FAMILY SUBFAMILY ETC. Order Ophidia GENUS NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES GLAUCONIID/E (Blind Snakes) Glauconia 2 Species Burrowing a. BOID* j Boina^Boas I ^har^a™ "— } ". Terrest^l 6. I. Aglypha: all the teeth solid — not grooved o r perforated. The Harm- less Snakes. COLUBRID^E < Colubrinae ' Eutaenia 1 1 Tropidonotits . ... 13 Clonophis i Tropidoclonium . . i Seininatrix i Liodytes i Storeria 2 A mphiardis i Haldea i Virginia 2 Spuotes i Zamenis 4 Salvador a i Phyllorhynchus . . 2 Coluber 5 Rhinechis i Pituophis 3 Cyclophis i Liopeltis i Hypsiglena i Stilosoma i Rhadinea i Contia 4 Diadophis 3 Ophibolus 7 A bastor i Farancia i Carphophis i Ficimia i Chilomeniscus .... 2 Cemophora i Rhinochilus i Heterodon 3 §Boulenger's system has been used. Semi-aquatic c. Burrowing Secretive d. Terrestrial Arboreal e. Terrestrial * < Burrowing < 4 Secretive « i Terrestrial Burrowing Terrestrial 207 Classification of the North American Snakes FAMILY COLUBRID>E (concluded) SUBFAMILY ETC. II. Opisth- o g 1 y p h a : One or more pairs of grooved GENUS f Trimorphodon .. . ^ibon i i fangs in rear « of upper Erythrolamprus . . Tantilla i A jaw. Dipsado- morphinae . . . •T NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES Species Terrestrial Burrowing III. Pro- teroglypha : A p a ir o f short, erect, perf ora ted fangs, in front of up- per jaw. Elapinse.... \ Elaps. This sub- family em- braces the Cobras and their allies in the Old World, and the Coral S n a k e s in the New World. f A ncistrodon . VIPERID>E •< . 2 I I i Terrestrial i Semi-aquatic Terrestrial Crotalinae .. < Sistrnriis A pair of (Crotalus long fangs f o 1 d i n g against roof of mouth when jaws , are closed. Total number of species : 1 1 1 . Explanatory.- a. Signifies that the reptile leads a burrowing or sul>- subterrancous lifo. b. Terrestrial snakes arc those species that prowl above ground in search of their prey. c. Semi-aquatic reptiles are those that frequent the borders of ponds and streams d. By the term Mvr.v/Ye, we may signify those snakes that arc not often found prowling; they search for their prey in stone-piles or under the loose bark of decaying trees. 208 THE REPTILE BOOK •-JK/teSSKX" PLATE LXI 51 RAINBOW SNAKE, Abas/or erythrogrammus KING SNAKE, Ophibolus getulus \\\\ \ HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Heterodon platyrhimts CORAL SNAKE, Elaps fulvius. (Venomous.) BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES. FRESHLY HATCHED EXAMPLES OF OVIPAROUS SERPENTS THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXII I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I ' * Egg of Pox Snake, C'olubcr t 'ill piniis, at time of deposit Same egg seven weeks later — immediately befure liatihing - •••__ Eggs and freshly hatched young of Ring-necked Snake, Diadopliis A vi\iparous snake and her newly born broorl o{ young — the Common Water Snake, Tropidonolus lasciaius sipcdon BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES CHAPTER XXV: THE BLIND SNAKES; FAMILY GLAUCONllD/E, AND THE DWARF BOAS; FAMILY BOID/E A Few Northern Representatives of Tropical Families BOTH of the families embraced in this chapter are essentially tropical. Of the Blind Snakes — Glauconiidce, two typical repre- sentatives extend northward from Mexico into the extreme southern United States. Of the Boidce — the family of great constrictors (Boas and Pythons) — four small, rather degenerate species are found in North America. In form and habits these families are widely different, but both show vestiges of a pelvis and hind limbs. With the Glauconiidce — though the rudiments of the pelvic girdle and the hind limbs are most pronounced of any living snakes — the hind limbs are quite concealed. On most of the species of Boidce, the rudimentary hind limbs are visible externally, as claw-like spurs; these protuberances are movable and represent the tip of the limb. The Blind Snakes — Family Glauconiidce: This family of degenerate, worm-like snakes, is composed of two genera \Anom- alepis — i Mexican species, and Glauconia — about 30 species, which inhabit semi-tropical America, Africa and southwestern Asia. The species are small; the head is usually very blunt and of the same width as the neck; the snout protruding some distance over the mouth. Abruptly tapering — in fact, conical — the tail forms barely more than one-twentieth the total length. There are no broad, abdominal plates, the body being encircled with smooth, glassy, imbricate (overlapping) scales. On the head the scalation is altogether different from that of most North American snakes (the Colubridce) ; there are a few large plates, all crowded forward toward the snout. The eyes are buried under translucent shields and appear as mere black dots; they are practically useless except to distinguish between light and darkness. These snakes are strictly subterraneous; they burrow long 209 The Blind Snakes and Dwarf Boas tunnels and feed upon worms and insect larvae. Some of the tropical species live in ant-hills. Resume of the North American Species. a. A pair of supraocular plates. (See illustration). Scales in fourteen rows. Pale brown above; white beneath. Dimensions. — Total Length 8-12 inches. Tail about one-twentieth of the total length. TEXAS BLIND SNAKE, Glacuconio. dulcis, B. & G. Distribution. — Texas, New Mexico and Mexico. b. No supraocular plates. (See illustration). Colouration like preceding. CALIFORNIA BLIND SNAKE, Glauconia humilis, B. & G. Distribution. — Arizona, southern California, Lower California and Mexico. The Boas — Family Boidtz: The Boidce is divided into two sub-families — the Bointz and the Pythonince: but one species of the latter is found in the New World (in Mexico). The scalation of the body is usually fine; with some of the species quite granular. The large crawling plates of the abdomen are not nearly so broad as on the Colubrine snakes. Head covered with enlarged scales, or with shields; pupil of eye usually elliptical. Most of the species show external traces of the rudimentary hind limbs in the shape of claw-like spurs. Four species are found in North America; all are small. Two exhibit burrowing habits, like the Old World sand boas (Eryx) to which they are closely allied. Key to the Species General. — Scalation of the body very fine; abdominal plates narrow; plates under the tail undivided. Pupil elliptical. Body stout; tail blunt. a. Head covered with scales. Genus Lichanura. Bluish gray or brown, sometimes with three obscure, darker bands. Abdomen reddish. ROSY BOA, L. roseofusca. Distribution. — Southern California and Arizona. Pale yellow, with three, very distinct, dark brown bands. THREE-LINED BOA, L. trivirgata. Distribution. — Lower California. b. Head covered with shields. Genus Charina. 210 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXIII BLIXD SXAKE, Glaucoma A mature example. Two species are found in the Southwest. Many inhabit tropical America and tropical portions of the old world. They live, in ant-hills and look like polished worms Greatly enlarged heads of Blind Snakes — Glauconia dttlcis and G. humilis. The latter from both top and side. The difference between the two species will be seen in the possession of a pair of plates between the eyes (the supraocular plates) with G. dulcis, and the absence of these with G. humilis. THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXIV HEAD OF THREE-LINED BOA, Lichanura trivirgata HEAD AND UNDER PART OF TAIL OF THE RUBBER BOA, Charina botta . ROA. Chnrinn bollff A true boa of diminutive size that rnnRC<; farther from thr Equator than any "thcr species of the Boida:. Pacific Region, from Oregon to Lower California Found in the The Blind Snakes and Dwarf Boas Yellowish brown or gray above; abdomen yellow. RUBBER BOA, C. Distribution. — Oregon to Lower California; east- ward to Nevada. Detailed descriptions: THE ROSY BOA Lichanura roseofusca, (Cope) Body stout, tail short, blunt and slightly prehensile. Head rather long and but slightly distinct from the neck. Eye large, with elliptical (cat-like) pupil and surrounded with a ring of 7 to 10 scales. Several pairs of shields near the snout; remainder of head covered with scales. Scales of the body in 39 1045 rows. Colouration. — Bluish gray or brownish above, sometimes with traces of three brownish stripes. Abdomen red or yellowish, mottled with brown. Dimensions. — Attains a length of about a yard, of which the tail occupies about four inches. Distribution. — Southern California and Arizona. Habits. — Apparently nothing is known of the habits of this rare snake. THE THREE-LINED BOA Licbanura trivirgata, (Cope) Eye larger than that of the preceding. Colouration. — Pale yellow or brownish, with three vividly defined dark brown stripes or bands, extending from the snout to the end of the tail; the central of these bands is four scales wide and those on each side of it are five scales wide; the bands are separated by spaces three and a half scales in width. Distribution. — The original specimens were found in swamps among the mountains near Cape St. Lucas, Lower California. THE RUBBER BOA — SILVER SNAKE — TWO-HEADED SNAKE--WORM SNAKE Charina botttz* (Blainville) Size moderate. Form very stout. The tail is almost as blunt as the head, hence one of the popular names — two-headed * A single specimen was described by Prof. Cope as C. brachyops; it differs from bottcB in the absence of a loreal plate, bringing the postnasal in contact with the preocular and in the rear prefrontal forming a part of the orbit. 2TI The Blind Snakes and Dwarf Boas snake. Scales of the body very small; smooth and shining. Forward portion of head with fair-sized shields. Colouration. -- Brown, gray or olive; abdomen yellow and immaculate. There is no pattern. Dimensions. — Total Length 15^ inches. Length of Tail 2\ Greatest Diameter Width of Head f Length of Head |£ Distribution. — The Pacific region generally, from Washing- ton (inclusive) to Lower California; eastward to central Nevada. This species ranges farther from the equator than any other of the Boidce. Habits. — Several examples of this stubby little boa have been under the writer's observation. They are very shy and if their cage is provided with a layer of moss or sand, will at once work their way into it, indicating subterraneous habits, when in a wild state. Their actions are much like those dis- played by the Old World sand boas (Eryx). They have a mild disposition and can be handled without showing any signs of hostility. Occasional specimens will contract the body into a series of veritable knots and twists, and assume so spherical an outline that they may be rolled about like a ball. As captives, these snakes are fairly hardy and will eat young mice and very small birds, constricting the prey in the same fashion as the giant members of the Boidce. 919 CHAPTER XXVI: THE STRIPED SNAKES-GAR- TER SNAKES GENUS EUTVENIA A Genus of North American Snakes that are Noted for their Abundance and the Great Variation of Pattern Among Some of the Species — Key to the Identification of Species — Detailed Descriptions — Keys to the Identification of Varieties — Habits THE species of this genus are characteristic from their pat- tern— usually three narrow yellow stripes upon a darker ground- colour. One of the stripes is upon the back; the others are on the lower portions of the sides. The Striped Snakes are the most abundant of North American serpents. They frequent every portion of the continent in which snakes are found and extend as far southward as Central America. From a structural standpoint, they are closely related to the water snakes (Tropidonotus) — a relationship also demon- strated by the semi-aquatic habits of some of the species. All of the species produce living young and generally to a large num- ber, which condition explains the general abundance of these reptiles. As the Striped Snakes feed entirely upon cold-blooded prey — frogs, toads, fishes and worms, they cannot be classed as useful to -the agriculturist. However, all of the species are quite harm- less and inoffensive. It is with real misgiving that the writer begins this chapter, for no genus of North American serpents is so difficult to describe as the present one — and particularly, to treat in a popular manner. Among several of the species the variations in pat- tern are so elaborate, that to describe the different species on the basis of colouration alone would be to bring about a meaningless repetition of exhaustive details. The commoner species vary to a bewildering degree, and in such a fashion that the beginner might be led to mistake a pronounced variety of one species for the typical form of another. As reptiles generally have suffered from the tendency to create 213 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes names for "new species" upon variations of the parent form, and base "sub-species" innumerable upon slight differences of pattern the reader will at once appreciate what inspiration this genus would furnish to the enthusiastic technical worker, whose ambition it is to add to the mass of scientific nomenclature. And such has been the case. Concerning this genus a battle of nomenclature has raged. Even the well established generic name — Eutania, of Baird and Girard, that appeared in their ex- cellent Catalogue of the North American Snakes, in 1853, has been declared to be inappropriate, and other generic names have been proposed, to be in turn combated. One distinguished American authority recognised nearly fifty species and sub- species of the genus. His descriptions of them were bewildering. Some of the descriptions of varieties (sub-species) were based upon single specimens. Among serpents that vary almost individ- ually, the value of such descriptions is open to some speculation. Foreign authorities have treated this genus from an exactly reverse attitude. Species have been run together in such stren- uous fashion that but few remain to represent the genus. Thus, if the student is to examine the few technical works on reptiles, he will be confronted by these extremes, and with a very mis- leading result. With this explanation the reader will appreciate the author's misgivings in preparing the present chapter. To popularise the treatment of a genus of snakes evincing extreme variability, so as to make identification simple to the beginner and valu- able to the advanced student as well, is a difficult proposition. However, the task has been attempted and the student is thus advised to go about the identification of specimens: 1. Pay especial attention to form — whether stout, or irn- elongate, the outline of the head, and proportionate length of the tail. 2. Ascertain on what rows of scales the stripe of the side is situated. 3. Note the character of the spots (if any} between the stripes. 4. Take care to consider the locality in which the specimen was captured. With these suggestions in mind, the student should study the key that is given herewith. From this he will gain a bird's- eye view of the genus and the distribution of the species. It must be understood that the patterns cited in the key 214 The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes convey illustrations of the general run of colouration of the typical representatives of the different species and that many wide diversities of both colour and pattern occur among these snakes. Consequently the key can be nothing but a general outline of the genus Eiitcenia. Those species marked with a * exhibit phases of variation that may be very confusing to the beginner. Such variations are treated in separate keys under the heads of the respective reptiles to which they appeal, in the detailed descrip- tions following the key. Only those species occurring in the United States and north- ern Mexico have been considered. Several species inhabit Mexico and Central America, but it is necessary that our museums should possess larger series than those now existing, before a fair estimate of the standing of these extreme southern snakes, may be given. The key follows:* Division A. General Pattern. — Three Yellowish Stripes on a Darker Ground-colour. 'a. Very slender. Tail a third or more of the total length. Brown or black; three, vivid yellow stripes. RIBBON SNAKE, E. saurita. Distribution. — United States east of the Mis- sissippi. Olive, brown or black; yellow stripes on the sides but none on the back except for a short dis- tance behind the head. SOUTHERN RIBBON SNAKE, E. Sdckeni. Distribution. — South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. Moderately slender. Tail less than a third the total length. Brown or black; three yellow stripes — those on sides paler than the one on back. WESTERN RIBBON SNAKE, E. proximo.* Distribution. — United States west of the Mis- sissippi, except in Indiana and Illinois; southward to Mexico. Moderately stout. Tail about a quarter the total length. Ashy-brown; three, narrow yellow stripes. ARIZONA GARTER SNAKE, E. megalopS. Distribution. — New Mexico, Arizona and Mexico. Body stout. Tail about a quarter the total length. Brown or black; three, rather broad yellow stripes . PLAINS GARTER SNAKE, E. radix. Distribution. — Indiana to the Rockies; Canada to Texas. A very common species. GROUP I. Side stripes on • the third and fourth rows of scales. * From Arthur Erwin Brown, Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, in Philadelphia, who is one of the foremost authorities on the variations of North American snakes, the writer has received many valuable suggestions regarding this genus. 2I5 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes C.ROUP III. Side stripes on the second and : li ird rou's of scales. GROUP II. | | e. Body stout; neck slender; head very small. Side stripes on I Black or brown; three broad, yellow stripes. the second, third] BUTLER'S GARTER SNAKE, E. butlcri. and fourth rows Distribution. — Ohio and Indiana. of scales. [_ Body stout; head moderatclv distinct. Eight plates on upper lips; three yellow stripes on a darker ground-colour. WESTERN GARTER SNAKE, E. i'lcgOnS.* Distribution. — Central Plains to the- Pacific Coast. Moderately stout. Head very broad. Eight plates on upper lips; brown, with three narrow, paler stripes; two large spots back of the head. BROWN GARTER SNAKE, E. cqUCS.* Distribution. — Western Texas to Arizona; Mexico. Body stout; head moderately distinct. Seven plates on upper lips; three yellow stripes on a darker ground-colour. COMMON GARTER SNAKE, E. sirtolis.* Distribution. — The entire United States and Mexico. Division B. General Pattern. — Dark spots on a paler ground- colour. Xo stripes. i. Moderately stout. Gray or brown ; Seven rows of brown or reddish spots. SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE, E. multimaculata. Distribution. — Southern New Mexico and northern Mexico. Pale brown; six rows of small, reddish spots on the forward por* tion of the body. RED-SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE, E. rufopWlCtata. Distribution. — But one specimen known — from Arizona. *Subject to considerable variation of colour. THE RIBBON SNAKE Eutcenia saurita, (Linn.) The species is one of the most slender of the American ser- pents. It is of moderate size. The scales are strongly keeled, thus imparting a velvety aspect to the upper surface. With most specimens, the tail constitutes a third or more of the total length. Colouration. — Rich, dark brown or black above, with a vivid yellow stripe extending down the back, and a similar stripe on each side, the latter covering the third and fourth rows of scales above the abdominal plates. With brown specimens, the stripes are narrowly bordered with black. The stripe on the back is very sharply delineated and produces a ribbon-like aspect- hence the popular name. 216 The Striped Snakes -Garter Snakes Beneath the stripe on the side, is a broad band of chestnut- brown, which covers the first and second rows of scales and ex- tends a slight distance over the edges of the abdominal plates. The abdomen is immaculate yellowish-white. The top of the head is dark, but the upper lip plates are bright yellow. In front of the eye, which is large, is an upright and narrow yellow streak or spot. Like all of the serpents of the genus Euicenia, the Ribbon Snake shows white, line-like spots on the skin between the scales when the body is distended. However, it lacks a character 'that is evident on the majority of these reptiles. This consists of a series of square spots between the stripes, arranged in checker- board fashion. With the exception of one species, the Ribbon Snake is quite distinct from the other striped snakes, owing to its very elongate form. The species with which it may be confused is Osten- Sacken's Ribbon Snake (E. sackeni}, another very slender reptile with bright yellow stripes on the sides, but either lacking the stripe of the back, or possessing only a dull streak of yellow immediately behind the head. Dimensions. — The largest specimen of this species examined by the writer was taken near Fort Lee, New Jersey. It measured 32 inches in length; of these dimensions, the tail composed io£ inches. Following are the measurements of an adult of average size: Total Length 2 feet, 2 inches. Length of Tail 9! Diameter of Body I Width of Head f Length of Head f Distribution. — Southeastern Canada and the United States, east of the Mississippi. It is not a very abundant species, and, unlike several of the reptiles of this genus, appears to retreat from the steadily increasing zones of cultivation. The writer has always found it in greatest numbers along the borders of streams and lakes, in mountainous regions. Habits. — Frequenting damp places, generally the grassy banks of ponds and streams, this very active snake feeds upon small frogs, tadpoles and salamanders. It swims and dives with the ease and agility of the water snakes, and will take 217 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes refuge beneath aquatic plants, remaining under the surface for some minutes. On several occasions the writer has observed these snakes feeding while in a wild state. In one instance he was resting while crossing a belt of heavy timber, in New Jersey. The high, rasping croak of a wood frog denoted something to be the matter. Peering through the undergrowth a wood frog was seen struggling in the jaws of a Ribbon Snake. So vigorous was the batrachian that it tore itself from the reptile's grasp and started away in a series of frantic hops, with the snake in pursuit. So lightning- like were the undulations and progress of the pursuer that it readily kept up with the frog, although the former had a start of several feet gained immediately after its escape from the snake's jaws. After a dozen frenzied leaps, the frog paused to recover breath, and the snake, momentarily losing sight of it, stopped as well, but was all attention with head and neck up- raised, eyes staring in the direction of the prey, and flashing tongue. Imagining the danger past the frog settled down to rest. But woe to the unfortunate creature, a single move brought instan- taneous fate. With the characteristic movement of frogs and toads it folded its limbs tighter to its body and flattened to the damp ground — but that slight movement betrayed its presence to the snake, which responded with a dash so quick and unerring that before the frog could make a jump it was in the reptile's jaws. The observer remained quiet until the frog was swallowed and the snake, with the outline of the meal clearly defined, glided away among the bushes. Although snakes seem to be provided with sharp sight for small moving objects within a reasonable distance, that is, within four or five times of their own length, they appear to be unable to detect their prey if it remains motionless unless they cross a fresh trail and follow the scent. This interest in moving objects seemingly prompts captive Ribbon Snakes and other frog-eating species to display what may appear to be remarkable intelligence for a serpent. When many of these reptiles are kept in the same case and food is introduced, the snakes first seizing the small frogs or fishes as the case may be, at once begin to thrash their tails in a most vigorous fashion, seemingly to attract the atten- tion of their associates that are voraciously searching for the food, having scented the same, to the commotion of the caudal appen- 218 The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes dage and away from what the reptile thus performing, is swal- lowing. There is, of course, a possibility that the snakes thus manoeuvring are merely displaying nervous symptoms in the anticipation that their feeding will meet interference, but so invariable are these antics that the first theory appears more logical. The number of young produced by this viviparous species is much smaller than with the majority of species of this genus. The average brood numbers about a dozen. Unlike most of the striped snakes, which are voraciously fond of earthworms, repeated observations of the Ribbon Snake demonstrate that the species does not feed upon them. THE SOUTHERN RIBBON SNAKE OR OSTEN-SACKEN'S RIBBON SNAKE Eutcenia sackeni, (Kennicott) Size and form like the preceding species, but the colouration is distinctly different. Colouration. — Dark brown, green or olive above, with a bright yellow stripe on each side, on the third and fourth rows of scales. With some specimens there is an indistinct stripe on the back, showing more brightly for an inch or so behind the head. With the majority, however, the stripe of the back is absent with the exception of a yellow streak on the neck. The abdomen is yellowish-white, and immaculate, the edges of the plates tinged with brown as with the ribbon snake. When distended, the skin of the body shows elongated, white spots, There are no square, black blotches between the stripes — the same possessed by many of the garter snakes. Dimensions. — This serpent appears to be a somewhat smaller species than the closely allied ribbon snake. The measurements given are of an adult: Total Length 17! inches. Length of Tail 6J Greatest Diameter f Width of Head. Length of Head * Distribution. — The coast regions of South Carolina and Georgia; Florida generally. Habits. — In habits this species is very similar to the Ribbon 219 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes Snake. It is very aquatic, and is seen frequently sunning on the branches of bushes that overhang the water into which it drops when alarmed. It produces small broods of living young. THE WESTERN RIBBON SNAKE Eulcenia proxima, (Say) In general outlines this species resembles the common rib- bon snake, but the body is distinctly stouter, the tail proportion- ately shorter and the head broader. Colouration. — The body is marked with three vividly defined stripes, on a black or dark brown ground, but the stripe on the back is quite different in shade from those on the sides. With the greater number of specimens the stripe on the back is deep orange-yellow, while the side stripes are pale greenish-yellow. Beneath the stripe on the side is a band of black or dark brown — covering the ist and 2d rows of scales — and causing this paler stripe to appear in bold contrast. The abdomen is immaculate greenish-white. Variations. — The ground colour varies as does the colour of the stripes. Specimens from the Mississippi Valley are usually jet-black, or very dark brown, with an orange stripe on the back and pale greenish stripes on the sides. Frequent specimens from Texas possess a bright red stripe on the back. The ground colour of Texas and Mexican specimens varies into rich shades of green. There are no tessellated markings between the stripes, as seen with several of the commoner species of this genus. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of an adult female specimen, captured near Dallas City, Illinois. Total Length ... 30$ inches. Length of Tail. .... 8* Greatest Diameter Width of Head . . * Length of Head. . .....};; Distribution. — The Central States (the Mississippi Valley) including Indiana and Illinois in the East and Wisconsin in the North, thence southward to Louisana. Westward, throughout eastern Texas and eastern Mexico as far south as central Vera Cruz. 220 The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes Habits. — In habits this snake appeals to the two preceding species. It is very quick in its motions, and appears to be per- fectly at home in the water, swimming with agility and extreme grace and diving to the bottom of a pond or stream and there secreting itself among aquatic plants. Captive specimens are very hardy, and will live indefinitely upon a diet of small frogs or fishes. A number of specimens in the writer's collection were very fond of climbing into a small branch that had been placed in their cage. Here they would coil in a tight cluster, with heads protruding in every direction. Upon the introduction of food they would dart for the prey in frenzied fashion, the lucky individuals thrashing their tails violently as if to distract the attention of their hungry associates from the morsels in the jaws of the former. One of these snakes gave birth to fifteen young on the 24th of August. THE ARIZONA GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia megalops, (Kennicott) The Arizona Garter Snake stands as a connecting link be- tween the three slender-bodied species already described and the much stouter species of Euicznia. In form, it is moderately stout, though less so than the succeeding species. The form appeals somewhat to the Western ribbon snake (E. proximo), but compared with that species the body is distinctly stouter, the head much broader and the eyes larger, while the tail is proportionately shorter — about one quarter of the total length. Besides these structural differences, the pattern differs from that of the Western ribbon snake, the stripes of the sides being very narrow — and all of the stripes are of a uniform greenish-yellow or whitish. Colouration. — Ashen brown, or clay colour, with narrow black lines, or spots on the edges of many of the scales; these spots, however, do not produce the tessellated (checker-board) pattern between the stripes as with most of the succeeding species. The stripe on the back is yellowish or greenish-white, and not so sharply delineated as with the species of the "ribbon snake" group. The stripes on the sides cover portions of the third and fourth rows of scales; they are narrow and of the same colour as the stripe on the back. Above, the head is paler than the 221 The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes body and the upper lip plates (superior labials) are greenish, margined with black. The abdomen is greenish-yellow, the edges of the plates narrowly spotted with black. Dimensions. — The measurements are of a specimen captured on Duck Creek, a tributary of the Gila River, by the late Prof. E. D. Cope: Total Length 24 inches. Length of Tail 6\ Greatest Diameter 4- Width of Head Length of Head f Distributions. — Arizona, New Mexico and the states of Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. In Mexico the species is very abundant.* Habits. — Like many of the Western garter snakes, this species seems to be semi-aquatic in habits, generally frequenting the borders of streams and taking to the water when alarmed. THE PLAINS GARTER SNAKE Euiania radix, (Baird & Girard) This very abundant snake of the plains region is stout in form, with broad and distinct head. Colouration. — Dark brown, olive or black above, with three very distinct, yellow stripes — those of the sides on the third and fourth rows of scales. The stripe on the back is rich yellow; the side stripes are usually of a considerably paler hue. Except with very dark specimens, there are two distinct rows of square black spots between the stripes. The abdomen is greenish, with black spots on the edges of the plates. The upper lip plates are yellow, heavily margined with black. Although this species resembles the common garter snake (E. sirtalis) in stoutness of body, it may be at once recognised from the latter species by the presence of the lateral (side) stripe on the third and fourth rows of scales — this stripe with sirtalis being on the second and third rows of scales. * A closely allied species, Eutania macrostemma, Kenn., inhabits Mexico generally, but does not seem to occur in the United States. 222 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXV I ! I7!- i . COMMON GARTER SNAKE, Eittcawa sir! alls BUTLER'S GARTER SNAKE, Eulania butleri JBBBfiBKSiHSiSB^ES^HSfflaS ,,, - „-! 2 1 / l- ihlii \^ VTOSTERN RIBBON SNAKE, Eutcmia proximo. - > 3 I f4! 1 ! !^ WATER MOCCASIN. Aitcistrodon piscivorus. (Venomous.) BREEDING HABITS OF SNAKES. NEWLY BORN EXAMPLES OF VIVIPAROUS SNAKES THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXVI ' 1.4.10 Evtanio sirtalis. \V\v York. 3.5.11 Kiilir>ti-i rlrf.nn. ('.ilifnrnia. 2, 7 8 Eulieniii I 1 IVx.is. Ari/.on.i. 12 F.uttrniii hulli-ri. ( >hio. 6, Q Eiittcnia sauril,i. Ni-w York. The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes Dimensions. — Total Length 32 inches Length of Tail 6f Greatest Diameter f Width of Head f Length of Head i£ Distribution. — The common striped snake of the Central States, where it occurs over an extended area. It is found from western Ohio to the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. Northward the range is into southern Canada and southward into northern Texas. Habits. — Although many specimens of this snake are found in dry areas, others frequent the neighborhood of streams and pools, where their habits are much like those of the water snakes. When alarmed they take to the water, and diving to the bottom wriggle among aquatic plants where they remain for some time. These specimens feed largely upon fishes. It is hardy as a captive, feeding voraciously upon frogs, toads and fishes. A large brood of living young is produced in August. BUTLER'S GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia butleri, (Cope) Butler's Garter Snake is a peculiar and distinct species, both from its form and pattern. It is one of the smaller species. The body is stout, but tapers to a long, thin neck and a very small head, which is of the same width as the neck. This small head is a strong characteristic and quite distinctly sepa- rates this species from any other snake of the genus. The tail is very short. The outlines of this snake are much like those of the pigmy water snake — Tropidoclonium lineatum. Colouration. — The yellow stripes are vividly delineated and ribbon-like. The character of the stripe upon the side tends to place this species midway between those possessing the lateral (side) stripe on the third and fourth rows of scales and the suc- ceeding members of the genus — with the lateral stripe on the second and third rows of scales. The ground colour is uniform, rich dark brown or black, with a vivid yellow stripe on the back and a stripe of similar colour on the side, covering the upper half of the second, the entire third and the lower half of the fourth rows of scales. Beneath this stripe is a broad, dark band, as seen on the ribbon snake. The 223 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes abdomen is greenish-white, with narrow black spots on the edges of some of the plates. Dimensions. — The measurements comprise an average taken from a series of fifteen specimens. These were captured near Sandusky, Ohio. Total Length 17! inches. Length of Fail 4 Greatest Diameter \ Width of Head A Length of Head $ The very small head, as compared with the diameter of the thickest part of the body, may be noted from the preceding table of measurements. Distribution. — Common in Ohio and Indiana. The species possibly occurs in adjacent states, though the writer's records are limited to the former.* Habits. — The habits are quite similar to those of the larger (succeeding species). Captive individuals feed equally well upon small frogs, toads, fishes and earthworms. They will live for years in a plain box, with a glass front — the cage not longer than the reptiles' length and about a foot wide. A captive female specimen gave birth to twelve young on the 4th of August. The mother was 19! inches long and the young showed an average length of 5f inches; in colouration they were much like young ribbon snakes as the ground-colour was brown and the vivid yellow stripes were black-bordered. THE WESTERN GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia elegans, (Baird & Girard) The preceding species of Euicenia described, although evinc- ing some variation in the ground-colour, do not display any variation of pattern. In consequence, none of these is repre- sented by varieties or sub-species. The present species — the Western Garter Snake — presents different conditions. It is an extremely variable species and represented by several very distinct varieties, which will be described under their respective names. Among these form, pattern and distribution show * To Prof. E. L. Moseley, the writer is indebted for all of his speci- mens— about fifteen in number. 324 THE REFTILE BOOK PLATE LXVII RIBBON SNAKE, Etitania saurita Most slender of the striped snakes. Frequents the borders of ponds and streams in the Eastern States. Feeds upon frogs and fishes SOUTHERN RIBBON SNAKE, EuKenia sackeni Told from the common ribbon snake by the absence of a stripe on the back WFSTERN RIBBON SNAKE, Eutefnia proxima The central stripe is orange or red, the side stripes greenish yellow. By this character the species is quite distinct THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXVIII PLAINS GARTER SNAKE, Eutania radix Though thick-bodied it appeals to the ribbon snakes, as the stripes on the sides are on the 3d and 4th rows of scales. A Plains species BUTLER'S OAKTF.R SXAKE, Eulania biitlcri Owing to its extremely small head the species is unique nmnnc the striped <;nnkr<;. The stripes on the sides usually cover portionr, of the 2r\. >,d nnd ath rows /,;/n f,irk,-rhiKii This is the blackest of tin- variriii-s of I-'., sirtnlis. The central stripe is broken into a scries of dots. Occurs in the 1'aiific Region . SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE. F.iitrrnia sirtnlis nriiinala On this Eastern variety the stripes are entirely absent The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes Aug. Qth. Brood of 31. Female from Sullivan Co., N. Y. ' nth. " "27. " " Marion Co., Fla. 1 2th. "51. " Rockland Co., N. Y. 2nd. " " 16. " Sullivan Co., N. Y. 23nd. " 28. " Westchester Co., N. Y. 3ist. "u. " Bronx Park, N. Y. Sept. 3rd. " 8. 5th. ' u. Sullivan Co., N. Y. In one brood of thirty-four specimens, three were albinos, being perfectly white, with pink eyes, and another, of normal colouration, possessed two perfectly formed heads and necks on one body. The latter specimen died within a few hours. The albinos survived to grow to some size. They appeared translu- cent when held to the light. THE SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia sirtalis, variety ordinata, (Linn.) Size and form like the' typical snake. Colouration. — Green, olive or brown, with rows of square black spots, arranged in tessellated fashion. There are no stripes. With occasional very dark specimens, the spots are very obscure. There is usually a dull brown band, covering the first three rows of scales. The majority of specimens are distinctly greenish. The writer has noted that many females of this variety give birth to litters in which are spotted individuals like the parent and others with three distinct stripes. Owing to these conditions the variety cannot be regarded as very distinct or constant. Distribution. — Southeastern Canada and the United States generally, east of the Mississippi River. The greater number of specimens come from the New England States. This snake is not so abundant as the typical form, although it covers much the same area of distribution. THE RED-BARRED GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia sirtalis, variety parietalis, (Say) Colouration. — This variety is distinct, owing to the fusing together of the black spots on each side of the central stripe, and the fusing of the lower series of spots into the solid black area above, thus restricting the ground-colour to narrow bars 237 Thtt Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes between the latter series of spots; these bars are usually bright brick red* The area covered by the spots is not black with all specimens of this form. Some show a rich brown tinge — others a dull olive. The central stripe is distinct, and may be yellow, greenish, or red. The side stripe on many specimens comes in contact with the red bars and imparts a wavy, chain-like out- line, especially on the forward portion of the body. The top of the head is pale olive, or reddish-yellow. Beneath, this form may be dull yellow, green or olive, with the chin much paler. Dimensions. — Total Length 25^ inches. Length ofTail 6£ Greatest Diameter f Width of Head T\ Length of Head 1 1 Distribution. — Occurs commonly throughout the plains region, from Montana to Texas and westward to California and Washington. It has also been taken in the Eastern States, but in the latter is very rare. PICKERING'S GARTER SNAKE EuUenia sirtalis, variety pickeringii, (B. & G.) Pickering's Garter Snake represents a phase of variation from the ancestral form in the direction of the variety parietalis, but carried to an extreme degree. The black, represented by square, tessellated markings on most of the forms, has suffused the entire upper surface, obliterating all traces of a ground- colour and restricting the stripe on the back to a very narrow, broken streak of greenish or yellow; the stripes of the sides are wider and of the same colour as the central stripe. Beneath them is a jet-black area, which fuses into the slate colour or dark olive of the abdomen The chin is whitish. The black of the upper surface is usually intense — al- though some specimens are very dark brown — and has a soft, velvety effect upon individuals that have freshly shed the epidermis. * A colour that quickly fades to yellowish-white on alcoholic specimens. 238 The Striped Snakes — Garter Snakes Dimensions. — Total Length 29^ inches. LengthofTail yi Greatest Diameter f Width of Head A Length of Head... iTV Distribution.— Western Montana, Idaho, Oregon and Wash- ington. THE NARROW-HEADED GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia sirtalis, variety kptocephala, (B. & G.) In pattern and colours this variety appeals strongly to the typical form. Its structural characters are fairly distinctive and may be summarised as follows: The frequent possession of 17 oblique rows of scales in place of the usual 19 rows, of forms of this species; the small, narrow head, but little distinct from the neck; the smaller size of the reptile as compared with others of the sirtalis group. Colouration. — Brown or olive, with three distinct, yellow stripes of much the same width and appearance as the typical form. Between the stripes are two rows of spots, differing in their character from the pattern of other forms, in not being in contact with each other. The abdomen is dark olive or blackish. Dimensions. — The measurements of a mature female specimen are given : Total Length i6£ inches. Length of Tail 3J Greatest Diameter f Width of Head fV Length of Head f Distribution. — The Pacific region, from central California northward to British Columbia. THE WESTERN SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE Eutcenia multimaculata, (Cope) This aquatic species occurs in the United States, only in southern New Mexico. It is common in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico. The body scales are in 21 oblique rows. The species attains a length of about twenty-nine inches. Colouration. — Grayish or brown, without stripes, but marked with six or seven series of brown or reddish spots which are paler 239 The Striped Snakes— Garter Snakes in their centres. The abdomen is cream colour, with black blotches on the edges of the plates. Distribution. — Southern New Mexico; northern Mexico. Habits. — This snake frequents the borders of streams and when alarmed plunges into the water, whence it dives to the bottom to conceal itself among aquatic vegetation. THE RED-SPOTTED GARTER SNAKE Eutccnia rufopunctata, (Cope) But one specimen of this species seems to be known. It is closely related to the preceding reptile. The general colour is light brown. There are no stripes. The forward portion of the body is marked with six rows of small, reddish spots, which, on the central portion, become obscure; they are not distin- guishable on the latter half. The length of the type specimen is 10^ inches. It was captured in southern Arizona. To the Student: In the work of identifying species and varieties of this interesting genus, the student may come in contact with many knotty problems — possibly become enthusias- tic over the diversities of colour and pattern that are always to be found in a large series of specimens. It is then that the writer begs the student to pause and meditate. Do not theorise, and afterward inflict scientific annals with descriptions of "new species" and sub-species, but devote your energies along lines that will simplify classification. Certain it is, that there are among reptiles many alleged species which are doubtful. Is it not of greater value to science, to discover the points by which these may be stricken from our lists than to create others of equal uncertainty? Unfortunately, among scientists, name-making and theory has been the rule rather than practical work to afford lasting results. And to carry out the latter the student must regard a subject from a broad standpoint. Valuable time should not be wasted in hair-splitting discussions. Instead, however, large series should be examined with a view of establishing relationship in the comparison of one form with another. North American herpetology stands in need of such researches. 240 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXIII L A TO . HEADS OF THE WATER SXAKES 1,7 Tropidonotus leberis. Ohio. 2,5 Tropidonotus lasciatus. Florida. 8, 10 Tropidonotus rhombifer. Illinois. 4,6 Tropidonotus grahami. Missouri. 3.0 Tropidonotus taxispilotiis. Georgia. n Tropidonotus validus. MCJLCO. 12, 13 Seminatrix pygaa. Florida. THE REPTILE BOOK PLATF. LXXIV nl'KEN' SXAK.E, Tropidonoliu M>.-m. Young Young examples of this Eastern snake have vivid yellow bands on the sides which cause them to look like the striped snakes QUEEN SNAKE, Tropidonotus lebcris. Adult XVith maturity the upper surface is dull, uniform brown. Thr kind:-- on the sides are quite obscure GRAHAM'S WATER SVAKE. TrnfiMnnnttis graliami One of the longitudinally banded w.itrr snakes. Thr wide, p.ile band on the sideischnracteriftlo Found in the Mississippi valley CHAPTER XXVII: THE WATER SNAKES GENUS TROPIDONOTUS A Large Genus of Semi-aquatic Serpents that occur in both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres — Descriptions -of the North American Species — Their Habits SEVERAL dozen species comprise this genus. They are common reptiles in the United States, Europe and Asia and well merit the popular title — Water Snakes — owing to their semi- aquatic habits. Without exception these serpents frequent the borders of rivers and streams, ponds or lakes, or live in swampy places. When disturbed they generally take to the water for protection. Being agile swimmers, they are enabled to dive to the bottom for protection and remain there for some time, or to swim into thick, weedy places and there conceal them- selves. The habits of the familiar Banded Water Snakes of the Eastern States, stand as typical illustrations of the life these creatures lead. They cannot be classed as economically valuable to man, as their food consists entirely of cold-blooded creatures — frogs, toads, fishes and the like. Although generally pugnacious and provided with teeth capable of inflicting slight lacerations, all of the species are entirely devoid of venom. The snakes of this genus are viviparous — bringing forth living young and in large numbers. Ten species, and several distinct varieties inhabit North America, eight of which occur east of the Mississippi River. These snakes may generally be recognised by their stout bodies and coarsely keeled scales. A key to facilitate the identification of North American species, follows: I. Body striped lengthwise: Dark brown; three black stripes on back; a yellow stripe on each side; abdomen yellow, with three black stripes. QUEEN SNAKE, T. leberis. Habitat. — Eastern United States. 241 , The Water Snakes Brown above ; a pale stripe on back and a broad yellow band on side, bordered with black stripes; abdomen yellow. GRAHAM'S WATER SNAKE, T. grahann. Habitat. — The Mississippi Valley. Olive ; two black stripes on back ; abdomen yellow, with two rows of black spots. STRIPED WATER SNAKE, T. rigidns. Habitat. — Pennsylvania to the Gulf. Light brown: four dark stripes on the back; abdomen yellow in the middle, olive on the sides. CLARK'S WATER SXAKE, T. clarki. Habitat. — Louisiana and Texas. Grayish-brown, usually with lines of small black spots on the sides ; abdomen uniform yellow. WESTERN WATER SNAKE, T. ValidllS. Habitat. — Extreme southwest ; Mexico. II. Body transversely banded: a. Tail somewhat flattened. Olive; small cross-bands on the back; smaller blotches on sides. FLAT-TAILED WATER SNAKE, T. compressicaudus. Habitat. — Florida. b. Tail round. Wide, dark cross-bands for the greater length of body, with red or brown interspaces; abdomen white, with red and black spots. BANDED WATER SNAKE, T. fastiatltS. Habitat. — Virg. to Fla. ; westward to Texas. Wide, dark cross-bands on forward portion of body, breaking into blotches on latter portion; abdomen white, with red and black spots. COMMON WATER SNAKE, T. fasciatus variety sipedon. Habitat. — Canada to North Carolina; westward to Kansas. Wide, dark blotches on the back, separated by lighter inter-spaces of about one scale in width; similar, alternating blotches on the sides, with wide interspaces; abdomen yellowish. GREEN-BANDED WATER SNAKE, T. fasciatiis variety transvcrsus. Habitat. — Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas. Rusty brown above; usually no bands, or these indistinct. Abdomen immaculate •vermilion. RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE, T. fasciatiis variety ci ythrogastcr. Habitat. — Southeastern United States. Brown, with narrow black cross-bands, forming a diamond- shaped pattern on back; abdomen yellowish. DIAMOND-BACKED WATER SNAKE, T. rhoillbifcr. Habitat. — Mississippi Valley to Mexico. Dark green; narrow black cross-bands on back, and similar bands, in alternation on sides; abdomen yellow. GRKKN WATER SNAKE, T. Cyclopilim. Habitat. — Mississippi Valley and Gulf States. (Most abundant in Florida). Rusty brown ; large square blotches of dark brown or black on the back, and similar, smaller blotches on sides Abdomen yel- lowish, blotched with brown. BROWN" WATER SNAKE, T. tdxispilotltS. Habitat. — Maryland to the Gulf States. Detailed descriptions of these species are given herewith: 242 The Water Snakes THE QUEEN SNAKE Tropidonotus leberis, (Linn.) Moderate in size, this species is considerably more slender than the majority of the water snakes. Its scales are roughly keeled. Colouration. — Dark brown above, with three narrow, black stripes on the back (which are often indistinct) and a bright yellow stripe on the lower portion of the side, covering one-half of the first and second rows of scales. The abdomen is yellow, with two dark brown stripes in the centre. If the narrow area of ground-colour beneath the yellow stripe on the side may be termed a band, this species might be said to have four dark bands beneath. The upper lip plates (labials) and the nose plate (rostral) are yellow. Dimensions. — The measurements of an adult specimen are given: Total Length . 2 feet. Length of Tail 4! inches. Greatest Diameter f Width of Head & Length of Head f Distribution. — The United States generally, east of the Mississippi River, but not common in the extreme Northern or Southern States. It is abundant in Ohio and the eastern por- tion of Illinois. Habits. — Having no opportunity of observing many of these snakes in captivity, the writer is indebted to Mr. C. S. Brimley, of Raleigh, North Carolina, for the following notes upon the habits: "So far as I know, Natrix leberis is aquatic and hangs on the bushes above the small brooks. Curiously enough it is only found on tributaries of Crabtree Creek, on the north side of Raleigh and not on the tributaries of Walnut Creek south of town. I am not sure whether I have ever had one to take food in captivity, but rather think I have. If one did, the food was live frogs or toads. I don't think it ever stays about sluggish streams or about ponds. The valley of Walnut, I might add, is much more marshy and the stream itself more sluggish than 243 The Water Snakes Crabtree, which condition, I believe, explains why leberis shuns that stream and prefers Crabtree." GRAHAM'S WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus grahami, (Baird & Girard) Another of the striped Water Snakes. In size and con- formation similar to the preceding species. Colouration. — The back is dark brown, usually with an in- distinct, pale band down the centre, which is narrowly bordered with black. On each side of the body is a broad band of yellow, this in strong contrast to the dark colour above it; the yellow band covers the first three rows of scales; it is bordered at its lower portion by a black stripe, the same extending along the edges of the abdominal plates; for a short distance behind the head, the yellow band is wider than elsewhere on the body. The yellow colour extends forward upon the head, and up- ward to the centre of the eye. The abdomen is yellowish and a black stripe is generally present on its central portion. Dimensions. — The species attains a maximum length of about a yard. The measurements of rather a small adult, from St. Louis, Mo., follow: Total Length 25 inches. Length of Tail 4f Diameter of Body f " Width of Head & " Length of Head f From these measurements it will be observed that the head is small, as compared with the diameter of the body. Distribution. — The valley of the Mississippi and the Missouri Rivers, from the Great Lakes to Texas (inclusive). Habits. — Graham's Water Snake is an agile and timid species, frequenting the borders of streams and lakes. Several spec- imens taken near St. Louis, were hiding under decaying logs, near the edge of a pond; secreted nearby, under chips of bark, were a number of very young specimens. THE STRIPED WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus rigidus, (Say) Very small as compared with other species. Stout in form, with larger head than our other striped water snakes. Colouration. — Dark brown or olive brown — paler on the 244 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXV BANDED WATER SNAKE, Trojndonotus fasciatus The common water snake of the southeastern United States. The typical form is characterised by the unbroken transverse bands RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus fasciatus erythrogaster The present variety of T. fasciatus is uniform, rusty brown above and brilliant, immaculate red'beneath. Numerous in the Southeast THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXVI C<)MM«'.N \VATKK SXAKK, Trofidonotus fasciatus sipirt!u-.i-t \V.\TF.R SXAKF.. Tropidonottu ftuciotvs mnsvernu Told from the typical form by the alternating blotches along tin- greater length of the body The Water Snakes sides — with two narrow black stripes extending along the back. The abdomen is yellow, with two rows of brown or black dots. With occasional specimens the spots on the abdomen follow one another so closely as to produce the effect of two bands, with serrated edges. The under surface of the tail is immaculate. The top of the head is dark; the upper lip plates (labials) are yellow. Dimensions. — Attains a length of about twenty inches. The width of the head fully equals the diameter of the thickest part of the body. Distribution. — The distribution of this rather scarce little serpent is not well known, but general observations point to the range being limited to the southeastern portion of the United States, from Pennsylvania to Florida inclusive, the Gulf States and adjacent area to the north. Habits. — Practically nothing appears to be known about the habits of the species, although it appears to resemble the Queen Snake in actions, and to frequent small brooks as does that species. CLARK'S WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus darkii, (Baird & Girard) Moderate in size and resembling the closely allied species in outlines. Colouration. — Dark, olive brown above, with three paler bands. The central band is about three scales wide; those on the sides covering the third, fourth, and a portion of the fifth rows of scales. Beneath, yellowish in the centre and olive on the side of the abdomen; separating these shades is a tinge of reddish brown. Dimensions. — Attains a length of about a yard. Distribution. — Western Louisiana; Texas. Habits. — Little known, but thought to be like the other striped water snakes. THE WESTERN WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus validus, (Kennicott) Rather small in size. Grayish or olive-brown above, uni- form, or with series of small black spots on the sides (on the edges of the scales) arranged in lines. Beneath, uniform yellow. 245 The Water Snatces Distribution. — Mexico, Lower California, Arizona and Utah. Habits. — The writer has never observed living specimens of this snake, nor is he able to find records of its habits. THE FLAT-TAILED WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus compressicaudus (Kennicott) 0 Moderate in size and thickness of body. A short distance from its base, and for the space of about a third of its length, the tail is distinctly flattened. A transverse section of the tail would appear as a decided oval. This portion of the tail sug- gests that member as having been slightly crushed on the sides. From the flattened portion, the tail very gradually tapers to a slender point. Colouration. — The pattern is indistinct in mature indivi- duals— and frequently so with the young. The ground-colour is greenish-gray or ashy-gray, with ob- scure and irregular darker bands. On some specimens the mark- ings form clouded blotches on the back, and smaller, alternating blotches on the sides. The abdomen is dark gray or brown, with a central series of yellow spots; the chin is darker than the abdomen, with larger yellow spots. The head is dark, while the borders of the lip plates (both upper and lower labials) are marked with yellow. Dimensions. — Total Length 22\ inches. Length of Tail 5! Diameter of Body Width of Head ,'. Length of Head f Distribution. — Confined to Florida. One variety is recognised, on which the banded appearance is more pronounced, and assumes the form of black stripes on the neck. It is tech- nically known as T. compressicaudus ustus. Habits. — Beyond the fact that this species is semi-aquatic and very timid — immediately taking to the water when frightened, the habits are generally unknown. THE BANDED WATER SNAKE; "MOCCASIN" Tropidoti(>lns fasciatus, (Linn.) Size large; body very stout. The head is rather flat, and distinct from the neck. The scales of the body are heavily keeled, imparting a dull, lustreless mi-face. 246 The Water Snakes Colouration. — Owing to considerable variation among spec- imens of this species, the pattern is rather difficult to describe. It consists of dark bands of moderate width, crossing a pale, brownish ground-colour, which tends to evince a bright shade of red upon the sides. The outlines of the bands on many spec- imens, however, are ill-defined upon the back, and with such there is the appearance of a dark brown or blackish snake, with oblong or triangular patches of bright red or yellowish-brown upon the sides — which light colour represents the ground-colour between the bands. Extending across the back are a series of narrow, yellowish bands — these represent the interspaces of ground-colour between the darker markings composing the pat- tern. The abdomen is yellowish-white, with numerous bright red blotches and clouded spots of black and gray. It is with young or half-grown specimens that the pattern may be distinctly seen. It will, on such, be observed to con- sist of wavy bands, crossing a pale ground-colour, for nearly the entire length of the body. These bands are considerably wider on the back than upon the sides, thus leaving but a nar- row and generally wavy line of the paler hue between them, while on the sides, where they narrow, the interspaces are nearly as wide as the bands themselves. This arrangement explains the peculiar marking of the adult snakes, on which the novice might be led to mistake the general dark hue produced by the obscure bands for the ground colour, and the bright reddish interspaces on the sides, for the markings. Very old specimens are almost uniform black or brown above, but always show the brilliant red blotches upon the abdomen. Variations * — Few serpents evince more variability in col- ouration than the present species. The width of the bands vary considerably, as does also the ground-colour. In a large series before the writer are the following phases: a. Black, with brick-red bars upon the sides. South Carolina. b. yellow " c. Black, with distinct, narrow bars of brown crossing the back. But faint markings on • i it tt side. d. Black, with reddish bars on sides, and yellowish, narrow bands across the back. * Several distinct and constant varieties occur, descriptions of which follow that of the typical form. 247 The Water Snakes e. Yellowish-brown, with chestnut-brown bands crossing the body — all bands dis- tinct. Florida. /. Pale green, with jet-black cross bands- representing the most showy specimen of the species the writer has ever examined. On young specimens the pattern fades rapidly during their second summer. Head markings. — The head markings of adults are fairly constant. The top of the head is dark; there is a yellow band running from behind the eye to the angle of the jaw. The lip plates (labials} are yellow, with dark borders. Rather in contrast to the dull surface of the body, caused by the coarsely keeled scales, are the smooth head-shields, which are highly pol- ished. As this snake is frequently confused with the poisonous Moccasin, with which it associates in the Southern swamps, a few words concerning the distinction between these reptiles, may not be amiss. The harmless water snake is more slender than the poisonous reptile, and may be told at once by the red spots on the abdomen; the undersurface of the poisonous snake is straw-colour, with black or gray spots on younger individuals, but indications of red spots are never present. Another impor- tant distinction appeals to the arrangement of the plates under the tail. With the harmless reptile these plates are arranged in two rows, from the base of the tail to the tip. With the ven- omous reptile, the plates are in a single row, for nearly two-thirds the length of the tail, while the remaining third to the tip shows a double row. (Illustration; Tails). Moreover the poisonous snake possesses a large pit between the eye and the nostril which is not present with any of the innocuous water snakes. It is useful for the student to have a thorough knowledge of these structural differences, for by them, the dangerous "cotton- mouth" may at once be told from the several species of harm- less aquatic snakes of the South that appeal to it in colouration and form. (Illustration; Heads). Dimensions. — The Banded Water Snake is one of the larger species of the genus, often attaining a length of four feet. The figures given, of an adult specimen from Hampton County, South Carolina, represent an average si/r: 248 The Water Snakes Total Length 3 feet, 2 inches. Length of Tail 8 Diameter of Body i } Width of Head i Length of Head if Distribution. — The range of this, the typical form, is from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico, including the state of Florida where it is very common, thence extending westward to Texas. Habits. — In habits the various species of banded water snakes are very similar. They never leave the immediate vinicity of water and are characteristic from their habit of resting on the branches of bushes and low trees that overhang the water, into which they quickly plunge when alarmed. If disturbed while upon the bank of a stream and some feet from the water, they almost invariably take to the latter for shelter, even though surrounding shrubbery or rocks offer a safe retreat; diving to the bottom they remain for some time, to finally reappear at some distance from the former spot. There are few reptiles more shy than these semi-aquatic serpents. If escape be cut off, they assume a threatening at- titude by flattening the head and body. At such times they bite viciously and give off a very offensive odour, produced by a secretion contained in glands near the base of the tail and volun- tarily emitted by the snake when annoyed. Captive specimens soon become tame and permit themselves to be handled with the ut- most good nature. They are among the most hardy of reptiles, subsisting for years upon a diet of frogs, toads, and fishes. Capable of displaying great agility in the water, these ser- pents in a wild state feed largely upon fishes, although frogs and toads form part of their diet. Warm-blooded creatures, such as the smaller rodents and birds, so preyed upon many of the larger snakes, are never eaten by the reptiles of this genus, which confine their food entirely to the cold-blooded denizens of the streams and swamps. Though persistently frequenting the Vicinity of water in a wild state, they will live and thrive in cap- tivity, with no water, except in small vessels from which to drink. Under such conditions the writer has reared numerous broods of them. The Banded Water Snake is one of the most abundant makes of the Southern States. It gives birth to large numbers 249 The Water Snakes of living young — broods of forty or even fifty not being of rare occurrence. The female pays no attention to her offspring, which desert her immediately after birth, and within a few days begin feeding upon small fishes. The very young snakes are often found hiding under chips, or flat stones along the edges of streams and ponds. THE RED-BELLIED WATER SNAKE; COPPER-BELLIED "MOCCASIN" Tropidonotus fasciatus, variety erythrogaster, (Shaw) Of the three varieties of the banded water snake that merit distinct, varietal names, the present reptile is the most closely related to the typical form, although in the colouration of mature individuals the most unlike it. This relationship is demon- strated by the young; they are vividly banded above, precisely like the young typical reptile; beneath, however, the abdomen is immaculate and lacks all traces of the red spots that are so numerously present with the latter serpent. The pattern of the young Red- bellied Water Snake rapidly fades from the time of birth and gives way to the colouration described herewith. In size and form the Red-bellied Water Snake, when adult, in no way differs from the preceding reptile. Colouration. — Dull, rusty-brown above. Rich and immacu- late vermilion or brick-red beneath. Except in half-grown specimens, there are seldom traces of bands on the back or the sides. With such specimens the red of the abdomen is paler than with adults, and assumes a yellowish tinge on the chin and throat. A large female specimen captured in an inlet of the Savannah River was of a rich, coral red above, with a faint suggestion of the bands on the sides; the colour beneath was brilliant brick- red. This handsome snake gave birth to a brood of over thirty young, which were reddish-yellow, with jet black, wavy cross- bands. Strikingly distinct in the colouration of the adults, and fairly constant in the display ot its peculiar hues, this serpent is well worthy its varietal name, and is easily recognised. Distribution. — Along the Atlantic coast the Red-bellied Water Snake does not extend farther north than Virginia. In 250 The Water Snakes 1 the Central States it extends northward into Michigan, specimens from which locality are very dark brown or blackish above, while the plates of the abdomen show clouded black edges, which narrow toward the centre. Westward, this snake ranges to Col- orado, while it also occurs in northern Mexico. The most strikingly brilliant examples and the greatest numbers occur in South Carolina, Georgia and northern Florida. ! Habits. — A large specimen taken by the writer in the "low- grounds" of Hampton County, South Carolina, disgorged, dur- ing the excitement attending its capture, eleven "suckers," three sun fish and a craw fish, or "fresh-water lobster." The crustacean was of moderate size and armed as it was with a formidable pair of mandibles, must have formed a very awkward object to swallow. This snake displays much the same habits as the common water snakes with which it frequently associates in the swamps and waterways. THE COMMON WATER SNAKE, BANDED WATER SNAKE; "MOCCASIN" Tropidonotus fasciatus, variety sipedon, (Linn.) This is the well-known, dingy brown water snake, ener- getically stoned by the country boy, as it basks on the branch of a tree, overhanging the water. Its range embraces a greater area than does that of the typical form — covering the Eastern States generally, from southern Canada to North Carolina, and extending westward to Kansas. Colouration. — Pale brownish or reddish, crossed by wavy, dark brown bands on the forward portion of the body. These bands are much broader on the back, causing the back to appear dull brown, and crossed by narrow lines of pale brown or yellow. Narrowing on the sides, the bands are separated by broad inter- spaces of the ground-colour, which resemble upright and trian- gular (usually reddish) bars. On the latter part of the body the bands break into blotches, of which there is a series down the back and another series on the sides, in alternation with those above. It is this breaking up of the bands on the latter portion of the body that gives the reptile its right to a varietal name. Al- though the strongly banded appearance of the sides imparts The Water Snakes a resemblance to the Southern and typical form, this snake al- ways bears a more decidedly brownish aspect. The abdomen is brilliantly spotted with red, and with black as is the former reptile. Variations. — Very old specimens lose the pattern and be- come an almost uniform brown. The young snakes are strik- ingly marked. They are pale gray, with jet black cross-bands; the abdomen is grayish, and the rich, brick-red spots of the adult are represented by spots of black. During the second year they rapidly take on the brown of the parent. Dimensions. — Female specimens attain a large size and may slightly exceed four feet, but such proportions are above the average. The measurements quoted represent the size of the adult specimen as most commonly seen: Total Length .3 feet, 6 inches. Length of Tail 8 Diameter of Body if Width of Head i Length of Head if Distribution. — From Maine and southern Canada to North Carolina (inclusive), and westward to Kansas and Wisconsin. South of North Carolina its place is taken by the typical form and the Red-bellied Water Snake, already described. Habits. — Owing to its wide distribution in the North, this reptile has been more generally observed than the parent form which, for a great part of its habitat, frequents the practically inaccessible swamps of the Southern States. The habits of the Northern form are, however, very similar to those of its Southern relative. Throughout the New England and the Middle States it is an abundant and well-known reptile, frequenting the borders of ponds and streams and making for the water upon the slight- est alarm. It is often called "water moccasin" and thought to be very poisonous. In fact its sinister aspect when cornered is anything but reassuring, for it will flatten the head and body to a remarkable degree, when it strikes viciously at every moving object within reach. The heavy body and sombre colour of the upper surface inspire the uninitiated with fear and hatred for this perfectly harmless snake. When provided with an avenue of escape at the approach of man, the water snake is of lightning speed in taking advantage 252 T THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXVU FLAT TAILED WATER SNAKE, Tropidonotus com pressicaudus Unique among the North American water snakes in having a vertically compressed tail. A small species, apparently restricted to Florida . • v . . Sr, DIAMOND-BACK WATER SNAKE, Tropidonolus rhombifer A large species of the Mississippi Valley. It infests many of the smaller islands in the Mississippi River THE REPTILE HOOK I'LAfE LXXY1II (;KF.K\ \YATF.R SXAK.E, Tropidonoius Cyci<>t>ium A ring of scak- - .Unit ihc o\v distinguishes this species. It is most abundant in Honda and grows to a considerable size for a water snake — four feet \-\ \VA'I'I'K SNAKIv. Largest of the North American water snakes, reaching a length of five feet. Abundant in the Southern States. An extremely vicioin serpent The Water Snakes of the opening. My friends of many rambles and snake hunts, Messrs. Adam Dove and Morris Pearsall, relate amusing inci- dents attending the capture of these reptiles in the lakes of Sul- livan County, New York. On one occasion, while fishing for pike, they approached a great mass of derelict timber and on it several large water snakes were sunning. Although the snakes were some twenty feet from where the bow of their boat lightly touched a fallen tree trunk, the vibration was enough to send the reptiles gliding into the water, where they dived at once. Taking three short pieces of fish line, Mr. Dove tied each to branches near the water line, and on the end of each cord securely fastened a small perch, which was dropped into the water, where it hung in plain view. The boat was then rowed some distance away and fishing resumed. About half an hour later, an examination was made of the traps. On each length of string writhed a water snake which had swallowed the perch and fully six inches of the twine. The strings were cut away amid frenzied efforts of the snakes to shake themselves loose, when the reptiles were dropped into a bag and the twine cut close to their mouths. This operation was immediately succeeded by the voracious reptiles, swallowing the string and fish. At no time did the idea of escape by disgorging the fish appear to present itself to the snakes. Many other specimens were captured in this ingenious manner. It might be explained incidentally that the power of scent is well developed with these reptiles. A cage containing a num- ber of water snakes can be set in a turmoil by simply rubbing a frog or fish across the bottom. The hungry reptiles, catching the scent of the prey, dart wildly about in every direction biting at each other's bodies in their excited search for the food. The Common Water Snake, like all the snakes of the genus Tropidonotus, is viviparous. The largest litter of young snakes counted by the writer amounted to forty-four. Several records of the birth of young snakes are presented; the female specimens involved had been captured but a few weeks. August i yth. Brood of 22. Female from Jersey Meadows,N.J. September 6th. " 28. " Greenwood Lake,N. f. roth. " 21. N.J. I3th. " 33. " Sullivan Co., N. Y. 1 4th. " 25. « tt R Y. 30th. " 23. " N. Y. 253 The Water Snakes THE BLOTCHED WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus fasciatus, variety transfer sus, (Hallowell) Another variety of the banded water snake, and rather smaller in size than the preceding. Colouration. — With this reptile the pattern of the entire upper surface resembles that of the latter portion of the preceding form. There is a series of large blotches on the back, separated by nar- row lines of ground-colour about one scale wide; on the sides are alternating blotches, separated by brownish or olive spaces wider than the blotches themselves. The abdomen is yellow; the base of each plate is clouded with brown or black. Distribution. — Appears to be limited to the western portion of Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas. THE DIAMOND-BACKED WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus rhombifer, (Hallowell) Large in size and very stout in form, with very distinct head, on which the lip plates are protruding and swollen, pro- ducing a sinister mien. The eyes are placed well forward, toward the snout. Colouration. — Brown or olive, with a narrow chain of black markings down the back, enclosing diamond-shaped areas of the ground-colour. At the junction of each rhomb the black is widest. From the lower angle of each "diamond" is a band of black, about two scales wide, extending down the side of the body. The abdomen is yellow, the edges of the abdominal plates being blotched with dark brown, a character more pronounced on the latter portion of the body. Young specimens are yellowish-brown, with the chain of markings on the back and bands on the side very black and in strong contrast to the ground-colour. Dimensions. — One of the largest species of the genus, at- taining a length of five feet. Following are the dimensions of a fair-sized adult: Total Length 4 feet, i inch. Length of Fail 10 inches. Diameter of Body if Width of Head if Length of Head. ... . . 2j 254 The Water Snakes Distribution. — Abundant in the lower Mississippi River valley. It occurs from southern Illinois and Indiana into Texas, in which latter state it extends over considerable area; it also occurs in Mexico. Habits. — Sinister in appearance, this big water snake does not belie its looks. It is usually of a vicious disposition, even after being months in captivity, though hardy and partaking voraciously of frogs and fishes. The species shows a peculiar fondness for climbing, and numbers of captive specimens spent the most of their time coiled and entwined in the branches of a small tree in their cage. Directly beneath these branches was a tank. When living fish were placed in the tank the snakes at once became alert, slipping down quickly from branch to branch, and finally dropping into the tank from a. height of a yard or so, when they rapidly swam about with open mouths, in the capture of the fish, which consumed but a few minutes' time. When the tank had been cleared of fish the snakes again ascended the tree to await the assimilation of the meal. These specimens never became tame, and would flatten their bodies and strike repeatedly at the hand of their keeper if in any way interfered with. A large specimen from Texas gave birth to sixteen young. These were very large in proportion to the size of the mother. They were fed upon minnows and grew rapidly. Within a year they were but a few inches shorter than their parent. THE GREEN WATER SNAKE Tropidonotus cyclopium, (Dumeril & Bibron) One of the largest of the water snakes, and very stout in form, although the tail is long and tapering. The head is rather long and distinct from the neck; the upper lips exhibit swollen formation, and the eyes are placed rather high, besides well for- ward, toward the snout. Owing to these outlines and the sombre colours, large specimens appear ugly and formidable. This reptile is closely allied to the diamond-backed water snake. It is characterised by a ring of small plates around the eye, separating that organ from the lip plates (labials}. Colouration. — Dark green or olive brown, with numerous, narrow black bands crossing the back; these bands are about the width of one scale, irregular and wavy and about two scales 255 The Water Snakes apart. In alternation with the bands of the back, is a series of black blotches on the sides, which are more pronounced on the latter two-thirds of the body. With the exception of the lips, which are yellow, the head is of the uniform colour of the body. The abdomen is uniform yellowish with the exception of a tinge of gray upon the edges of the plates. Although the scales are strongly keeled, this snake is more shiny than other species. In outline and pattern it appeals to the diamond-backed water snake, but may be at once sepa- rated by the absence of a tendency of the narrow bands on the back, to unite and form -a rhomb-like pattern. Old specimens are generally a uniform, dull olive above. Dimensions. — Frequently attains a length of four feet. Measurements of a specimen from Lake Kerr, Marion County, Florida, are given: Total Length 42 J inches. Length of Fail io£ Diameter of Body if Width of Head i Length of Head 2 Distribution. — The Gulf States and the Mississippi Valley northward to southern Illinois. In Florida the species is mod- erately abundant; westward it occurs in lesser numbers and in the Mississippi Valley it is rather rare. Habits. — In actions this snake resembles the diamond- backed water snake, although it is not so vicious in disposition. Feeding readily in captivity, it is very hardy and will live for years. At times it will lie partially flattened, with head resting upon the ground, causing that member to appear very broad, triangular and ugly. While in such a position it is the per- sonification of a poisonous snake. This serpent is very fond of climbing and if provided with a branch or small tree, will spend much of its time lying stretched upon it. THE BROWN WATER SNAKE, "WATER RATTLE"; WATER PILOT* Tropidonoius taxispilotus, (Holbrook) Largest of the North American water snakes — attaining a length of five feet — very stout of body, but with long, tapering * A name also given to the poisonous Moccasin or "Cotton mouth." 256 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXIX THE HOME OF THE BLACKSNAKE WHERE THE WATER SNAKES BASK THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXX KIRTLAND'S WATER SNAKE, Clonophis kirllandi Appears to be a degenerate off-shoot of the water snakes. Burrows in swampy places >IKII'l.|t SUAM1' SNAKK, Trufid,,, Ionium lin,;ilnm Bui rows in moist places. The markings are strikingly like those of the striped snakes — Eutania The Water Snakes tail. The scales are heavily keeled, and the upper surface is dull and rusty. The head is very long and narrow beneath the plated por- tion which only forms about a half its length; behind the plates it widens abruptly, causing it to be very distinct from the neck. The eyes are small and bulging, and situated forward, toward the snout, as well as rather high, which characteristic causes this serpent to resemble the species of East Indian river snakes of the genera Homalopsis and Cerberus. In a lesser degree, the same characters are evinced by the two preceding species, demonstrating a close relationship. Colouration. — Rusty brown, with a series of black or dark brown blotches on the back, square in shape; in alternation with them on the sides is a similar series (about four scales wide and six scales high). The blotches of the back and of the sides are not in contact with each other. The effect of this pattern is a very strongly banded appearance, particularly upon the sides. The head is of the uniform colour of the body, and without markings. Beneath, the colour is yellow, profusely and irregularly blotched with dark brown. Young and half-grown specimens have a paler ground- colour and black bands. They have the habit of coiling in nearly circular fashion, and when in this position assume a striking similarity to small examples of the banded rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus), hence the appellation of "water rattle," which the negroes have given the species. Dimensions. — Huge examples of this snake were observed in inlets of the Savannah River. Unfortunately, these very large specimens were extremely shy and rendered capture im- possible. From this vicinity, snakes of -moderate size were taken, these averaging about four feet in length. Although the writer dislikes to speculate upon the size of specimens that have escaped him, he would judge that some of these must have been close to six feet in length. The measurements of an average- sized female are quoted: Total Length 4 feet 2 inches. Length of Tail 12 Diameter of Body 2 Width of Head (over plates) I Width of Head (at rear) i£ Length of Head 2\ 257 The Water Snakes Distribution. — From the Potomac River, southward through- out Florida and westward to the Mississippi Valley (southern portion). The species is particularly abundant in South Caro- lina, Georgia and Florida. Habits. — Both in appearance and disposition, this is one of the most ugly of the American snakes. When cornered, it will lie partially coiled, making such rapid darts at every mov- ing object that its actions closely resemble those of a venomous snake. Captive specimens are vicious and sullen. This is in marked contrast to the majority of the water snakes, which ex- hibit a gentle demeanour after a few weeks in captivity. In several ways this creature is characteristic. When in the water it has the habit of twisting the tail about the base of an aquatic plant, while the body rears to the surface, in an upright position, the head alone floating flat upon the water. As a captive, it is rather delicate, the majority of specimens feeding sparingly, others not at all. While inducing specimens of this reptile to eat it is generally necessary to provide a fair sized tank, in which they pass most of their time. Living fish must be introduced and after these they swim rapidly, beneath the surface. The chase after the fish is with open mouth, and the snakes display wonderful agility in capturing the darting prey. Like the other water snakes, this species produces a large number of living young. These are quite large in proportion to the size of the parent. One peculiarity of all the water snakes has been frequently noted by the writer. They are very local in habits and many individuals in a wild state seem to remain for years within a very small area. The writer remembers an instance of a large female specimen of the common water snake, that had taken up her abode in the crevices of a high mill-dam, near a small New England town. A certain rock, which jutted out a foot or more from the dam, was her favourite basking place. Here she would be seen every fine morning, flattened and enjoying the rays of the sun. Frightened from the shelving stone, she would dive into the water, to finally make her way back through crev- ices in the wall and emerge on her favourite napping place. For several successive years in passing through the district, the 258 The Water Snakes writer visited the old and deserted mill to ascertain if the snake was yet there. On each occasion, on a sunny morning, she would be seen as described. In the South, the water snakes have their favourite roosts on large, derelict tree trunks, where the same individuals may be seen 'day after day. Many times have we gazed helplessly at these showy reptiles, sunning their thick bodies on logs or branches, some distance from the shore. For during many attempts to effect their capture from a boat, armed with a long pole and noose, it was realised that the reptiles' extreme shy- ness rendered our approach to within a noosing distance, quite impossible. One big brown water snake gave us a substantial scare one day, which later showed an interesting trait on the reptile's part. With the guide we were passing through a narrow clearing near the Savannah River. On each side of the clearing, was a series of shallow, marshy pools, over some of which grew a densely tangled brush. There was a sudden thrashing and crash of the brush on our left, causing us all to start with sur- prise. The guide, an experienced woodsman, declared that nothing but a bear could make so much noise, and promptly sent two blind charges of buckshot into what had been the centre of the disturbance. As silence followed and an extended investigation revealed nothing, we continued on our way. On returning through the opening in the timber our atten- tion was naturally attracted toward the scene of the morning's incident. When within a hundred feet of the spot the situation cleared, for the cause of the disturbance was very apparent in the shape of a huge specimen of the "water rattle" — brown water snake, lying stretched upon the top of the brush, which sagged perceptibly beneath the creature's weight. As we ap- proached it literally threw itself from the top of the growth, and in a frenzied effort to get below and into the water, thrashed its body violently from side to side and produced a noise that more resembled the progress of a cow through the bushes, than the escape of a serpent. In passing by this spot daily, for a week or more, we ob- served this snake on the bushes and each time she escaped us. This fine reptile was at last captured as the result of an inter- esting condition we discovered shortly after. 250 The Water Snakes If a man were on foot, no matter how cautious might be his movements, it was practically impossible to approach the older snakes. The young reptiles and those of moderate size were less wary. However, if a man were mounted on a horse, the big fellows could be easily approached. This discovery was at once put to advantage, and our elusive, scaly friend of the clearing was soon on the way North, in the company of many other denizens of the lowgrounds and savannas. 260 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXXI BLACK SWAMP SNAKE, Seminatrix pygaa Apparently a degenerate water snake. It burrows in moist places. Restricted to the extreme southeastern portion of the United States ALLEN'S SNAKE, Liodytes alleni The exact place in classification is doubtful. Occurs in Florida only, burrowing in damp soil. a very small head. A rare species Remarkable in having THE REPTILE BOOK PLATF LXXXII f -•, • 10 i. .-(. 7. 8 The Green Snakes. 7 and 8 Lto^r/d'; trrnc/i'.t. i " 3 Cyc/o^/m uj. IS 16 T° III' ADS OF MISCELLANEOUS SMALL SERPENTS 0 and 17 Hnnvn Snake, Haldra striatiil'i. i.sand 16 Striped Swnmp Snake. Tropidoelonium Hneatunt. 10 " It Worm Snake, Carphophis ama-nus. 13 ' 18 DcKay's Sn:ikc, Stprrria dekayi. 2 " 5 \';iliTi;i\ Sn:ikr. Virginia Valeria, 12 ' 14 Storer's Snake, Slorcria occipitomaculala. 4 and 6 Ring-necked Snake, Diadophis punctaius. CHAPTER XXVIII: SMALL, MISCELLANEOUS KEELED-SCALED SERPENTS THE GENERA CLONOPHIS, TROPIDOCLONIUM, SEMINATRIX AND LIODYTES THE four genera embraced in this chapter seem to be most nearly related to the natracine snakes — the water snakes and striped snakes. As each of the genera contains a single species, they are readily separated, thus: *Si%e small. JScales heavily keeled. Ventral plate divided. Head not distinct. Pattern in transverse blotches. Genus Clonopbis — C. kirtlandi. Distribution. — Central States. Ventral plate entire. Head not distinct. Brown, with three pale stripes. Genus Tropidodonium — T. lineatum. Distribution. — Central States. JJBody scales smooth; scales on the tail keeled. Lustrous black; a faint line in the centre of each scale; abdomen red. Genus Seminatrix — S. pygcea. Distribution. — Florida. **Si?e moderate. Dark brown; a yellowish band on each side; abdomen yellow. Genus Liodytes — L. alleni. Distribution. — Florida. Detailed descriptions: The Genus Clonopbis: This genus is closely related to Tropi- donotus. It contains a single species. The scales are in 19 rows; all are strongly keeled. KIRTLAND'S SNAKE Clonopbis kirtlandi, (Kenn.) Size rather small. Body stout; head not distinct from neck. Looks much like a small Tropidonotus, in general out- lines. 261 Small, Keeled -scaled Serpents Colouration. — Pale brown, with large, upright, blackish brown blotches on the sides, separated by narrow spaces of the ground-colour; two series of less distinct, rounded blotches on the back. The blotches of the sides and the back are in alter- nation with one another. Top of the head black; lip plates yellowish. Central portion of the abdomen, brick-red; bordering this bright hue on either side is a row of dark spots. Dimensions. — Grows to a length of twenty inches, but most specimens are of smaller proportions. Following are the measurements of a half-grown example, taken near Sandusky, Ohio: Total Length 8£ inches. Length of Tail 2\ Greatest Diameter \ Width of Head & Length of Head | Distribution. — Northern portion of the Mississippi Valley- Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan; in some areas the species is as abundant as the garter snakes. Habits. — The habits appeal to those of the water snakes although this species is not actually semi-aquatic. It frequents damp woods and swamps and may often be found hiding under logs. If surprised when near the edge of a pond or stream it takes to the water without hesitation and dives to the bottom, to hide in the aquatic vegetation, like a true water snake. The food consists largely of small frogs and toads; captive spec- imens will eat small fishes. Like the water snakes, this reptile produces its young alive. The Genus Tropidodonium: Closely allied to the preceding genus and separated from it by the structure of the ventral plate, which is entire. STRIPED SWAMP SNAKE Tropidodonium lineatum, (Hallowell) Size rather small. Form moderately stout; tail short. Head small, pointed, and of the same size as neck; eye small. Scales coarse] v keeled. j Colouration. Grayish brown, with a whitish or yellowish strioc on the ba:k, bordered with black dots; on each side, 2' 2 Small, Keeled- scaled Serpents on the 2 y g 2 N-2 w -~ •H- o|; I gn *^ •? t o o H ri u 111 IE H N 0) ^t a a in a The Racers Olive above; pale yellow beneath. "BLUE" RACER, Z. constrictor, variety flayiventris. Distribution. — U. S. west of the Mississippi. Forward portion of body blackish, becoming pale brown on latter portion ; abdomen white. COACHWHIP SNAKE, Z. flagelliformis. Distribution. — Southern United States. Entire upper surface dark brown; uniform pink beneath. PINK-BELLIED RACER, Z. flagelliformis, variety piceus. Distribution. — Southern Arizona. b. Transverse bands on forward portion. Reddish brown, with darker cross-bands on forward portion; abdomen pinkish. RED RACER, Z. flagelliformis, variety frenatum. Distribution. — Southwestern U. S. c. Body with stripes, running lengthwise. Brown or black — a single (narrow) yellow band on each side of body. BANDED RACER, Z. later all s. Distribution. — Arizona and California. Brown, with two or more narrow, yellow stripes on each side. STRIPED RACER, Z. tceniatus. Distribution. — Southwestern U. S. d. Body with botb bands and stripes. Brown, with two, narrow yellow stripes on each side. Wide, dark cross-bands on the back. ORNATE RACER, Z. tceniatus, variety ornatus. Distribution. — Western Texas. The Genus Spilotes: Representing this genus in the United States is one of the largest of the North American serpents. The several species of the genus occurring in tropical South America are the largest of the non-venomous snakes, excepting the great constricting snakes — the Boidce. The species of Spilotes are often known as the "Rat Snakes" owing to their fondness for rodents and the agility they exhibit in catching them. Thus, in South America and the West Indies, they are recognised as reptiles of considerable value for man, and are quite strenuously protected. In the tropics it is not an uncommon sight to see them prowling about yards and enclosures, gliding under the houses and in other ways evincing a general familiarity toward man that comes after a period of immunity from danger. While powerful and quick of movement, these large snakes are not 275 The Racers constrictors, but subdue their prey by holding it firmly to the ground under a portion of the body and engulfing it at the same time. The species are not striking in their colouration, showing hues of olive, brown or black, but their large size and polished scales render them rather showy among colubrine snakes. A description is given of the single species inhabiting North America: THE GOPHER SNAKE; INDIGO SNAKE Spilotes corais, variety couperi, (Holbrook) As this species attains a length of over eight feet, it must be rated as one of the largest of the North American serpents. The body is moderately stout and the entire scalation is as polished as glass; the high polish of the scales imparts, when the reptile is in a strong light, a blue-black hue — hence the popular name of Indigo Snake. Specimens that have recently cast their skins show all the prismatic colours on the plates of the abdomen, which present a surface like burnished metal. Colouration. — Entire upper and under surfaces (with the exception of the chin and sides of head) lustrous black, or blue- black. The chin, throat and upper lip plates are reddish-brown. Dimensions. — With the exception of the Western species of Pituophis — the Bull Snakes and several of the Colubers, this snake attains the greatest length of any of the North American serpents. Following are the measurements of a fair-sized specimen, from Seven Oaks, Florida: Total Length 6 feet, 1 1 inches. Length of Tail 13 Greatest Diameter 2 Width of Head if Length of Head 2\ The largest specimen examined by the writer was measured as follows: Total Length 7 ft. 9 inches Length of Tail 13* Greatest Diameter 2\ Width of Head if Length of Head 3 276 The Racers Distribution. — The Gopher Snake or Indigo Snake is a variety of a large serpent inhabiting tropical South America and Cen- tral America. The typical form is pale brown or olive, sometimes dark on the forward portion of the body and becoming bright yellow on the posterior half. It is popularly termed the "Cribo" or the " Rat Snake." A darker variety occurs in northern Central America and Mexico. The black form (the Indigo Snake) inhabits the Gulf States of North America, occurring in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, thence westward to the Rio Grande in eastern Texas and into Mexico. Texas specimens have a tendency to show traces of brown upon the tips of the scales, thus appealing to the Mexican variety. Specimens from the extreme eastern portions of the United States — Georgia and Florida — are always uniform black, with the exception of traces of red upon the sides of the head and on the throat. North American "Black Snakes": From this description it will be noted that the Gopher Snake might appropriately be called a "blacksnake," which is often the case in portions of the reptile's range — but this confuses it with a commoner reptile — the blacksnake, or racer, a species widely distributed and well known under the title. The latter reptile extends its range well into that of the Gopher Snake and its colouration is very similar. A few words will clear this situation. The Gopher Snake (Spilotes), is highly polished — glassy— in appearance. The Blacksnake (Zamenis constrictor} exhibits a satiny lustre, like the surface of a gun-barrel. The chin and throat of the former species are reddish; the chin and throat of the latter are milky-white. Another North American blacksnake is the Pilot Blacksnake, or Black Chicken Snake (Coluber obsoletus). Close examination will show this species to have weakly keeled scales, a character at once distinguishing it from the former reptiles as both have smooth scales. Habits of the Gopher Snake Few of the North American serpents are more attractive than the present species. Its smooth, glittering length of blue- black body, flashing with all the prismatic colours along the broad 277 The Racers plates of the undersurface, and its good-natured demeanour, combine to make it a favourite in collections. The Indigo Snake is found in the sandy portions of the southeastern United States and often glides for the burrows of the gopher tortoise when danger threatens — hence one of its popular names — the Gopher Snake. The spectacle of one of these big serpents, trailing its black length over a stretch of light sand is one to arouse the enthusiasm of the naturalist. Powerful and agile, though considerably less active in flight than such ophidians as the blacksnake and the coachwhip snake, it shows little of the viciousness of these creatures. A freshly captured specimen will often submit to handling with a perfect show of good nature, but when surprised in its native haunts, and escape be cut off, the Indigo Snake assumes a position quite unique among serpents. Flattening the head, it compresses the neck for some inches, so that the latter is flattened vertically. It then arches the neck slightly, and in this eccentric attitude will strike at the object of its anger. At such times the snake rapidly vibrates the tail. But these exhibitions of bad temper are generally short and spasmodic, and the reptile becomes very tame in captivity, feeding readily from the hand. Contrary to the strength indicated in the stout, though graceful body, the Indigo Snake is not a constrictor, but feeds in the same fashion as the blacksnake, namely, by holding the prey to the ground under a portion of the body and engulfing the animal at the same time. While most snakes confine their food either to warm-blooded animals, or to other reptiles and batrachians, this species is quite omnivorous, feeding with equal voracity upon small mammals and birds, frogs, toads, lizards, and other snakes. Captive spec- imens are very fond of small fishes. Few reptiles are so hardy in captivity. A specimen has been in the writer's collection for eleven years. This snake was full-grown when received. The writer has exhibited it to many friends who were prejudiced against snakes, but when noting the complete docility of the handsome creature, have become quickly reconciled to the fact that the actual serpent is a far different animal than the imaginative one. The amateur snake student can select no more satisfactory reptile for observation and study than the Indigo Snake. 278 The Racers In the South, it is no rare sight to see one of these large snakes gliding about the immediate vicinity of the dwellings that are removed from the larger towns. In such places the reptiles are regarded as good ratters. Some specimens will remain for years in a certain small area of a plantatio i, or in the vicinity of the stables, and are almost daily picked up by the children or their elders, who regard them as pets. Such reptiles, accustomed to the sight of man, are devoid of fear and rather seem to enjoy the process of being handled. The yellow rat snake, or "cribo" of the West Indies and tropical South America, of which species the Indigo Snake is but a northern variety, displays a similar good nature and enjoys the same toleration from mankind. The closely allied rat snakes of India are generally protected, on account of their usefulness in destroying vermin, but are diabolical in temper and usually remain untamable in captivity. The Indigo Snake is oviparous. Its eggs equal those of a bantam in size. The Genus Zamenis: The snakes of this genus are closely allied to the species of Spilotes. They kill their prey in the same fashion — not by constriction, but by pressing the animal firmly to the ground, deglutition proceeding at the same time. THE BLACKSNAKE; BLACK RACER Zamenis constrictor, (Linn.) Form moderately slender; tail very long. Head but mod- erately distinct from the neck; the eyes large. Scales smooth and satiny. Colouration. — Adult specimens are uniform, slaty black above and beneath — the chin and throat milky-white. The amount of white upon the chin and throat differs con- siderably with individuals. It exists to the greater extent on specimens from the Southern States, extending some distance along the throat and covering a considerable portion of the upper lip plates. On specimens from Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the white is usually confined to the chin, and in some instances is to be seen on only a few of the chin plates. Colouration of the Young. — The young of this species are 279 The Racers strikingly different from the parent. They are pale gray above, with a series of large, brownish blotches on the back and num- erous black spots on the sides. During their second summer they grow darker and the pattern becomes obscure. In their third summer they acquire the uniform, shiny black of the parent. Description of a Young Specimen Pale gray above, becoming whitish on the sides. On the back is a series of large, grayish-brown saddles, which are con- siderably larger on the forward portion of the body; toward the tail they become narrower and indistinct, owing to the darker hue of the tail. The forward third of the body is profusely spotted with black on the sides and at the edges of the abdominal plates; the abdomen is pale gray. The head is pale, with dark spots and blotches; the eyes are very large. At the time it was described, this specimen was three weeks old; it was twelve and a half inches long and hatched from a litter of ten eggs, col- lected in Plymouth County, Connecticut. A specimen about ten inches long, from Marion County, Florida, is pale gray, with dark brown saddles on the back. There are numerous brick-red spots on the edges and centres of the abdominal plates. Another specimen from Florida, twenty inches long, and presumably about nine months old, is dark gray on the forward third of the body, with distinct, blackish blotches. The pos- terior two-thirds of the body is very dark and the blotches are invisible. Young specimens resemble partially grown individuals of the Milk Snake (Opbibolus doliatus triangulus) , but may be told from the latter by their very large eyes and the absence of black markings on the abdomen, arranged in tessellated fashion. Variations. — A distinct variety is recognised and de- scribed under a separate head. Dimensions. — A very large Blacksnake is about six feet long. The dimensions given are from a fine specimen, taken in Westchester County, New York : Total Length .5 feet 9 inches. Length of Tail 17$ Greatest Diameter 1 1 Width of Head |£ " Length of Head if 280 The Racers Distribution. — The typical Blacksnake is found in eastern North America, from southern Canada, southward throughout Florida and westward to the prairie regions (not inclusive) of the United States. It is a generally abundant reptile. West- ward of the Mississippi the typical form is replaced by a distinct colour variety — the "Blue" Racer. Habits of the Blacksnake The Blacksnake is a much overrated reptile — the alleged sworn enemy of the rattlesnake, all-around boss among serpents generally, and 2 demon in temper. This species is generally described as going considerably out of its way to pick fights with mankind and displaying sufficient strength during these combats to squeeze an arm or limb into a condition approaching insensibility. Besides possessing these formidable habits, the Blacksnake is also described as exhibiting the power of fascinating birds and squirrels — drawing these weak creatures by hypnotic power to within reach of its jaws, when they are enveloped in a crushing embrace. All this, unfortunately for the writer of romantic snake stories, must be exploded. The Blacksnake has no interest in the rattlesnake or any snake of his size. His only interest in snakes inclines toward individuals much smaller than him- self: for his appetite is frequently of a cannibalistic nature. As for going out of his way in a demonstration appealing to man- kind, it must be explained that part of the statement is true. The snake goes considerably out of his way and usually with a dash like an arrow — but the purpose of such quick movements is to place as much distance between the snake and member of the human race as possible. The Blacksnake is no coward if cornered, and fight be necessary, but few snakes will "pick up and git" with the alacrity and speed of this terrestrial rocket, if escape be possible. Concerning the snake's powers of hyp- notism or "charming" suffice it to say that there are none. And last, but by no means of least importance, is the fact that the Blacksnake, in spite of all the stories of its strength, is not a constrictor and has no power to squeeze its prey to death. It feeds upon prey quite small in proportion to the reptile's size, and swallows the quarry while it is struggling. If the animal be very vigorous, the snake presses it firmly to the ground under 281 The Racers a portion of the body, deglutition proceeding at the same time. This species generally selects rather dry and open situations, being especially partial to the edges of meadows which are fringed along their borders with brush or bushes, into which the snake may dart for shelter. In such places it finds an abundance of birds or the small wild mice that make their nests in the under- growth or in stone walls, where they are hunted by the snake. The species is commonly observed sunning at the edges of these opens, or sometimes stretched out in the bushes, for it is an agile climber, and although not passing much time above the ground will occasionally ascend to considerable heights in search of nests containing eggs or young birds, being voraciously fond of both. The Blacksnake is also fond of frogs — in fact it might be called an omnivorous serpent. Having observed the Blacksnake many times afield, the writer feels competent to explain something about its alleged "boldness." While climbing one of the mountains in Pike County, Pennsylvania, he cama suddenly upon a specimen on a rocky ledge, engaged in a tussle with a ribbon snake (Eutania sauritd), which it was endeavouring to swallow. The victim had been grasped by the neck and had so twisted itself about its captor's body that the latter was having anything but an easy time in the engulfing process. Approaching warily, the writer made an attempt to capture both, but the wily "racer" had spied him, and, releasing the ribbon snake from its jaws, dashed through the relaxing coils of the victim and over the cliff. Grasping the bewildered ribbon snake by the tail, the writer saw the Blacksnake dart into the air fully six feet from the rock and drop fifty feet below on a thick growth of bushes, over which it skimmed with bewildering speed for some distance, when it dove into the brush and disappeared. The majority of Blacksnakes seen by the writer have displayed a correspond- ing alacrity to get away, and to catch them means a quick dash, with outstretched hand, and an indifference to the serpent's teeth: for the moment a specimen is made captive, it displays such dexterity in striking that one must be quick indeed to avoid its passes. When overtaken on smooth ground, where its undulations do not catch the proper purchase for fast travelling, this species 282 The Racers will turn and strike boldly at the would-be captor. If cornered, it fights bravely, raising the anterior portion of the body from the ground and striking upward to a distance of more than half its length. While chasing a specimen across a cotton field, the writer observed the snake to start into a crevice of the ground and gave the reptile up for lost. It appeared that the snake was not familiar with the place as the crevice extended but a foot or so. Finding this to be the case, and with only head and neck secreted, the reptile thrashed the exposed part of its body in an hysterical exhibition of rage and excitement, and emerged from the burrow to face the pursuer, the maddest snake he had ever seen. Forgetting the surrounding vegetation, which offered good shelter, it struck a dozen times, and during these antics was made a captive. After a few weeks in captivity, these snakes lose their ner- vousness, feed readily and thrive for years. They display rather more intelligence than do most serpents, and will quickly learn to come to the hand that feeds them. The writer once wit- nessed a remarkable performance on the part of a captive spec- imen. This snake had been captured more than a year. Tak- ing the creature from its glass-fronted cage, the owner placed it upon the floor, and taking a dead mouse by the tail, offered it to the snake, although he warily kept the rodent about a foot from the ophidian's jaws. Holding the mouse the same distance from the snake, he retreated across the room, the shining creature following in graceful undulations, with head upraised. Up a ladder leading to a loft went the man, the snake quickly as- cending the rungs; and then describing a circle on the floor above, the man descended the ladder, the snake sliding after him. Once more in the room, he held the mouse some distance from the floor, shaking it vigorously in one hand, while with the other he reached for his pet, which, quickly climbing to the coveted mouse, seized and began swallowing it while yet in the master's hands. Throughout the entire performance, the snake dis- played nothing but eagerness for the mouse — and absolutely no fear of the actions of the man. The Blacksnake is oviparous — depositing from one to two ozen eggs during June or July. These are frequently secreted nder flat stones, on sunny banks, or are laid in soft, moist soil. 283 The Racers A captive specimen slightly under five feet in length, deposited eight eggs. These were elongated and cylindrical in shape. They measured at time of deposit ij inches in length and -fir of an inch in diameter. (Illustration — Batch of Eggs.) The eggs are snow-white when laid, and have a tough, leathery shell. Each egg, on close examination, appears to have a smooth, satiny surface sprinkled with coarse grains of salt. This character dis- tinguishes the eggs of the Blacksnake from those of the great majority of snakes. The batch of eggs under discussion was placed in a pail containing a composition of decaying pulp from the heart of a dead tree, mixed with sphagnum moss — making an excellent hatching medium. Following are several notes taken during the development of these eggs. July 6th, Eight eggs deposited. Length ij inches; diameter |i of an inch. On opening one of the eggs it was found to contain a minute embryo, coiled— like the hair-spring of a watch. The eggs were placed in an incubating medium. July 2oth, The eggs have increased in size, but maintain their symmetrical outlines. Length, 2 inches; diameter, % of an inch. Aug. i ^th, The eggs have increased greatly in size, especially in diameter, becoming globular, rather than cylindrical — appearing lumpy and irregular in out- lines. On opening one of them, it was found to contain an embryo five inches in length. This is colourless, but shows the scalation to be well formed. The head of the little creature is abnormally large, while the body is so translucent that when held before the light the heart may be seen per- forming its regular pulsations. The only move- ment of this immature specimen is a slight twitching of the body. Sept. 4th, Two snakes emerged from the eggs. They re- semble young milk snakes owing to the strikingly blotched pattern. Length, 8f inches; diameter •\. of an inch. Sept. 5th, The remainder of the eggs hatched on this date. The following valuable information concerning the breeding habits of the Blacksnake is quoted from the notes of Mr. C. S. 284 The Racers Brimley,* to whom the writer is indebted for various sugges- tions and many interesting living specimens: "The eggs of the Blacksnake, (Bascanion constrictor} are more frequently found than those of any other species of snake. . . . The eggs are free, not adherent to one another in clus- ters, as is the case with some other species; in size they vary from about 26 to 40 mm. in length, by 21 to 28 in width, and are found in lots of from five to twenty-two in number, the larger lots usually consisting of larger eggs than the smaller lots, from which one would naturally infer that the smaller lots of smaller eggs were probably laid by smaller and younger individuals, and the larger lots of larger eggs by larger and older individuals. "The eggs must take at least a month to hatch, possibly much longer. A lot of 13 eggs were brought in June 28th, 1900, and four of them were kept until they hatched on July 25th, twenty-seven days later, the young snakes emerging through a longitudinal slit in the egg. Sometimes there are several of these slits; in this lot the markings of the young snakes began to show on those preserved on July 6th, nineteen days before hatching. Another lot of 21 eggs of this species brought in July i ith, 1902, in which the spotted pattern had begun to appear on the em- bryos, were kept till some of them hatched on July 28th, seven- teen days later; three of these young snakes measured respectively 285, 300 and 303 mm. in length. Another lot obtained in 1900 contained among others, one egg which, though entirely normal in external appearance, was very abnormal internally, inasmuch as it contained two embryos, and one of these was a two-headed monster." Regarding the freak specimen mentioned in Mr. Brimley's notes the writer would explain that he has obtained such creatures from hatching broods of Hog-nosed Snakes (Heterodon platy- rhinus), King Snakes (OphiboJus getulus), and Milk Snakes (0. doliatus triangulus). The eccentric character has also been observed among viviparous serpents. THE "BLUE" RACER; GREEN RACER; YELLOW- BELLIED RACER Zamenis constrictor, variety flaviventris, (Say) More slender than the typical form — the Blacksnake — and of smaller size. Colouration. — Bluish-green, pale olive or dark olive above. The abdomen is pale yellow — the chin and throat are lighter. * The American Naturalist, Vol. XXXVII, No. 436, April, 1903. 285 The Racers The lightest specimens are from the western portion of the Mississippi Valley. Individuals from the Pacific Region are dull olive. Dimensions. — The writer's largest specimen is four and a half feet long. Distribution. — The United States generally, west of the Mississippi River. Habits. — Like the typical form. THE COACH WHIP SNAKE Zamenis flagelliformis, (B. & G.) Form very slender; tail very long. One of the largest species, attaining a length of eight feet. Head narrow. Colouration. — Forward portion of the body black, or very dark brown, becoming paler toward the latter half; the tail is pale brown. White beneath, the plates of the underside showing clouded edges on the neck and throat; plates under the latter portion of the body immaculate white or yellow. Variations. — Some specimens are sooty-black for two- thirds the length of the body, but become brownish, or dark gray toward the tail. Such are usually from South Carolina, Georgia and northern Florida. Many specimens from southern Florida are pale brown on the head and neck and pale greenish- gray for the greater length of the body. In the extreme West, this species exhibits a decidedly reddish colouration, which variation is described under a separate head. Young specimens of the Coachwhip Snake are mottled in a fashion similar to the colouration of the young blacksnake, but they retain this spotted pattern to a considerably greater age than the young of the allied species; the pattern may some- times be discerned on individuals that are almost mature- especially when the skin has been freshly cast. One Western variety retains the pattern throughout maturity; this has been described separately. Dimensions. — The species attains a length of eight feet, which size represents a very large specimen. Following are the measurements of a specimen from Marion County, Flor- ida: 286 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXXVII INDIGO SNAKE, Spiloles corah couperi The largest serpent of the eastern United States, attaining a length of 9 feet. Sometimes called the Gopher Snake as it often takes refuge in the burrows of the gopher tortoise " :'* CRIBO, Spiloles corais melannnis A north Mexican variety of 5. corais of South America, more closely approaching the typical form than the variety of the southeastern United States THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXXVIII YOUNG OF THE COMMON RACER, Zamcnis constrictor As is characteristic with all the species of the genus, the young of the Hlacksnake is strongly blotched or banded. fades into the uniform black of the adult during the second year The pattern I'.l \CKS\.\KK; RACER, Zamenis constrictor. Adult— Northern phase A familiar serpent of the eastern United Stulcs. It is not a const rii tor. despite the scientific name. (I rows to a length of seven feet As it feeds largely U]X>n small rodents it should In- prolci ted by the agriculturist The Racers Total Length ' 7 ft. i in. Length of Tail i ' 8£ in. Greatest Diameter* i J inches. WidthofHead i Length of Head. ... 2j Distribution. — The range of the typical form — the Coach- whip Snake — is from South Carolina (inclusive) southward throughout Florida and westward to Arizona; northern Mexico. In the East the species is not so generally abundant as the blacksnake. During a two weeks' collecting trip in the South, the writer captured seventy blacksnakes, but during the entire period observed but five specimens of the Coachwhip Snake. The species appears to be more abundant in Texas than in the southeastern United States. Many specimens have been re- ceived from the vicinity of Brownsville and from San Antonio. Among these Texas specimens were several of a uniform pale green hue. Habits. — Closely related, the Coachwhip Snake and the blacksnake are very similar in habits. Although the black- snake is one of the most active of serpents, the Coachwhip Snake is yet more speedy in traversing the ground. This wonderful agility is rendered possible by the reptile's build — exceedingly slim of body. Like the blacksnake, the Coachwhip Snake is also addicted to cannibalism, though it feeds principally upon small rodents, birds and eggs. It will not eat frogs. It is an excellent climber, but not to any extent arboreal in habits, as it frequents rather open, sandy country, where it darts over the ground, if annoyed, with an amazing display of speed. The writer has most commonly seen these snakes among the "sand hills" of Georgia and South Carolina, where the burrows of the gopher tortoise were numerous. The snakes take refuge in these burrows when pursued. Although feeding readily, this species is one of the few harm- less snakes to retain a fierce disposition when captive and resent being handled. When annoyed it vibrates the tail rapidly, partially opens the mouth, and with head raised some distance from the ground, will strike viciously and repeatedly. Owing to its nervous, restless disposition, it requires food more fre- quently than do many snakes. An adult specimen will consume * Note the very slender body as compared with the length. 287 The Racers several mice or animals of a similar size about every five days. The prey is not constricted. This species lays from one to two dozen eggs. THE RED RACER Zamenis flagelliformis, variety frenatus, (Stejneger) Like the typical form the scales are in seventeen rows. The body is slender and the tail very long. Colouraiion. — With this variety, the colours of which are decidedly reddish, the transverse bands of the young are re- tained through life. The ground-colour is pale reddish-brown; many of the scales have darker tips and some are narrowly margined with pink. The forward quarter of the body is crossed by dark bands, but these are not very distinct. The greater portion of the ab- domen is pink, though this hue is usually mixed with yellow and clouded with gray. Dimensions. — Smaller than the typical form. Distribution. — The southwestern United States — Nevada, Utah, Arizona and southern portions of California. THE PINK-BELLIED RACER Zamenis flagelliformis. variety piceus, (Cope) Size and conformation like the preceding variety. This form exhibits from seventeen to nineteen rows of scales. Colouration. — Uniform, dark reddish-brown above; uni- form pink beneath. Distribution. — But a few specimens of this snake are known. All were taken in southern Arizona. THE BANDED RACER Zamenis lateralis, (Hallowell) Slightly stouter than the preceding species. The scales are in seventeen rows. The colouration renders the species very easy to determine. Colouration. — Dark brown or black, with a single yellow stripe on each side of the body, extending from the neck to the tail. On brown specimens the stripes are narrowly margined with black. 3*8 The Racers The abdomen is yellow; there are a few dark blotches under the chin and throat. Above, the head is dark; there is a pale line from the nostril to the eye; the upper lip plates are pale. Dimensions. — Attains a length of five, rarely six feet. Distribution. — Arizona and southern California; probably northern Mexico. Habits. — The writer has had but one living specimen. It was very nervous and when approached would dash frantically about its cage, its head coming repeatedly in violent contact with the glass as it endeavoured to rush through it. This spec- imen was twice induced to eat very young birds, but lived only a few months. THE STRIPED RACER; STRIPED WHIP SNAKE Zamenis tceniatus, (Hallowell) Size fairly large; form very slender, with long, tapering tail. Eyes large. Colouration. — Very dark brown or black, with numerous, narrow yellow lines on the sides. White beneath for the greater portion of the length, but becoming coral pink under the tail. The chin and throat are spotted with black. On close examination, the scales of the sides will be seen to be yellow, with a black line extending through the centre of each; this interruption of the ground-colour imparts the ap- pearance of narrow, yellow lines on a darker ground, as explained in the preceding paragraph. The edges of the abdominal plates usually show an elongated, black spot; these spots form a row on the greater length of the body. The yellow, striped appear- ance on the sides, is most vivid on the forward portion ; toward the latter portion of the body it becomes diffused with the ex- ception of the uppermost bands of pale colour, which form a bright stripe on each side of the back; the tail is usually with- out traces of stripes. The head is dark — the edges of the shields narrowly mar- gined with white or yellow; there is a light spot in front and behind the eye; the lip plates are yellow. Variation. — The species exhibits a certain degree of varia- tion with age, but the presence of several light bands on the sides render it easily distinguishable. One distinct variety is described. 289 The Racers Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a fair- sized specimen, captured in Beaver County, Utah: Total Length. . . 4 feet, 3 inches. Length of Tail i foot, 3^ Greatest Diameter Width of Head ^ " Lengthof Head ij Distribution. — The southwestern United States and Mexico. It occurs in California, Utah, western Colorado, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. In Mexico the range is quite extensive. THE ORNATE RACER Zamenis icenialus, variety ornatus, (B. & G.) Differs from the typical form in the colouration. Pale brown, with stripes on the sides like the typical reptile. On the back are wide, dark cross-bands; these are most distinct on the forward portion of the body and on some specimens are of a distinctly oblong formation. Distribution. — Western Texas. • •• ••••• To one who has observed these slender-bodied, graceful serpents literally skim over the ground in their flight for shelter, the comprehensive title for them — the Racers— will appear most appropriate. Like many fleet creatures they are so high- strung and nervous that as captives few of them live long. Among the snakes, they are equivalent to the swallows among the birds. 290 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE LXXXIX i . . • - - -.-.. •- . .«*'•:;' BLACKSNAKE; RACER, Zamenis constrictor— Southern phase This Southern phase has more white on the chin and lip plates than the Northern Blacksnake BLUE RACER, Zamenis constrictor flaviventris From the Mississippi Valley to the Pacific Coast the eastern Blacksnake gives way to a greenish or bluish representative, having a bright yellow abdomen THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XC COACHWHIP SNAKE, Zamrnis flagellijornus Acquires the popular name from the very slender body and a scalation that suggests a braided whip. Found in the South, from South Carolina and Florida to California I 1 ' STKII'F.I) KACF.R: WHIP S\\KF. /.,im,nis t,mi,ilus ( Irnws to a length of sc-vcn feet and inhabit^ the S-rr|n-nt CHAPTER XXXI: THE FLAT-NOSED SNAKES GENERA SALVADORA AND PHYLLORHYNCHUS Unique Serpents of the Southwestern United States and Mexico FROM all other North American snakes, the reptiles of the genera Salvadora and Phyllorhynchus may be distinguished by the peculiar development of the shield on the snout — the ros- tral. This is wedge-shaped, the flat portion forward, and with sharp, projecting edges. The unusual formation of the rostral gives the head a blunt, square outline. With Salvadora, the development is moderate, though at once distinct; with Phyl- lorhynchus however, the formation of the rostral is carried to such an extreme that the two species are extremely grotesque and appear as if they had a curved shield loosely attached to the front of the snout. The Flat-nosed Snakes are of moderate size; they occur in the southwestern United States and in Mexico. Key to the North American Species A. Pupil of eye round. Nose plate (rostral) moderately de- veloped in the form of a projecting shield, curved back over the top of the snout. Genus Salvadora Yellow, with brown bands (lengthwise). GRAHAM'S FLAT-NOSED SNAKE, S. grabamice. Distribution. — Western Texas to Lower California. B. Pupil elliptical. Rostral plate greatly developed in the form of a projecting shield. Genus Phyllorhynchus. a. Scales keeled on latter portion of body. Whitish; about fifteen brown cross-bands. BROWN'S FLAT-NOSED SNAKE, P. browni. Distribution. — Southern Arizona. b. Scales smooth. Whitish; about thirty blotches on back. PENINSULA FLAT-NOSED SNAKE, P. deCUrtatuS. Distribution. — Lower California; southwestern Ari- zona. 291 The Flat-nosed Snakes The Genus Salvador a: One species of this genus occurs in the United States; several species inhabit Mexico. These snakes are closely allied to the racers — Zamenis, and like the latter are very quick in their movements. All inhabit rocky places and feed upon small mammals and birds; they do not constrict their prey. The species are oviparous. THE BANDED FLAT-NOSED SNAKE; GRAHAM'S FLAT- NOSED SNAKE Salvadora grdbamice, (Baird & Girard) Size moderate. Snout blunt and square owing to the peculiar development of the rostral shield, the sides of which are sharp and slightly separated from the head. Colouration. — On the back is a wide yellow band, extending the entire length of the body; this band is about three scales wide; it is bordered on each side by a dark brown or olive band of about the same width. Beneath the brown band to the edges of the abdominal plates is a greenish or pale brownish area. The abdomen is yellow. Some variation is evinced by this species. The brown bands may be more or less distinct and with occasional spec- imens they are broken into rows of dark spots. The head is generally light and without markings above; the lips are bright yellow. Dimensions. — An adult specimen from northern Chihuahua, Mexico, shows the following measurements: Total Length 2 feet 4 inches. Length of Tail $f Greatest Diameter " Width of Head \ " Length of Head f " Distribution. — Western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, California and Lower California; the species also occurs in the states of Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico. It is fairly abundant within the United States. The Genus Pbyttortynctus: The species are quite distinct from those of Salvadora and appear to be very rare. The rostral plate is enormously developed; the head is short, thick and chunky and the eye very large, with elliptical pupil. 292 The Flat-nosed Snakes The scalation of the head generally -apart from the unusual development of the nose-plate — is interesting and different from the majority of colubrine snakes of this country. Between the eye and the upper lip plates (superior labials) is a row of small scales. There are two or three plates in front of the eye (supraoculars) and two to four loreal plates. BROWN'S FLAT-NOSED SNAKE Plyllorlynchus browni, (Stejneger) Size small and the body slender; head but slightly distinct. The scales on the forward portion of the body are very faintly keeled; on the latter portion the carination is distinct. Tail short — about one-eighth the total length. Colouration. — Whitish or pale yellow, with fifteen brown blotches on the back which are paler in their centres. Abdomen white. There is a dark bar across the head between the eyes. No spots on the sides. Dimensions. — Total length 13 inches; tail if inches. Distribution. — But two specimens are known. Both were taken near Tucson, Arizona. Habits. — Nothing is known of the habits. It appears to be a desert animal. THE PENINSULA FLAT-NOSED SNAKE Phyllorbynchus decurtatus, (Cope) Differs from the preceding reptile in having smooth scales and a shorter tail — about one-twelfth the total length; also in the colouration. Colouration. — Whitish or pale yellow, with about thirty dark blotches on the back and one or two rows of spots on the sides. Dimensions. — Total length 15! inches; tail if inches. Distribution. — Lower California and south-western Arizona. But three specimens have been collected and of these only a single individual has been taken within the United States — at Yuma, Arizona, 293 CHAPTER XXXII: THE RAT SNAKES OR COL- UBERS; GENUS COLUBER Large and Powerful Constricting Serpents. They are of Considerable Economic Value in Destroying Animals that are Injurious to Agricultural Pursuits. IN THE United States the genus Coluber is represented by five species and several distinct varieties of large and richly coloured snakes. The genus as a whole contains several dozen species, in- habiting the temperate and tropical portions of both the New and the Old World. For all of these snakes, both for convenience and in the absence of a general, popular title, we will use the name Coluber. In some localities of this country they are called "rat snakes" and in others "chicken snakes." All of the species at- tain a considerable size. Next to the closely allied serpents of the genus Pituophis and the big Indigo Snake (Spilotes] the Colu- bers are the largest serpents inhabiting the United States. The Colubers exhibit an unvarying preference for warm- blooded prey — especially the smaller rodents, but with few ex- ceptions they also feed upon birds and their eggs. Such North American species as the Red Coluber or Corn Snake, the Pilot Black Snake and the Fox Snake are found in considerable num- bers in fields of growing grain. Their presence in such places — where the smaller injurious mammals congregate to nest and feed — is obvious, but not appreciated by the average farmer who slaughters the reptiles until their numbers have diminished to a standard far below that intended by Nature. With the destruction of the snakes comes an abundance of the injurious creatures of the fields and the farmer vents his disgruntled feelings to the accompaniment of further reptilian slaughter. The protest of one who appreciates the situation is usually met by the caustic reply that "snakes are snakes" and as such, are fit only for destruction by the hand of humanity. With persons who argue thus, it is a waste of time to talk. Suffice it to say that the farmer who has energetically pursued and 294 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XCI FLAT-NOSED SNAKE, Snlrailora grahatmt? Closely allied to the racers, but necessarily placed in a separate genus owing to the peculiar development of the snout FOX SNAKE, Coluber vnlpimis Receives its name from a strong-smelling secretion in glands near the base of the tail. A powerful constrictor. Inhabits the Central States. It is useful to the farmer, as it feeds largely upon rats and mice THE REPTILE BOOK PLAIT XCII NORTH AMERICAN COLUBERS i, 2 Gray Coluber, Cjluberobsolettisconfinis. 3, 4 Chicken Snake, Coluber obsolctus quadriviltatus. 5, 6 Fox Snake, Coluber vulpinus. 7,^ Corn Snake, Coluber gutlaliu. The Rat Snakes or Colubers clubbed to death the harmless snakes upon his lands, may boast about the extermination of the reptiles, but fails to realise that his labours in setting traps to destroy "vermin" constitute but weak and unsuccessful efforts of the work the snakes have been steadily maintaining. The Colubers may generally be recognised by the flattened abdomen, the crawling-surface forming almost right angles with the sides. The body is moderately stout, the head broad and rather square. The scales of the body are so feebly keeled that with most of the species they appear quite smooth unless very closely examined. In making up a key for these serpents, the colouration has been employed as the distinguishing character. This popularises the key but throws the species out of the order in which they should be arranged according to their actual relationship. The proper order is preserved, however, in the descriptive list. The colouration in the key appeals only to the adult individuals. The peculiar pattern of the young, of several species, will be described in the succeeding pages. The key follows : * A. A series of large, central blotches and a smaller series on the sides of the body. *Markings strongly defined. a. Markings dark brown or blackish on a yellowish or gray body-colour. No head bands. Yellowish, with regular, dark brown blotches RED-HEADED COLUBER; FOX SNAKE, C. VulpinUS. Distribution. — Central States. No bead bands. Yellow; black blotches sending out line-like points and assuming an H-shaped formation. DAVIS MOUNTAIN COLUBER, C. SuboCularis. Distribution. — Davis Mountains, Texas. Dark band on side of head. Gray, with dark brown blotches, assuming H-shaped formation on neck. GRAY COLUBER, C. obsoletus, variety confinis. Distribution. — Southern portion of the Central Region and the S. E. United States. Long, dark band on side of bead. Gray, with regular, brown blotches. EMORY'S COLUBER, C. emoryi. * One other genus — Rhinechis, with a single species, is embraced in this chapter; the scales are smooth; the colouration is in transverse blotches. 295 The Rat Snakes or Colubers Distribution. — Western portion of the Central Region — west of the Mississippi. Kansas to Mexico. b. Blotches crimson or blackish on reddish ground-color. Black-bordered bead stripes. Reddish with crimson blotches. Abdomen boldly tessellated with black and white. RED COLUBER; CORN SNAKE, C. guttatus. Distribution. — Southeastern U. S. **Blotches rather obscure. Head black. Skin between the scales brick red. Blotches black. Edges of scales between the blotches, yellow. LINDHEIMER'S COLUBER, C. obsoletus, variety lindbeimeri. Distribution. — Texas. B. Black — no blotches. Edges of the scales sometimes white or yellow. Skin between the scales often brick red. PILOT BLACK SNAKE J BLACK COLUBER, C. obsoletus, typical. Distribution. — Eastern U. S. C Four dark stripes on a pale ground. Yellow or olive, with four brown or black stripes. FOUR-BANDED COLUBER; YELLOW CHICKEN SNAKE, C. obsO- [letus, variety quadrivittatus. Distribution. — Southeastern U. S. In the detailed descriptions herewith given, the student should carefully note the peculiar colour transformation from the young to the adult state, of several of the species. The change is so complete that young individuals are very confusing unless their status is understood. THE FOX SNAKE; RED-HEADED COLUBER Coluber vulpinus, (B. &. G.) Stoutest of the Colubers. The tail is very stout, but tapers abruptly to a sharp point. The scales are distinctly, though not heavily, keeled. Attains a length of five or six feet. Colouration. — Pale brown or yellowish, with a series of large, rich brown blotches on the back and a series of smaller, alter- nating blotches on the sides; beneath the latter and at the edges of the abdominal plates, is a yet smaller series. The abdomen is yellow, with numerous dusky spots. There are no head bands and the head is often tinged with ruddy yellow or reddish. Dimensions. — Specimens six feet long have been recorded, but the writer finds the average of a large series of specimens 296 The Rat Snakes or Colubers from Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa to be below these dimensions. The measurements of an average-sized adult from Illinois, are given: Total Length 46^ inches. Length of Tail yj Greatest Diameter i| Width of Head |f " Length of Head i£ Distribution. — The Central States, from Ohio to Minnesota and Nebraska (inclusive); southward to the valley of the Mis- souri River. The species is quite abundant in Ohio, Illinois and Iowa. Habits. — Compared with the other Colubers this is a ground- loving species. It is seldom found in trees and its actions in climbing are not nearly so agile as those of most of the succeeding snakes. Occasional specimens are vicious fighters, vibrating the tail so rapidly that the member is blurred in the motion; at such times they double the neck into an S-shaped loop and strike fully a third their length. In striking they emit a sharp, short hiss, sounding like a miniature sneeze. An enraged specimen will retain this position for a quarter of an hour, following with its head the motions of the person who annoys it. However, most specimens of this snake are very good-natured and may be handled with impunity a few moments after capture. They become very tame in captivity and cannot be induced to bite, a demeanour in strong contrast to the erratic disposition of the Pilot Blacksnake (C. obsoldus), the Yellow Chicken Snake (C. obsoletus quadrivittatus] and many individuals of the beautiful Corn Snake (C. guttatus). When newly captured specimens of the Fox Snake are handled, they eject, from glands at the base of the tail, a very strong-smelling secretion, of much the same odour as that noted about the cage of a captive fox — hence the popular name. The Fox Snake feeds largely upon small rodents — young rats and mice. To procure the former it often haunts the vicinity of barns and sheds where hay or grain is stored. From this habit it is sometimes called the house snake. The fully adult individuals eat mammals as large as half-grown rabbits. They occasionally prey upon birds and will eat their eggs, swallowing them entire and breaking the shell in the throat by a contraction 297 i'he Rat Snakes or Colubers of the muscles. The good this species does in destroying the smaller, injurious creatures of the fields, should cause it to be the recognised friend of the farmer. One snake is worth a dozen traps, for the reptile prowls into the burrows and nests of rats and mice and eats the entire brood. Like all of the Colubers, the Fox Snake deposits a considerable number of eggs, generally in the hollow of a rotting stump, and leaves them without further ado, to hatch within six or eight weeks' time. The eggs gradually increase in size by absorbing the moisture of the wood pulp in which they are deposited. Just prior to hatching, an egg is a third or half larger than when it was laid. (See Fig.) One of the writer's specimens deposited 12 eggs on the ist of July. They were adhesive in a single cluster. These eggs began hatching on the 2ist of August, and all had not hatched until about ten days later. The female speci- men was three and a half feet in length and in proportion to her size the young were very large. The accompanying photo- graph of a specimen of this brood (beside a rule) illustrates the proportions. The eggs were hatched by placing them in damp, sphagnum moss and keeping them in an ordinary room tempera- ture. As a captive the Fox Snake is hardy and subsists indefinitely upon a diet of mice and sparrows. EMORY'S COLUBER Coluber emoryi, (B. & G.) Smallest of the North American Colubers and the most slender. So fine is the carination of the scales that they appear perfectly smooth unless closely examined; only a few rows on the back are keeled. Colouration. — Ashy-gray, with a series of rich brown or olive-brown blotches on the back, separated by intervals of one or two scales. These blotches are narrowly margined with black. There is a smaller series of alternating blotches on the side and beneath this a yet smaller scries. The abdomen is yellowish- white, with dull gray blotches. From behind ibe eye there is a dark band extending past tbe angle of tbe mouth to the neck. Immediately in front of tbe eyes is a dark bar extending across the head. There are two elongated blotches from the back portion of tbe bead to the neck. 298 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XCIII PILOT BLACK SNAKE, Coluber obsoletus Sometimes confused with the common blacksnake, but may be told by its keeled scales BLOTCHED CHICKEN SNAKE, Coluber obsoletus confinis Its occasional depredations among poultry are superficial as compared with its persistent search for rats and mice. central and southeastern portion of the United States Found in the THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XCIV YELLOW CHICKEN SNAKE FOUR-BANDED COLUBER— Adult Coluber obsolelus qmidrii'iltatus This fine serpent of the Southeastern States sometimes enters poultry houses, where it eats the eggs and very young fowls Most frequently, however, its presence in such places is prompted by a search for rats and mice '''/''al-'1'!1' EGGS or FOUR-BANDED. COLUBER, i ','lnhrr i>h\nli-iii\ quadrivittoitu During their incubation in wood pulp or decomposing vegetation, the eggs steadily increase in size YOUN OF THE FOUR- HAM )KD COLUBER The CoI.riiKR. Khinrchh ,i,^n^ The food consists of smaJl rodents. This six-cics is conl'im-d t" the slates in the South\u>t The Rat cJnakes or Colubers Variations. — As is the case with most of the Colubers, this species displays a certain amount of variation, both in colour and pattern, but not to a sufficient extent and constancy to warrant the naming of distinct varieties. One sub-species — variety — has been described,* but as specimens of intermediate pattern are continually being found, it is unworthy of separate recognition. At the time of compiling this description, the writer has a living specimen representing this variety, before him. The crimson saddles of the back are very large and the blotches of the sides are so obscure that they can be made out only when the light strikes the specimen at a certain angle. Some spec- imens have a yellowish ground-colour and on these the crimson blotches are in vivid contrast. The ground-colour varies from pale red, into various shades of yellow, brown or gray. With occasional specimens the blotches of the sides fuse into an irreg- ular band. These phases of colouration do not affect the snake to such an extent, however, that it varies materially or is difficult to recognise. Dimensions. — The average measurements are given: Total Length 51 \ inches. Length of Tail 71 Greatest Diameter i \ Width of Head |£ " Length of Head if Occasionally, though rarely, much larger specimens are found. The writer took a specimen in South Carolina, that measured a fraction of an inch over six feet in length. The body was two inches in diameter, and the head very small for a snake of this size — barely one and a quarter inches in width. This fine snake was found hiding in the interior of a decayed and hol- low tree trunk that lay in a perfectly open, prairie-like area. In the excitement of capture it disgorged a full-grown quail or "Bob White." Although the bird did not greatly distend the reptile's body, it appeared enormous in comparison with the small head of the snake. Distribution. — The Corn Snake is found from Maryland (inclusive of the District of Columbia) westward to the Mississippi * Coluber guttatus sellatus, (Cope), Desc. Proc. U. S. National Mu- seum, XI, 1888, p. 387. 301 The Rat Snakes or Colubers River and southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It is most abun- dant in the extreme Southeastern States. Habits. — Like the other species of this genus, the Corn Snake is an agile climber and often ascends small trees in quest of young birds, of which it is very fond. It also feeds largely upon small rodents, such as rats, mice and small rabbits and in consequence is a useful reptile. In captivity it always shows an especial fondness for mice, which it will take in preference to all other food. This snake does not appear to be so arboreal in habits as some of the allied species. The majority of the specimens col- lected by the writer were on the ground; some lying in hollow logs and others hiding in the shrubbery. While pursuing a sand lizard into some bushes, the writer discovered a large spec- imen in the act of devouring a quail, which it had undoubtedly stalked from the undergrowth in which the snake had been secreted. When surprised, the Corn Snake does not ordinarily try to get away, but partially coiling, strikes quickly and viciously, uttering, at each stroke of the head, a sharp, short hiss. In fact, these snakes and the related species are not able to get over open ground with any great show of speed. If foraging, and the enemy is sighted from a distance, they will invariably glide for safety, making for the nearest brush, but if coiled, they do not generally attempt to escape. Either lazy or imagining quiet is a better safeguard than flight, they lie alert, with quiver- ing tongue, watching developments. Generally speaking, the Corn Snake and its allies are bold and powerful reptiles, showing considerable bravery when cornered, and little of the hysterical rush and fluster of most snakes when taken unawares. The species receives its name from a habit of frequenting fields of growing corn. Its presence there is significant when we Consider that numerous rodents collect in such places to feed upon the grain. In some localities the reptile is regarded as useful and harmless, and its life is generally spared. In one district of this kind, the species was known as the "mouse snake." Many specimens were unearthed by the ploughs, during the early spring, showing that in this area — Hampton County, South Carolina — these serpents passed the mild winter in burrows in the fields. 302 The Rat Snakes or Colubers In captivity the Corn Snake soon becomes very tame, its good temper combining with the beautiful colouration, in making it an attractive pet. The species frequently breeds when captive and is oviparous, depositing from one to two dozen yellowish-white eggs. These should be placed in dampened wood-pulp in an ordinary living room temperature and will hatch within a period varying from six to eight weeks. THE PILOT BLACKSNAKE; MOUNTAIN BLACKSNAKE ; THE BLACK COLUBER Coluber obsoletus, (Say.) One of the largest species. The form is quite stout and the head is rather square in outline — flat at the snout. On the back, the scales are feebly keeled, but the entire body is smooth and glossy in appearance. Colouration. — Lustrous black above. When the skin is distended the edges of the scales show narrow, milk-white edges, existing profusely in regular order and causing the black to appear as if arranged in a series of large blotches on the back and sides. These white, line-like spots are sometimes mixed with spots of bright red and on such specimens the skin between the scales is of a rich brick-red. The upper portion of the head is black; the upper lip plates are white, margined with black; the chin and throat are immacu- late white. On the forward part of the body the abdomen is white, blotched with gray; on the latter portion the gray fuses over the entire surface. When examined in a brilliant light, from certain angles, many specimens appear to be of a dark, rich brown, on which body-colour may be clearly discerned the four dark bands, ex- tending the length of the body, that characterise the Yellow Chicken Snake, C. obsoletus, variety quadrivittatus. Young specimens are grayish or brownish, boldy marked with saddles of black or dark brown. Variations. — The species exhibits great variation. The typical form is found over a wide area of the eastern United States. In the Central States and the southeastern United States, a gray variety, blotched with dark brown occurs. Also inhabiting the southeastern United States is the Four-banded 3°3 The Rat Snakes or Colubers Coluber. These distinct varieties will be treated under separate heads in the succeeding pages. The typical Pilot Blacksnake is a serpent often confused with the Common Blacksnake or Racer (Bascanion constrictor], a reptile to which it bears little resemblance except in presenting a generally black appearance. The difference between these snakes may be briefly outlined for the student's convenience, thus: a. Scales keeled and polished. "^ b. Head broad and square. ! Pilot Blacksnake, c. Black, with white spots on the [ Coluber obsoletus. edge of the scales J a. Scales smooth, with satiny lustre.^ Blacksnake; Racer, b. Head narrow. n c. Uniform black. Bascanion constrictor. j The Pilot Blacksnake is by no means as abundant a serpent as the Racer. Dimensions. — Occasional specimens are seven and eight feet long, but they considerably exceed the average dimensions. The measurements of a fine specimen, taken in Sullivan County, New York, are given: Total Length 5 feet, 6£ inches. Length of Tail \\\ " Greatest Diameter i \ " Width of Head ij Length of Head 2 " Distribution. — Massachusetts to Florida. Westward in the North to Illinois, and ranging in the South into Texas. In the Northern States this snake frequents mountainous places. Habits. — A fine specimen captured by the writer, was sunning itself by an opening in the masonry of the "Stone. Bridge," over Bull Run Creek, Virginia. Heavily laden with fragments of shells after a trip over the historic battlegrounds, the writer was startled to sec the glittering black length of the reptile as it lay on the red dust of the road. Dropping his souvenirs, he rushed for the snake, which, being in the immediate vicinity of escape, started off. By the time the snake had been firmly grasped by the tail, it was a third of its length secreted in a crevice of the masonry, and nothing but long, patient and persistent work suc- 304 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XCV1I i, 4 Smooth-scaled Coluber, Rhineehis elegans. Arizona. 5, 6 Pine Snake, Pituophis melanoleucus. New Jersey phase. 2, 3 Pine Snake, Pituofihis mrlanoleucus. Florida phase. 7,8 Bull Snake, Pituophis catenijer. California. TUE REPTILE BOOK PLATK XCVI1I COMMON PINE SNAKE, Pituophis melanoleuctis Found la ihe dry pine forests of the eastern region, from New Jersey southward. Grows to a length of 8 feet and hisses loudly when angered I'lNK .VNAK.K, /'ilunfihnm,!,,,,,'!. ,<,;,< -Southern pi..' - Differs from the Northern |,|>..M- in having brownish in j.lacc of hlaikish lilotchi-s. A powerful constrictor feeding prinripilly upon rodent's The Rat Snakes or Colubers ceeded in getting it out again, when, with commendable bravery, it turned on its captor and fought vigorously. A negro, passing down the turnpike and carrying a scythe, came suddenly upon the exciting spectacle of a man, snake and cannon shells very much mixed up, and at once offered to engage the snake with his weapon. What would have happened to the serpent if the man with the scythe had arrived at the bridge before the writer, is not difficult to guess. An hour later this snake was taken from a bag and exhibited to the wondering family of a farmer. The creature had entirely cast aside its hostile airs, and submitted to handling with perfect docility. The Pilot Blacksnake, though an admirable climber is not so partial to arboreal situations as some of the colubers. Other- wise its habits are much the same as the allied species. It de- posits a like number of eggs. The serpent receives its name — Pilot Blacksnake — from the fallacious idea that it warns the poisonous snakes (the rattlesnake and the copperhead) of the approach of danger and leads them away to safety. This superstition has probably arisen from the fact that the species is found in places frequented by the danger- ous snakes in question. In the North it displays a marked pref- erence for mountain ledges, so commonly the abodes of the banded rattlesnake. Here it may be found stretched upon low bushes, from which it throws itself when surprised, with a remark- able display of agility, then glides quickly among crevices in the rock to safety. A fine specimen, slightly over six feet in length and captured in Sullivan County, New York, was taken on the Half-moon Ledge, a place notorious for rattlesnakes; it dis- gorged a well-grown "cotton-tail" rabbit. At the time it exuded a strong-smelling secretion from glands near the tail; the power- ful, musky odour penetrated the clothes of Messrs. Dove and Pearsall, who captured the snake, and remained for some hours, although these gentlemen explain that when afterward being handled the serpent showed no signs of using the scent-glands. It became very tame as a captive, climbing out and over one's shoulders when the door of its cage was opened. No amount of teasing could induce it to bite, although if startled it would frequently vibrate the tail, the tip of which would beat a rapid tattoo on the side of the cage. -Some specimens are very erratic and nervous. In fact the majority of the writer's specimens 3°5 The Rat Snakes or colubers could not be trusted. A specimen 4 feet long deposited 10 eggs on the 26th of June. The eggs were 2 inches long and £ of an inch in diameter. LINDHEIMER'S COLUBER Coluber obsoletus, variety lindbeimeri, (B. & G.) Larger in size than the typical (preceding) form. Head flat and square; the eyes large. Colouration. — The pattern is difficult to describe. It might be explained as an extreme development of the tendency for the scales to show pale edges — this being explained in connection with the preceding serpent. There is a series of large, blue-black blotches on the back and a smaller series on the sides; within these blotches the skin between the scales is of much the same hue as the blotches themselves. Between the blotches the greater number of scales have bright yellow edges and blue-black centres; mixed with these scales are others that have bright red edges; the skin between the scales may be brick-red or yellowish. The upper surface of the head is black; the lip plates white. Dimensions. — Attains a length of eight feet. The general conformation is similar to the typical form. Distribution. — Texas. Habits -When first captive these snakes are vicious, vibrat- ing the tai! and striking with a sharp hiss. They soon become moderately tame but can seldom he trusted as they are nervous and resent undue familiarity. A large specimen in the writer's collection thrived for six years' time, when it unfortunately escaped. This snake was very fond of rats and would devour from four to six full-grown individuals at a meal. It would also eat half-grown rabbits, pigeons, young chickens and sparrows. In addition to this varied fare, it exhibited — like all the colubers — a decided fondness for eggs. Six or eight of these (hen's eggs) would be greedily consumed, but, unlike the bull snakes (Pituopbis), which crush the shells in the throat and swallow the fragments, this serpent usually swallowed the eggs entire. It showed a decided antipathy to dampness and after the cage had been washed would glide about uneasily until it was thoroughly dry — nor would the snake eat, if the cage was the least bit damp. It was after the cage 306 The Rat Snakes or Colubers had been washed and the snake was very restless, that the reptile escaped, by prying back one of the sliding doors. The room was searched when it was discovered that the snake had escaped from the window, carrying several flower pots with it, which were found broken in the yard beneath. A careful detour of the neighborhood resulted in no trace of the reptile. After several months' time it was discovered in a cellar, about half a mile away from the writer's home. A general alarm spread quickly, but failed to reach the owner in time to rescue the snake. Before he arrived upon the scene a party armed with several shotguns and revolvers had killed the "monster" and incidentally broken considerable glass. Into a cellar reeking with gunpowder fumes, the writer was directed by a corps of indignant neighbours. The mangled reptile appeared to be very stout and well-nourished. A mild suggestion to the effect that the snake was perfectly harmless, and had been ridding the place of rats and mice, was met by an emphatic explanation that the use of traps composed a more dignified method of dealing with the pests. THE GRAY COLUBER; GRAY RAT SNAKE; SPOTTED CHICKEN SNAKE Coluber obsolefus, variety confinis, (B. & G.) Size and conformation like the typical form. This variety represents a phase on which the markings of the young are re- tained with maturity. Colouration. — Pale gray, with a series of large, dark brown saddles on the back; on the neck these blotches are long and send out narrow extensions from their corners, thus assuming an H-shaped formation. On each side of the body is a series of smaller blotches, and beneath this another, smaller series— at the edges of the abdominal plates. On the back and the sides, numerous scales show white edges when the skin is distended, as seen on the typical form— the Pilot Blacksnake. The head is gray, dotted with black. There is often a dark band in front of the eyes and usually a wide, dark band from behind each eye to the angle of the mouth. The lip plates are white, bordered with black. The eye is sil- very. 3°7 The Rat Snakes or Colubers On the forward portion of the body the abdomen is white irregularly blotched and peppered with gray; on the latter por- tion the abdomen is uniform, dark gray. Dimensions. — Total Length 4 feet, 9^ inches. Length of Tail 1 1 Greatest Diameter I £ Width of Head i Length of Head if Distribution. — The variety occurs from Virginia to Florida (inclusive) in the East and is quite common in North and South Carolina. It extends westward to the eastern boundary of Kansas and occurs in Arkansas and eastern Texas. Habits. — Like the Pilot Blacksnake. THE FOUR-BANDED COLUBER; BANDED CHICKEN SNAKE; YELLOW CHICKEN SNAKE; YELLOW RAT SNAKE; STRIPED HOUSE SNAKE Coluber obsoletus, variety quadrivittatus , (Holbrook) This snake attains a length of six and seven feet, but its body is more slender than that of the typical form. Colouration. — Bright yellow, pale brown or olive, with four dark brown or black stripes — two on the back and one on each side of the body. The stripes on the sides are usually the width of two rows of scales; those on the back slightly wider than the one row of scales they cover. The preceding description appeals only to the adult snake. With the young Four-banded Coluber, we have an admirable example of one of a number of species of serpents that undergo a complete colour transformation while attaining maturity. Upon hatching, a snake of this variety exhibits a vivid pattern, and like that of the adult of the Gray Coluber — Coluber obsoletu ; variety confinis. From this pale gray phase, with dark brown blotches it gradually transforms into a yellow snake, with longitudinal stripes. Growth and Colour Transition. — One of a freshly deposited batch of eggs from a snake of this kind measures ij inches in length, and J of an inch in diameter. It weighs exactly I dram and 47 grains. (Fig. Batch of Eggs, with rule.) Before 308 The Rat Snakes or Colubers hatching, about six weeks later, the eggs have increased a third in size and weight, owing to the constant absorption of moisture during the growth of the embryo. When the eggs are deposited they contain an almost thread-like embryo, coiled like the hair- spring of a watch and with an enormous head — in comparison to the thin body. The little creature is soft, almost jelly-like and devoid of all signs of life. On opening one of the eggs about three weeks after deposition, the young snake is found to be rapidly developing and well-formed; it is white and with large, lumpy head. At this time the scales of the body may be clearly seen. The body is translucent and the heart and larger blood vessels are vividly apparent, the former beating steadily. The young snake displays traces of life by occasional twitchings of the body. If kept moist, it will live for about half an hour after being removed from the egg. When an egg of the same batch is opened two weeks later the young snake is found to be perfectly formed and exhibiting a distinct pattern. The eggs hatch six or eight weeks after deposit. A freshly hatched snake of this variety is about 12^ inches long. So different is the pattern from that of the adult that the novice might reasonably pronounce it to be an entirely different reptile. Indeed the pattern is exactly the reverse from the make-up of the mature snake. The little snake emerges from the egg in August or early in September and the pattern remains much the same until well into the following summer, by which time the reptile has increased from a foot in length to a measurement of about a yard. The body has acquired the characteristic yellow of the parent, although this ground-colour is possibly darker than with maturity. Along the borders of the larger blotches of the back run two smoky and indistinct stripes. Between the blotches on the sides has appeared a dull, smoky hue, in- distinctly fusing these together. Although the stripes of the parent have thus intimated their presence, the reptile still pre- sents a blotched aspect quite different from the parent. It yet remains, and essentially, <2 spotted snake. In the late spring of the next year it will be observed to be much altered. The spots of the sides have been obliterated under a dark and unbroken band. On each side of the large saddles of the back — now of 3°9 The Rat Snakes or Colubers a pale olive hue — is a distinct and dark band. At this stage the reptile may be said to display the patterns of both the young and adult phases. From this period, the ground-colour steadily becomes paler, the blotches more obscure and the bands more vivid. The length of time, to complete this transition, varies with the individual. Captivity retards the process. The writer believes that the wild reptile has completed the change within a period of slightly less than three years. A captive specimen, which upon arrival showed both the spots and stripes, changed its pattern considerably by the fading of the former, during eight months' time, when, unfor- tunately, it was killed by a larger snake and the observations brought to a close. The length of the adult Four-banded Coluber is slightly over five feet and usually specimens of this size are striped on a body-colour of uniform yellow. At the time of writing, however, an interesting individual is at hand. It is nearly six feet in length, and strikingly blotched, while it displays the stripes as well. Two ether specimens, neither over three and a half feet long, are banded and show no traces of the blotches. These exceptions may be accounted for by the influence of certain food on the snake's growth. The large (blotched) specimen, probably hatched in a locality where food for all stages of its growth was plentiful and it so rapidly increased in size that the dimensions of a large, adult individual were at- tained before the pattern had been given sufficient time to go through its transition. The small snakes, to the contrary, evidently hatched in a locality offering little variety of food; their growth was thus stunted although time effected the change in colouration. It is from the pattern of the young of the Four-banded Coluber, that we trace the relationship of this snake to the Pilot Blacksnake, which, as has been explained, appears dark brown when examined from certain angles in a brilliant sunlight and exhibits traces of four dark bands. Dimensions. — Adult specimens are quite variable in size. The writer has had many specimens under four feet long that laid fertile eggs. He has also examined specimens considerably over five feet in length. Following are the measurements of the average adult: 310 The Rat Snakes or Colubers Total Length 5 feet 2 inches. Length of Tail '. . . . \ 2 Greatest Diameter i \ " Width of Head ij " Length of Head if " Distribution. — The southeastern United States, from eastern North Carolina southward throughout Florida, and westward, in the South, to the Mississippi. The majority of specimens are found in the coastal region, and the variety is particularly abun- dant in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. The largest spec- imens come from Florida. Habits of the Chicken Snake This snake is quite arboreal in habits. The writer has ob- served specimens at a considerable height, in large, live-oak trees. The majority of the specimens captured were in trees or among the rafters of cabins. One was discovered coiled in a hollow of a live-oak formed by an abrupt forking of the larger branches. This fork in the tree was fully twelve feet from the ground, while the trunk of the tree was straight and smooth for this distance without visible means for the snake to ascend from the ground. The tree was isolated from others and the discovery of the snake was incidental to a search for a mocking bird's nest — a ladder having been placed against the trunk as a means of ascent. Another specimen was seen lying stretched upon a branch at least twenty-five feet from the ground. When pebbles and chips were tossed at the snake, it retreated along the branch to the trunk, which was of considerable diameter, and there glided quickly into a hollow. This snake was seen frequently, sunning upon the same branch. A large snake caught by the writer's guide, was crossing the moist ground of a cypress swamp, which had the reputation of being the lurking place of huge Chicken Snakes. Several other specimens of large size were taken there. All were prowling on the surface of the swamp. The species often makes its abode in the rafters of stables or poultry sheds. In such places it finds an abundance of mice or rats, though it does not hesitate to devour young chickens, or six to eight eggs, swallowing them entire, but as the eggs pass about fourteen inches down the reptile's neck that portion of the body is pressed against the ground and by a strong and The Rat Snakes or Colubers steady contraction of the swallowing muscles, the shell of each egg is broken; the fragments are swallowed together with the contents of the eggs, and are digested. Although all of the colubers show a fondness for eggs and swallow them in this man- ner, the present species is peculiar in being frequently discovered in the neighborhood of the poultry yards; hence its name — the Chicken Snake. In this habit of preying upon domestic poultry and the eggs, the reptile is rivalled by the Pilot Blacksnake (Coluber obsolelus), which, in some parts of the South is called the Black Chicken Snake. Bold, and comparatively fearless as compared with most serpents, the Chicken Snake will frequently move lazily away if surprised, or if cornered, will turn and strike viciously, assuming a position with head and neck raised some distance from the ground, the neck in a close S-loop, ready for a long thrust of the head in the direction of the creature's anger. At such times the tail is so rapidly shaken that the tip appears blurred and produces a distinct whirring sound. When overpowered and held by the neck this serpent emits a strong, and to many a very offensive odour, coming from a secre- tion in glands at the base of the tail and voluntarily ejected. The secretion is white and viscid and at once suggests the strong odour about the quarters of a captive fox. Many snakes have this character in making themselves offensive to man, but it exists among different kinds to a greater or less degree, the colubers and the water snakes being particularly noteworthy. It is be- lieved that these scent glands are primarily of use during the breeding season, when one reptile may easily follow the trail or scent of another. Captive specimens of the Chicken Snake become tame and when accustomed to being handled never emit the powerful odour described. They feed entirely upon warm- blooded prey and eggs, always killing the former by constriction before swallowing it. Very young specimens, are less particular. They will eat small frogs, the grubs of beetles, and are canni- balistic. A captive a few weeks old, swallowed several young garter snakes. The species is oviparous, depositing about two dozen eggs during June or July. A large specimen deposited twenty-two eggs under a piece of bark in her cage, on the 2yth of July. To Hake a snug nest for the eggs, she crawled under the bark and 312 The Rat Snakes or Colubers skilfully burrowed out a hollow in the gravel by pushing it out with the sides of her body. This shovelling process consumed fully an hour. The eggs adhered in a cluster and for long intervals the snake would coil under the bank and over the eggs as if to protect them. Eleven weeks after, these eggs began to hatch. The theory of fascination as relating to snakes is interesting from the standpoint of the many sensational stories emanating from the belief that the reptiles exert a hypnotic power in obtain- ing birds and small mammals. Certain observers insist that they have seen the snake robbing a bird's nest and after the young have been swallowed, the parents fluttered closer and closer, seemingly drawn toward the reptile's jaws by an irresistible power to finally share the fate of the offspring. But this is easily explained. When a snake robs a nest there is naturally a display of defence on the part of the old birds. In their persistent efforts to drive the intruder away, they are frequently bold enough in their advances to peck at the snake's head, when they are seized and eaten. The fluttering toward the snake displays merely the parent's frenzied attempts to protect the home and young. There are few of us that have gone into the woods that have not noticed the fluster raised by the parent birds when an intruder approaches the nest. Flying down from branch to branch, until they are but a few feet over one's head, they watch every move- ment of the person beneath. Their actions are very similar to those displayed in the case of the prowling snake, only from the human, they naturally keep a greater distance — with the reptile they are much bolder. While rowing along a creek in Connecticut, the writer ob- served an example of "charming" on the part of a snake. Hear- ing a great chatter raised by a blackbird, he beheld a large water snake stretched lazily on a bush and within a few feet of the bird's nest. Water snakes do not eat birds and the serpent had climbed into the bush for the sole purpose of a sun-bath. Flut- tering back and forth in front of the reptile, the mother en- deavoured to drive the serpent away, but to no avail. At length she flew directly toward the intruder and perched upon a branch not a foot from the snake's head, where she danced about and The Rat Snakes or Colubers raised such a disturbance that the water snake slid disgustedly into the stream and swam away to hunt another resting place. If the serpent had been a bird-eating species, it could easily have grasped the foolish parent and made a meal of her. • ••••••• The Genus Rhinechis: Containing a single species, this genus appears to stand midway between the colubers and the Bull Snakes — Pituophis. Scales smooth, in 27 to 31 rows; ven- tral plate entire. Snout projecting, owing to the enlarged ros- tral plate. Size moderate; head rather pointed and not very distinct. Body moderately stout. Above, the rostral plate extends backward, between the two plates that follow it, as with Pituophis. THE SMOOTH-SCALED COLUBER Rhinechis elegans, (Kenn.) Colouration. — Pale brown or reddish-yellow above, with a central series of transverse brown spots, eight to nine scales wide and edged with darker brown or black; two alternating series of smaller spots on each side, the lower one indistinct; abdomen immaculate white or yellow. A dark streak from the eye to the angle of the mouth; a few dots on the forward lip plates; top of head with obscure spots or bands. Dimensions. — A large specimen is about three and a half feet long; the tail of such an example would be about six inches in length. Distribution. — Central Texas to southern California; north- ern Mexico. CHAPTER XXXIII: THE BULL SNAKES GENUS PITUOPHIS Large Constricting Snakes that are Closely Allied to the Rat Snakes. Descriptions of the Three North American Species. Their Habits CLOSELY related to the fine reptiles of the preceding genus, are the Bull Snakes — Genus Pituophis, which, possessing sharply pointed snouts, differ in this conformation from the square, flat heads of the colubers. The scales of the back are moderately keeled, while those of the sides are smooth and polished. The species of this genus probably attain the greatest size of any of the North American harmless snakes. Their large size, pointed head, and colouration — yellow or white, with dark, square blotches upon the back, render them readily distinguish- able. Three species inhabit the United States and northern Mexico. These may be classed among the most useful reptiles, as they feed upon small mammals that are injurious to man, in the latter's agricultural pursuits. Owing to one character the Bull Snakes are quite unique among the North American snakes. This is the presence of a peculiar filament of cartilaginous flesh in the mouth, situated immediately in front of the breathing passage. When the snake is angry, the mouth is partially opened, the filament is raised and the breath expelled violently against it. A very loud, hissing sound is thus produced. A key is given to aid in the identification of the species: I. Ground-colour whitish. White, with large black or rusty-brown blotches, some distance apart. PINE SNAKE, P. melanoleucus. Habitat. — Eastern States. II. Ground-colour yellow. Yellow, with reddish-brown or black blotches, at a mod- erate distance apart. BULL SNAKE, P. sayi. Habitat. — Central and Western States. The Bull Snakes Yellow, with black or brown blotches, which are very numerous and set closely together. PACIFIC BULL SNAKE, P. catenijer. Habitat. — Pacific Coast region. Detailed descriptions of these species follow: THE PINE SNAKE OR BULL SNAKE; WHITE GOPHER SNAKE Pituophis melanoleucus, (Daudin) Size large and form moderately stout. In shape, the head of this snake resembles that of a turtle. It is small in proportion to the reptile's size and sharply pointed at the snout, which por- tion protrudes considerably over the lower jaw. The scales of the back are keeled and lustreless; on the sides they show a highly polished surface. The tail terminates in a hard spine; this, on a large specimen, is three-eighths of an inch in length. Colouration. — Dull white on the back, becoming intensely white on the sides. Down the back is a series of large, black blotches, closer together and not sharply defined on the forward portion of the body, but on the latter portion, some distance apart and in vivid contrast with the pale ground-colour. There is a row of smaller blotches on each side, and beneath this row (on the edges of the abdominal plates), a row of large black spots. The head is thickly dotted with black. The greater area of the abdomen is immaculate, marble white. Variation. — The preceding description appeals to the typical Pine Snake, inhabiting the dry, pine woods of the Atlantic Coast and the Middle States. In South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, these snakes altogether lack the striking black and white ap- pearance of the typical form. The extreme Southern snake shows blotches of dull, rusty brown, which are ill-defined. With such specimens the black spots on the edges of the abdominal plates are lacking. Intermediate forms are common, with which the black blotches are present, but contain dull brown centres —hence the Southern Pine Snake is not distinct enough from the typical form to bear a varietal name. Dimensions. — The Pine Snake is one of the largest serpents of the Eastern States. It attains a length of eight feet. Measure- 316 The Bull Snakes ments are given of a specimen of average size, from southern New Jersey: Total Length 5 feet. Length of Tail. . . 8| inches. Diameter of Body if Length of Head if Width of Head i Distribution. — Southern New Jersey, and southward through- out Florida; westward to Ohio. This snake is most abundant in the dry, pine woods of the Atlantic Coast region. Habits of the Pine Snake From the habit of emitting a very loud and prolonged hiss when annoyed, the Pine Snake and other species of the genus Pituophis, differ from the vast majority of snakes. This startling sound is produced by a peculiar arrangement of the glottis, which is the air opening, tube-like in form, that is attached to the lower jaw of snakes. In front of the glottis, is an appendage termed the epiglottis; this intensifies the sound of an angry exhalation of the breath in precisely the same fashion as a bit of pasteboard held in front of one's lips and blown upon forcibly. The snake employs the organ to intimidate an enemy. Taking a deep inhalation, it half opens its mouth, and emits the breath with a noise that may be heard for fifty feet or more. To complete a thoroughly hostile air to its antics it usually strikes at the offending object while giving voice to its anger. As the snake's head darts forward the reptile utters a sound that might rival the plunging of a piece of red-hot metal into water. Generally speaking the appearance of one of these snakes in a rage is quite sufficient to excite profound respect in the mind of a person not acquainted with it. During these hostile exhibitions the reptile vibrates its tail so rapidly, that if among dried vegetation it produces a noise similar to that of the rattlesnake. The Pine Snake is at most a bad-tempered reptile, and although an occasional specimen will become quiet and docile in captivity, the majority of these snakes are morose and sullen and savagely resent familiarity from human hands. The de- meanour of captive specimens is such that many specimens refuse to eat and ultimately starve to death. A powerful constrictor, the Pine Snake feeds upon small The Bull Snakes rabbits, squirrels and other rodents. It is very fond of birds and eggs. In swallowing the latter it goes through an interesting performance. The egg is engulfed entire — without breaking the shell — and swallowed for a distance of about eight or ten inches down the neck, when that portion of the reptile is pressed firmly against the ground, the muscles are called violently into play and exert themselves in such a manner that strong pressure is brought against the egg from anterior and posterior directions. Subjected to this compression the shell is broken and the frag- ments are swallowed along with the contents of the egg, all parts of which are digested. Many of the mammal and bird- eating snakes feed occasionally upon eggs, but they generally consume them entire and await the action of the gastric juices to dissolve the shell, a condition taking place within the space of two or three days. All of the snakes of this genus however go through the performance of breaking the shell before swallow- ing the egg. A Pine Snake of five feet in length, can easily swallow the eggs of a hen, and will consume from four to six at a meal. This species is oviparous. The eggs vary from fifteen to two dozen in number. THE BULL SNAKE "THE YELLOW GOPHER" Pituophis sayi, (Schlegel) Very large in size, and rather stout in form. The snout is pointed like the preceding species, but the head is larger in proportion to the reptile's size. Colouration. — Ground-colour, rich orange-yellow or reddish- yellow, with a row of large, square blotches of dark, reddish- brown (or black) on the back, and a series of smaller blotches, of a lighter shade, along the side. When the body is distended, the skin will be seen to match the colour of the scales — namely yellow, between the yellow scales, and reddish between the scales comprising the blotches. The head is dark yellow, with a brown or black band across the top in front of the eyes. Another band extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth, while there is usually a dark bar directly beneath the eye. The lip plates are bordered with black. With this species the abdomen is yellow, with a row of black blotches on each side. The Bull Snakes Variation. — The species is subject to but slight variation of \olour. Many specimens, however, show narrow, brick-red borders on the scales composing the blotches, while the skin between the scales is of the same colour. The young are much like the parent. A variety, or sub-species, has been recognised. Its description follows that of the typical form. Dimensions. — Attaining a length of nine feet and a circum- ference of six inches, this serpent represents the largest species of North American snake. Following are the dimensions of a moderate-sized adult: Total Length 57^ inches Length of Tail yf Diameter of Body i \ WidthofHead i Length of Head if Distribution. — Widely distributed, the Bull Snake ranges from southwestern Canada southward into Mexico. It occurs as far eastward as the prairie portions of Illinois and is partic- ularly abundant in Texas. It takes the place in the Central and Western States of the Eastern representative of the genus P. melanoleucus, and in the extreme West gives way to another species, P. catenijer. The range in the United States may be concisely defined as the area between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. Habits. — This big, yellow serpent is a familiar reptile among showmen. Owing to the large size and striking colours, large numbers are shipped every spring to the Eastern cities, where they are sold to figure in sensational exhibitions. The majority of such specimens come from Texas. The species is fairly hardy as a captive, feeding upon rats, rabbits and birds. 1 1 is particularly fond of eggs, and consumes them entire, breaking the shell in the throat by a contraction of the muscles. The writer witnessed an illustration of the voracity of one of these creatures. It swallowed fourteen hen's eggs, breaking the shell of each after the egg had passed about a foot down the throat. The demonstration closed by the supply of eggs becoming exhausted and not from any indifference on the reptile's part. The Bull Snake is oviparous and its eggs rival those of a 3*9 The Bull Snakes hen in size. They are yellowish-white, with a tough, leathery shell. THE ARIZONA BULL SNAKE Pituoptis sayi, variety bellona, (Baird and Girard) This variety of the preceding reptile is not strongly defined in pattern or colours. The pattern appeals strongly to the typical form, although occasional specimens exhibit markings that tend to place them as intermediate between the Bull Snake of the Central and Western States and the species inhabiting the Pacific Coast region, on which the blotches are smaller and very numerous. This condition tends to render the latter species — P. catenifer — rather doubtful, and points to the advisability of considering it but another variation of P. sayi. The principal difference between the present variety (bellona) and the typical form consists in the formation of the rostral (nose) plate. With the latter reptile this plate extends upward and is very narrow above; with the former snake (variety bellona), it is more bluntly triangular, and lower on the snout. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of a specimen from Beaver County, Utah: Total Length 4 ft. 9 inches. Length of Tail 7^ Diameter of Body if Width of Head 1} Length of Head if Distribution. — Southern Oregon, Idaho, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas. It also extends southward into Mexico. The Western border of its distribution is the Sierra Nevada range of mountains, west of which boundary occurs the Pacific Coast species, P. catenijer. THE PACIFIC BULL SNAKE, "YELLOW GOPHER SNAKE" Pituopbis catcnijer, (Blainville) Moderately large in size and stout of form, but with pro- portionately smaller head than the preceding. Colouration. — Dull yellowish-brown, with small and square reddish-brown (or black) blotches on the back. These blotches 320 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE XCIX Largest of the North American serpents. COMMON BULL SNAKE, Piluophis sayi Of economic value, as it prevs largely upon rodents. Found in the Plains Region and the West PACIFIC BULL SNAKE, Pititophis calender Distinctly different from the two preceding species in the smaller, close-set blotches. Also ot smaller size, southern portion of the Pacific Region. Often called the Gopher Snake Common in the THE REJTITF BOOK PLATE C KEELED GREEX SXAKE, Cydophis astwus \ v. idely distributed, uniform green species. The scales are sharply keeled. Insect larva; form the principal food ?MOOTH-SCAT.F.n OREFA SNAKE, I.i,

-lti^ rcr,,:,li<; \Virloly iliMrihutcd and distinct from the nrrroflinR •surri.-s ..wind I" thr sm..<,tli M :ilrs. I-Vcils spiders, and the larva- of moths ami butterflies ^r.i.-shoppers, crickets, The Bull Snakes exist to a considerably greater number than with the snakes of the genus already described, are much smaller, and closely succeeding one another. On the sides is a very obscure series of smaller blotches. Beneath, the colour is yellowish, with small and dark blotches at the edges of the abdominal plates. Variations. — There is considerable variation of the colour of the blotches on the back. These vary from intense black on some specimens, to reddish-brown on others. Young specimens are marked like the parent. Dimensions. — The Pacific Coast Bull Snake does not appear to attain so great a length as the species inhabiting the prairies. Following are the measurements of an adult specimen: Total Length 4 ft. 7 inches. Diameter of Body . i i Length of Tail 9? WidthofHead £ Length of Head. ... i* Distribution. — The Pacific Coast region, west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Habits.— There is but little variation between the habits of this snake and the other species of the genus. It is fairly hardy as a captive if kept very warm and dry. Judging from observations of a fair series of specimens, this snake is of a less vicious disposition than the other species. When greatly dis- turbed it hisses loudly and vibrates the tail. 321 CHAPTER XXXIV: THE GREEN SNAKES Representatives of the Genera CYCLOPHIS and L10PELT1S- Small Serpents That are of a Uniform, Pale Green Above, and Thus Characteristic Among North American Snakes Two species of small, pale green serpents occur in North America, where both are widely distributed. Owing to their uniform colour — without traces of markings — they are quite dis- tinct and may be immediately recognised. However, to the popular eye, it may appear difficult to separate these species, as one precisely matches the other in colouration of the upper surface. It is by the scalaiion that they may be at once recog- nised. Although closely related, they belong to different genera. Peculiar to say, both of these snakes appeal to genera that contain a number of Old World species, while the North American species stand as single representatives of their groups in the New World. A simple key for the determination of these snakes is given, and is followed by detailed descriptions of the American species and the genera to which they belong: Scales keeled; green above; yellowish beneath. KEELED-SCALED GREEN SNAKE, CyclophlS tZStlVUS. Scales smooth; green above, whitish beneath. GREEN SNAKE; GRASS SNAKE, Liopeltis vernalis. The Genus Cyclophis: A number of species occur in the temperate and tropical regions of Asia. All are of small size and the majority are of a uniform green, yellow or brown above. These reptiles show arboreal habits and are mainly insectivorous. A description of the only North American species follows: THE KEELED-SCALED GREEN SNAKE; GREEN WHIP SNAKE; MAGNOLIA SNAKE Cyclophis a-stii-us, (Linn.) Slender in form, with very long and gradually tapering tail. The scales are distinctly keeled. 322 THE KEPTILE BOOK PLATE CI ROCK SNAKE, Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha Diminutive, secretive iu habits, and confined to the Southwest. Several allied species are found in Mexico PACIFIC BROWN SNAKE. Cnntia mitis On most specimens the colour above is dull brown with a msty red band down the back The species hides in stone piles or under the bark of decaying trees THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CII EASTERN RING-NECKED SNAKE, Diadopliis punctatus In mountainous regions of eastern North America these little snakes are very common, hiding under flat stones or the loose bark of fallen trees U'KSTEKN kIN<'.-NKl'KKI> SXAKK, IHadophis nm/•// ;VW/<\ :«»;,;/».?. Southern California The California phase is regularly ringed and the most beautiful snake found in the extreme West r : S\Y'S KTXC, SXAKE. O/>/nVWi/? Found in the lower portion of the Mississippi Valley and is remarkable in having a bright green spot in the centre of each scale The King Snakes Red rings widest ; yellow rings bordered by equal-sized rings of black. This is much the smaller of the ringed King Snakes. SCARLET KING SNAKE; "CORAL SNAKE," O. doliatUS COCCineUS. Distribution. — North Carolina to Florida; westward to the Mississippi. III. Pattern : Red or brownish blotches on a pale ground. a. Blotches wide. Yellowish, with red (black-bordered) blotches extending to the first row of scales. SOUTHERN MILK SNAKE, O. doliatus (typical). Distribution. — Maryland to Florida; westward to Texas. Yellow or gray, with red or brown (black-bordered), blotches reaching the third row of scales ; small, alternating blotches on sides. RED MILK SNAKE, O. doliatus clericus. Distribution. — Southern New Jersey to North Carolina; westward to Illinois. Yellow or gray, with brownish (black-bordered) blotches reach- ing to about fifth row of scales ; smaller blotches on sides. MILK SNAKE; HOUSE SNAKE, O. doliatus triargulus. Distribution. — The New England States to North Carolina; westward to Wisconsin. b. Blotches small and oblong. Pale brown, with darker brown blotches on back and a smaller series on sides. No bands on top of head. BROWN KING SNAKE, O. rhombomaculatus. Distribution. — Maryland to South Carolina ; westward to the Allegheny Mountains. Brownish-gray, with dark brown blotches (black-bordered) on back and smaller blotches on sides ; usually a band across, and lengthwise on top of head. YELLOW-BELLIED KING SNAKE, O. CalUgaster. Distribution. — Minnesota to northern Texas; eastward to Indiana and westward to Kansas. IV. Pattern: Pale and narrow transverse bands on a darker ground. Black, brown or green, with yellow or white transverse bands which fork and join one another on side in chain-like fashion. CHAIN SNAKE; COMMON KING SNAKE, O. getulus. Distribution. — Southern New Jersey to Florida; westward to Louisiana. Black or brown with white or yellow transverse bands which widen on sides. BOYLE'S KING SNAKE, O. getulus boylii. Distribution. — California, Arizona and Nevada. Appeals to the former, but many of the rings are broken and in- terspersed with short stripes. CALIFORNIA KING SNAKE, O. getulus California. Distribution. — Southern California; Lower California. V. Pattern: A pale spot in the centre of each scale. Black, with a yellow, green or white spot in the centre of each scale. SAY'S KING SNAKE, O. getulus sayi. Distribution. — Southern Illinois through the southern plains region, and south to Louisiana and western Texas. As has hitherto been the custom in this work, the arrange- ment of species in the key has been guided solely by the idea to group them in a fashion that may be used in hasty identifi- cation— not from the standpoint of technical classification. This has been the case with the King Snakes, as their peculiar patterns 34i The King Snakes may be readily divided in the construction of a popular key, though the division throws the species out of scientific order in their structural relationship to one another. In the following descriptive list the species are arranged in scientific order, and the sub-species or varieties precede or follow the typical form, ac- cording to the trend of their variation. THE MILK SNAKE; HOUSE SNAKE; "CHECKERED ADDER" Opliholus doliatus variety triangulus, (Daudin) This is the largest of the varieties of 0. doliaius — the South- ern Milk Snake — and the most distinct from it in pattern as a spotted snake. It attains a length of about a yard, is moderately slender, cylindrical in shape, and possesses a small head which is but little distinct from the neck. The scales are perfectly smooth, of a satiny lustre, and in 21 rows. Colouration. — Gray above, with a series of large, chestnut- brown or olive-brown saddles on the back, these narrowly bor- dered with black. The blotches extend down the sides to about the fifth row of scales (above the abdominal plates). In alter- nation with the blotches on the back, is a series of smaller blotches on the side. The first of the series of central blotches — this covering the head and a portion of the neck, is elongated and encloses a triangular patch of the pale ground-colour, the point directed toward the body; the base of this triangle is niched by the dark colour of the blotch, on many specimens, imparting a forked outline to that part of the triangle directed toward the head. A narrow band extends from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth. The abdomen is white, marked boldly and irregularly with square black spots and blotches. Colouration of the young. — A newly hatched specimen shows the same pattern as the parent, but the blotches on the back and the sides are distinctly reddish, and bordered with jet-black. Half-grown specimens usually possess rich crimson blotches and at this stage resemble in their colours the more Southern Milk Snake — the variety clericus — from which they may be distinguished by the shape of the pale patch of ground-colour 342 The King Snakes within the first blotch of the upper series and the generally nar- rower character of the blotches. Dimensions. — The common Milk Snake attains a length of three and a half feet, but such dimensions are above the average, which is given: Total Length 34 inches, Length of Tail 5 Greatest Diameter f Width of Head f Length of Head i Distribution. — The southern New England States southward to North Carolina and westward to Illinois and Wisconsin. This serpent is particularly abundant in the counties of Ulster, Green, Delaware and Sullivan, of New York State. Habits of the Milk Snake From the habit of prowling about the vicinity of stables and dairies (in search of mice and rats), this prettily coloured snake has acquired the bad reputation of stealing milk from the cows, and making inroads upon the farmer's product to such an extent that he may actually suffer financial loss from the depredations committed by one of these reptiles. This is one of the many fallacies existing about snakes, and resulting in an unjust slaughter of really useful creatures. Snakes show no liking for milk. Captive specimens cannot be induced to drink it unless suffering from great thirst. It would be a feat beyond physical possibility for a serpent the size of the largest Milk Snake to consume enough milk from a cow — if the reptile should be so inclined — to produce an effect noticeable to the most minute degree. When mature, this snake attains a length of about a yard, and is of rather slender build. A serpent of this size could consume, if drinking its full of water, a quantity equivalent to about two teaspoonsful ; this would demonstrate its capacity for milk, and any cow that fed upon the scantiest vegetation that ever graced sterile soil should yield enough milk to allow for this quantity to be lost without being noted by the dairyman. In- cidentally it might be explained that the Milk Snake frequents country where the grazing is good and the cattle yield much milk. In the face of these circumstances the reader is asked to ponder on the logic of the farmer who declares that a single 343 King Snakes "Milk" Snake can steal enough milk from one of his cows to pro- duce a marked deficiency to be noted at milking time. The Milk Snake is a rather secretive species, hiding under flat stones or debris and pi< k rting to prowl late in the day or at twilight than during the brightest hours of light. It is par- ticularly fond of small rodents, and feeds largely upon mice and young rats. Like all the snakes of the genus Ophibolus, its habits incline toward cannibalism, and it feeds frequently upon the young of other snakes, besides such lizards as the "blue-tail" and the swift, which it hunts at night as these creatures take refuge in the crevices of bark on fallen trees. The writer dis- sected a specimen that had been killed in a barn, in Sullivan County, N. Y. The stomach contained five very young rats. Confronted by this demonstration of the reptile's useful habits, the man who had killed the snake stubbornly remarked that "a snake is a snake" and refused further argument. In captivity this snake is indifferent in feeding and seldom lives long. It prefers mice, which are quickly constricted to death in the reptile's strong coils. Young specimens can seldom be induced to take food of any character. Although rather a quiet reptile, the Milk Snake will sometimes resent handling in a curious and rather treacherous manner. Without a pretence of striking it will swing the head about suddenly and grasp the hanj, when it deliberately clews in such a manner that the fine, recurved teeth lacerate the flesh sufficiently to bring the blood, although the minute punctures are but very superficial wounds and heal at once, like a scratch from a pin point. The breeding habits of this species represents those of the typical oviparous — egg-laying — snakes. From the notes that follow these characters are well illustrated. A specimen taken near Englewood, New Jersey, and measur- ing 31 inches in length, deposited eight eggs, on the loth of July. The eggs were oval, with a leathery shell, and presented the same soft and white external appearance as the surface <;f ;i toadstool. This batch of eggs was placed in damp wood-pulp. At regular intervals one was taken from the lot and opened, in order to observe the growth of the embryos. During the process of of incubation care was taken to keep the eggs from "drowning" —absorbing too much moisture. They solidify if kept too damp. A list of the results is given: 344 The King Snakes July ioth. Eggs deposited. Symmetrically oval in shape; length, 1 £ inches — diameter, % an inch. On open- ing one of these eggs it was found to contain a tightly coiled embryo, two inches long, with well- developed head and eyes well discernible. July 1 9th. The eggs are irregular and lumpy in outline. Length, \ \ inches — greatest diameter, || of an inch. One opened ; contained embryo ^\ inches long. When the same is closely examined the formation of the scales can be plainly seen. The speci- men is translucent and when held against the light the heart may be seen beating in lively fashion. Aug. 6th. Another of the eggs opened; it contains an embryo 4! inches long, and much less translucent than that of the preceding observation. The scalation is well formed, but no pattern is appar- ent. Sept. 4th. The remaining eggs about to hatch. The young snakes have cut openings in the shells and oc- casionally protrude the tip of the snout for air. Sept. sth. All of the young snakes have emerged. They are yj inches in length, and T3,T of an inch in diameter at the thickest part of the body. In pat- tern they are like the adult, though the blotches on the back are of a more reddish tinge. About three hours after hatching they shed their skins. At the time of hatching the eggs are nearly twice the size than when laid. Another specimen deposited eleven eggs on the I2th of July, which were adherent in a cluster. This female was found coiled about the eggs— thus gathering them tightly together. The same habit was observed with several specimens. The brood in question hatched between September 6th and Sth. (Illus- tration, female and eggs. A fine specimen taken but a week previously near Ft. Lee, New Jersey, laid nine eggs on July 28th. This female remained coiled about the cluster for twenty-four hours. The young snakes emerged on October ist, 2d, and 3d. The writer has examined a remarkable two-headed individual of this species, which creature fed upon very young mice. How- ever, the two heads had energetic quarrels for priority in swal- lowing, although both throats led to a single channel connecting with one stomach. In progressing there was a tendency for the two heads to disagree, and locomotion was slow and erratic. 345 The King Snakes The movements of the heads were entirely independent of each other. While one would be gazing about, with quivering tongue, the other might be quiescent. This unique reptile lived for about a year, actually growing to about two-thirds the length of an adult specimen. THE RED MILK SNAKE H Opbibolus doliaius variety clencus, (B. &. G.) Smaller than the preceding serpent and more closely re- sembling the typical form, owing to the wider blotches and the paler ground-colour, imparting more the appearance of being ringed above with scarlet and yellow than blotched or spotted like the variety iriangulus — the Northern Milk Snake. Colouration. — Yellowish above, with a series of large, deep scarlet, transverse blotches, narrowly bordered with black, which vary in their extension to the third, second or first rows of scales — the majority reaching the two latter rows. With some speci- mens the blotches are chestnut brown. There is a row of smaller, alternating blotches on the sides, widely margined with black which so fuses over many of them as to nearly obliterate the red. The head is mostly red above, with a small, light spot above each eye. Immediately behind the head and preceding the first of the regular blotches is a circular spot of the ground-colour, ringed with black; this takes the place of the triangular patch of light colour on the neck of the Northern form — iriangulus, and is a useful character to be considered in distinguishing the present variety. The abdomen is white, boldly tessellated with black. Examined from above, this variety looks like a red snake, marked with narrow rings of yellow or pale gray — the latter bordered with narrower rings of black. From the side, the large blotches will be seen to be wider than with the variety iriangulus —extending much nearer the edges of the abdominal plates. Dimensions. — An adult specimen from Washington, D. C., shows the following measurements: Total Length 19 inches. Length of fail 2j| Diameter of Body TV Widthof Head f Length of Head f 346 The King Snakes Distribution. — It appears that this variety takes the place of triangulus in the southern portion of the latter's range and thus forming the connecting link in the distribution of varieties with the typical form — a Southern reptile. The range of the Red Milk Snake extends some distance northward into that of the Northern form and they intermingle from southern New Jersey westward to the Mississippi. The present form extends southward to Georgia. Variations. — The sub-species under consideration is itself subject to some variation of pattern — although the differences are but superficial. On certain specimens, the first light patch of colour behind the head extends as a half ring around the neck instead of being confined to a circular area above. From a spec- imen showing this slight variation was based the variety " col- laris." Sometimes the light patch of colour extends forward to the temples — a character eliciting the name "temporalis." If such varieties are to be considered of good standing, future investigations with large series of reptiles would cause our lists of the North American serpents and lizards — many species of which vary almost individually as specimens — to attain stupen- dous proportions. Habits. — The habits of this pretty creature in no way differ from those of the Northern form. Freshly captured specimens evince an irritable disposition, but soon become tame. They vibrate the tail rapidly when annoyed. If a newly caught specimen is handled, it will run its snout over the flesh in a deliber- ate fashion, as if seeking for a tender spot on which to employ its minute teeth and finally bite and retain its hold, advancing the jaws forward in chewing fashion in emphasis of its displeasure. Specimens in the writer's collection were indifferent in their feeding. A few were induced to take very young mice. One specimen ate a green snake (Liopeltis vernalis). This is one of the useful reptiles. It leads a generally secre- tive life, prowling about stone piles or under the loose bark of fallen and decaying timber, in which situations it feeds largely upon wild mice and rats, occasionally varying the diet with lizards and snakes. If captive specimens are in good trim a mix-up is liable at feeding time. Fighting for a mouse the examples may knot into a constricting ball, in which the smaller ones are liable to be crushed. 347 The King Snakes THE SOUTHERN MILK SNAKE; RED KING SNAKE Opbibolus doliatus, (Linn.) This reptile, supposed to be the ancestral form of the con- fusing variations coming under the technical head of Ophibolus Ji>luilits, forms the connecting link between those varieties having blotches or saddles of a reddish hue on the back, these enclosed within a narrow black border, and the forms that are completely Dinged about the body with the black, the yellow and partially or completely with the red. The typical form is smaller than either of the preceding varieties. Colouration, — The red saddles are wider than with either of the preceding varieties, the red reaching to the first row of scales and the black extending over the edges of the abdominal plates. The smaller, alternating blotches contain little or no red, and extend along the edges of the abdominal plates. The large blotches are usually rich scarlet, the spaces between them either yellow or grayish white. Examined from directly above, the snake appears to be marked with broad rings of scarlet and narrower rings of yellow, bordered with black. The abdomen is white or yellow, with numerous black blotches. The lower borders of the larger blotches sometimes fuse into parallel black bands on the abdomen — a phase of pattern eliciting the varietal name parallelus, of Prof. Cope. The top of the head may be almost entirely black or reddish, with a broad black band — with some specimens largely yellow. Unlike the preceding varieties (iriangulus and clericus) there is no pale band from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth. Dimensions. — The general conformation is much like the preceding forms, but this form is distinctly smaller in size. Distribution. — Maryland to Florida. In the northern portion of the range — westward to Illinois. In the southern portion, westward to Oklahoma and eastern Texas. WESTERN MILK SNAKE; RINGED KING SNAKE Ophibolus doliatus variety gentilis, (B. & G.) In the consideration of this variety, we observe another phase of variation away from the ancestral form. While the preceding varieties have inclined toward a constriction of the red blotches, thus pivsenting a more spotted appearance than the 348 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CVIII COMMON KING SNAKE ; CHAIN SNAKE, Ophibolus getulus A notoriously cannibalistic reptile of the Southeast. It kills and eats venomous as well as harmless serpents, and is immune to the bites of the former. Also feeds upon rodents. It is a curiously gentle reptile as regards its demeanour toward man BOYLE'S KING SNAKE, Ophibolus gelulus boylii Differs from the preceding only in the pattern and distribution. The range embraces Arizona and southern California THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CIX i II > 12 HEADS <>K M1M I I I.\\K«irs HAKMI.KSS SKRPKNTS I Pacific Brown Snake. Cnnhn mitii. * -™(1 <> YeH'w-lii^.-.l Snake, Rh,«li,,,-a flavilata. 4 and s Rfx-k Snake u'c/.-n.n. 12 " ij Rainbow Snake. Akastnr rrylhrnemmmus. 10 " ii Red-bellied Snake, Farancia abacura. Scarlet Snake-. ( '< •mo/i/rc'-.i fordnea. Sharp-nosed Snake, KhinochilusUconiei. The King Snakes • typical form, the trend of variation with the succeeding forms is quite in the opposite direction — that is, the red areas are in- clined to widen and their black borders to extend around the body as rings', producing much the same effect as the pattern of the venomous coral snakes (Elaps}, hence these reptiles are among those serpents that "mimic" the poisonous colubrine snakes. The status of the present variety is somewhat doubtful. It is the Western representative of the ancestral form, and extends well within the Western range of the latter. Some specimens are symmetrically ringed with the black; others have large black blotches on the abdomen beneath the red areas. It is possible that these differences should be recognised under distinct, varietal names, yet the confusing, intergrading forms cause one to hesitate before adopting such a course. Technical workers have much to do in solving this problem, one way or the other. The Mexican Ringed King Snakes, recognised specifically under the technical head of annulatus or micropholis, are very closely allied to the present variety. An elaborate series of spec- imens might prove the array of forms extending through Mexico and Central America, to be simply a chain of varieties connect- ing with the North American forms. Colouration. — Red bands above, more broadly bordered with black than existing with the other varieties of doliatus al- ready described, the black usually encircling the body as pairs of rings ; between these rings is a narrow area of yellow. On many specimens, the space on the abdomen directly beneath the red is entirely suffused with black, the red extending downward to the abdominal plates. Both from above and from the side, such a specimen presents a ringed appearance. Above, the larger areas are rich scarlet. On occasional specimens the black rings fuse into a smoky band along the back. The entire top of the head is usually black with the excep- tion of the snout, which is red. As this is a very variable form, numerous specimens may be found that will greatly confuse the student in separating it from doliatus. The tendency of the black to form rings about the body; the extension of the red to the abdominal plates and the consequent absence of a black-bordered, saddle-like pattern are 349 The King Snakes the most important points of discrimination. Besides these characters, it should be noted that there are no smaller, alter- nating blotches on the sides. Dimensions. — This is a slightly larger reptile than the typical form, though of the same conformation. An adult specimen will measure about 28 inches. Distribution. — Nebraska and western Louisiana to south- western Texas and northern Mexico. THE SCARLET KING SNAKE; "CORAL SNAKE" Opbibolus doliatus, variety coccineus, (Schlegel) The present form is the most pronounced and removed from the typical form of any of its varieties. It represents the greatest development of the ringed pattern, not only the black completely encircling the body, but the red and yellow as well. It is also the smallest of the forms, the most slender in proportion and pos- sesses the most pointed snout. Compared with the most special- ised of the spotted forms — the variety triangulus — the Northern Milk Snake, it might first appear, to the popular observer, in the discrepancy of size, entire difference of pattern and colours, form of body and shape of the head, to represent not merely a distinct species, but belong to a different genus as well. It has adopted burrowing habits. Degeneration has progressed rapidly. As an instance of this we find occasional specimens with the loreal plate (between the eye plate and the nasal plate) missing. If such a character were constant the snake would represent a very distinct species and be excluded from the genus Ophibolus. On such specimens the number of scale rows is also reduced— they have been described under the head of Osceola elapsoidea. As the intergrading forms are numerous — sometimes specimens with a loreal on but one side of the head — we cannot, at the present state of this reptile's development, give specific rank to specimens of this character. Colouration. — Brilliantly ringed with scarlet, yellow and black. The scarlet rings are widest, and completely encircle the body with the majority of specimens; the yellow rings are about half the width of the red and bordered on each side by rings of black, which, on the back, are of about the same width as the yellow. On the sides the black rings become narrowed 35° The King Snakes (owing to the widening of the yellow) and are very narrow or sometimes broken into blotches on the abdomen. On the ab- domen, some of the yellow rings enclose spots. There is a yellow ring around the neck immediately behind the head; in front of it is a patch or band of black confined to the top of the head; the snout is red. Variations. — Young specimens differ from the adults in possessing white rings in place of the yellow. On some adult specimens the red and yellow do not completely encircle the ab- domen, which is white in the centre, irregularly blotched with black. The sides, however, present a perfectly ringed pattern which distinguishes such individuals from the typical form. Dimensions. — This variety is of small size and slender of body, with a narrow head, not distinct from the neck and sharp and conical at the snout. The measurements are of a fully adult specimen from Marion County, Florida: Total Length 14 inches. Length of Tail 2\ Greatest Diameter \ Length of Head i Distribution. — The southeastern United States, from central North Carolina, through Florida and westward to the Mississippi. "Mimicry:" The Scarlet King Snake and another serpent of an entirely different genus — the Scarlet Snake (Cemophora coccined) are quite similar in their colours and pattern to a poison- ous reptile, the Coral Snake (Elaps fulvius), that inhabits the same areas as each of the former reptiles. As a consequence they are sometimes mistaken for the venomous snake and vice versa. A brief key, with a few words of explanation, will enable the student to easily separate these specimens. The distinctive differences may be thus outlined: Red and yellow rings broad; we yel- low bordered with nar- rower rings of black. Snout red ;pointed. SCARLET KING SNAKE Ringed, with yellow,! red and black Red and black rings broad; the black bordered with very narrow rings of yellow; snout black, blunt and rounded. CORAL SNAKE The King Snakes 5CARLET •LI i I Immaculate, yellow- lish-white beneath. From the preceding it will be understood that the Scarlet King Snake and the Scarlet Snake are very similar in pattern. The sharp snout and similar proportions of each intensifies the resemblance. The latter species, however, may be immediately recognised by its immaculate white abdomen. The Scarlet King Snake might be confused with the Coral Snake upon a superficial examination owing to it being ringed with the same colours as the latter. A very simple formula to remember is this, which at once distinguishes each: The black rings of the Coral Snake are broad, and bordered on each side by a I'ery narrow yellow ring. In the pattern of the small King Snake the yellow rings are fairly broad and bordered on each side by slightly narrower rings of black. The heads of the two reptiles are markedly different, that of the venomous snake, broad and rounded; that of the harmless species, sharp and conic:.!. Habits. — The Scarlet King Snake is a burrowing species, thus demonstrating in habits, as well in form, its degenerate char- acter as compared with the other snakes of the genus Opbibolus. Specimens may be most commonly found under the loose bark of fallen and decaying trees. Here they prey upon the smaller species of snakes, lizards or upon very young mice that are yet in the nest. It is probable that this little snake issues at night from its lair and searches in crevices in the bark for various lizards that crawl into such places to sleep. This theory appears logical after an examination of a series of preserved specimens, in which the stomachs of several contained the remains of swifts (Sceloporus) and "blue-tail" lizards (Eumcces). In captivity this snake evinces a very gentle disposition, seldom offering to bite. However, it invariably burrows into the soil of its cage or hides under loose objects, such as pieces of bark or flat stones. Thus it constitutes a very indifferent object for observation and study. While displaying a very indifferent appetite as a captive, it may be occasionally induced to take very young mice. Although diminutive in make-up, the rept'le constricts its prey in exactly the same fashion as its larger and more powerful allies. 352 The King Snakes THE MEXICAN KING SNAKE Ophibolus micropholis, (Cope) Very closely allied to the Western variety of the Milk Snake group — 0. doliatus and its varieties, this Mexi- can and Central American reptile exhibits an amazing de- gree of variation. Further investigations, with large series of specimens from various localities, may demonstrate that it is but a Southern variety of the former snake — doliatus. It attains a length of about a yard and is of moderate thick- ness. Colouration. — The pattern of the phas^e occurring in northern Mexico and the extreme southwestern portion of the United States, is rather different from the ringed King Snakes of the latter country. The colouration consists of rather narrow black rings, each enclosing a very narrow and rather obscure ring of yellow. The black rings are separated by very wide interspaces of rich reddish-brown or scarlet — fully four or five times the width of the black. The head is black above, with a bright yellow band across the rear portion. The chin is black, with a similar band. It will be appreciated that the red greatly predominates. A superficial examination of the greater number of northern Mexican specimens might result in the impression of a brick-red snake, marked simply with rather narrow black rings at a con- siderable distance apart; the faint yellow rings within the black would be possibly overlooked. Curiously enough, the poisonous Coral Snake (Elaps fulvius) occurring in the districts inhabited by this distinct variety is marked in precisely a similar fashion — with one exception, and that so obscurely delineated as not to detract from the strik- ing resemblance of pattern. Instead of the black ring en- closing a faint, streaky ring of yellow, the black rings of the poisonous serpent are faintly bordered with yellow. At a glance, it appears like the harmless serpent — a brick-red reptile with black rings at considerable distances apart. With both species the head is black, with a broad yellow band across the temples. Dimensions. — The measurements are of an adult female specimen from the state of Sinaloa, in western Mexico: 353 The King Snakes Total Length 36 inches. Length of Tail 5 Greatest Diameter £ Width of Head £ Length of Head i Distribution. — The distribution of this phase of the Mexican King Snake is the extreme southern portions of Arizona and New Mexico and northern Mexico generally. The species to which it belongs extends southward throughout Central America. The varieties have not been systematically treated by technical workers. THE BROWN KING SNAKE Ophibolus rhombomaculatus, (Holbrook) Moderate in size — attaining a length of about a yard. The body is fairly stout and cylindrical. The head is small and scarcely distinct from the neck. Colouration. — Light brown above, becoming paler (yellowish) toward the abdomen and with about fifty-five rather obscure, reddish-brown blotches on the back. These blotches are irreg- ular and wavy in outline and narrowly bordered with black; they are from 6 to 7 scales wide and from 2 to 3 scales long. On some specimens there is an indication of a smaller series of alter- nating blotches on the sides. The pattern is not distinct, and from a short distance the snake appears to be of a uniform, pale brown. The abdomen is yellowish-white, often showing patches of pale salmon-red, arranged in tessellated fashion — and the entire surface sprinkled over with gray or black dots. Dimensions. — Constituting one of the smaller species of the genus, this reptile seldom attains a length exceeding a yard. Its general proportions are much like those of a full-grown spec- imen of the Northern Milk Snake or House Snake — 0. doliains triangulus. The measurements of a specimen captured near Groveton, Virginia, are given: Total Length ••••34 inches. Length of Fail 4} Greatest Diameter y9^ Width of Head £ Length of Head | 354 The King Snakes Distribution. — The distribution of this species is limited to a comparatively small area, and within the borders of its range it is nowhere abundant. Occurring in Maryland, it extends southward into South Carolina; it ranges westward only to the Allegheny Mountains. Habits. — Like the other species of the genus the Brown King Snake exhibits an appetite that inclines toward cannibalism. It feeds upon the young of other snakes and upon lizards as well, but seems to prefer small rodents and birds. The writer captured a large specimen in Fairfax County, Virginia, that lay stretched upon a grassy bank, enjoying the warm rays of a spring sun. When captured, it defended itself vigorously for the moment, but soon became quiet. Having no receptacle in which to place the snake, he carried it several miles coiled quietly about his hand. Its only symptom of anger was an occasional shaking of the tail. The majority of the writer's specimens could not be induced to take other food than very young birds, and of these they were very fond. Some specimens refused these tempting morsels— from a serpent's standpoint — and ultimately starved to death. Generally speaking, these snakes are sluggish and uninteresting in captivity. THE YELLOW-BELLIED KING SNAKE; BLOTCHED KING SNAKE Ophibolus calligaster, (Harlan) This is a considerably larger and a stouter species than the preceding, which it very much resembles in colouration. Its distinguishing features are the larger size, more distinct blotches, the head markings and the different habitat. The scales are in 25 rows — those of the preceding and closely allied snake in 23 rows or a lesser number. Colouration. — Pale grayish-brown, with a series of dark brown blotches on the back, which are 8 to 10 scales wide and 2 to 3 scales long; these spots are narrowly bordered with black. There is a smaller, alternating row of blotches on the sides, and a yet smaller row at the edges of the abdominal plates. The abdo- men is yellowish, usually with square, black blotches in the centre. 355 The King Snakes Generally, the head markings are quite vivid.* There is a dark band across the forward portion of the head and an arrow- headed mark covering the central and rear portion of the head; from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth is another dark band. On the neck are usually two parallel bands, extending to the base of the head. Dimensions. — General conformation similar to the preceding species, though slightly larger and proportionately stouter. Total length of adult specimen 46 inches. Length of tail 6^ Distribution. — The Central States. Indiana to Minnesota comprise the eastern and northern limits of the range which in- clines southwestward to Kansas and northern Texas. Habits. — Similar to the allied species — the Brown King Snake. It feeds largely upon small rodents, birds and lizards, and ap- pears to be less addicted to cannibalism than some species of this genus. The greater number of captive specimens are shy and delicate, refusing all food and thus gradually dying of starvation. Occasional specimens that show traces of appetite, prefer very young birds to all other food. THE DAVIS MOUNTAIN KING SNAKE Opbibolus alternus, (A. E. Brown) The present species appears to be very rare. The type specimen was taken in the Davis Mountains of western Texas and was described by Mr. Arthur Erwin Brown, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia, in December, 1901. Colouration. — Following is a portion of Mr. Brown's diagnosis of the type specimen: 'The ground-colour is slate gray, crossed on the back, at in- tervals of three to five scales, by bands of black which are al- ternately wider and narrower, the wide ones covering from 2 to 3 scales on the middle of the back, and more or less divided trans- versely on their centres with scarlet. The narrow bands are about one scale wide and wholly black, occasionally broken through by the ground-colour. On the neck the bands are narrower and less *With the exception of a dark bar from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth, there are no head markings with the preceding species — Ophibolus rhombomaculatus, the Brown King Snake. 356 The King Snakes defined, while the red is more pronounced on the posterior part of the body. There are nineteen red and black bands on the body, and an equal number of the intermediate black ones. On the tail there are 5 bands, which form quite distinct rings, on the last two of which the red is absent. The head, including the labials, is dark gray with small dark mottlings, not well defined, and a narrow black streak from the postoculars to the angle of the mouth. Ventral surface grayish white, heavily blotched with black, into which the black portion of the cross-bands run." Dimensions. — Total length of the type specimen. . 28J inches. Length of tail 4^ Distribution. — As yet, taken only in the Davis Mountains, Jeff Davis County, Texas. ARIZONA RINGED SNAKE; RINGED KING SNAKE; "CORAL SNAKE" Opbibolus lonaius, (Blainville) Despite the vivid colouration of the King Snakes, this is the most beautiful species of the genus. It presents all the striking colours of the Scarlet King Snake — 0. doliatus coccineus — of the southeastern United States, but is a much larger reptile and at- tains the length of a yard. The proportions are moderately stout and the head is fairly distinct from the neck. This snake appears to be most closely allied to the Western varieties of the succeeding species. There are 21 or 23 rows of scales. Colouration. — The body is encircled with pale brick-red, white, and black rings. On the forward portion of the body, the black rings (which enclose the narrow rings of white) are narrow and the red rings are broad; toward the latter portion of the body, the red becomes constricted and the black predominates. On some specimens the latter character is so pronounced that the pattern may be given as white rings separated by broad rings of black which are split by narrow areas of red, or contain triangles of that hue. Such are the greater number of specimens from Arizona and Utah. California specimens are usually perfectly ringed with the red for the entire length of the body and are the handsomest phase of this species. The snout is black. Across the head is a white band, broad- ening on the temples. Behind this is a black ring. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of an adult specimen from southern California: The King Snakes Total Length 30^ inches. Length of Tail 4! Greatest Diameter Width of Head -& Length of Head i Distribution. — Southern Utah and Nevada; southern Cali- fornia and Arizona. Habits. — A single specimen of this beautiful reptile lived for about a year in the writer's collection. It was very shy in its feeding and could not be induced to take anything but very young mice, although very small snakes and lizards were fre- quently placed in its cage. While often handled by friends of the writer, it never attempted to bite, but would coil about one's fingers and become perfectly quiet as if enjoying the warmth of the hand. SAY'S KING SNAKE Ophibolus getulus, variety sayi (Holbrook) This curiously spotted snake is one of the varieties of the largest species of the genus Ophibolus. It attains a length of 3^ to 4 feet. The body is stout and distinctly cylindrical (not tapering so gradually from the greatest diameter as do most serpents, but retaining a uniform thickness for a great part of the length). The head is small and but slightly distinct from the neck. Colouration. — This form is, itself, subject to some variation, though the general tendency of the paler hue is to form a small spot in the centre of each scale. The commonest phase is black, with a pale green or white spot in the centre of each scale. The abdomen is yellow, with large, black blotches. On numerous specimens the spots evince a tendency to unite into narrow cross-bands on the back at regular intervals, which are about the same distance apart as the bands of the typical form. In the areas between these fused lines of spots, the other scales possess the same spotted appearance as with the first phase described. Other specimens possess this character carried to a more extreme degree. At regular intervals across the back, the spots unite in narrow, sharply delineated lines, while between these bands there are solid black areas; the scales on the sides 358 The King Snakes however, have green or yellow centres. Such specimens have been designated as the variety splendidus by Baird and Girard, but the variation is too superficial to be considered under a distinct head when compared with the many intermediate or connecting forms. Dimensions. — Like the typical form* in proportions, though it does attain so great a length. About 3^ feet when adult. Distribution. — This variety takes the place of the typical form in the central portion of the United States. The range is from southern Illinois to Louisiana; westward in the North, through the southern portion of the plains, and in the South to western Texas. THE COMMON KING SNAKE; CHAIN SNAKE; THUN- DER SNAKE Opbibolus getulus, (Linn.) The typical form of this species is the largest of the King Snakes. It attains a length of six feet. The body is stout and cylindrical and the head small — but slightly distinct from the neck. Colouration. — The greater number of specimens are black, with narrow yellow or white cross-bands, which fork on the sides and connect with one another in chain-like fashion. These bands are one and a half to two scales wide and separated by intervals of from five to ten scales. The abdomen is black, with large blotches of white or yellow. Variations. — Specimens occurring from southern New Jersey to South Carolina are usually jet-black, with white, chain-like markings. Those found in Georgia, Alabama and northern Florida have yellow markings on a black or deep brown ground. In central and southern Florida a large number of specimens are brown, olive or green, with indistinct bands. Close exami- nation of such specimens will reveal each scale to contain a pale centre. The light blotches on the abdomen generallly match the hue of the bands on the back. The jet-black specimens from the northern portion of the range, with their vivid white markings, are in strange contrast with pale, greenish specimens without bands, from Florida, i * See the measurements given under the head of the typical form. 359 The King Snakes but a varietal name would be inappropriate as every degree of connecting variations may be found in a large series of speci- mens. This is a beautiful species. The scales of the back are polished and those of the abdomen glassy and lustrous, the latter reflecting, on specimens that have recently cast their skins, all the prismatic colours. Dimensions. — This form of the King Snake is one of the largest of the North American serpents. In Florida, specimens of 6 feet in length are not of rare occurrence. From southern New Jersey to North Carolina, the average length of an adult specimen is from 3^ to 4 feet. The measurements given repre- sent a fairly large specimen from the Southern States: Total Length. . . .60 inches. Length of Tail 8£ Greatest Diameter i£ Width of Head Length of Head if Distribution. — With its varieties, this King Snake ranges over the entire United States south of latitude 40°. The range of the present (typical) form is from the pine regions of southern New Jersey to Florida and westward to the Mississippi River. It is most abundant in the southern Atlantic Coast region. While several zoological works have alleged that the King Snake occurs in southern New York — records being cited from Long Island, the writer doubts the accuracy of these state- ments. Habits o] the King Snake. One of the most striking in pattern of the American snakes, extremely docile in disposition and displaying habits that render it highly useful to man in his agricultural pursuits, this serpent might be said to rank first in attractiveness of the various ophidian species embraced by this work, or to share that position with the fine Indigo Snake of similar habitat. Of several species of the genus Opbibolns, all of which have been described as possessing cannibalistic habits, the King Snake displays this character to the strongest degree — in fact to such an extent that besides the promptings of its appetite this 360 The King Snakes snake exhibits a pugnacious interest in other serpents that may be considerably larger than itself, engaging these creatures in a duel to the death, during which, however, they are able to make but little resistance, when encircled by the wonderfully strong, constricting coils of the enemy. It is from this fighting disposition among serpents, that the King Snake has acquired its popular name. Supposition had it that this species relentlessly trails the rattlesnake, and other poisonous reptiles of which it is the natural enemy. This is not true for the King Snake takes no more interest in the rattlesnakes and other poisonous species than the common striped snake that may unconsciously prowl across its path. Moreover, this snake spends no time in actually searching for venomous reptiles that it may destroy them. If, accidentally, in its wanderings it meets a rattlesnake, there is certain to be trouble for the latter unless it continues on its way without hesitation, for the King Snake delights to pick quarrels over nothing and once aroused will coil itself tightly about its astonished adversary and begin to squeeze. Slowly the grip grows tighter and the victim, if it be venomous, uses its fangs freely upon the body of the tormentor, but to no effect, as the King Snake is entirely immune to snake poison. But the wounds enrage it. Winding the lithe body round and round the doomed creature, until every part of the shining length is engaged, it tightens with such strength that the victim is benumbed, unable to bite, and is quickly strangled. So powerful is this snake in proportion to its size, and aided as it is by great agility of motion, that even the large and strong con- stricting snakes of other species fall easy victims when attacked. It must be explained, however, that such battles between the King Snake and the larger serpents are rather unusual, and it will be appreciated from the foregoing explanation that these occurrences are the results of accidental meetings. When the King Snake captures a serpent smaller than itself, the prey is overpowered in the fashion described and eaten. And it should be explained as well, in all due justice to the King Snake, that specimens of the copperhead snake, the ground rattlesnake as well as fair-sized representatives of the larger rattlers are fre- quently killed and eaten. From this fact alone, the species demonstrates its usefulness toward mankind. From the stand- point of economic value, however, the King Snake performs 361 The King Snakes more beneficial work for the agriculturist in the destruction of the smaller rodents, so injurious to the grain. The remarkable immunity of this serpent against the action of snake venom is not restricted alone to this one member of the genus, but on account of the larger size of the species, it has been subjected to more extended experimentation than the smaller and less hardy snakes of the group. While the majority of snakes quickly succumb to an injection of serpent poison, the King Snake may be repeatedly wounded by the fangs of a living serpent, or injected hypodermically, without showing ill effects from the in- troduction of the formidable fluid into its blood. Some three years ago, repeated experiments were conducted upon a large specimen that is now thriving. It was injected with the venom of the diamond-back rattlesnake, the copperhead snake, the moc- casin and the West Indian "fer-de-lance," without showing any bad effects beyond an intimation of sluggishness appearing an hour or so after the injection and entirely passing away several hours later. Despite its hostility toward other species of snakes, the King Snake shows a very mild nature with man. Specimens captured by the writer were in rather dry patches of timber; some were taken while basking in the sun of small glades in the forest; others were found hiding under fallen tree trunks. When first caught they strike vigorously, emitting a short hiss which sounds more like a sneeze; at such times the majority of specimens eject a powerful, musky odour from glands near the base of the tail. These vigorous symptoms pass away within a few minutes' time, when most specimens may be handled without evincing the least signs of bad temper. As captives, few reptiles are more gentle or devoid of nervousness than the present species — in fact, the King Snake and the big gopher or Indigo Snake may be said to be the ideal serpents for objects of study in captivity; both are very hardy and will live for years. The former will feed upon mice, sparrows and smaller snakes of other species. Unlike many ser- pents, it is not particular in demanding living prey, as it will readily take dead mice and rats, and sometimes strips of raw beef. When being handled, these snakes will usually coil firmly about one's fingers to prevent themselves from falling. During these actions the muscular development of the snake may be 362 The King Snakes noted, and will be found to exist to a surprising degree in a creature of such moderate size. If frightened, some specimens coil them- selves into a series of compact knots until they form a spherical mass; in this position they may be actually rolled about the ground without relaxing their bodies. This species deposits from ten to twenty-four eggs, which require from five to six weeks to complete the incubation. BOYLE'S KING SNAKE; CALIFORNIA KING SNAKE Ophibolus getulus variety boylii, (B. & G.) Considerably smaller and more slender than the Eastern (typi- cal) snake. The scales are in 23 rows — occasionally 25. Colouration. — Black or brown with white or yellow cross bands, which are narrow on the back and abruptly widened on the sides, thence crossing the abdomen as broad blotches. From this description it will be understood that the pale markings take the form of rings, instead of bifurcating and joining one another on the sides as do the bands on the typical form. With black speci- mens possessing white bars, the pattern is very striking. The head is dark with the exception of the snout where the plates are pale or contain pale centres; there are often a few yellow dots on the temples. Both upper and lower lip plates are yellow, heavily bordered with black or brown. The variety California: As this variety is very closely allied to Boyle's King Snake, it is best considered under that head. The body is black or brownish. Although there is a general indication of the white rings, these are much broken and inter- spersed with short stripes, which run lengthwise. On some specimens there is a tendency of the paler markings to unite in a stripe on the back. The head is coloured like the preceding variety. The abdomen may be entirely yellow or blotched with black. Dimensions. — Both of these allied varieties are of a similar length. Following are the dimensions of a specimen of Boyle's King Snake, from southern California: Total Length 32! inches. Length of Tail 2f Greatest Diameter f Width of Head f Length of Head. . , I 363 The King Snakes Distribution. — Boyle's King Snake inhabits western Nevada, western Arizona and .California; it is most abundant in the latter state. The allied variety occurs in southern California and Lower California. CHAPTER XXXVIII: THE RAINBOW SNAKES Large and Brilliantly Coloured, Burrowing Serpents, of the Genera ABASTOR and FARANCIA ALLEGED to be related to the tiny Worm Snake (Carpbophis), the Rainbow Snakes are, from all external appearances, strikingly different from their small ally. They grow to a large size — five or six feet — and their handsome colouration is not eclipsed by any other North American reptile; intensifying the brilliant pattern, is the opalescent lustre of the scales. With all their beauty of colouration these serpents are degen- erate burrowers and seldom show themselves above the ground. The body is stout and powerful, but tapers gradually to a more slender neck and a head that is small, flat and not distinct. The eyes, placed well forward toward the snout, incline upward; they are dull and have a minute pupil, like a pin-hole. In pro- portion to the size, the tongue is exceedingly small. By a single character, technically considered an important one, the Rainbow Snakes are divided into two genera. This is the structure of the plate or plates following the nose shield or rostral. With Abasior, there is a pair of these plates— infernasals. Farancia has a single internasal plate. In every other way these snakes are similar. The teeth of the upper jaw are of about equal size. There is no preocular plate, the loreal plate forming a portion of the front border of the eye. The scales are smooth and in 19 rows; ventral plate divided. Both Abasior and Farancia, represented by single species, are confined to the southern United States; both are most abundant in Florida. Following is a condensed formula to aid in identification: A. Two internasal plates. Genus Abastor. Blue-black, with three reddish stripes above. Abdomen red, with rows of black spots. RAINBOW SNAKE, A. erytbrogrammus. B. One internasal plate. Genus Farancia. Blue-black; upright, vermilion bars on sides. Abdomen vermilion. RED-BELLIED SNAKE, F. abacura. 365 The Rainbow Snake* Detailed descriptions: THE RAINBOW SNAKE Abastor erytbrogrammus (Daudin) Also called Mud Snake. A large and very showy serpent, with smooth, glassy scales. Colouration. — Purplish-black, or rich, dark blue; along the back from the neck to the tail are three stripes of dark red— sometimes deep orange. A band of pale yellow on the sides the width of three rows of scales. Abdomen red, with two rows of large, blue-black spots, running the length of the body; between these is a row of much smaller spots, beginning some distance down the neck and ex- tending to within a short distance of the tail. Head dark, with obscure red markings; the upper lip plates are yellow and each contains a large, black spot. Young specimens show the same pattern as the adult. Dimensions. — The writer's largest specimen was 4 feet, 9 inches long, with a diameter of 2 inches at the thickest part of the body. This is considerably over the average size, given in the following table: Total Length 48 inches. Length of 'fail 6£ Greatest Diameter i J Width of Head | Length of Head if Distribution. — Most abundant in the swampy, coastal region of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. The range is from Virginia to the Gulf of Mexico. This snake does not extend as far westward as the succeeding species. Habits. — The Rainbow Snake lives in swampy, timbered areas and along the borders of streams, where it burrows into the damp soil or into and under decayed and fallen trees. When freshly caught it will thrash about to escape, but seldom shows the least symptom of hostility. As a captive, this snake always tries to hide in sand or moss, and lives but a short time unless provided with a substance in which it can burrow. Adult specimens cannot be induced to eat, but will live and continue vigorous for many months without 366 The Rainbow Snakes other nourishment than water; they drink considerable quan- tities. Thus the food habits are practically unknown with the exception of the feeding of young individuals; they will occasion- ally take earthworms. The Rainbow Snake is oviparous, depositing from 24 to 50 bluntly oval, white eggs, with a perfectly smooth integument. A four-foot specimen laid 43 eggs on the yth of July; when de- posited the eggs were i£ inches long and i inch in diameter; they hatched on September I5th. The young snakes were 9! inches long and JL of an inch in diameter at the thickest part of the body. Another snake laid 40 eggs on July i3th, and a third deposited 23 eggs on the i4th of August. THE RED-BELLIED SNAKE Farancia abacura, (Holbrook) Also called the Rainbow Snake, Mud Snake, Horn Snake and Hoop Snake. Proportions like the preceding. Colouration. — Purplish-black above, with large, vermilion, inverted V-shaped blotches on the sides. Abdomen rich ver- milion with numerous black patches. The striking colouration and glassy surface of the scales, cause this animal to be very distinct. On young examples the red patches extend further up the sides, and there are indications of red on the back, in the shape of narrow cross-bands. The sides of the head of the adult are reddish, with a row of large, black spots extending along the upper lip plates (superior labials) . Dimensions. — The Red-bellied Snake attains a maximum length of six feet. Following are the measurements of an adult of average size: Total Length 49 inches. Length of Tail 6\ Greatest Diameter i£ " Width of Head ij " Length of Head i£ Distribution. — North Carolina, southward throughout Florida and westward to Louisiana (inclusive). In the Mississippi Valley the species has been found as far north as southern Indiana. It is most abundant in the Gulf States. 367 The Rainbow Snakes Habits. — A burrowing animal, usually found in swampy stretches of timber, hiding under fallen and decaying tree trunks. Concerning the habits, Prof. E. D. Cope has written: "The Pamunkey River specimens were dug from a clay bank beneath ten feet of sand. Mr. Clarence B. Moore in his excavations of the Indian mounds of Florida, has dug it from nearly as great a depth beneath the surface, in sand." Closely related to the Rainbow Snake, it resembles that serpent in habits so far as they are known. Very young specimens will eat earthworms. The writer has never succeeded in inducing mature examples to feed. They are indifferent to handling and shows no signs of temper beyond nervously twisting from side to side or coiling the tail about one's wrist. On -the tail is a needle-like spine, so short as to be barely noticeable. This will often slightly wound the skin and is alleged by the negroes to be a "sting." When a specimen is replaced in its cage, it im- mediately burrows into the sand or moss and while taking no sustenance but an occasional drink, will live and continue vigorous for six or eight months. While degenerate in form — the eyes being small, dull, and poorly developed — and essentially fitted for a subterraneous life, this snake is quite active and can glide over the ground with some speed and g-ace. It also swims and dives with considerable agility. The tongue is proportion- ately small and its movements are slow as compared with the quivering flash of that organ to be noted with the majority of snakes. The species is oviparous — laying from two to four dozen bluntly oval, yellowish-white eggs, with a perfectly smooth integument. 368 THE REPTILE Boo- PLATE CX RAINBOW SNAKE, Abastor erythrogrammns Acquires its name from the rich hues of the longitudinal markings. Grows to a length of five feet and leads a burrowing life. Found in the Southeast RED-BELLIED SNAKE, Farancia abacura The bars on the sides are vermilion. This species inhabits the Southeast, attains a length of six feet, and is a burrower THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXI WORM SNAKE, Carphophis amimus The illustration shows a 1'fe-sized adult. As becomes its worm-like structure the species is a persistent burrower SCARLET SNAKE, Cemoplwra coccinea A beautiful species of eastern North America. The wide bands are rich scarlet. Abundant in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, under the loose bark of fallen trees I.i .('( >NTK'S SNAKE. Rhinoehilus l,r<»il,-i Some examples are ringed with brick red, others have square patches of this colour on the back. A Western serpent, rarely attaining a length of a yard. The food consists of snakes, lizards, and small rodents CHAPTER XXXIX: THE SHARP-NOSED SNAKES The Genera CARPHOPHIS, FICIMIA, CHILOMENISCUS, CEMOPHORA and RHINOCHILUS—Small, Burrowing Species, wiih Smooth Scales FOLLOWING the rather miscellaneous smooth-scaled ser- pents of the preceding chapters, the writer is able to group several genera, and in fairly regular arrangement, under the title of the Sharp-nosed Snakes; all of these hare smooth scales. As most of the species to be described are persistent burrowers, the snout is either conical, or much depressed and with a sharp edge — hence a striking characteristic that may be immediately understood by the beginner. Key to the Sharp-nosed Snakes A. Size small. Plates under the tail divided. a. Ventral plate divided. 1. Colouration uniform — no rings or blotches. Head very small and sharply conical; no preocular plate — loreal touching eye; one posiocular plate. Scales in 13 rows. Genus Carphophis. Brown above; pink beneath. WORM SNAKE, C. amoenus. Distribution. — New England to Florida; westward to Kansas. 2. Colouration in transverse blotches or half-rings, red forming one of the colours. Head slightly distinct; snout very sharp and conical- slightly upturned; rear border of the rostral extend- ed barkward on head. No loreal plate. One preocu- lar plate. Scales in 17 rows. Genus Ficimia. Reddish or orange, with brown, black-edged cross- bands, breaking into spots on sides. Abdomen yellow- ish. DOG-NOSED SNAKE, F. cana. Distribution. — Southwestern U. S. and Mexico. Head not distinct; snout, as seen from side, very sharp — appears rounded, from above. No loreal plate. One preocular plate. Scales in 13 rows. Genus Chilomeniscus. 369 The Sharp-nosed Snakes Red or orange; broad black cross-bands, terminating near abdominal plates; tail ringed with black. RED AND BLACK GROUND SNAKE, C. CpbipplCUS. Distribution.— Nevada, and Arizona.- Similar to preceding, but the black encircles the body —narrower on abdomen. ARIZONA GROUND SNAKE, C. tinctus. Distribution. — Arizona; Lower California, b. Venirdl plate entire. Snout conical; head not distinct. A loreal plate. One or two preocular plates. Scales in 19 rows. Genus Cemopbora. Wide scarlet blotches, separated by pairs of black half- rings, these enclosing a half-ring of yellow. SCARLET SNAKE, C. coccinea. Distribution. — South Carolina to Florida; westward to Mississippi. B. Size moderate. Plates under the tail entire. Head slightly distinct and pointed; front surface of nose plate flattened. A loreal plate; one or two preocular s. Scales — of the North American species — in 23 rows. Genus Rbinocbilus. Alternate, square, black and reddish blotches. LE CONTE'S SNAKE. R. lecontei. Distribution. — Western Texas to California. The Genus Carpbopbis: But one species seems worthy of recognition and this is a small, worm-like reptile, confined to North America. A description is given: THE WORM SNAKE Carpbopbis amcenus, (Say) Size very small. Body moderately stout, with smooth, opalescent scales; head not distinct from the neck and ter- minating in a pointed snout. The eyes are very small. Colouration. — Chestnut-brown above; salmon-pink on the lower portion of the sides and the abdomen. With alcoholic specimens this latter colour fades to yellow. yariations. — Specimens of an opalescent, purplish-black above and pink beneath, are found along the Mississippi Valley and westward to Kansas. They have been described as a dis- tinct species, under the scientific appellation of Carpbopbis vermis. However, the points employed in separating this form from the typical snake are superficial, and the former reptile appears 37° The Sharp-nosed Snakes to constitute but a colour variation. Young specimens are always much darker than the parent. During the second year they change from a dark gray to the brown of the adult specimen. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of an adult. Total Length 9^ inches. Length of Tail if Greatest Diameter J Width of Head & Distribution. — Southern Massachusetts, southward to the Gulf of Mexico; westward to Kansas. The species is particularly abundant in the Black Mountains of North Carolina. Habits. -- While quite abundant in many districts, this worm-like reptile is not commonly seen. It may sometimes be found wandering over damp leaves in the woods, after heavy rains, but its diminutive size and sober colours render it incon- spicuous when abroad from its subterraneous haunts, and the species is considered rare in many localities where careful search would reveal the presence of numerous specimens. These snakes are often unearthed by the plough, they may also be found under the soft, loose bark of fallen and decaying tree trunks, or in the mouldy deposits, consisting of fallen leaves and disintegrating vegetation that exist in timbered regions. The species feeds largely upon earthworms and the soft-bodied grubs of insects. In captivity it always endeavours to secrete itself and lives but a short time unless provided with moss and leaves or sand in which to hide. It is a very mild-tempered reptile and can seldom be induced to bite. The Worm Snake is oviparous, depositing a small number of elongated, soft eggs during the later part of July or early in August. The young snakes are rather large in proportion to the size of the parent, though beside a half-grown earthworm, they appear diminutive. A freshly hatched specimen measures 3^ inches in length, and slightly less than an one-eighth of an inch in diameter at the thickest part of the body. It is very probable that the larvae of ants form a large part of the food of these minute reptiles. The Genus Ficimia. Several Mexican species are recog- nised; one occurs in the United States. Size rather small ; body stout ; head slightly distinct. Snout sharp and conical; slightly upturned. Examined from above, The Sharp-nosed Snakes the head looks much pointed; from the side, the effect is similar to the Hog-nosed Snakes, Heterodon — described in a succeeding chapter, but from those serpents the present reptile may be easily told by its smooth scales. The teeth of the upper jaw are smooth and of equal size. The rear border of the rostral (nose) plate, extends backward on the head between the pair of plates (internasah} situated near the snout, and the prefrontals (the pair following the inter- nasals). THE DOG-NOSED SNAKE Ficimia cana, (Cope) Scales in seventeen rows. No loreal plate. Colouration. — Reddish or orange-yellow, with reddish-brown, dark-edged cross-bands, about thirty in number, which show a tendency to break up into spots or small blotches on the sides. Abdomen immaculate yellowish-white. A brown band crosses the head in front of the eyes, extending downward to the lip plates; there is another band across the rear portion of the head. Dimensions. — Length about 8 inches, of which the tail oc- cupies about \\ inches. Distribution. — Western Texas to Arizona; northern Mexico. The Genus Cbilomeniscus: The species are persistent bur- rowers. Their standing is rather doubtful; some authorities recognise at least four, while others reduce the number to two or one. In place of the conical snout of Ficimia, the head of the present snakes is much flattened, almost spoon-shaped — though not distinct from the neck — and the sharp-edged rosiral forms a useful scoop for burrowing; the rear border of this plate extends backward on the head, separating the first pair of shields — the internasah. There is no loreal plate. The scales of the body are in thirteen rows. THE RED AND BLACK GROUND SNAKE Chilomeniscus ephippicus, (Cope) The rear border of the rostral plate reaches the edge of the second pair of plates behind it — separating the first pair (the internasals). 372 The Sharprnosed Snakes Colouration. — Red or deep orange, with black cross-bands, which nearly reach the abdominal plates; the lower ends of these bands are rounded; they are separated by interspaces of ground- colour about as wide as the bands themselves. The black extends about the tail to nearly form rings, but is narrowly broken in the central portion of the undersurface. Top of head black; snout red. Dimensions. — Total length about 9 inches; tail, \\ inches. Distribution. — Nevada and Arizona — probably to southern California. THE ARIZONA GROUND SNAKE Chilomeniscus cinctus, (Cope) Differs from the preceding by an arrangement of the head shields: "Nasal separated from the preocular by the prefrontals, which reach the labials." The colouration is also different. Colouration. — Reddish-white, the body encircled by broad black rings, which are narrower on the abdomen. Distribution. — Three specimens are known; two were taken in southern Arizona and the other in Lower California. The Genus Cemophora: One species known. It is bril- liantly marked with scarlet, yellow and black. Head small and sharply conical, the rostral plate projecting forward slightly, in pointed fashion. A loreal plate; scales in 19 rows; ventral plate entire. THE SCARLET SNAKE Cemophora coccinea, (Blumenbach) Also called Coral Snake. It is one of the species that "mimics" the poisonous Coral Snake (Elaps). Size small; body moderately slender and very cylindrical — not tapering until near the head and tail; head not distinct. Snout pointed and projecting; eye small. One or two preocular plates. Colouration. — Wide scarlet blotches, separated by pairs of black half-rings, the latter enclosing a yellow half-ring about three scales wide. The scales in the yellow band are usually tipped or dotted with black. Abdomen immaculate white or yellow. Top of the head red or orange, with a black bar across the eyes. 373 The Sharp-nosed Snakes If the snake is examined from directly above, the pattern seems to be composed of wide crimson or scarlet rings, separated by pairs of black ones, the latter enclosing an equal-sized ring of yellow. It is this ringed aspect that causes the species to look like the Coral Snake and the Scarlet King Snake (Ophibolus doliatus coccineus), but the poisonous snake (Elaps) has broad scarlet rings and equal-sized rings of black, while the yellow is very narrow — barely a scale — and borders the black; moreover, when we speak of rings, it should be understood that the colours completely encircle the body. The Scarlet King Snake (Opln- bolus) is exactly like Cemophora above, but the former is ringed with the colours. Examined from the side, the Scarlet Snake might elicit a description, thus: Large scarlet blotches broadly bordered with black, and separated by bands of yellow.* Dimensions. — The writer's largest example is 25 inches Icng and one-half of an inch in diameter at the thickest part of the body. It was captured near Micco, Florida, and easily swallowed full- grown mice; this is considerably over the average size, which is given: Total Length 1 6 inches Length of fail 2j Greatest Diameter Width of Head T\ Length of Head £ Distribution. — The southeastern United States; South Caro- lina (inclusive) throughout Florida and westward to the Miss- issippi River. Most abundant in the low, coastal region. Habits. — The handsome little Scarlet Snake resembles the King Snakes in habits, feeding upon such small creatures as the ground lizard (Lygosoma), the "blue-tail" (Eumeces), the brown snake (Raided) and the young of the ring-necked snake, (Diadophis), besides the young of wild mice. The writer has collected numbers of these reptiles under the bark of fallen and decaying trees. In such conditions, when disclosed, their bril- liant colours are in startling contrast to the sombre hues of the damp wood. The species appears to be very secretive and to pass most of the time burrowing its way with the aid of the sharp snout in a search for the prey. Owing to the prevalence of insect * Young specimens have milk-white bands, separating t'.ic black !:-. or half-rings. 374 The Sharp-nosed Snakes larvae in the hiding places, it seems probably that the young snakes feed upon such. A specimen in the writer's collection displayed interesting habits. When handled, it never showed a disposition to bite, which mild nature has been noted with the species generally. Most of its time was spent under a strip of bark, but when a very young mouse was placed in the case, the snake would glide rapidly for it, seizing the rodent with a dart of the head and then coil tightly about the animal, showing the species, although diminutive in size, to be a typical constrictor. On the 23d of June, this specimen deposited eight eggs; they were white and elongated, and covered with a soft, smooth integument. The snake ap- peared to take an interest in them and coiled always nearby, or around them, a proceeding quite unnecessary from the stand- point of space within the box, as the strip of bark, under which the snake was in the habit of hiding, was over a foot in length. Three weeks after the eggs were laid, one of them was opened to ascertain the process of development; it contained a well- formed embryo, which would have emerged within two weeks' time. A week later, on lifting the bark to examine the snake and her eggs, the creature was found much distorted, having swallowed the remaining seven, which she fully digested within a few days. This remarkable instance of cannibalism was quite inexcusable, as the reptile had been fed at regular intervals. The Genus Rbinochilus: Several species are recognised; one is found in the United States. Among colubrine serpents, these snakes are remarkable by the formation of the plaies under the tail; these are usually entire, in place of being divided; the ventral plate is entire. Rostral plate sharp and scmewhat protruding; flattened on its under surface. Body moderately stout; head slightly distinct. LeCONTE'S SNAKE Rhinochilus lecontei, (Baird & Girard) Size moderate — often a yard long. Head scales normal ; usu- ally one large preocular plate; one loreal plate. Scales in 23 rows. Colouration. — The pattern is difficult to describe and quite variable. There are usually alternating black and red blotches on the back, the latter perfectly square; the black extends farther downward on the sides. On the lower part of the sides 375 1 he Sharp-nosed Snakes many of the scales may be orange with red centres, and others red with black centres. On many specimens, the paler (square) blotches on the back are deep orange, with a brick-red dot in the centre of each scale. Frequent specimens arc black with brick-red half-rings. These are sometimes called "coral" snakes. Abdomen white or yellow, with black blotches on the ends of some of the plate*. The single plates under the tail should at once indentify this species. Dimensions. — Total Length 2 feet. Length of Fail 3! inches. Greatest Diameter ^ Width of Head. >. Length of Head ,!'t; Distribution. — Western Texas and southwestern Kansas \.3 California. Habits.— Much like the Scarlet Snake (Cemopbora). It is a constrictor, feeding upon small rodents, lizards and the young of other snakes. The young are produced from eggs. 376 THE BOOK PLAT:-. CXII 7 8 THE HOG-NOSED SNAKES 1, 4 Black Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon platyrkinus niger 3, 7 Florida Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon simus 2. 5 Common Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon platyrhinus (typical) 6, 8 Texas Hog-nosed Snake, Heterodon nasicus THE BOOK PLATE CXIII COMMON" HOG-NOSED SNAKE, Helcrodon platyrliiiius. I lu- three species of Helcrodon are characteristic in having a sharply upturned snout, and, owing to peculiar haliits. \\Tien annoyed they il.itteii the head and neck to a great extent and hiss loudly. Their hostile airs have placed them in bad repute, yet they are entirely harmless and seldom attempt to actually bite. They feed entirely upon loads anil frogs BLACK HOG-NOSED SNAKE. Hrt<-r,»l»n plityrhinus nigrr The habitat embraces the Eastern and Central States, as doe* that O.' the typical form CHAPTER XL: THE HOG NOSED SNAKES GENUS HETERODON Three North American Species that are Interesting from Their Peculiar Form and Habits THICK-BODIED, pugnacious in aspect and actions, and pro- vided with a peculiar upturned and shovel-like snout, the snakes of this genus may be readily recognised. Their scales are keeled, imparting a dull surface to the body, while the pattern is ar- ranged in rather striking cross-bands or blotches, all of which characters tend to place these creatures in very bad repute in the minds of many popular observers. However, this condition has been intensified by habits these snakes evince of flattening the head and neck to a great degree and hissing loudly. They are the familiar and dreaded puff "adders," flat-headed "adders" or sand " vipers." In spite of their antics, they are quite harmless, and, in fact, their manoeuvres consist largely of bluff for they rarely attempt to bite. In the habit of dilating the neck, these snakes resemble the cobras of the Old World and the process is performed in the same manner as with the latter reptiles — namely, by means of long ribs that lie close against the backbone when the body is in a passive condition, and spread laterally when the snake is excited or angry. With the species of Heterodon, the dentition differs from that of the greater number of the harmless, colubrine snakes. On each side of the back portion of the upper jaw, separated by some space from the other teeth, are two large, fang-like teeth. These are entirely devoid of poisonous properties, however, and are employed by the snake to hold its prey, as the reptile possesses no power of bodily constriction. These snakes feed principally upon toads. Three species of the Hog-nosed Snakes — these comprising the entire genus Heierodon — inhabit North America. They frequent dry, sandy places. An outline of these species is given: 377 The Hog-nosed Snakes a. Central portion of abdomen yellow or greenish. Ground-colour yellow, brown, reddish or olive, with large, dark blotches on back and smaller ones on sides. Sometimes entirely black. Pattern rather irregular. COMMON HOG-NOSED SNAKE, H. platyrbinus. Distribution. — Massachusetts to Florida; westward to the Missouri. Gray or brown, with large blotches on back and smaller ones on sides. The pattern is fairly regular. Smaller than preceding species, with sharper snout. SOUTHERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE, H. simUS. Distribution. — Florida and Georgia to the Mississippi. b. Central portion of abdomen, black. Yellowish ; large blotches on back and two rows of smaller ones on sides. Snout very sharply upturned. WESTERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE, H . naSlCUS. Distribution. — United States west of the Mississippi; northern Mexico. Detailed descriptions of these species follow: THE COMMON HOG-NOSED SNAKE* Heterodon platyrhinus, (Latreille) The largest species attaining a length of over a yard. With its very thick body, triangular, flat head and turned-up nose, it looks highly formidable. Colouration. — The body-colour may be yellow, brown or reddish, with an irregular pattern, consisting of large patches of dark brown or black upon the back from the neck to the base of the tail, where they assume the formation of half-rings. These blotches are separated by interspaces of ground-colour that show a more intensified hue than upon the sides. In alternation with the blotches on the back is a row of smaller blotches on each side. The edges of the abdominal plates are generally blotched or profusely spotted with black. The central portion of the abdomen is yellowish or greenish. Variations. — The variability of shades in the ground-colour of different individuals and the arrangement and size of the blotches are great. Many specimens have a tinge of bright brick-red upon the neck, while the remainder of the body is marked in ordinary fashion. At the time of compiling this de- * Also known as Spreading Adder, Puff Adder, Flat-headed Adder, Blow Snake and Sand Viper. 378 The Hog-nosed Snakes scription, the writer has before him a specimen with yellow body colours which gradually assume a reddish hue toward the head, and for a distance of about two inches the neck is brick-red and in bold contrast to the other colours. Another specimen shows a ground-colour of the same tinge (red) for more than half the length of the body, while the spots of the back fuse into those of the sides, giving the snake the appearance of being strongly banded with red and black. A third specimen is olive green, with the spots very indistinct upon the back, where slightly paler patches of colour show what should be the spaces between them. Specimens found in very dry and open sandy places are usually light in colour, while those frequenting wooded districts show darker shades. With few exceptions, the head is of a uniform brown or yel- lowish-brown, with a dark band crossing the top, slightly in front of the eyes. Behind the eyes is a broken band, from which radiate two others extending into the neck, where they widen to form two large patches. A short band extends from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Freshly hatched specimens resembie the parent in pattern, but show more vivid colours. Dimensions. — The measurements given are of an average- sized specimen: Total Length 28 inches. Length of Tail 4i Greatest Diameter i i Width of Head i Length of Head if Height of Rostral (the nose shield) i The largest specimen examined by the writer measured 40^ inches in length. It was taken near Raleigh, North Carolina. Another specimen, 37 inches long, came from Sullivan Co., N. Y. Distribution. — The wide distribution may be concisely out- lined thus: Southern Massachusetts to Florida (inclusive) and westward to the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains. An abundant species in dry, sandy places. Habits of the Hog-nosed Snake Owing to one habit at least, the Hog-nosed Snake is odd among serpents. This is the trait cf feigning death when fright- 379 The Hog-nosed Snakes ened and finding escape impossible, for the species is so thick- bodied that it is unable to get over the ground with any show of speed. Among serpents, the habit in question is limited to the species of a very few genera. The Hog-nosed Snakes are not restricted to this one interesting character. They may best be illiterately, but concisely, described as " bluffers." When the Hog-nosed Snake first discovers danger, its first impulse is to make for safety, but owing to its custom of travers- ing sandy areas or ploughed fields where it flattens to enjoy the sun, shelter is a long way off and out of the question. Realising that it cannot escape the object of its fright, the snake's first move is to inspire fear on the part of the enemy that the latter will leave it with the thought that venom is part of its make-up. Taking a long breath, that it may expand its stubby body as much as possible, the snake follows this move by flattening the head and neck to such an extent that the neck becomes fully three times the normal width, causing the colours to stand out vividly on the distended skin while the head assumes the most formidable outlines. It may be said in justice to the reptile's antics that a Hog-nosed Snake, playing this game of bluff is the personification of villainy, and an angry copperhead beside it, in spite of that reptile being genuine among the dangerous, would appear quite angelic to a popular-minded observer. While flattened and in every way over-doing the actions of the most deadly snakes, the reptile ejects the deep breath it has taken in a long, sharp, hissing sound. This manoeuvre completes a picture of ferocity seldom to be seen among serpents. The writer has watched the majority of the world's most deadly snakes assume their various fighting attitudes, but he will give this harmless and really gentle creature the credit for appearing even more hostile than the African vipers which are among the most fear-inspiring in aspect of any of the really poisonous serpents. During these very hostile symptoms the Hog-nosed Snake continues to hiss with energy and strike repeatedly at the object of its annoyance. To one understanding snakes, the actions are amusing, for /'/ the band be placed within reach of the snake's jaws it is never bitten, and it must be explained that during all these feints, the snake cannot be induced to bite. Its object is simply to frighten away the enemy in order to render possible an escape. 380 The Hog-nosed Snakes If these fighting symptoms do not produce the desired effect of freeing it from molestation, the Hog-nosed Snake tries different tactics. Suddenly opening its mouth, it appears to be injured and to lose strength. Then a convulsion seemingly seizes the snake, as it contorts its body into irregular undulations ending in a spasmodic wriggling of the tail when the reptile turns on its back and lies limp and, to all appearances, dead. So cleverly and patiently does the snake feign death that it may be carried about by the tail for half an hour or more, hung over a fence rail where it dangles and sways to a passing breeze, or tied in a knot and thrown in the road, and to all of this treat- ment there is no sign of life except from one condition. In spite of this remarkable shamming the snake may be led to betray itself if placed upon the ground on its crawling surface. Then like a flash it turns upon its back again and once more becomes limp and apparently lifeless. It appears, according to this crea- ture's reasoning, that a snake to look thoroughly dead should be lying upon its back. This idea is persistent, and the experi- ment may be repeated a dozen times or more. Should the observer retreat some distance away, while the reptile lies thus, or he seek nearby concealment, the craftiness of the animal may be realised. Seeing nothing further to alarm, the serpent raises its head slightly and surveys its surroundings, and if there is no further sign of the enemy it quickly rolls over upon its abdomen and glides away as fast as its thick body will carry it. But at such a moment a move on the observer's part would send the reptile on its back again, with ludicrous precipitation. With such hostile airs and thick-set body, this snake is gener- ally regarded throughout the regions it inhabits as having fangs and a poison to correspond with its deadly appearance. Nor can those that entertain this idea be blamed when we consider the lack of popular works on the American reptiles, and the time- worn explanation that "the poisonous snake may be told at a glance from the harmless one by the triangular head and thick body" — which outlines are displayed by a large number of our harmless snakes when irritated, in fact to such an extent that many of them assume the character more distinctly than the dan- gerous snakes themselves. In some sections the Hog-nosed Snake is thought to be so 381 The Hog-nosed Snakes poisonous that its very hiss is the exhalation of a venomous breath. The reptile is known by such formidable names as " Flat-headed Adder," the "Puff Adder," the "Spreading Viper" and "Blow Snake." In many districts it is mistaken for the copperhead snake. The food of this snake seems limited to toads and frogs. It much prefers the former. As explained in the description, the light specim2ns occur usually in very dry, sandy places, while the darker forms are found in woods or moist situations. The dark specimens will usually eat both frogs and toads; the light spec- imens, with few exceptions, refuse frogs altogether and confine their diet to toads. The species feeds voraciously in captivity. The majority of specimens will so gorge themselves that further feeding is temporarily impossible. The wide head and great elasticity of the jaws enables this snake to swallow very large prey in proportion to its size. It is not unusual for a small snake to engage in a struggle with a very large toad; the toad may be possibly three or four times the diameter of the thickest part of the snake's body, and the little reptile may be rolled and dragged about by the batrachian for nearly an hour, but finally engulfs the toad, which so distends and weighs down the serpent's body that it drags itself with great difficulty to a place of concealment to await assimilation of the meal. During the process of swal- lowing a large and vigorous toad the reptile is greatly aided by the pair of large teeth in the rear of the mouth, which, being sharply recurved, hold the struggling prey in a grip that seldom fails. The Hog-nosed Snake is oviparous, depositing about two dozen eggs, during the latter part of July. The eggs are white and leathery, and like most snake eggs are so deposited in a cluster that they adhere together. As has been noted with ser- pents' eggs in general, they absorb moisture as they develop and gradually increase in size. Just prior to the time of hatching they are at least a third larger than when laid and distorted in form; they are then rather spherical instead of elongated as at the time of deposit. THE BLACK HOG-NOSED SNAKE; BLACK "ADDER" Heterodon plaiyrhinus, variety niger, (Baird & Girard) This formidable looking reptile is but a colour variety cf the preceding snake. While the writer is not in favour of 38; The Hog-nosed Snakes naming varieties from difference of colour alone, the total absence of pattern from large numbers of specimens which are black or very dark gray, points to a character that should be recognised for the guidance of the popular student and the beginner in this branch of zoology. Colouration. — Above, the body is very dark gray, or slaty black, with no trace of pattern. The top of the head is black, but the upper lip plates (supe- rior labials) are white, with a tinge of black at their borders or sprinkled with black dots. The flat portion of the upturned snout is also white, as is the chin and throat; farther down the undersurface the white fades into gray. Dimensions. — In size, this variety agrees with the typical form. The largest specimen examined showed the following measurements: Total Length 36 inches. Length of Tail 5^ Greatest Diameter I J Length of Head if Width of Head i£ This specimen was captured in Sullivan County, New York. Distribution. — The Black Hog-nosed Snake is distributed over the same area as given for the typical form. THE SOUTHERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE Heterodon simus, (Linn.) Considerably smaller than the preceding species — attaining a length of about twenty inches — and stouter in form. The shovel-like rostral plate (on the snout) is more prominent and very sharply upturned. Colouration. — Pale brownish-gray above; with a series of large, rather irregular patches of blackish-brown on the back; between these blotches the body-colour is slightly paler than on the sides. Beneath these spots, on each side of the reptile, is a row of smaller spots, in alternation with those above. With the exception of ibis smaller row of spots on the sides the ground-colour presents a plain, unspotted surface, and the abdomen is likewise immaculate. Tbis is in contrast to tbe preceding and more generally distributed species, with which the sides of the reptile 3§3 The Hog-nosed Snakes and the edges of the abdominal plates arc profusely spotted 01 blotched with black. At a glance, the pattern of the present species appears plainer — more sharply defined — than with the commoner snake, although the arrangement of the bolder markings is very similar. There is a broken band across the top of the head, and another from the eye to the angle of the mouth. On the nape are two large blotches. Variations. — The body-colour varies from gray to yellow. Many specimens have a tinge of brick-red on the neck or over a considerable portion of the forward part of the body. Dimensions. — The measurements of a specimen taken in Hampton County, South Carolina, are given: Total Length i8-J- inches Length of Tail 2\ Greatest Diameter J WidthofHead Length of Head i } Distribution. — Of limited distribution, this snake occurs from South Carolina, inclusive, throughout Florida and west- ward to the Mississippi. Habits. — Stouter in body and with very abruptly upturned snout, this species when irritated succeeds in looking yet more hostile than the preceding. It is greatly dreaded by the Southern negroes, who believe its actions portray venomous powers quite equal to the rattlesnake. On all sides it is mercilessly slaughtered as the "Blow Snake" or "Sand Viper." In habits the species is very similar to the Common Hog- nosed Snake. The majority of specimens taken by the writer were sunning in the cotton fields. It is much less abundant than the allied species and unlike the latter, which often wanders into the timber, appears to have a decided preference for dry and open places. Captive specimens will eat both toads and frogs, but they prefer the former. THE WESTERN HOG-NOSED SNAKE Hetcrodon nasicus, (Baird &Girard) The present species is most nearly allied to the Southern Hog-nosed Snake, though it is a larger reptile. With this snake: .184 X u w 8 0. W ti > 'J H £ H Id The Hog-nosed Snakes the characteristic snout, that so readily distinguishes species of the genus, is most strikingly developed. Colouration. — By one character, the present species may at once be recognised from the closely allied H. simus. That is presence of a wide area of black, covering the central portion of the abdomen. The back is pale brown or yellowish, with a series of closely set, darker blotches on the back, and two rows of smaller, alternating blotches on the sides. The head is much paler than the body and strongly marked with bands of rich brown, arranged thus: Two bands cross the top of the head; another extends from behind the eye to the angle of the mouth, while on each temple is a wide blotch or band of the same colour. Between these blotches is a short, dark bar. Variations. — With many specimens the scales of the sides are white, with brown centres, while the back looks decidedly yellow and velvety, with but smoky traces of the large blotches. The upper row of blotches on the sides, however, is usually distinct, as are the head markings. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a large specimen, from western Texas: Total Length 23^ inches. Length of Tail 2f Greatest Diameter $• Width of Head f Length of Head ITV Distribution.— Western United States and northern Mexico. The general range is extensive including Montana in the North, and the Dakotas. Eastward, the species ranges into Arkansas and westward into Arizona, thence into Sonora, Mexico. It does not occur in the Pacific region. Habits. — The species is of less excitable disposition than the Eastern Hog-nosed Snakes. It can never be induced to bite, though it will sometimes bluff at doing so by striking with closed jaws at the object of annoyance- None of the writer's specimens could be induced to eat anything but toads, and of these, very small snakes would often engulf prey of extraordinary propor- tions as compared with the reptile's girth. Although a batrachian was often strong enough to drag the snake about with it, the toad was swallowed without what appeared to be undue exertion. 385 CHAPTER XLI : THE OPISTHOGLYPH SNAKES OF NORTH AMERICA A Division of Mildly Poisonous Serpents, with Grooved Fangs in the Rear of the Upper Jaw — The Many Species Occur in Both the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres Classification and Distribution. — The Opisthoglyph snakes form a division of the family Coluhridce. From the other mem- bers they are readily separated by the presence of a pair, or several pairs of grooved teeth in the rear of the upper jaw. These snakes are divided into three sub-families, seventy-nine genera and a very large number of species. But one of the sub-families is represented in the New World — the Dipsadomorpbiiue, a few species of which occur in the southern portions of the United States. There are numerous species in Mexico, Central America and tropical South America, but the greater number inhabit Asia. General Characters. — It is the popular idea that the poisonous serpent may generally be told by its thick body and wide, tri- angular head, and that a few venomous species of the New World —the Coral Snakes (Elaps) — resemble the harmless serpents in outlines but may be at once distinguished by their colouration. These conclusions are incorrect. As to the inconsistency of brand- ing a snake as poisonous because it has a broad and flat, triangular head, the student is referred to the many species of thick-bodied, harmless serpents described and illustrated in the preceding pages. In regard to the idea of the Coral Snakes forming the few exceptions where venomous snakes resemble the slender-bodied, harmless species, the succeeding pages, dealing with the Opis- ihoglyph serpents, will be found to explain conditions quite to the contrary. Aside from those snakes representing in North America the sub-family Crotalince — the Pit Vipers, and the sub-family Elapince — the Coral Snakes, there are various species of poisonous serpents. This is a condition not generally understood as the Opisthoglypha has either been classed as a group comprising 386 The Opisthoglyph Snakes of North America inoffensive species, or its members designated as "suspects" owing to the presence of elongated, grooved teeth in the rear portion of the upper jaw. It should be understood that the Opisthoglypb snakes are distinctly poisonous. The grooved teeth are poison-conducting fangs, and connect with glands in the rear portion of the head. The fangs are ordinarily employed — as is the venom apparatus of all serpents — to subdue and to kill the prey, and not to use as weapons of aggression upon mankind. The majority of these snakes are but mildly poisonous and consequently not dangerous to man in the effects of their bites. Moreover, if biting in self-defence, they do not generally employ their fangs as it is difficult for them to produce a wound with the venom-conducting teeth unless they take deliberate hold and advance the jaws in the familiar, chewing motion of snakes, thus bringing the grooved teeth into a position to be imbedded. Few snakes, unless grasped by the body, will use their jaws in this fashion. If cornered, they simply "strike." As the Opis- tboglypb snakes are timid and active, accidents from them are very rare. However, persons have been bitten by these snakes, yet escaped being wounded by the fangs. Such observers have emphatically asserted that such snakes are innocuous and have thus set down their views in literature. There has consequently arisen a tangled argument about these creatures. An examination of the teeth and a dissection of the head will remove all doubt as to the poisonous character of any of the species. The venom apparatus is, in fact, fully as perfect — though rather in miniature — as that of the much dreaded viperine snakes, but in place of the fangs being perforated and ejecting their venom from an orifice at the tip, they are grooved from the base to the tip. The accompanying figures, illustrating the struc- ture of the fangs of various snakes, demonstrate the quite dif- ferent dentition of these serpents from the better-known poison- ous reptiles. Though the writer has stated that most of the species oc- curring in North America are not liable to produce injuries actually formidable to man, wounds from the fangs of snakes belonging to the genera Sibon or Trimorphodon, would likely be followed by marked local symptoms. The poison of the Opistboglypb snakes appears to exert a powerful, benumbing influence upon the prey, which, when 387 The Opisthoglyph Snakes of North America seized, is worked quickly backward into the mouth by alternate, grasping movements of the jaws, until the fangs are firmly im- bedded, and in this position it is held until all struggles have ceased, when it is swallowed. The prey is generally benumbed and helpless within one or two minute's time. After a period of about five minutes it appears to be quite dead. The bitten creature seems to die with the muscles perfectly relaxed and in this condition is easily swallowed by the snake as the limbs fold readily against the body during the progress of the snake's jaws over it. To observe one of these snakes feeding is to appreciate the existence of an excellent development for the overpowering of the reptile's prey. Though it has not hitherto been the custom, the writer without hesitation classes the Opistboglypba among the poisonous ' snakes, and would advise the student to discriminate between living examples of these reptiles and the wholly innocuous snakes they so closely resemble. An outline of the North American genera follows:* I. Pupil elliptical. Si^e moderate. Body rather slender; head flat, wide and very distinct from the neck. Colouration. — Pale, with darker blotches. Two loreal plates. Trimorpbodon. Distribution. — Southwestern United States; Mexico and Central America. Conformation and colouration similar to preceding genus. One loreal plate. Sibon. Distribution. — Texas, Mexico and Central America. II. Pupil round. Si^e small. Body moderately slender. Head but slightly distinct. Pattern (of local species) in bands extending lengthwise. Erytbrolamprus. Distribution. — Texas, Mexico, Central and South America. Si^e very small. Body moderately slender; head not distinct. Body brown; head blackish. Tantilhi. Distribution. — Southern United States from South Carolina to California; Mexico, Central America and South America. *The species of all the genera have smooth scales. 388 The Opisthoglyph Snakes of North America The Genus Trimorphodon : This is essentially a Central American and Mexican genus. But one species ranges north- ward into the United States. All of the species are of moderate size — some reaching a length of a yard and the thickness of a man's forefinger. The neck is slender, but the head is broad, flat and very distinct, with large eyes, having a cat-like (elliptical) pupil. The species look like viperine, poisonous snakes and their temper is not of the best. The food consists of lizards, young snakes and batrachians — frogs and salamanders. THE JEW'S-HARP SNAKE Trimorpbodon 'lyrophanes, (Cope) Moderate in size — two and a half to three feet in length. Rather slender; neck very slender; head broad and very distinct — swollen at the temples, and with large eyes, the pupils elliptical. Colouration. — Light gray; about twenty pairs of deep brown blotches on the back (to the base of tail); tail also blotched. There is an irregular row of blotches on the sides. Abdomen white; dark spots on the edges of many of the shields. On the top of the bead is a large patch of deep brown, its out- lines suggesting those of a jew's-harp. Dimensions, — Total Length 30 inches. Length of Tail 6 Greatest Diameter f Width of Head f Length of Head i J Distribution. — Southern Arizona; Lower California. The Genus Sibon: Formation and size similar to the pre- ceding genus, but there is a single loreal plate in place of two as existing with Trimorpbodon. Seven species comprise this genus. They inhabit Mexico and Central America. One extends north- ward into southern Texas. THE ANNULATED SNAKE Sibon septentrionalis, (Kennicott) Size moderate; body rather slender, the tail gradually tapering to a slender tip. Head very broad and distinct from neck; swollen at the temples. Eyes large, with elliptical pupil. Ventral plate divided — like the preceding species. 389 The Opisthoglyph Snakes of North America Colouration. — Greenish-gray or yellowish above with large, black or brown blotches — six or eight scales long and extending downward nearly to the edges of the abdominal plates. Ab- domen yellowish. Across the rear part of the head is an obscure, pale band. Dimensions. — Total length, 30 inches; tail about one-fifth the total length. The head is fully twice as wide as the diam- eter of the neck. Distribution. — Southern portions of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Mexico generally and southward to Panama. Habits. — A captive specimen, now living for several years, is persistently secretive, though it feeds readily. It spends most of the time in hiding under a flat stone in the cage or in a hollow it scoops in the gravel beneath the drinking pan. About the food, it is not particular, eating snakes, lizards, young mice and frogs. Among these creatures it takes the young snakes and frogs most readily. The species seems to be oviparous, as this snake laid a dozen eggs a few days after her arrival. They were deposited in a hollow she had scooped in the sand, under a flat stone. The Genus Erytbrolamprus: The species are smaller than those of the preceding genera; the body is rather slender and the head but slightly distinct. Eyes with a round pupil. Six species are recognised. With the exception of one, they are confined to Mexico and Central America. THE BLACK-BANDED SNAKE Erytbrolamprus imperialis, (Baird) Small in size and with a rather slender body. The head is but slightly distinct from the neck. Ventral plate divided. Colouration. — Pale brown; a black band on the back and a similar band on each side. Abdomen reddish; sometimes spotted. A black-bordered, yellow line from the snout to the temple. Dimensions. — Total length, 14 inches; tail, 6 inches. Distribution. — Central America and Mexico, northward into southern Texas. The Genus Tantilla — the Black-headed Snakes: In the number of species, Tantilla is a fairly large genus, but all of the 39° The Opisthoglyph Snakes of North America members are of diminutive proportions. They inhabit the southern portions of the United States, Mexico, Central America and South America. Most of the species have a pale brown body and a black head. The body is slender, with about fifteen rows of smooth, opalescent scales; the head is flat and not distinct from the neck. In front of the eye is a single plate (preocular} . The loreal plate is lacking. (See Figure.) These tiny serpents are provided with the usual dentition of the Opisthoglyph snakes — grooved fangs on the rear portion of the upper jaw, but may be classed among the reptiles innocuous to man as their microscopic teeth would be unable to draw blood. The species of Tantilla lead a secretive, or burrowing life. A concise list, only, is given of these serpents: General Colouration. — Body brown; head blackish. A. Seven upper lip plates (superior labials}. a. A yellow or white ring at base of head. Yellow ring followed by a broader ring of black. CROWNED SNAKE, T. coronata, (B. & .G.) Dimensions. — Length 9 inches. HP *1 . ^ i( Tail if Diameter TV Width of Head A " Length of Head -& Distribution. — Southeastern States. South Carolina to Florida (inclusive) ; westward to Mississippi. Yellow ring bordered in rear by black dots. EISEN'S BLACK-HEADED SNAKE, T. eiseni, (Stejneger.) Distribution — Seven specimens known ; all captured twenty-five years ago, at Fresno, California. b. No yellow ring at base of head. TEXAS BLACK-HEADED SNAKE, T. nigriceps, (Kennicott). Distribution. — Texas and New Mexico. B. Six upper lip plates. Colouration like the preceding species. SLENDER BLACK-HEADED SNAKE, 7. gracillS, (B. & G.) Distribution. — Missouri to Texas. • ••••••• Among these North American Opisthoglyph snakes, the species of Trimorphodon and Sibon alone, are actually dangerous. For- tunately, they are easy to recognise by the distinct head and cat-like eye. Compared with the other — degenerate — snakes of the kind inhabiting the United States, they are unique. 391 CHAPTER XLII: THE ELAPINE POISONOUS SNAKES SUB-FAMILY ELAPIN/E A Large Sub-family of the COLUBRID/E Embracing the Old World Cobras and Their Allies, and the American Coral Snakes — Resume of the ELAPIN/E — Descriptions of the North American Species — Their Habits Classification and Distribution. — With the exception of the Coral Snakes (genus Elaps], the Elapine snakes inhabit the Old World. This sub-family is composed of twenty-nine genera, which embrace about one hundred and forty species. While the Elapine snakes occur abundantly in Africa, southern Asia and throughout the Malay Archipelago, they are most elaborately represented in Australia and New Guinea. Australia teems with these formidable reptiles which compose the serpent life of that great island, with the exception of a very few harmless species. The Black Snake (Pseudechis porphyria- cus), the Tiger Snake (Hoplocephalus curtus}, the Brown Snake (Diemenia superciliosa) and the Death Adder (Acanthophis antarctica) are among the deadly snakes of the latter country. With the exception of the Death Adder, these species are very closely allied to the Cobras, and exhibit a tendency to dilate the neck into a "hood" when angered. The largest species of the Elapine snakes are the Cobras, genus Naja, which inhabit southern Asia, the Malay Archipelago and Africa. The majority of these serpents, of which there are ten species, attain a length of six feet, and one species, the King Cobra (N. bungarus), grows to a length of twelve feet. Probably the most familiar example of the Elapince is the Cobra-de-capello (N. tripudians] of southern Asia and Malaysia. This is the snake so frequently employed by the Hindoos in their exhibitions. Another well-known species is the Egyptian Cobra, or "Asp" (N. haje), alleged by historians to have been used in the suicide of Cleopatra. When annoyed, the majority of the Cobras rear the forward portion of the body from the ground, and dilate the 392 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes neck broadly, thus producing the familiar "hood." The skin is spread by a number of movable ribs, which lie against the back- bone when the snake is in a passive mood. The American Elapine serpents — the Coral Snakes — although structurally related to the deadly and vivacious Cobras and their allies, are rather degenerate reptiles, of considerably smaller pro- portions. All evince burrowing habits, and the greater number of the species occur in tropical South America and Central America. Anatomy of the Elapine Snakes. — From a structural stand- point, with the exception of the teeth, the Elapine serpents are exactly like the typical harmless snakes — sub-family Colubrince. The majority of the species are slender of body, with a rather narrow head. A Cobra, when in a passive mood, exhibits much the same outlines as the harmless Gopher Snake (Spilotes corais couperi} of the southern United States. Compare heads (figured) of the coral snakes with those of the harmless species. Hence the beginner must again make careful note that all poisonous snakes — and in fact some of the most deadly known species — cannot be distinguished by the possession of a "broad, triangular head." That rule applies to the viperine snakes, but is by no means infallible in separating the latter from many of the thick-bodied innocuous species. With a thorough technical knowledge of snakes, this involv- ing their scalation and distribution, the Elapine snakes may be generally recognised upon a hasty examination of their external characters. With most of the species a certain plate on each side of the head — the loreal — is lacking. This plate is to be found with the greater number of the harmless colubrine snakes. Its position is indicated on the heads figured. An examination of a skeleton head of one of these reptiles at once shows the reason for giving the Elapine serpents a distinct place in classification. On the front portion of the upper jaw bones is a pair of short, stout fangs that are rigid in their position -that is, they do not fold against the roof of the mouth as do the long fangs of the viperine snakes. On the front surface of these fangs is a distinct groove. In fact these snakes have been described as possessing "grooved" fangs. This term, however, is misleading and might tend to bring about the idea that the structure of the fangs is the same as that displayed with the dentition of the Opistboglypb snakes — previously 393 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes considered. Such is not the case. Although the face of the fang is deeply furrowed, the venom-conducting teeth contain a canal for the flow of poison and open in a small orifice at the tip, in the same fashion as a hypodermic needle. To be more detailed in this explanation it might be said that the Elapine snakes stand midway between the Opisiboglyph serpents and the Vipers, as regards the development of the fangs. With the Opisiboglypba the venom is conducted down the fangs by a groove; with the Elapince (or Proteroglypba) the tooth is folded over the groove, forming a canal, yet leaving the former very apparent in the pro- cess of evolution, while the viperine snakes possess fangs of the most perfect development, though on the front of each is a faint indication of the groove. Compared with the fangs of the viperine snakes, the poisonous instruments of the Elapine serpents are very small. While the fangs of a seven-foot rattlesnake are nearly an inch in length, the poison-conducting teeth of a twelve-foot King Cobra — the most deadly of all snakes — are but five-sixteenths of an inch in length — but the poison of the Elapina attacks the nerves and does not require injection to any depth before beginning its fatal work. The American Elapine Serpents The Coral Snakes — genus Elaps : These snakes have derived their popular title from the bright, coral red, arranged in broad rings on many of the species. With the majority of the Coral Snakes, the pattern consists of broad rings of red and black, and narrow rings of yellow. The Coral Snakes are of moderate size, with a cylindrical body, rather short tail, and blunt head not distinct from the neck. The eyes are very small and bead-like. With all of the species the scales are smooth, highly polished and opalescent. The bn'liant colours, combined with the lustre of the scales cause ^hese reptiles to be among the most beautiful of the snakes. As captives, however, they are uninteresting, continually en- deavouring to burrow away from the light and displaying a decided indifference toward feeding. Of the total number of Coral Snakes — about twenty-eight species — but two occur in the United States. The majority inhabit tropical South America. In the latter country they 394 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes attain a fair size. Flaps marcgravii, E. corallinus and E. surin- amensis attain a length of four and five feet and their bites, with man, are usually followed by speedy death. The various species display subterraneous habits, for which they are structurally well-fitted, owing to their cylindrical form, but are frequently found wandering above ground. All of the species are cannibal- istic, feeding upon the smaller species of harmless snakes and upon lizards. Before entering upon descriptions of the North American species, the student should understand that there are several innocuous serpents in our Southern States that closely "mimic" the Coral Snakes in colouration, form and size. Moreover, these reptiles are to be found in much the same situations as the poison- ous species. Their pattern is a brilliant combination of red, yellow and black rings, or ring-like blotches. They are frequently mistaken for Coral Snakes and as such are slain. But it is inter- esting and rather startling to explain that the venomous reptiles are as often mistaken for the harmless ones, and carelessly handled. Among the harmless snakes that are apt to confuse the student, are the following species : LeConte's Snake, Rhinocbilus lecontei. *} Southwestern Arizona King Snake, Ophibolus {onatus. U. S. Western Milk Snake, doliatus gentilus. } Milk Snake, "| Southeastern Dwarf King Snake, " coccineus. U. S. Scarlet Snake, Cemopbora coccinea. J All of the species quoted have much the same colours as the North American Coral Snakes, either in rings, completely encircling the body, or in a semi-ringed fashion above. Yet the disposition of these rings is different from that of Elaps and, once understood, will greatly aid the student in immediately distin- guishing the dangerous from the harmless reptiles. With the species of Elaps, the black rings are bordered on each side by the yellow ones. With the harmless snakes, the yellow rings are bordered on each side by the black. Another important point to remember is that with the Coral Snakes the bands of colour completely encircle the body. With several of the non-venomous imitators mentioned, the similarity to Elaps, from above, is very striking, but the abdomen is either uniform white or is blotched. 395 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes The North American Coral Snakes may be readily separated from one another by the arrangement of the colours, as seen by the following formula: General Pattern. — Broad red and black rings; narrower yellow rings. Snout black; a broad yellow band across centre of head and behind this a black ring. Yellow rings of body very narrow. HARLEQUIN SNAKE; CORAL SNAKE, E. julviUS. Distribution. — North Carolina to southern Mexico. Greater portion of head black; a yellow band on back of head and behind this a red ring. Yellow rings on body rather broad. SONORA CORAL SNAKE, E. euryxanthus. Distribution. — Arizona; northern Mexico. Detailed descriptions of the species, with notes upon their habits, are herewith given. THE HARLEQUIN SNAKE; CORAL SNAKE Elaps julvius (Linn.) It is owing to the striking colouration that the name of Har- lequin Snake has been given to this species, which is rather slender and seldom attains a length of more than a yard. The head is flat, very blunt, and not distinct from the neck. Colouration. — The pattern consists of broad rings of deep scarlet and blue-black, separated by narrow rings of yellow. The snout is black and a wide band of yellow crosses the middle of the head; behind this is the first black ring of the body pattern. The red and the black rings of the body are from seven to twelve scales wide; the yellow rings exhibit a width of from one to two scales. On the back the red rings usually contain spots and patches of black; beneath, they are generally uniform red with the exception of a large blotch of black in the centre of the abdomen. The tail contains none of the red rings, being black with broad rings of yellow. Variations. — In the United States this species is fairly con- stant in pattern, although with some specimens the crimson rings are so suffused with spots and blotches of black as to impart a decidedly dull appearance in comparison with individuals on which the red is vividly apparent. 396 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes Mexican specimens display marked variations of pattern. The black rings are rather narrow and the red rings very wide — from two to three times the width of the black rings. With such specimens the yellow rings are merely represented by a tinge of that colour upon the tips of single scales bordering the black areas. It is quite possible that a large series of Mexican specimens would prove these reptiles to be worthy of a distinct, varietal name. An illustration is presented of a typical specimen from Marion County, Florida. Colours of Young Specimens. — The pattern of the young is precisely like that of the parent, though the colours are paler. The red rings are represented by a pale brick colour. (Illus- trated.) Dimensions. — The largest specimen examined, from the United States, was 37 inches in length. This is considerably above the average for specimens north of Mexico. The measure- ments of an average-sized adult from Gainesville, Florida, are given : Total Length 28^ inches. Length of Tail 2^ Greatest Diameter £ Width of Head TV Length of Head f A freshly hatched specimen measured yf inches in length and one-eighth of an inch in diameter at the thickest part of the body. Distribution. — The species ranges from northern North Carolina to the Gulf of Mexico, westward through Texas, thence southward into Central America. It has extended its distribution up the Mississippi Valley as far north as southern Ohio, where occasional specimens are found. Habits of the Coral Snake Much has been written about the alleged inoffensive habits of this snake. By some writers it is described as mildly poisonous, and quoting Prof. E. D. Cope, "innocuous to man and the larger animals," which information is intended to convey the impres- sion that the Coral Snake is too small to be deadly to anything but the small creatures that constitute its food. Slender and brightly coloured, with a small, harmless 397 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes appearing head, this pretty creature is known to possess poisonous fangs, but from a theoretical standpoint the assumption is that a snake of such graceful appearance, with all the characteristic stamp of a venomous snake removed, is, if poisonous at all, very mildly so. This is the argument, and the writer has many times observed these attractively coloured reptiles handled in the most careless manner, and has been scoffed at for interfering for the good of the careless individual who would not believe. The Coral Snake belongs to a sub-family that contains some of the most deadly known species of snakes. Among its near allies are the Cobra-de-capello, the Krait and the Australian Tiger Snake. All the snakes of this sub-family are noted for their resemblance to the harmless snakes, and though possessing very small poison fangs are provided with a venom that is more deadly in effect than that of the thick-bodied vipers. It is owing to the fact of the Coral Snake possessing very short fangs that some scientists, who have made detailed examina- tions of alcoholic specimens, have pronounced their verdict— "poisonous, but very slightly so." It might be well for these writers to appreciate that the fangs of 'the Coral Snake are slightly larger in proportion to the reptile's si%e than those of the acknowledged deadly Cobra, and that the former reptile secretes a venom more powcrjul than that of the rattlesnake. Thus, in spite of its pretty colours and alleged "docile nature," the writer feels that this serpent should be described as it really is. It should be placed in the list of dangerously poi- sonous snakes — given rank in point of deadliness with the long- fanged vipers, in comparison with which its poisonous characters have been scoffed at. During many years, the writer has examined several hundred specimens of this snake and at no time has been able to note any particular degree of docility. It is true that a serpent of this kind may be handled without accident, as its actions in biting are quite different from many snakes. Nevertheless, the danger is great in handling it. It might be incidentally explained that the rattlesnake, the copperhead and the moccasin might likewise be handled after the fever of anger attending their capture has passed. Such has been the case with many reckless men who style themselves "rattlesnake charmers," and the like. When first disturbed in their native wilds, these latter, thick-bodied 398 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes serpents are more emphatic in their declarations of anger, while the Coral Snake, rather sluggish in attitude, may be mistaken in its demeanour to be "good natured." It should be explained that the rattlesnakes and their allies usually become quite tame as captives, when they will submit to being handled with ap- parent good nature. The Coral Snake differs from crotaline* snakes in seldom or never striking at the object of its anger. If cornered it will lie sullenly motionless, or throw its body into a series of irregular loops, under which the head is often hidden. If unduly annoyed the reptile behaves in a peculiar manner. It twists from side to side, lying motionless for a few seconds, then throwing itself into a different position. The movements are jerky and erratic and seemingly without purpose. Then the reptile is treacherous and dangerous. Its movements are lightning-like and quite different from those displayed by the majority of snakes. If touched lightly upon the side, the small head is swung around and the jaws grasp the offending object, when the serpent chews until the small but formidable fangs have been imbedded a num- ber of times. In unpacking freshly captured specimens, the writer has frequently seen them turn and bite with the rapidity of a steel spring suddenly released from tension. This act of biting is unattended by any sign of warning. It may be caused by the simple touch of a stick against the snake's body. The amount of venom yielded at such times is a mute illustration of the crea- ture's power of doing damage. A moment previous to this ex- hibition, the snake may be perfectly motionless and in an ap- parent state of lethargy. Thus does the Coral Snake defend itself with a poison which resembles that of the Cobra-de-capello. Surely it would not be appropriate, after noting such observations, to describe this snake as "mildly poisonous" or "innocuous to man and the larger animals." Like all of the snakes representing the genus Elaps, the Coral Snake is of burrowing habits. It is sometimes found hiding under the bark of decaying logs, and is often exhumed in plough- ing. After heavy showers and at night it issues forth in search of food, which consists of snakes and lizards. The species is very ^Comprehensive title for the sub-family to which the rattlesnake, copperhead, moccasin and allies belong. 399 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes fond of the blue-tailed lizard (Eumeces) and finds them without trouble as they creep under the loose bark of logs and fallen timber for the night. In captivity, the Coral Snake invariably dies within a few weeks if denied a situation that permits it burrowing and hiding for the greater part of the time. It may be kept successfully by giving it a case provided with several inches depth of sphagnum moss; but it is delicate and,unless kept in a temperatureof seventy- five degrees Fahrenheit or over, will persistently refuse food. Experiments were conducted in the reptile house for several years with a view of producing quarters where this interesting snake could be placed on exhibition to be seen, and yet to partially favour its subterranean habits. When placed on thin layers of moss and sand it continually burrowed for a place to hide and refused all food. Specimens in cases well filled with moss, lived and thrived, but were never seen by visitors. Finding it practically impossible to strike the happy medium, a few spec- imens are kept on hand to be uncovered occasionally for the bene- fit of students, but the idea of an exhibition cage has for some time been abandoned. When feeding, this snake displays a ferocity and snappiness of motion quite contrary to its generally sluggish disposition. If the prey be a snake, it is quickly seized by the neck or body and the fangs advanced in a series of chewing movements. At the beginning, this operation injects considerable venom and prepares the prey for the swallowing process. Working its fangs along the body of the fated creature, the snake shifts its victim into a posi- tion whence it may be swallowed head first. Frequently the quarry defends itself vigorously, biting the body of its foe and twisting itself about in a manner calculated to worry the enemy and release the grip of the relentless jaws. To these struggles, the poisonous snake pays little attention unless they become especially energetic, when it makes another series of wounds with the fangs, biting with a jerky, side movement, with the evident view of imbedding the venom-conducting teeth as deeply as pos- sible. The fight is of short duration, for the prey is soon be- numbed, when the limp body is engulfed at leisure. The Coral Snake is oviparous. Its eggs are very elongate and are deposited in decaying bark or damp soil. A large spec- imen in the writer's collection laid seven eggs on the 29th of June. 400 X u w THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXVII I ANNULATED SNAKE, Sibon seplcntrionale This Western snake has short, stout fangs in the rear of the upper jaw. Its bite quickly paralyses small mammal? and reptiles and it should be rated as a reptile dangerous to man, though not a deadly one - 3 4 i and 2 HEAD OF HARLEQUIN' SNAKE. Elaps fulvius. 3 and 4 HEAD OF SONORA CORAL SNAKT;, E. euryxanthus i Top. 2 Side. 3 Side-. 4 Top. Belonging to the subfamily FJafinrr. the Coral Snakc^ arc allied to the cobras of the Old World. They have a pair of short, per- manently erect fangs on the forward part of the up|>er j.iw. Their bites often prove fatal to man. Many species are found in Central and South America The Elapine Poisonous Snakes One of them was opened and found to contain a translucent embryo about two inches in length. The remainder were placed in damp wood pulp in the temperature of an ordinary living- room. From the batch another was opened on the 6th of August. It contained a white and perfectly formed embryo, 5^ inches long, showing the scalation to be well formed, but without trace of pattern. The specimen was translucent and when held to the light, the heart, performing its pulsations, could be clearly seen. The five remaining eggs hatched between the 26th and 28th of September. The young were about 7 inches long and one-eighth of an inch in thickness. They were very active, and when removed from the hatching tray with a pair of forceps, grasped the steel tips in an endeavour to use their diminutive fangs. THE SONORA CORAL SNAKE Elaps euryxanthus, (Kennicott) The size is smaller than that of the preceding species. The tail is short and blunt. Colouration. — The general character of the pattern is quite distinct from that of the Harlequin Snake. The colours are disposed in rather broad rings of crimson or brick-red, and equally broad rings of black, which are separated by yellow rings. Com- pared with E. fulvius, however, the red and the black rings will be seen to be proportionately narrower and the yellow rings much broader. On the forward portion of the body, above, the red rings are very narrowly edged with black. They con- tain no black spots or blotches as do the red areas on the allied species. The forward portion of the head is black. On the back of the head is a broad band of yellow, followed by the first red ring of the body pattern. The latter character at once distinguishes this species from the Harlequin Snake. There are three broad black rings on the tail, separated by narrower ones of yellow. Dimensions. — The only specimen of this rare snake available to the writer for measurement, has not attained its full size, but the figures given well demonstrate the general propor- tions : 401 The Elapine Poisonous Snakes Total Length 15 inches. Lengthof Fail ij Greatest Diameter T\ " Width of Head 1 " Length of Head | Distribution. — Central and southern Arizona and Sonora, Mexico. 402 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXX Copyright. 1907, by Douhleday, Page & Company HARLEQUIN SNAKE : CORAL SNAKE, Eldps julviits. Several of the harmless snakes look much like this beautiful and dangerous little creature. It should be noted that the yellow rings border the black, a condition reversed among the non-venomous serpents with similar colours. The Coral Snake is a burrowing species, often ploughed up in the fields— yet it is sometimes found wandering on the surface. Its food consists of small snakes and lizards. The habitat includes the Southern States and Mexico. Copyright, 1907, by Doubleday, Page & Co'.npany SONORAN CORAL SNAKE, Elaps euryxanthus. A little known species of the Southwest and northern Mexico. CHAPTER XLIII: THE VIPERINE SNAKES FAMILY The Thick-bodied Poisonous Snakes of the New World — Serpents Distinguished by Their Long Fangs, which Fold Against the Roof of the Mouth when it is Closed Classification and Distribution. — The family yipendce is of moderate size. It is composed of about one hundred and twenty- five species, representing thirteen genera. The species are scat- tered over the temperate and tropical portions of both the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres. The Viperidcz is divided into two sub-families, these technically termed the Viperina (the True Vipers), the species of which are found only in the Old World, and the Cwtalina,, or "Pit Vipers," occurring in both the Old and the New World, but attaining their greatest size and varia- bility of form in the latter. Thus, in North America, all of the thick-bodied poisonous snakes are "Pit Vipers" or Crotaline ser- pents. The members of both sub-families may be recognised by the flat triangular head, very distinct from the neck and the elliptical (cat-like) pupil of the eye. The top of the head, with the majority of the species, is covered with very small, granular scales. Some show regularly arranged head shields of much the same formation and character as those of the colubrine snakes. The. Pit J/ipers: The sub-family Crotalince, containing the rattlesnakes, the copperhead snake, the moccasin and the "fer-de-lance" has acquired the popular title for its members — the Pit Vipers — owing to a peculiar development seen with all the species. This consists of a deep pit, situated between the eye and the nostril. The orifice is lined with a delicate epidermis and connects with a well-developed nerve extending backward to the brain. That this pit is of some use to the snake, seems very probable, when the attendant nerve development is considered. Many investigations have been attempted, with the result of com- plicated anatomical repetitions in the line of description, but 403 The Viperine Snakes with no actual proof of the function of this organ. Nor do ob- servations of living snakes aid in solving the problem. It is intimated by some scientists that the "pit" is an organ of hearing, but there is little to back this assertion. The Pit Vipers possess the same rudimentary, internal ears as do other snakes, and evince no superiorty in distinguishing sound over serpents ob- served generally. Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, Curator of Reptiles in the United States National Museum, favours the idea of a sixth sense, in relation to the Pit, and explains that man may never comprehend the nature of a sense which he himself does not possess. Dissection reveals the Pit to be more complicated than seen by external examination. It extends backward toward the eye and widens into a second opening, close to the eye-ball. A horse-hair inserted close to the forward portion of the eye-ball will appear through the large opening between the eye and the nostril. Suffice it to say with these few words of explanation, that the object of the Pit of the Crotalince, remains to be dis- covered, but in identification, it serves as a constant and valuable guide. The poison apparatus of the Crotaline snakes consists of two long and hollow teeth — fangs — provided with an elongated orifice at their tips for the ejection of venom. These fangs are the exact reproduction, in hard enamel, of the hypodermic needle. It might more appropriately be said, that mankind in manu- facturing the hypodermic needle exactly duplicated the poison fangs of these reptiles. The fangs are rigidly fastened to a movable bone of the upper jaw, and each connects with a gland, situated behind the eye, and containing the venom. When the jaws are closed, the fangs fold back against the roof of the mouth. As the jaws are opened, they spring forward, ready for action. The forcible ejection of venom from the fangs is caused by the con- traction against the glands, of the muscles which close the jaws. The ejecion of poison is voluntary, and unless the reptile so desires there is no necessity in closing the jaws, to contract these muscles sufficiently to force venom from the glands. The fangs are covered with a sheath of thin and white, membraneous flesh. This is never withdrawn from them except during the act of biting. A figure shows the fangs uncovered as would be the case after being imbedded, during a bite; en accompanying illus- 404 The Viperine Snakes tration shows the fangs covered with the membrane. Thus they are seen when a poisonous snake is yawning. The fangs are shed at intervals of about three months apart, and by a neat provision of Nature the new fang grows into place beside the one about to be shed and becomes connected with the poison gland, before the old fang becomes loosened. The writer has examined many specimens possessing two per- fectly developed fangs on one side of the jaw. The old fang is shed by being left imbedded in the body of the prey that is bitten by the snake and is consequently swallowed with the prey. So hard is its composition that, although the bones, claws and even the teeth of the engulfed animal are entirely dissolved, the swallowed fang is unaffected by the action of the gast'ic juices. In a figure showing an osteological preparation, the growth of auxiliary fangs may be seen behind the acting pair. This constant renewing of the fangs explodes the common sup- position that a poisonous snake may be rendered harmless by removing its fangs. Though the main pair of fangs be re- moved the snake is not rendered even temporarily harmless, for poison is discharged in the act of biting from the base of the ex- tracted fangs and the small teeth of the upper jaw, employed normally by the snake in swallowing its prey, would produce lacerations through which the venom would come in contact with the blood. As previously explained, the fangs themselves are not mov- able, but are rigidly attached to movable bones. In the act of striking, the jaws are opened to such an extent and the fangs so elevated that their tips point almost directly forward. In strik- ing toward a perpendicular surface the serpent literally stabs with these teeth and instantly draws back to the position of de- fence. If striking toward a rounded surface or a small object, the jaws close upon it enough to imbed the fangs, but so lightning- like is this motion that the movements of the jaws can barely be followed by the human eye. The mouth is not opened until the head has started forward, and it is during the latter part of the blow that the jaws are thrown open to the extent described. At most, the snake strikes about one-half its length when delivering an accurately aimed blow, and generally strikes a much shorter distance, in proportion to its length. Not unless goaded into a condition of frenzy does it strike a distance equal to two- 405 The Viperine Snakes thirds of the length, and such blows are wild, and delivered aim- lessly. No poisonous snake springs bodily at the object of its anger; such a feat with a serpent is physically impossible. The defensive methods of the numerous North American species will be discussed in the respective descriptions of the species. In this work, it would be inappropriate to tarry and discuss at length the investigations concerning the composition of snake poison. It is important, however, to consider the best known remedies for snake-bite, and thus suggest what actions should be taken in case of accident. Remedies for Snake-bite. — Against the action of the subtle fluid mankind has battled in the search for an "antidote," and many are the alleged cures for "snake-bite," though few are the actually useful chemicals known in case of catastrophe with human kind. The administration of large doses of whiskey is not only useless but exceedingly harmful. In small doses, whiskey is a valuable stimulant and combats the paralysing action of the venom. In large doses it stimulates but briefly, and then be- numbs the faculties, reducing the system to a condition most susceptible to the action of the poison. It is a bold assertion, but nevertheless true, that the majority of so-called cures by the whiskey method have been but "recoveries," by frightened individuals, from the bites of harmless snakes. The writer re- members an interesting instance in South Carolina, when a powerful Negro was bitten on the thumb by a copper-bellied "moccasin" (the harmless, red-bellied water snake), which is reputed to be a rival in deadliness of the dreaded "cotton- mouth." The man had started to kill the snake and becoming bold attempted to pick the reptile up by the tail and "snap its head off." The snake yet possessed sufficient life to turn and grasp his finger. The result was several punctures from the needle- like teeth. In a hysterical condition the Negro was led to the village, where his feelings were somewhat relieved by the assur- ances of the wise ones that they had heard of cases where the bite of that same species of snake had been cured by the adminis- tration of large quantities of whiskey. The Negro drank enough liquor to intoxicate half a dozen men, but was so excited that his head remained clear and he continually re-told the snake's fiendish attack upon his life. Later in the day he became drowsy and after prolonged slumber awoke to explain that his life had 406 The Viperine Snakes been saved. The news travelled rapidly and the value of whiskey for snake-bite was much exploited in the district. It is of interest to review, from a simple and practical stand- point, the best treatment in case of accident. First, of impor- tance, is to shut off the flow of blood from the vicinity of the wound, and prevent the venom attaining access to the general system. If the wound be upon the arm or leg, as it almost in- variably is, this is quickly effected by the application of a ligature; a rubber ligature is the most convenient, and best in result. With the flow of blood shut off the next step is to enlarge the punctures made by the fangs in an endeavour to drain away the surrounding, poisoned blood. This treatment is of course heroic, but should be performed thoroughly and without hesita- tion. A very sharp knife or a razor should be used. Incisions slightly deeper than those made by the fangs should be made directly across the primary wound and about an inch in length. If the bite is from a very large snake the incisions should be larger. The flow of blood from these drainage cuts should be hastened by suction from the mouth, after which the wounds should be thoroughly washed out with a solution of permanganate of potash (enough of the crystals in water to produce a deep wine colour). While these precautions are being taken, send for a good surgeon. In many instances of snake-bite, surgical attendance is not within calling distance. If such be the situa- tion, several things must be done, and carefully. The ligature should be removed, but not until the drainage cuts have been thoroughly bled and washed to their depths with the solution of permanganate of potash, the action of which oxidizes and thus destroys what poison with which it comes in contact. With the ligature removed small doses of whiskey should be taken, to stimulate; alarming symptoms — fainting spells — should be met with hypodermic doses of strychnine, which is a powerful stimulant. The wounds themselves should be carefully covered with wet, antiseptic dressing, small strips of which should be packed into the drainage incisions to keep them open and induce further drainage of poisoned blood. The important fact should be understood that an arm or leg bitten by a poisonous snake is very susceptible to common blood- poisoning (septiccemid) , owing to the deadening effect which the venom produces upon the organisms in the blood that combat germ 407 The Viperine Snakes life. The effect of such a complication as blood-poisoning upon a system weakened by the primary ordeal, may be imagined. To conclude this subject the writer ventures to prepare a list of articles which should be taken by those who venture into districts where poisonous snakes may be dangerously numerous. A complete outfit to be used in case of accident may be carried in very small space, and the articles needed would be: Several good (very sharp) scalpels or lancets. A rubber ligature. A hypodermic syringe of fair size. A package of absorbent cotton. Several yards of aseptic gauze. A few ounces of permanganate of potash (crystals). A small quantity of some concentrated antiseptic solution, and there are many of such. Several sealed tubes of anti-venomous serum. This constitutes a fairly complete outfit that can be used by any man of practical ideas. The majority of the articles men- tioned should be among the effects of every man that travels, in case of various every-day accidents. At this point it is important to describe the serum treatment of snake-bite — the necessary article being included in the list. The serum is obtained from animals that have been im- munised by the repeated injections of snake venom — in fact, procured along the same lines as the anti-toxins for various diseases. It is hypodermically injected, not in the region of the injury, but in some portion of the body where the circulation will quickly take it up and distribute it — preferably under the skin of the abdomen. Its action is to fortify the system against the poison and experimentation has yielded excellent results. The serum is the product of the Pasteur Institute, in Lille, France, where it is prepared under the direction of Dr. Albert Calmette. To one leaving civilisation behind him, the writer begs to offer the following suggestions: ist. See that you have all the necessary articles with you. 2d. Do not start out until after you have fully satisfied yourself that you are provided with good and well-digested advice from a surgeon. 3d. If you are bitten send for a doctor at once if he be within reach, or go to him if railroad, boat or horse will take you there. Above all, 408 The Viperine Snakes keep your senses, for your life may depend upon your calm reasoning. Records of Snake Bites. — Considering the number of species of poisonous serpents inhabiting the United States, some of which are abundant, some very deadly, the amount of casualties resulting from the bites of these reptiles is very small. Of these the majority result from the reckless handling of captive specimens. The writer can recall two records of speedy death following the bite of the large Southern Rattlesnake (the Diamond-back). One involved a young Englishman, who was quail-hunting in Florida. About to fire into a bevy of quail, he was alarmed by the ominous whir of a snake. Involuntarily stepping to the side, he was unfortunately too slow of movement. The guide was horrified to observe the dart of an olive head from the brush, and hear a cry of pain from his companion. The leg was tightly ligatured and within half an hour the man was being treated by a skilled surgeon from the North. Every precaution of draining and washing the injury — situated in the calf of the leg — was taken. Powerful stimulants were administered by the mouth and finally hypodermically, but in vain. Death, attended with great suffering, came within an hour after the serpent's stroke. Incidentally it may be added that the envenomed head that caused the tragedy was blown into atoms by both charges from the guide's shotgun. The other catastrophe was very similar and occurred in the northern part of the state. Several records are at hand relating to the bites of the cop- perhead snake. In each instance there has been recovery, following intelligent medical attention. Concerning the bites of captive poisonous snakes there are many records. The exploits of "Rattlesnake Jack"* are in- teresting and tragic. Hearing of the recklessness of this man the writer made his acquaintance, in New York, while the performer was filling an engagement at a dime museum. He was surprised at the audacity the man displayed in handling a collection of miscellaneous species of rattlesnakes, and asked to be permitted to inspect the creatures, thinking that their fangs had been re- moved, thus eliminating a certain proportion of the danger. He found the snakes to be in full possession of their fangs, a fact well demonstrated by the writer arranging to secure venom from * John Son well. 409 The Viperine Snakes the collection. These snakes yielded over a fluid ounce of poison, which was extracted by tying a piece of cheese-cloth over the top of an ordinary glass and applying the snake's jaws to the former, through which it bit fiercely, discharging two jets of venom into the glass itself. A few weeks after the venom was extracted for study, from this collection of serpents, "Rattlesnake Jack" was bitten by one of the larger specimens — a Florida "Diamond-back" — of about six feet in length. The injury was upon the wrist, from one fang, and the man pluckily lanced it and bandaged the arm tightly. A half hour later the surgical staff of one of the larger hospitals was at work on the case. The poison had circulated up the arm, which swelled to a great size. Eleven drainage cuts were made and kept open with tubing. The swelling continued to extend over one side of the body, but persistence and skill were successful and the man went back to his dangerous work some months later. Several years after the writer again met the performer, who was recklessly exhibiting a writhing and rattling mass of Texas rattlesnakes.* After the "turn" he jokingly rolled up his sleeves to show "the good job done by the New York doctors." The rattlesnake tamer humorously considered the writer's apprehension and laughingly handed him a souvenir of the place. A few days later came the news that "Rattlesnake Jack" was dead. He survived the bite of one of the big Texas rattlers but a few hours. Generally speaking, reports are few and far between con- cerning fatalities from North American poisonous snakes in their native state, although it can be appreciated that the rattle- snakes rank among the most deadly of reptiles. Compared with the official figures, which show the death rate in India to be 22,000 a year from the bites of snakes, a great and very fortu- nate discrepancy is seen between the New and the Old World records. A logical explanation of this might be to the effect that in North America a large portion of the population does not evince a general inclination to go bare-legged through stretches of jungle as does the majority of the native population of India. Herewith is given a tabulated list of the PitVipcrs — the Crotalina — of North America, including all the species occurring * Crotalus atrox. 410 The Viperine Snakes north of Panama, and stating the areas in which they are found. The Mexican and Central American species are listed merely to demonstrate the variety of the New World Pit Vipers. They do not come within the scope of this work and are not considered in the succeeding chapters. Several additional species of Lachesis inhabit South America. The list follows: s 1 c o o • «-t v- • • r-* • rt a c rt P^ 6 10 o - O $' ..S g.SS ^38 "S^- S°^ .cS b C rt III per ter C Bushmaster, "Fer-de-lance it it i « 412 cS S Ol £__, i> o _ CJ " « g 1 *rt o G O « 0) 43 "*3 ^3 Cu jj OT -OT w«« V3 •S TT-I cd £ i 1111 2 coOwS ^O 1 •*S -2 2 - •rH OH & 0 * ^ ^/ V. ^f] "•o^ o ff to S to i «0 lo' g s s ^ truru 1 •« -S *- « a g ^ §- •?»•*> to § » to p^"* 0 •** cf^^ S 10 V. U> uga Rat esnake Ratt uga M Gr rn an y a te c gm Pig Mass Wes Mex . w ii 4J 4J 05 +> III c/3 10 "3, a •g'S*, u< -.£ o — tw J3 X E 21 -£ o C/3 01 o K - III! , « c S o.sSr _ S r-l-Sa-gSj £_, -;''-- P : '£ -" g * ^ '^ Kfl u: 8 a u J u n H if/ft I III 8"S-sJ^ S w. ~~_i^ j: c >.: c — The Moccasins all these manoeuvres the snake is usually backing away in an en- deavour to make a dash for safety, by gliding into a nearby friendly thicket or among the rocks. Like the moccasin, if held down with a stick in an endeavour to effect its capture, it fights furiously thrashing the body from side to side in an effort to twist itself free and often in its excitement unconsciously throwing a portion of its body against the widely distended jaws with their sharp fangs, which immediately close, inflicting a wound upon itself, which is never mortal, as the venomous snakes are immune to their own and to each other's poison. The writer recalls an experience with a large Copperhead in the woods of Pennsylvania. Stopping to rest he seated him- self on a large rock, partially covered about its base with a tangled mass of vines. While carelessly swinging a foot against the vines he was startled by a sudden buzz among the dead leaves, and glancing at the base of the rock discovered a large Copperhead, with head drawn back and tail vibrating, backing away by alter- nately looping and straightening its body. The snake could easily have struck the writer's shoes — although there is doubt whether the fangs would have pierced the leather. Nevertheless the watcher remained quite motionless. Backing away and around the rock the snake suddenly turned and glided for a heavy mass of undergrowth, but it was destined to accompany several harm- less snakes collected during the day. Here was an instance of a venomous snake, in an admirable position to employ its fangs, giving warning of its presence by the sound of the quivering tail, then retreating from the subject of its alarm to seek refuge in the thicket without dealing a blow. The venom of the Copperhead has been declared by reputable authorities to be more virulent than that of the moccasin. Small animals die more quickly after receiving a stab from the fangs of one of these snakes than when bitten by a moccasin of con- siderably larger size. The fangs are rather small in proportion to the size of the snake as compared with the majority of the Crotaline serpents, especially those of the warmer latitudes. This characteristic also applies to the moccasin. The fangs of the various rattlesnakes are considerably longer in proportion to the general dimensions of those reptiles than with the two species mentioned. By this explanation it is not intended to convey the impression that the Copperhead is not a reptile formidable 423 The Moccasins to man. It is indeed a dangerously poisonous snake, and well able to cause death to man if delivering a bite well placed and followed by other than the most energetic and competent treatment. A captive Copperhead is an interesting reptile and a satisfac- tory one, as it thrives well under sympathetic care. The feeding habits are rather eccentric and seemingly relate to the possibility of finding certain kinds of food during different phases of the season when the reptile is in a wild state. During the spring and fall, it is very fond of frogs, grasping them with lightning- like rapidity and retaining the hold until the prey is dead. The venom acts quickly upon the cold-blooded batrachian. During the later spring, these snakes prefer young birds, showing in fact such a decided preference to this food that some snakes will fast unless provided with the feathered prey. During the summer months captive specimens well eat small rodents, such as mice and rats, or chipmunks. This preference though not invariable is quite general as noted in caring for many of these snakes. After several years in captivity these reptiles assume a less particular appetite and live contentedly upon a diet of mice and frogs. The number of young produced by this viviparous snake, is small. From a number of observations it appears to vary from six to nine. A specimen giving birth to the latter number measured two and a half feet in length; the young snakes were ten inches long. When born, the young snakes have brilliant, sulphur-yellow tails. Quite frequently, when the food is in- troduced into a cage containing small Copperheads, the tails of the little snakes wriggle and twist in a manner that instantly .suggests their remarkable similarity to yellow grubs or maggots. When among dried leaves the colours of the young snakes blend so perfectly with their surroundings that it is almost impossible, when a little distance away, to discover them with the exception of the bright yellow tail. Well might the unsuspecting wood- frog as it hops about in search of insect food be attracted to this conspicuous object and toward the jaws of the ever-ready snake. It is very probable that the young Copperhead employs the yel- low tail to attract its prey, as does the big snapping turtle, al- ready described, lure the fish within its jaws by the grub-like filament of flesh. Certain it is that tv 2 young snakes wriggle 424 The Moccasins their tails in what, to the unsuspecting frog, might be termed an alluring manner. During the second year the yellow of the tail fades quickly, and disappears altogether within the third year, except in the Texas form, which retains a greenish-yellow tint through life.* Herewith are given several records of the birth of young Copperheads, from female specimens captured but a few weeks before the young were born: Aug. 25. Brood of 6. Female from Fort Lee, N. Sept. 6. " " 5. " " Fort Lee, N. " 7. " " 4. Fort Lee, N. " 9. "6. Greenwood Lake, N. J. " 10. " " 7. " " North Carolina. " 10. " "9. " " Fort Lee, N.J. "n. "9. Delaware Water Gap, Pa. * This character of the Texas specimens, was first pointed out to me by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, Curator of Reptiles in the United States National Museum. An examination of a large series of specimens shows this to be quite constant. 435 CHAPTER XLV: THE RATTLESNAKES Poisonous Snakes of Two Genera — SISTRURUS and CROTALUS — That are Unique Among Serpents in the Possession of the Rattle FROM the popular point of view the Rattlesnakes are the most interesting of the American serpents. From an actual standpoint, they are the most important of all the reptiles in- habiting the United States, for among them we find by far the greater number of our poisonous snakes, and species that are next to none in point of deadliness, of the dangerous family of Vipers — the thick-bodied poisonous serpents — that inhabit most of the warmer portions of the globe. Thus the Rattlesnakes are well worthy of detailed consideration. Aside from their deadliness, the Rattlesnakes possess a strange fascination that attracts scientist and novice alike. Their rich, velvety colours, sinster form and sullen demeanour, com- bined with the ominous, warning sound of the rattle, are phases of character that produce a lasting impression upon the observer. The writer has studied living examples of many species of deadly snakes — the South American bushmaster and the fer-de-lance, the African puff adder and the berg adder, and such East Indian species as the king cobra, the spectacled cobra and Russell's viper, and although there is indelibly stamped upon his mind the bloated body, the glassy stare and the rhythmic hissing of the berg adder, the rearing, uncanny pose of an infuriated cobra, there is one image vivid above all — the Rattlesnake. Thrown into a gracefully symmetrical coil, the body inflated, the neck arched in an oblique bow in support of the heart-shaped head, the slowly waving tongue with spread and tremulous tips, and above all, the incessant, monotonous whir of the rattle. One stroke — a flash — of that flat head would inject a virus bringing speedy death. Yet the attitude of the snake is to be admired. It denotes a creature attacked by a powerful enemy and bravely defending its life. The snake never advances, nor makes actually 426 X X u w H < J H. 00 -g w x h THE BOOK PLATE CXXVI PIGMY RATTLESNAKE, Sistrurus miliarius The bite of this tiny rattlesnake is seldom fatal to man. While the little creature vigorously sounds its miniature rattle, the oppendage is so small it can not be heard more than a few feet away. Common in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida MASSASAUOA, Sistrurus catcnalus Grows large enough to be considered very dangerous to man, but is rapidU In hi \\in\ii k \TTI.KS \.\KK. Crotalus atrox rvber The body hue is a distinct, rusty red, while the imrkings an- quite obscure. The distribution is limited to the extreme western portion of the Colorado Desert and the arid ranges in Lower California The Rattlesnake* imen are noted. This particular specimen showed average dimen- sions among several dozen specimens from the Eastern States: Total Length 3 ft. 8 inches. Length of Tail (exclusive of rattle) 2f Diameter of Body if Width of Head if Length of Head if The rattle consisted of ten perfectly uniform segments. The writer's largest Pennsylvania specimen measured five feet and one inch in length. The largest specimen he has ever examined measured exactly six feet. It was two and a half inches in diameter at the thickest part of the body, but the head was proportionately very small, showing a total width of one and seven-eighth inches. The rattle was made up of fourteen perfectly uniform segments. This fine specimen was captured in Missouri. Distribution. — The range of the Banded Rattlesnake is ex- tensive. It occurs from central Vermont to the northern portion of the Florida peninsula, thence westward to Iowa, Kansas, the Indian Territory and eastern Texas. In the mountainous dis- tricts of this large area the species is common, although from the larger, cultivated districts it has for some time disappeared. Again in the swamps of the coastal region — in the Atlantic States and Gulf States, the lowland phase, or Cane-brake Rattlesnake is abundant. The species abounds in the mountains of southern New York, Massachusetts and eastern Pennsylvania, and actually appears to be increasing in numbers, in these states, year after year. Habits of tbe Banded Rattlesnake In the North this serpent shows a marked fondness for mountain ledges, cleft with many fissures and on which lie large shelving rocks. About such rugged situations large numbers of rattlesnakes gather in the fall, preparatory for the hibernating season. They appear to find the same places, year after year, making their way from the adjoining timber and lesser ledges as if led by some strange, instinctive power. On the main ledge, they coil sociably in great clusters to enjoy the sun of " Indian summer" — but only for a limited number of days, when they retire into the deep fissures for the winter's sleep. For several 443 The Rattlesnakes weeks — in the spring — during the mating season, they linger on the main ledge in large numbers, but finally scatter to the timber for the warm months. These places are the so-called "rattlesnake dens." During the summer but occasional snakes are observed in the vicinity. The accompanying photographs indicate the character of a "den. " (Illus. Rock Cabin Ledge.) The snakes hibernate in the fissures leading back from the cavern, which faces the south while upon the top of the ledge, the writer has obtained a number of specimens each summer. Though after the spring the snakes leave the hibernating ledge — generally so situated as to be exposed to the sun for the greater part of the day --they display a marked persistency in following the ledge into the timber where they frequent out- croppings of the same vein of rock, or adjacent and smaller ledges that are surrounded by ground where the hunting is good. These veins of rock traversing the mountains of New York, Pennsylvania and many of the Eastern States are generally associated with the presence of rattlesnakes which are but rarely found any distance from them. This may be explained by the existence of many fissures and hiding places on the ledges. From the presence of numerous shed skins it appears that various snakes have favourite places of concealment, and from these they do not wander far during the course of the summer. Of the various rattlesnakes inhabiting the United States, this is the most mild-tempered species. It becomes so docile in captivity that the majority of specimens may be actually handled with the same freedom as a harmless snake without showing signs of irritation — a trait particularly characteristic of male specimens. While this has frequently been done by reckless persons, the writer begs to explain that he is not ad- vising the student to try the dangerous experiment. The fact should always be in mind, in studying poisonous snakes, that no matter how gentle may be the demeanour of the serpent, it is provided with fangs, and can produce a deadly wound in lightning- like fashion, and moreover, though a venomous snake be ex- tremely good-natured, there lurks within its brain a nervous and instinctive tendency to instantly employ the fangs if the move- ments of a nearby object appear suspicious or threaten danger. And it takes but little to provoke a poisonous snake. A quick 444 The Rattlesnakes movement, a slightly increasing pressure of the fingers to re- strain a movement on the reptile's part — and the fangs have done their work. It is almost involuntary for the more irritable of the venomous snakes to instantly turn and bite at an object that presses against their bodies. This tendency may be noted in a snake freshly killed, and decapitated. Upon pinching the rep- tile's side the headless neck will fly around to the spot in a manner thoroughly startling to the individual accidentally figuring in such a demonstration. At the same time, the severed head is very dangerous for if the neck is grasped carelessly an inch or so be- hind the head, the latter will instantly turn and bite in the same fashion as if attached to the living snake. The writer has wit- nessed some narrow escapes from injury, by persons who were not acquainted with the tenacity of life, exhibited in the muscles of snakes that had been harshly belaboured with an axe or club. A gentleman with whom the writer is acquainted, is un- fortunately "gifted" with considerable recklessness in handling poisonous serpents. The former had a number of rattlesnakes in his collection which he handled with the greatest indifference, permitting the reptiles to crawl through his fingers and over his arms like ordinary harmless snakes. They were in his possession for several months, and during that time no accident resulted from his careless exhibitions of the creatures to his friends. One day he discovered that the largest of the snakes was the mother of nine little ones. In the haste to open the case to examine the youngsters he so disturbed the female that she coiled and rattled vigorously. With his usual display of recklessness he removed all of the baby rattlers, that were gliding over and around the parent, and without accident. After such blind daring without bad results, it is interesting to explain that this careless her- petologist soon received his lesson. Placing the young reptiles on a table to watch their movements, he was embarrassed by their inclination to glide in all directions. In preventing one of the babies from dropping over the edge of the table, the man was bitten. Although the snake was but a few hours old, its tiny fangs produced an injury that served as a practical and painful demonstration of the effects of rattlesnake poison. In a wild state, the Banded Rattlesnake prefers flight to combat and, though rattling harshly when disturbed, will generally glide away, sounding its warning note as it goes, in graceful. 445 The Rattlesnakes though not rapid undulations, heading toward crevices in the rock or the undergrowth where it at once seeks concealment. If cornered it will fight bravely, assuming a loose and irregular coil, and striking with such dexterity that the eye can scarcely follow the movement. It strikes generally a third, sometimes half its length, but never springs bodily as alleged by the writers of sensational snake stories. Nor is it necessary for the snake to be coiled to deal a blow. While retreating toward shelter it will often turn and from a crawling position draw back the head by contracting the neck into an S-shaped loop, and strike readily. In the coast swamps of South Carolina and Georgia, the "Cane-brake Rattlesnake" is rather different in habits from its ally of the mountain ledges. This phase of the Banded Rattler grows to a large size and the majority of specimens are vicious and untamable. Their temper is quite as different as is the malarial lowgrounds they inhabit, when compared with the rugged, mountain haunts of the upland phase of Timber Rattle- snakes. The food of the Banded Rattlesnake consists entirely of warm-blooded prey in the shape of small rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, and birds. Like all of the rattlesnakes, this species is viviparous- bringing forth living young, that are provided with a single "but- ton" at birth representing the future rattle. The young are of much the same colouration as the parent, but a yellow snake will frequently give birth to young that represent both the yel- low and the black phases, as has also been frequently noted with black females. Following are notes pertaining to the birth of several broods, from females that had been but a few weeks in captivity: Sept. 6. Brood of 1 2. Female from Pike Country, Pennsylvania. 7. 9. Sullivan Codnty, New York. " J2 " " 12 " " " " " " «< |2 " " -7 " " " " " •' " . Q " " ,. " •' « « « « A specimen of the brood born on September 6th, was exactly twelve inches long at time of birth. 1 his same snake — after feeding regularly — was again measured on November 19111, and found to be fourteen and a half inches in length. 446 The Rattlesnakes THE DIAMOND-BACK RATTLESNAKE Crotalus adamanteus, (Beauvois) Largest of the rattlesnakes. Fully adult specimens are from six to eight feet long. The body is stout and heavy, the head very broad, flat and distinct from the neck. Colouration. — Olive or grayish green, with a chain of large, diamond markings of a darker hue, these with bright yellow bor- ders about the width of a single scale. The rhombs usually en- close a patch of the ground-colour; toward the tail they become obscure and finally fuse into cross-bands; the tail above is olive, ringed with black. The abdomen is dull yellow. On the top, the head is brown or olive, with numerous dark spots. Beneath the eye is a dark band, bordered on each side with a narrow band of bright yellow. With the exception of a more vivid pattern, young specimens are like the parent. Dimensions. — The largest specimen measured by the writer was eight feet, three inches in length. Its diameter was four and a half inches, and the head three and a quarter inches wide. Specimens of such dimensions are rare. This large spec- imen was captured in the central portion of the Florida peninsula. The measurements quoted are of a specimen taken in the vicinity of the Indian River, Florida: Total Length 6 feet, 3 inches. Length of Tail, exclusive of rattle 6 Length of Rattle, 9 segments 2^ Greatest Diameter of Body 4 Width of Head 2$ Length of Head 3 The fangs of this specimen were seven-eighths of an inch in length. Compared with the most deadly known species of poisonous snakes of the world, the Diamond-back Rattlesnake ranks second to none. Its huge fangs, and enormous poison glands, represent the maximum degree of deadliness attained by the viperine serpents. The well-known and terrible bushmaster, (Lachesis •mutus) of tropical South America attains a larger size than this rattlesnake and consequently has larger fangs, but a careful examination of the fangs of the two species will show that the opening at the tip of the tooth for the ejection of venom is 447 The Rattlesnakes proportionately much larger with the Crotalus. The other rival of our big rattlesnake, in point of supreme deadliness, is the king cobra or hamadryas, (Naja bungarus) of Malaysia. But this is a slender-bodied colubrine snake, and, while attaining a length of twelve feet, has fangs that are barely a third of an inch long. Its venom acts in a different fashion from that of the vipers — immediately attacking the nerve centres. In the structure of the fangs the Diamond-back Rattlesnake, its near ally the western diamond rattlesnake, Crotalus atrox, and the variety ruber, together with the black-tailed rattle- snake, C. molossus, are interesting examples, for these serpents have proportionately larger fangs than other venomous snakes of the United States. In this character they appeal directly to the South American species of Lacbesis — the bushmaster— the fer-de-lance * — the jararaca f and others that have enor- mously developed, poison conducting teeth. Distribution. — Low, coastal regions of the southeastern United States, from southern North Carolina southward throughout Florida and westward to the Mississippi River. The species is most abundant in Florida and occurs on many of the keys. Habits o] the Diamond-back Rattlesnake Most deadly of the North American poisonous snakes and ranking in size with the largest of the tropical venomous serpents of both the New and the Old World, this huge Rattlesnake with its brilliant and symmetrical markings, is a beautiful and a ter- rible creature. Ever bold and alert, ever retaining its wild nature when captive, there is a certain awe-inspiring grandeur about the coil of this formidable brute; the glittering black eyes, the slow waving tongue, and the incessant, rasping note of the rattle. All dignity, the "Diamond-back" scorns to flee when surprised. His neighbour, the cane-brake rattler, may retreat in good order, rattling as he goes, but retreating neverthe- less; with this pirate of the hummocks, it is different. The mere vibration of a step throws the creature upon guard. Taking a deep inhalation, the snake inflates the rough, scaly body to the tune of a low, rushing sound of air. Shifting the coils to un- * [Mchesis laticeolatus. South America and the West Indies, t Lachesis atrox. South America and the West Indies. 448 The Rattlesnakes cover the rattle, this is "sprung" with the abruptness of an elec- tric bell. There is no hysterical striking, but careful watching, and if the opportunity to effect a blow with the long fangs is presented, the result is generally mortal. If outstretched, when surprised, the snake invariably throws the body into a symmetrical coil, doubling the neck into an S-shaped loop with the head drawn well back and within the circle of the body. Various rattlesnakes of the West, the copperhead snake and the moccasin will strike from various positions and often aim blows while crawling, but the Diamond-back persists in its perfectly round and graceful coil, while on the defensive. To observe a large specimen taken unawares and literally fling itself into fighting position, is to see determination and courage that exists among few reptiles. Occasionally, though rarely, a Diamond-back will glide for cover if disturbed. This is the case when a hiding place is immediately adjacent. Generally described this serpent might be said to be the most courageous of the North American snakes. Pine swamps and hummock lands are the abodes of the Diamond Rattler. In the South Carolina lowgrounds we found that these reptiles displayed the habit of hiding under the broad leaves of the dwarf palmettoes during the day, and issuing for their food at twilight. So closely do the body-colours blend with the vegetation and the effect of sunlight and shadow, that the coiled snake is seen with difficulty. The writer was shown the large, hollow stump of a tree on the edge of a pine swamp, in South Carolina. From this hiding place a big Rattlesnake had several times been seen to emerge and glide into the growth of the swamp. Rabbits were common in the vicinity and these animals appear to form a large percentage ot the snakes' food. While some weeks were spent collecting in this vicinity, but two rattlesnakes were taken, although their tracks across the sandy roads were frequently seen, and always demonstrating their prowlings to be at night. When progressing in leisurely fashion, this species adopts tactics characteristic of the thick-bodied poisonous snakes gen- erally— slow progress in a perfectly straight line, with head slightly upraised. Thus the flattened trails of the big Diamond- backs across the dry, sandy roads, as they crossed from swamp to swamp were as straight as the course of a wheel. Aside from 449 The Rattlesnakes the trails, other traces of this dreaded snake were several times evident, in the loss of several fine dogs, which, making their way under the floors of the numerous deserted cabins in the neigh- bourhood, had been bitten and staggered into camp in a dying condition. As a captive, the Diamond-back differs from most snakes in the display of a persistently sullen disposition. Few spec- imens become enough accustomed to captivity to refrain from using their rattles vigorously upon the slightest disturbance. While Rattlesnakes cf other species may lie silently all about them and yet be fresher captive than themselves, the rattles of the Diamond-backs are seldom quiet if an observer be near. It is not necessary for these snakes to see a human form to display annoyance. So sensitive are they to vibration that a foot-fall starts their rattles which continue buzzing for some time, then gradually settle to a monotonous chick-chick chick-chick chick-chick— —chick— —chick— —chick and cease to sound. Morose and hostile lie these sullen coils, for month after month, never taming, but always ready to fight and sound the tireless rattles. Taking thus unkindly to captivity, the Diamond-back is indifferent in its feeding habits. Some specimens absolutely refuse to partake of food at all and gradually starve themselves to death, while others feed so sparingly that they ultimately meet the same fate. A large specimen in the writer's collection fasted for thirteen months, or rather would have done so if it had not been fed by pushing food down its throat — though this was done but three times during that lengthy period. After the expiration of the time mentioned, this snake began to feed of its own accord —taking half-grown rabbits — and thrived for several years. A Rattlesnake that feeds regularly, is rarely one that uses its rattle to any extent. The favourite food of the Diamond-back Rattlesnake is the common wild rabbit, or "cotton-tail"; in captivity ordinary domesticated rabbits may be substituted. These snakes will occasionally take guinea pigs and sometimes rats, but the writer has never succeeded in inducing them to feed upon feathered prey of any kind. The manreuvres of the average specimen when feeding in aptivity, are interesting. They illustrate how nervous is this 45° The Rattlesnakes snake when removed from its natural surroundings. A medium- sized rabbit is placed in the cage and the snake at once shifts its coils to a striking posture. The rabbit betrays no signs of fear and may hop toward the reptile which warily draws back its head. While nosing about, the rabbit momentarily presents its side to the snake and like a flash of light the deed is done. The human eye can observe but two things. First — the snake appeared to strike for the rabbit and secondly — to have barely touched it with its jaws; but during that blurred movement, several things have happened, thus: The snake struck for the rabbit with opening jaws ; when its head reached the prey its jaws were very wide apart and the fangs raised to such an extent that they were cast directly forward; the fangs pierced the rabbit; the jaws were closed sufficiently to deeply imbed the fangs; a muscle over each poison gland was contracted and a considerable quantity cf venom was injected. Some of these movements were simul- taneous. But the effect upon the rabbit must be noted. The snake is back in the original position before the rabbit's frightened squeal is over. The little creature bounds forward, rolls on its side, kicks convulsively, and is dead. Barely one minute passes from the time of the serpent's stroke to the termination of the death struggle. Possibly some reader may think this is a cruel performance. If so that reader debates a provision of Nature that none among us should be bold enough to criticise. And just a word about this so-called "cruelty" as compared with the habits of those who have criticised the feeding of reptiles. There are many in the human family, who preach strongly against alleged cruelty, yet think nothing of taking a pack of vicious dogs to assist them in running a helpless deer to within range of a chargeof buckshot. Many an animal has staggered into a thicket with broken leg or shoulder to bleed and die slowly for the sake of "sport." Is this a provision of Nature? Yet the writer remembers an instance when a gentleman, very fond of a much-used collection of rifles and shotguns, once remarked upon witnessing a rattlesnake being fed, that the snake exhib- ited the most demoniacal cruelty he had ever seen displayed and the creature should be fed raw meat or nothing. But to return to the rattlesnake and the dead rabbit: The snake waits patiently until it is satisfied that the last spark of life The Rattlesnakes has departed, when it uncoils and begins an examination of the prey. This is a careful and quite extraordinary performance. Gliding about the rabbit it places its snout close to the animal's body and probes with the tongue tips into the fur. The examina- tion leads finally to the dead creature's head and here the snake makes a more detailed investigation. The slightest move on the part of the observer would probably conclude the whole affair, the snake rattling sharply for a few seconds, then leaving the prey, coils up again and refuses to eat. But in the event of not being disturbed, touches the head lightly with the tongue tips, a dozen times or more. At last opening its mouth, the snake seizes its prey by the nose, when the engulfing process begins, the long fangs lending valuable assistance in hooking the animal into the reptile's mouth and throat. The Diamond-back Rattlesnake gives birth to from seven to twelve young. These feed readily upon mice at the start, and grow rapidly, fully maturing within two years. Captive-bred specimens are quiet, good-natured and feed voraciously. They are hence more satisfactory than specimens captured wild. THE WESTERN DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE Crotalus air ox, (B. & G.) Next to the diamond-back rattlesnake of the southeastern United States, this is the largest species of the genus. It attains a length of seven feet. Colouration. — The pattern is very similar to that of the pre- ceding and allied species, but the ground-colour is different as is the tail, which is white, with jet-black rings. The ground-colour may be yellowish gray, pale, bluish gray or pinkish, according to locality; the pale borders of the diamond markings are dull white. Compared with the rich, olive and yellow tints of the Eastern species, the present reptile evinces a dull and faded pattern. The most showy individuals are from the desert regions of Arizona. The ground-colour is distinctly pinkish, the borders of the rhombs vividly outlined in white; the tail chalky white with jet-black rings. On all specimens the head markings are similar to the allied species, but the pale stripes on the side of the head are not so vividly defined. 452 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXXXIII MOUNTAIN DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE, Crolalus atrox— phase scutulatus Recognised by the irregular plates between the eyes. See heads of rattlesnakes m If « ,: BLACK-TAILED RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus molossus Abundant in the mountains of the Southwest near the Mexican border. Easily told by the jet black tail. One of the larger speiics THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXXXIV PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE, Crotalits confluent us A reptile swarming over the western prairies. The clay-colored markings are in perfect harmony with the soil. Few examples are over four feet long I' \CIIir RATTI.KSNAKK. Cr,>t,ilii* The common rattlesnake of the Pacilu Region. A jet I.I n k pin,, i*. ahimclant in the northern portion of the range An adult is about [OUI Ircl long The Rattlesnakes Dimensions. — Occasional specimens six feet in length are taken, and sometimes, though very rarely, seven-foot specimens are recorded. All of the records for these very large specimens seem to come from Texas. Records from various localities prove interesting conditions regarding dimensions, for there appear to be several races of the species, some dwarfed and sel- dom growing to a length of four feet; others averaging a length of five feet with quite slender bodies; while from some localities all of the snakes develop to a considerable size and are more thick- set than the former reptiles. From several dozen Texas spec- imens an average has been figured, and follows: Total Length 4 feet, 6 inches. Tail, without rattle 3f Diameter of Body 2\ Width of Head. .' i| Length of Head 2 J Length of Rattle, 10 segments 2\ Distribution. — The species occurs principally in the sub-arid and desert regions of Texas and the Southwest. It is found commonly in central and western Texas, southern New Mexico, Arizona and southern California. Although it may be said to be most abundant in Texas where it occurs over a large area, it is the most common rattlesnake of the genus throughout the en- tire range. Its habitat extends well into the Tableland of Mexico, but in this part of the range a peculiar phase of colouring and scu- tellation of the head, is treated in a succeeding description. Habits. — Like the Southeastern Diamond-back Rattlesnake, this is a nervous and irritable serpent, but as a captive is more hardy. It will take rats, rabbits, guinea pigs and birds. An example seventy-three inches in length has lived in the reptile house of the New York Zoological Park for over four years. The snake is given a half-grown rabbit regularly, every week. Unless preparing to shed its skin it never refuses the morsel. When the snake arrived from Texas, it was particularly vicious for one of its species, literally hurling the body into a coil and striking repeatedly at its keeper — and it has remained so. In spite of the four years' attention Keeper Snyder has given it, in the cleaning of the cage and presenting the food, the creature strikes immediately as the door is slid back. A step in the passageway behind the cages causes this dangerous brute to 453 The Rattlesnakes rattle nervously, shift its coils and inflate the body for combat. On three occasions a companion of the same species was placed in the cage, and this in each instance resulted in the original oc- cupant refusing to feed. Upon the third trial it stubbornly fasted for six weeks, when the offending serpent was removed. The big rattlesnake took its rabbit two days after. THE MOUNTAIN DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE (Mexican Phase of Crotalus atrox} On the Mexican Tableland, which extends into southern Arizona, is a peculiar phase of Crotalus atrox that might be con- fused with a more westerly species — Crotalus oregonus — owing to the diamond markings (on most specimens) being rather blunt and well separated — not forming a connected chain. Such ex- amples are yellowish or greenish, and the black and white bars on the tail are dull and broken. These snakes appear quite different from the powdery gray form, with the vividly marked black and white tail, of the sub-arid plains and the deserts. The head markings resemble Crotalus oregonus, owing to their defini- tion and the breadth of the forward bar. Such specimens have the forward portion of the head covered with irregular plates, but no two examples show this character to be exactly alike. For this snake the technical name, Crotalus scutulatus, has been proposed, but the many variations connect it with Crotalus atrox. From the mountains near Tucson, Arizona, the writer has received many specimens and in all degrees of variation; while all of the examples are distinctly green, the pattern varies from a chain of rhomb-like markings (on a few) to a series of well separated, dark brown blotches. The average length is three and a half feet. To Dr. Leonhard Stejneger, the writer is indebted for further information concerning this rattlesnake. Following is part of a letter from Dr. Stejneger, relating to some of the Tucson specimens: 'They are very interesting as they bear out my contention that Crotalus scutulatus is not a definable form, but only repre- sents a tendency in the Arizona-Sonoran specimens to revert to the original condition, or else they represent the last vestiges of this condition, it making but little difference, with regard to the right of the form to have a name, which theory you adopt." 454 The Rattlesnakes Habits. — Seems to be essentially a mountain reptile. All of the Tucson specimens were taken at an elevation, some of them on ledges in company with the black-tailed rattlesnake Crotalus molossus. The typical form of atrox was common in that vicinity, but always in the desert. THE RED DIAMOND RATTLESNAKE Crotalus atrox, variety ruber, (Cope) The Red Diamond Rattlesnake differs from the typical form only in the distinctly reddish hue of the former. Colouration. — Ground-colour dull, rusty red; the diamond markings are of a deeper red, narrowly margined with dull white. The tail is in marked contrast to the red of the body. It is chalky-white/with vivid, black rings. Dimensions. — Much like the typical form. It grows to a considerable size though not equal to the length of the largest Texas specimens of the typical atrox. The writer had a female specimen from San Diego County, California, that was five and a half feet long. Of four other specimens received from the same districts two were under four feet, one measured four feet three inches and the other, four feet eight inches. Distribution. — Arid regions of southern California and the peninsula of Lower California generally; southwestern Arizona. Habits. — Like the typical form. THE PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE Crotalus confluentus, (Say) The average snake of this species is of moderate size, and not so stout of body as most rattlesnakes. Occasional specimens are six feet long. Colouration. — Greenish yellow, or olive, with a row of large, round and well separated blotches of brown upon the back. There is usually a smaller and less distinct row of blotches on the side. The blotches of the back have a narrow, dark margin and outside of this is usually a narrow margin of white or yellow. Toward the tail the blotches fade into obscure transverse bands. The head markings are important as they may alone be employed in distinguishing the species from the Pacific Rattle- snake, which it closely resembles. 455 The Rattlesnakes There is a dark band from beneath the centre of the eye to the angle of the mouth. This is bordered both in the front and the rear by a yellow stripe, the front stripe being narrow — the width of a single scale-row. In comparing the heads of these species it will be noted that the Pacific Rattlesnake has the dark band commencing behind the centre of the eye, and the forward pale stripe much wider — about the width of two scales. The eye plates are usually marked with two white or yel- low lines, which run together and form a sharp point at the outer margin. Dimensions. — Total Length of an adult, female specimen from Wyoming 38^ inches. Length of Tail, ex. rattle 2'1 Greatest Diameter \l Width of Head ij Length of Head if Number of "rattles" — 7 uniform segments. DistribiUion. — The range is quite extensive and the writer quotes the careful summing up of the distribution as given by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger: * " Broadly speaking, the Prairie Rattlesnake occupies the area bounded in the East by the ninty-sixth meridian and the Upper Missouri Valley; by the main divide of the Rocky Moun- tains in the West; by the thirty-third parallel in Texas and tile- Mexican boundary further west in the South; and by the fiftieth parallel in the North. In the Northeast its distribution appears to be limited by the watershed between the Missouri and the Rei!- River of the North, according to Dr. Coues (Bull. Geol. Surv. Terr. IV, 1878. p. 267), who collected numerous specimens along the Canadian border between this watershed and the crest of the Rockies. He also slates that it is to be considered fairly com- mon in the region of the Upper Missouri and Milk River and some of their Northern tributaries; its range thus extending some distance into the British Possessions, where Mr. James M. Macoun informs me that it is most abundant from Medicine Hat, on the Saskatchewan to the boundary." Habits. In its general demeanour toward man, this very * "The I'oisnnous Snakes ot' X»Mh America. " Report of the U. S. National Museum !<>r 1X93, pp. 3.37- 4's; • 456 The Rattlesnakes abundant species of the plains is a vicious reptile. Though it never actually attacks, it puts up such a show of fight that the attitude is far from reassuring to the uninitiated in the ways of rattlers. None of the rattlesnakes, large or small, throw as much energy into the fighting coil as this species. When surprised it flings its body into circular formation, raises the neck some distance from the loose coils in the form of a sharply oblique bow and jabs hurriedly at the enemy. So energetic is the stroke that the writer has seen a snake slide forward several inches. These antics soon give way to a good-natured laziness in captivity. Captive specimens are hardy and fond of mice and birds. A specimen in the writer's collection became so tame it would glide to the door of the cage and take a dead mouse from his fingers; the operation was in no way dangerous as the snake in crawling to the coveted morsel advanced with straightened neck and was unable to "strike." The mouse was seized very gently and at once swallowed. Mr. Walter Ralston, to whom the writer is indebted for many interesting snakes, had several tame specimens. They were in possession of their fangs, but Mr. Ralston handled them like his harmless serpents and with never a show of bad temper on the rattlers' part; he jokingly remarked that his snakes had forgotten how to rattle as they had not used their caudal appendages for many months. The Prairie Rattlesnake is responsible for the oft-repeated tale of the fraternal relations between the prairie dogs and the rattler. In a way the story is true enough for the rattlesnake frequently takes refuge in the burrows of the rodents, but it instinctively seeks the deserted burrows as does the common little owl of the plains. No sensible rattlesnake will] remain above ground and fight the human invader when a deep burrow, close at hand, offers secure retreat. Hence the human is incited to theory. He has noted a rattlesnake disappear into the bur- row of a prairie dog. On the horizon are the outlines of the sentinel "dogs" of the town, watching the movements of the intruder, who jams the facts together in such a fashion that the snake becomes the inevitable inhabitant of the marmot colony, and the appearance of a burrowing owl a few minutes later results in the imaginary addition of another member to the "happy family." — Let actual conditions be understood: The rattlesnake is a wanderer and its presence in the prairie 457 The Rattlesnakes dog colony has been prompted by a hungry stomach. It does not hesitate to prowl into a burrow and devour several of the young. It does not remain in the burrow for the warm, animal odour of the place warns it that the parent has but shortly left, and while it does not fear an encounter it craves a quiet place where it may assimilate the meal. Crawling forth into the sun again, it wanders about in search of a deserted burrow and into this it disappears for several days. It is at the mouth of this bur- row, placidly sunning and awaiting the completion of digestion that the human observer sees the snake. Nearby may be an- other burrow, for some time deserted by the original occupants and now occupied by a family of owls. Nothing could be more incongruous or farther from harmony, than a mixture of snake, "dogs" and owls in the same burrow. THE PACIFIC RATTLESNAKE Croialus oregonus, (Holbrook)* Size rather smaller than the prairie rattlesnake. The greater number of specimens are under four feet in length. The conformation is much like that of the allied species. Colouration. — Very similar to the prairie rattlesnake. The ground-colour is gray, pale brown or greenish. On the back are large, rounded spots, well separated and narrowly bordered with black; toward the tail these blotches fuse into the shape of transverse bands; the tail is more strongly barred with the darker colour than that of the other species. Head markings. — The markings of the head appeal to the prairie rattlesnake, but may be readily employed to distinguish the present species. The dark band commences behind the centre of the eye and extends to the angle of the mouth — with C. confluentus it begins beneath the centre of the eye. The pale band in front of this darker one is much broader than with the prairie rattlesnake. Although the large eye plates on the top of the head have symmetrical, pointed marks, which terminate at the outer margin, these are not vividly defined. * Has erroneously been called Crotalus lucifer, (B. & G.)- Because Holbrook 's original figure portrayed a rhomb-like pattern, numerous writers have refused to accept it as representing this species, though Holbrook designated the locality, and the scalation of the head of the type specimen agrees with the description of lucifer. 458 The Rattlesnakes Variations. — The ground-colour varies considerably. Some specimens are almost black. A specimen examined, from the Beaver Mountains, in Utah, is pale green, with sooty black saddles on the back and none upon the sides. The blotches contained none of the ground-colour as is usually the case. Dimensions. — An adult specimen, from Beaver County, Utah, and having a rattle consisting of five uniform segments, showed the following measurements: Total Length 34 inches. Tail, exclusive of rattle 2| Greatest Diameter i£ Width of Head i£ " Length of Head if Distribution. — The Pacific region, from southern British Columbia to southern California. Also occurs in Idaho, Nevada and Utah. It inhabits mountainous regions to an altitude of 1 1,000 feet. Habits. — Similar to the prairie rattlesnake. It is hardy in captivity. THE TIGER RATTLESNAKE Crotalus tigris, (Kennicott) The Tiger Rattlesnake attains a moderate length — seldom more than three and a half feet. Its conformation does not materially differ from that of the prairie and Pacific rattles- snakes. Colouration. — Yellowish gray, with a series of small and not very distinct blotches on the back and on each side, for the forward third of the body; on the latter two-thirds, these blotches fuse into regular cross-bands, producing a strongly barred effect. There is usually a dark bar from the eye to the angle of the mouth. Several specimens from the mountains of southwestern Arizona looked quite black upon a gross examination. Ex- amined closely, the pale ground-colour appeared only as dull gray bars on the sides of the latter portion of the body. Dimensions. — The largest specimen examined was forty inches long. Its proportions were rather more slender than the Pacific rattlesnake. Distribution. — Desert mountains of Arizona, Nevada and southern California. 459 The Rattlesnakes While the Tiger Rattlesnake has for some time been con- sidered a very rare species, numerous records show it to be fairly common in the barren mountain ranges of the extreme Southwest. A collector in southern California says that these snakes live at a considerable elevation, but were not rare. To back up his claim, he sent five specimens East. Mr. Herbert Brown, of Yuma, Arizona, in a letter to the writer, says: "Dur- ing the late overflows (1905) of the Colorado and Gila Rivers, the snakes were driven from the valley lands and could be had in any number on the higher benches. Black and yellow rattlers (C. tigris) were very abundant. They are scarcer now." Habits. — The Tiger Rattlesnake is not a very vicious species —if its habits may be judged by eight or ten captive specimens. After a few weeks in captivity it becomes lazy and good-natured. Three specimens lived for about two years. They fed upon mice, young rats and birds. THE HORNED RATTLESNAKE; "SIDE-WINDER" Crotalus cerastes, (Hallowell) While this is one of the smallest species of Crotalus, it is the most distinct, owing to the horn-like process over each eye, which is really an elongation of the upper eye-shield (supraocular) . The body is stout, with strongly keeled scales — the three central rows of scales having highly-raised keels, of tubercular formation. Colouration. — Pale brown, yellow, or pinkish, with a series of dull blotches, generally separated by white interspaces. On the sides are irregular rows of small blacker brown spots. Most specimens have several black bars on the tail. Dimensions. — The maximum length is about thirty inches. Following are the measurements of a rather small specimen, from the Colorado Desert: Total Length 17$ inches. Tail, exclusive of rattle i £ Greatest Diameter Width of Head J Length of Head jf Number of segments of rattle, five, including the original "button" —each of the segments successively larger, denoting a steadily increasing growth. 460 THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXXXV HORNED RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus cerasles HEAD OF THE HORNED RATTLESNAKE From all other rattlesnakes the present species is at once distinct. It is sometimes called the "Sidewinder.' progressing in a series of loops. A small desert species owing to its habit of THE REPTILE BOOK PLATE CXXXVI t GREEN RATTLESNAKE, Crotalus lepidus Only a few specimens of this apparently rare serpent have been captured. All were from the immediate vicinity of the Mexican boundary, on either side. V PRICE'S RATTI.F.SNAKK. Crotalus pricri Another rare species. nnH of diminutive proportions. Lives in the mountain ranges near the Mexican boundary. The Rattlesnakes Disiribution. — Desert areas of Arizona, southern Nevada, southwestern Utah and eastern California. Habits. — In its methods of progression this very interesting snake differs from every other North American serpent. The remarkable fashion in which it loops its way over the desert sands is an exact reproduction of the motions displayed by the several species of vipers that inhabit the borders of the African and Arabian deserts. When progressing in a very leisurely manner the Horned Rattlesnake glides almost in a straight line, as do all Rattle- snakes— very slowly, with head slightly raised and horizontal. It is when the creature quickens its gait that the movements become complicated and altogether unlike those of a serpent. The progression is by a series of large loops of the body thrown forward; one loop follows another with perfect symmetry of alternation, while the snake moves off at a sharply oblique angle to the direction in which the head is pointing and with such a degree of agility that the spectacle is not only grotesque, but bewildering. It in no way resembles a crawl; it is a walking movement. Here we see Nature's admirable provision to enable a heavy- bodied snake to progress at some speed over desert sands. That this is the only fashion in which a thick-bodied snake could display agility on soft soil is well illustrated by the fact that these singular movements have been adopted by the vipers of the Afri- can deserts and again, far removed from them, by our one species of rattlesnake that inhabits the desert proper. THE GREEN RATTLESNAKE Crotalus lepidus, (Kennicott) The smallest species of the genus. Its conformation differs from the other rattlesnakes as the body is quite slender, though the head is broad, flat and distinct from the neck. This species has twenty-three rows of scales. Colouration. — Greenish-gray, or rich, dark green above, crossed at wide intervals by narrow, jet-black bands. The bands are usually bordered with pale, greenish-yellow. The abdomen is pinkish, or yellowish-white. Immediately behind the head is a black blotch that is bluntly forked in front. Between the black bands on the body are 461 The Rattlesnakes scattered scales that are tipped with black. There are prac- tically no head markings, though the labial (lip) plates are paler than the upper portion of the head. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of a per- fectly adult specimen, with a rattle of six uniform rings: Total Length 23^ inches. Length of Fail, exclusive of rattle if Length of Rattle, 6 rings f Greatest Diameter " Width of Head -J Length of Head I Distribution. — The range is quite extensive, though the species is rare, so far as known. Later records may extend the distribution. The few specimens in our museums have been taken along the Mexican boundary from Eagle Pass, on the Rio Grande, in Texas, to Yuma, Arizona. The most northerly rec- ord of capture is from a point not far west of Socorro, New Mexico. Through the kindness of Dr. Samuel Carman and Mr. Thomas Barbour, the writer has examined and photographed (the spec- imen figured) one of these snakes captured in the San Bias Moun- tains, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico — but a short distance south of the boundary line. The range of the species into Mexico is not known. Habits. — The species inhabits mountainous areas. PRICE'S RATTLESNAKE Crotalus pricei, (Van Denburgh) Next to the green rattlesnake, the present species is the smallest of the genus. Price's Rattlesnake is quite stout of body. On gross examination it appears strikingly like the Northern massasauga, (Sistrurus catenatus), in size, form, colouration and shape of the rattle. The scales are in twenty-one rows. Colouration. — Grayish-brown, with two series of closely set, small, seal-brown blotches on the back — these faintly margined with white. On some specimens the spots fuse together in the form of transverse blotches; this tendency is shown on the latter part of the body with most specimens. On the tail the markings assume, above, the form of rings. 462 The Rattlesnakes The head is grayish above, with a large lyre or U-shaped blotch at the base. From behind the eye to the base of the head, is a broad black band, bordered beneath by white and thus greatly intensified. The abdomen is slaty gray. Dimensions. — Following are the measurements of an adult specimen, with a rattle composed of six uniform segments. Total Length 21 £ inches. Tail, exclusive of rattle i£ Length of Rattle, 6 rings £ Greatest Diameter $• '' Width of Head £ Length of Head i| Distribution. — As the species is very rare the limits of its range are not definitely known. It was discovered in 1895 in the Huachuca Mountains in Arizona, and since that time, barely a dozen specimens have been taken in the United States. The species probably ranges from southern Arizona well into Mexico. Through the kindness of Dr. Samuel Carman and Mr. Thomas Barbour, the writer has examined a specimen from the San Bias Mountains, in Chihuahua, Mexico, not far from the boundary. Habits. — Nothing is known of the habits beyond the dis- position to frequent mountainous places and at a considerable elevation. THE WHITE RATTLESNAKE Crotalus mitcbellii, (Cope) Owing to its pallid colouration, snakes of this species might be confused with pale specimens of the Western diamond rattle- snake, (C. atrox). The similarity, however, is in the whitish colour only. From all the other species of North American Crotalus, the White Rattlesnake differs in an arrangement of the head scales, thus: Tbe large plate in front of the nostril (anterior nasal) is sepa- rated from the nose plate (rostral) by small scales. With the other species of Rattlesnakes it will be observed that the shield in front of the nostril is in contact with the nose plate (rostral). Colouration. — Grayish-yellow or pinkish, the body profusely sprinkled with brown dots. Upon the back these dots are crowded into the form of a series of blotches, which, although not exactly rhomb-like in character, impart much the same effect as the 463 The Rattlesnakes pattern of the Western diamond rattlesnake. Ibis similarity is heightened by the tail; this is white with black rings. There is a yellowish band from in front of the eye to the angle of the mouth. On most specimens the markings are very obscure, but the writer received one specimen from San Diego County, California, so strongly marked that it was momentarily mistaken for a spec- imen of the Crotalus atrox — the Western diamond rattlesnake. A bright red specimen has been taken in Canyon Prieto, not far from Fort Whipple, Arizona. This was given the name Pyrrba, by Prof. Cope. As no other specimens have been taken since its capture (1866) it can hardly be considered anything but an individual variation in colour. Dimensions. — The length of a mature specimen seems to be about three and a half feet. The conformation of the head and body is like the Western diamond rattlesnake. Distribution. — Desert mountains, though not at a great altitude, of Lower California, southern California, southern Arizona and extreme northwestern Mexico. Mr. Herbert Brown has given the writer the following note about the species: "In the Tinajas Altas Range, a small, detached mountain, about 70 miles southwest of here (Yuma), there is a white Rattle- snake. I submitted a specimen to Dr. Van Denburgh, of San Francisco, California. He says it is Crotalus mitcbellii. They are slightly marked with dark across the middle of the back, but otherwise the white or gray is solid. Dr. W. J. McGee to whom I am indebted for the specimen, killed two of them while in the range. He said that when coiled they looked like bunches of white cotton. I believe I have seen them in the Death Valley country." Habits. — But one living example has been observed by the writer. It was a nervous snake, and kept its pale, straw-coloured rattle always ready to be shaken upon the slightest disturbance. It steadily refused food and lived but a few months. ( )bservalions upon a single specimen of a creature so far removed from its environment are of but little value. To describe such a snake as stupid would be but to theorise over the actions of a wild brute suddenly removed from everything natural, stunned and grieving from the change. What we frequently regard as "stupidity" 464 The Rattlesnakes on the part of a dumb brute, is its constant longing for liberty, overcoming all ideas of exercise and appetite. Unless we can to a considerable extent copy an animals environments, thence compare the actions of numerous individuals, we cannot with certainty describe habits. INDEX Abas tor erythrogrammus, 366 Alabama Terrapin. 38 Allen's Snake, 264 Alligator, 84 Alligator Lizard, 102 Alligator mississippiensis.&4 Alligator Turtle, 15 American Crocodile, 89 Amphiardis inornatus, 272 Ancistrodon bilineatus, 415 contortrix, 420 piscivorus, 415 Ancistrodon, Key to, 415 Anguidce, 160 Aniella pulchra, 168 Aniellidce, 168 Annulated Snake, 389 Anolis carolinensis, ioa Anti-Venine, 408 Anti-venomous Serum, 408 Arizona Ringed Snake, 357 Aromochelys carinatus, a a odpratus, 20 tristycha, 21 Aromochelys, Key to, 18 Banded Chicken Snake, 308 Banded Ground Snake, 331 Beaded Lizards, 169-177 Bipes, 191 Bipes caniculatus, 192 Black-banded Snake, 390 Black-headed Snake, Eisen's, 391 Slender, 391 Texas, 391 Blacksnake, 279 Black Swamp Snake, 263 Blanding's Turtle, 56 Blind Snake, California, aio Texas, 210 Blind "Worm," 168 Blue-tailed Lizard, 196 Boa, Rosy, 211 Rubber, 211 Three-lined, 211 Boas, Key to No. American, aro-an Boidce, 210 Box Turtle. Baur's, 63 Common, 59 Florida, 63 Large, 62 Painted, 58 Three-Toed. 63 Box Turtles. Key to, 55 Brown, Arthur Erwin, 356 Brown Lizard, 164 Brown Snake, 267-269-271-372—331 Brown Snakes, Key to. 266 Bull Snake, Arizona, 320 Common, 318 Pacific, 320 Bull Snakes, Key to, 315-316 Callisaurus, Definition of, 116 Callisaurus draconoides, 117 Cape Striped Lizard, 185 Carphophis amaenus, 370 Cemophora coccinea, 373 Cerros Island Striped Lizard, 188 Chain Snake, 359 Chameleon, American, io» Charina botta, 211 brachyops, 211 Checkered "Adder," 342 Chelonia, Classification of, 3 Chelonia imbricata, 9 mydas, 8 Chelonidce, ^ Chelopus guttattis, 50 insculptus, 53 marmoratus, 52 muhlenbergii, 51 Chelopus, Key to, 49-50 Chelydra serpentina. 1 2 Chelydridm, 1 1 Chicken Turtle, 34 Chilomeniscus cinctiis. 373 ephippicus, 372 Chrysemys alabamensis, 38 belli, 33 concinna, 36 elegans, 40 •floridana, 37 hieroglyphica, 36 marginatft, 33 mobiliensis, 38 nebulosa, 41 picta, 32 reticulatus, 34 rubriventris, 38 scabra, 39 texanq, 40 troosti, 35 Chrysemys, Key to, 30-31 Chucka walla, Common, HI Island, in Chuckawallas, Key to, 1 1 1 Chunkhead, 420 Cinosternidce, 17 Cinosternum bauri, 25 ftavescens, 25 henrici, 26 integrwn, 26 louisianat, 24 pennsylvanicum, »s Cinosterntim. Key to. 19 Cistudo bauri, 63 Carolina, 59 major, 62 ornata, 58 triunguis, 63 Clonophis kirtlandt, 261 Cnemidophorus grahami, 187 eularis. :8? nyperythrus, 185 labialis, 188 maximus, 186 sericeus, 186 sexlineatus, 188 tessellatus. 186 Coach whip Snake, 286 Collared Lizard, 113 Colour Changes of Lizards, 103-104 Coluber, Black, 303 Davis Mountain, 299 Emory's, 298 Four-banded, 308 467 Index Coluber Gray. 307 Lindheimer's. 306 Red, 300 Red-headed, 296 Smooth-scaled, 314 Coluber tmoryi. 298 guttatus, 300 obsoletus, 303 variety confinis, 307 variety lindheimeri, 306 quadrivittatus, 308 subocularis, 299 vulpinus, 296 Colubers, Key to, 293-296 Common Spotted Lizard, lao Contia episcopa, 331 variety isozona, 331 mitts. 332 occipital*, 332 taylori, 331 Contia, Key to, 328 Cooler, 36 Cope's Desert Lizard, 118 Cope's Lizard, 182 Copperhead Snake. 420 "Coral Snake," 350 Coral Snake, Eastern, 396 Sonoran, 401 Coral Snakes, Key to, 396 Corn Snake, 300 Cotton-mouth Snake, 415 Crocodilians, Key to No. Am. species, 83 Crocodilidae, 83 Crocodilus americanus, 89 Crotalituz. List of American, 412-413 Crotalus adamanteus. 447 air ox, 452 ruber. 455 scutulatus, 454 ctrastes, 460 confluentus, 458 horridus, 441 lepidus, 461 mitchellii, 463 molossus, 440 orrgonuj, 458 pricei, 462 ItgfM. 459 Crotaphytus collaris, 113 reticulatus, 115 wislizenii, 115 Crotaphytus. Key to, 112-113 Crowned Snake, 391 Ctenojaura htmilopha, 107 tnM/fitft'nu. 107 Cyclophis aestivus, 322 DeKay's Snake, 267 Desert Fauna, ijg Diadophis amabilts, 337 punctatus, 334 regalis, 338 Diadophis, Key to. 333-334 Diamond-back Terrapin, 47 Dipsadomorphina, 386 Dipsosaurus dor salts. 109 Dog-nosed Snake, 372 Elapine Snakes, 392-402 Elaps euryxanthus, 401 fulvius, 396 Elaps, Key to, 396 S$ blandingii. 56 Erythrolamprus imperialis, 390 Eublepharis varicgatus, 100 Euchirotts. 191 Euchirotidce. Key to Genera, IQI Eumeces antkracinus, 199 6rrtn/tn*a/Ki, 200 tgrtfius. 109 Eumeces gilbcrti, 1 98 guttulatus, 200 Ifptogrammus, 197 multivirgatus. 196 obsoletus, 198 pachyurus, 200 pluyialis, 200 quinqucltnfatus, 196 scptentrionalis. 199! skiltonianus. 198 tetragrammus, 199 Eutaenia butleri, 223 elegans, 225 biscutata. 229 couchi, 230 infernalis, 227 wiarctana, 229 j, 228 468 , 230 tn* galops, 221 multimaculata. 239 proximo, 220 radix, 222 • rufopunctata. 240 sackeni. 219 saurita, 216 sirtalis, 231 leptocephala, 239 ordinatus. 237 pqrietalis, 237 pickeringii, 238 E«7 . Snakes, Classified List of No. Am.. 207-208 Snapping Turtle. Alligator, i s Common, 12 Snapping Turtles. Key to. 1 2 Soft-shelled Turtle. Brown. 78 Emory's. 78 Southern, 74 Spiny, 77 Soft-shelled Turtles, Key to. 73 Southern Milk Snake, 348 Spharodactylui notatus, 99 Sphargida, 6 470 Index Sphargis coriacea, 6 Spilotes corais couperi, IT 6 Spiny Swifts, Key to, 128-130 Spiny-tailed Iguana, 106 Spotted Chicken Snake, 307 Spotted Lizards, Key to, 118 Spotted Race Runner, 187 Spotted Turtle, 50 Stejneger, Dr. Leonhard, 404 Stilosoma extenuatunt, 329 Storeria, dekayi, 267 occipitomaculata, 269 Storer's Snake, 269 Striped House Snake, 308 Striped Lizards, 184-189 Striped Snakes, Key to, 215-216 Striped Swamp Snake, 262 Swamp Snake, 264 Swift, Banded, 133 Black, 125 Black-tailed, 125 Clark's, 131 Collared, 140 Common, 137 Four-barred, 123 Long- tailed, 125 Mearns's, 123 Olive, 124 Orcutt's, 133 Ornate, 124 Pacific, 139 Palmer's, 1 24 Sage Brush, 141 Spiny, 134 Stansbury's, 124 Striped, 140 Thayer's, 139 Three-barred, 123 Van Denburgh's, 136 Variable, 137 Western, 135 White-bellied, 123 Yarrow's. 135 Yellow-banded, 136 Tantilla coronata, 391 eiseni, 391 gracilis, 391 nigriceps, 391 Tantilla, Key to Species, 391 Taylor's Snake, 331 Teiidce, 184 Terrapin, Alabama, 38 Barred, 36 Baur's, 46 Bell's, 33 Chicken, 34 Cumberland, 40 Diamond-back, 47 Eastern Painted, 3* Florida, 37 Geographic, 43 Hieroglyphic, 36 Kohn's, 46 Lesueur's, 44 Long-necked, 34 Mobile, 38 Decollated, 47 Peninsula, 41 Red-bellied, 38 Red-necked, 36 Reticulated, 34 Texas, 40 Troost's, 35 Western Painted, 33 Yellow-bellied, 39 Terrapins, Classification of, »8 Definition of Genera, 39 Tessellated Lizard, 186 Testudo agassizii, 69 berlandieri, 71 Polyphemus, 66 Testudo, Key to No. Am. speeies, 65-66 Texas Terrapin, 40 Thalassochelys caretta, 7 kempi, 8 Thunder Snake, 359 Tiger Lizard, 187 Tortoise, Agassiz's. 69 Berlandier's, 71 Gopher, 66 Treatment of Snake Bite, 406 Trimorphodon lyrophanes, 389 Trionyx etnoryi, 78 ferox, 74 muticus, 78 spintfer, 77 Troost's Terrapin, 35 Tropidoclonium lineatum, 262 Tropidonotus clarki, 245 compressicaudus, 246 cycloptunt, 255 fasciatus, 246 erythrogaster , 250 sipedon, 251 transversus, 254 grahami, 244 leberis, 243 rhombifer, 254 rigidus, 244 taxispilotus, 256 validus, 245 Tropidonotus, Key to, 241-242 Trunk Turtle, 6 Turtles, Classification of No. Amer., 3 Two-footed Worm Lizard, 102 Two-headed Snake, 211 Uma inornata, 1 1 8 notala, 118 rufopunctata, 118 scoparia, 1 1 8 Uma Key to, 118 Ufa graciosa, 125 levis, 1 24 mearnsii, 123 nigricauda, 125 ornata, 1 24 palmeri, 124 parviscutata, 125 repens, 123 stansburiana, 12,4 symmctrica, 125 thalassina, 123 Ufa, Key to, 123-125 Van Denburgh, John J., 179 Van Denburgh's Striped Lizard, 186 Verticaria, 185 Viperine Snakes, 403 Virginia elegans, 273 Valeria?, 272 Virginia's Snake, 273 Water Pilot, 256 Water "Rattle," 256 Water Snake, Banded, 246 Blotched, 254 Brown, 256 Clark's, 245 Common, 257 Diamond-back, 254 Flat-tailed, 246 Graham's, 244 Green, 255 Red -bellied, 250 Striped, 244 Western, 245 Water Snakes, Key to, 241-243 Western Painted Terrapin, 33 Western Pond Turtle, 52 Whip Snake, 281 Whip-tailed Lizard, 187 White-bellied Lizard, 120 471 Index White Gopher Snake. 316 Wood Turtle. 53 Worm-like Lizards. 190-194 Worm Lizard, 168-193 Worm Snake. 271-272-370 Worm "Snake," 168 \antusia gilberti. 181 lu-nshawi. 183 picta, i8a river siana, 183 vigilis. 179 Xantusia, Key to, 178-179 XaMtMsudal 178 Xantus's Lizard. 179 Yellow-bellied Terrapin, 30 Vellow Chicken Snake, 308 Vellow Gopher Snake, ji8-3ac V'cllo'.v Ground Snake, 331 \'"\\n \--lipped Snnke, 330 Vcllo-.v Rat Snake, 308 Zatncnis constrictor, 279 flctviycntris, 285 flagclliformis. 286 frcnatum, 288 piceus, 288 latcralis, 288 tcrniatus, 289 orttatus, 290 Zamenis, Key to, 274-875 Zebra-tailed Lizard, 117-130 473 I • • • it I ;