TILES &BIRDS '*• - *• IG THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID REPTILKS AND BIRDS. 24 HAWKTNG IN THE MIDDLE AGES. (Seep. 587 ) REPTILES AND BIRDS. Jl popular JUarant of THEIR VARIOUS ORDERS, WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE HABITS AND ECONOMY OF THE MOST INTERESTING. FROM THE FRENCH OF LOUIS FIGUIER REVISED BY PARKER GILLMORE ("UBIQUE"). WITH 308 ILLUSTRATIONS. CASSELL £ COMPANY, LIMITED LONDON, PARIS &> MELBOURNE. 1892. [ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.] ; PREFACE. THIS Edition of the English version of Louis Figuier's interesting work on Reptiles and Birds has been most carefully revised. Where alterations and additions have been made, the object has been to adapt the style and matter to the present state of general knowledge, in the hope that all readers might obtain useful information and amusement from these pages. On originally commencing his undertaking the reviser was not aware of the immensity of the labour to be done, but was encouraged to persevere in his arduous task by the late Mr. FRANK BUCKLAND and the late Mr. HENRY LEE, who both assisted him in the kindest manner possible. CONTENTS. REPTILES. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER .... PAGE CHAPTER I. AMPHIBIA, OR BATRACHIANS. PAGE PAGE Structural Distinctions . • 7 Toads • 23 formation .... . ii Natterjack . 24 Characteristics • 13 Surinam .... . 26 Historical Antiquity • 15 Tailed Batrachians . 28 Distribution .... - 17 Spotted Salamanders . 29 Batrachia .... • 17 Black . . . . • 3° Habits of Life . . 18 Aquatic .... • 3° Development of Young . 20 Crested . • 32 Green .... . 22 Gigantic .... • 32 Common .... . 22 Transformations and Repro due- Green Tree . 22 tion .... • 32 CHAPTER II. OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES. Snakes • 35 Morelia .... • 53 Burrowing. • 39 Rock .... • 55 Ground .... • 39 Natal Rock • 55 Tree • 39 Guinea Rock • 55 Fresh-water • 39 Royal Rock • 55 Sea ..... . 40 Aboma .... . 56 Innocuous Snakes . . 42 Anaconda .... • 59 Blind .... . 42 Venomous Snakes . 64 Shield-tail. • 43 Cobra .... • 65 Colubridae .... • 43 Asp ..... • 7o Rat • 45 Bungarus .... • 71 Ringed .... • 45 Pit Vipers. • 73 Green and Yellow • 47 Fer-de-lance • 73 Viperine .... • 47 Trimeresurus • 75 Desert .... • 47 Rattle .... . 76 Whip .... Blunt-heads • 49 • 51 Copperhead Tic-polonga . 76 . 82 Boas • 5i Puff Adders • 83 Pythons .... • 53 Common Adder • ^3 VI REPTILES AND BIRDS. CHAPTER III. THE ORDER OF LIZARDS— SAURIANS. Lizards, Distribution and Division 92 Lizards — Grey . 102 Gecko . Green . 102 Chameleons Ocellated . 103 Crocodiles . . Ameivas . . 105 Gavials . Iguanas . . 109 Jacares . . Basilisk . . . . 118 Alligators . Anoles . • . 120 Caimans . Flying . 122 CHAPTER IV. CHELONIANS, OR SHIELDED REPTILES. Formation . .142 Elodians, or Marsh Tortoises Distribution and Classification . 144 Mud , Tortoises . . 145 Emydes . Land .145 Pleurocleres Margined Potamians, or River Tortoises Moorish . ; .' '. !Ji Trionyx . Greek . . . i46 Tkalassians, or Sea Tortoises Elephantine . Green . Genus Pyxis • 147 Hawk's-bill . Ditto Kinixys . Homopodes . Loggerhead Leather-back . BIRDS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Anatomy . . . . 165 Vocal Organs . Plumage . 170 Nests . Feet . • 173 Reproduction Beaks. Longevity . Digestive Organs . 176 Utility Powers of Sight . . 177 Classification • CHAPTER I. THE NATATORES, OR SWIMMING BIRDS. Divers . 194 Grebes . Great Northern • • -195 Crested . Black-throated . . .I98 Horned . Red-throated . ... 198 American . Penguins 199 Guillemots . . CONTENTS. Vll CHAPTER II. DUCKS, GEESE, SWANS, AND PELICANS. PAGE PA.GH Mallard . 213 Geese — Golden-eyed Garrot . . . 226 White-fronted Bernicle . . 249 Pochard . 227 Black-faced Bernicle . 250 Shoveller . . . . 228 Swan . 250 Shield rake . . 229 Whistling . 252 Eider Duck . 230 Black .... . 256 Common Teal • 233 Flamingo .... . 256 Velvet Duck Frigate Bird • 259 Black Scoter : : ; : 236 Pelicanidae .... . 260 Surf Duck . . 239 Tropic Bird . 261 Goosander . . 240 Darters .... • 263 Smew . 241 Gannets .... . 264 Geese . 242 Cormorant .... . 266 Wild . 242 Green Cormorant . 269 Greylag . Pelicans . . ... 27O Domestic . 246 Crested .... . 272 Bean . . . . 248 White .... . 274 Canadian . 249 Brown .... • 275 Bernicle . . 249 Spectacled . 276 CHAPTER III. THE LARID^E. Longipennes . 277 Lesser Tern , 280 Terns . . . . 278 Scissors-bill . 28l Gulls and Allied Species .... 282 CHAPTER IV. GRALLATORES, OR WADING BIRDS. Palmidactyles . 293 Cultrirostres • 325 Macrodactyles . . . . 296 Pressirostres • 343 Longirostres • 305 Extinct Brevipennes . Brevipennes . . . • • • • 367 • 353 CHAPTER V. GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. Tetraonidae . 371 i Phasianidae • 397 Perdicides . • 375 Columbidae . 421 Tinamides . • 393 Columboe-Gallinse . 422 Chionidse •204 Megapodinae O./T^ • • • -394 Columbars • 430 CHAPTER VI. SCANSORES OR CLIMBERS. Parrots • 431 Cuckoos .... • 443 Toucans . 440 Woodpeckers . 449 Vlll REPTILES AND BIRDS. CHAPTER VII. PASSERINES. PAGE Syndactyles .... 456 Tenuirostres .... 462 PAGE Conirostres . 472 Fissirostres .... 503 Dentirostres 513 CHAPTER VIII. RAPTORES, OR BIRDS OF PREY. Nocturnal Birds of Prey . . 545 Horned Owls .... 547 Hornless Owls . . . -553 Diurnal Birds of Prey . . 560 Falconidoe . . . • . .561 Sea Eagles .... 572 Vultures 597 FULL -PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. FRONTISPIECE. — HAWKING IN THE MIDDLE AGES. PLATE PAGE I. SNAKE CHARMERS To face 69 II. CHASED BY AN ALLIGATOR . . . ^ . . ,, 132 III. CAPTURING TURTLES . ,, 161 IV. GATHERING EGGS IN THE FAROE ISLANDS . ,, 209 V. FLIGHT OF WILD DUCK ,,217 VI. SHOOTING OVER DECOY DUCKS ,, 221 VII. DUCK-SHOOTING FROM A HUT „ 222 VIII. DUEL BETWEEN RUFFS ,,311 IX. RUFFS IN THEIR NUPTIAL PLUMAGE ... ,, 310 X. WOODCOCK SHOOTING ...... ,, 317 XI. THE OSTRICH ,, 354 XII. THE EMU ,,364 XIII. QUAILS AND YOUNG ,, 376 XIV. QUAIL SHOOTING ., 380 XV. PARTRIDGE SHOOTING ,, 385 XVI. COMMON PARTRIDGE AND YOUNG .... ,, 386 XVII. RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE SHOOTING .... ,.388 XVIII. PHEASANT SHOOTING .... ,, 397 XIX. GOLDEN PHEASANTS ,.401 XX. ARGUS PHEASANT ,, 402 XXI. COCHIN-CHINA FOWLS ,,409 REPTILES AND BIRDS. INTRODUCTORY. THERE is little apparent resemblance between the graceful feathered warbler which makes the woods re-echo with its cheerful song and the crawling reptile which is apt to inspire feelings of disgust — between the familiar swallow, which builds its house of clay under the eaves of your roof, or the warbler, whose nest, with its young progeny, is carefully guarded by the father of the brood in the silent watches of the night, and the serpent which threatens them, its huge mouth dis- closing fearful fangs, against which the despairing parents have nothing but their slender bills to oppose. " Placed side by side," says Professor Huxley, "a humming-bird and a tortoise, or an ostrich and a crocodile, offer the strongest contrast ; and a stork seems to have little but its animality in common with the snake which it swallows." Nevertheless, unlike as they are in outward appearance, there is sufficient resemblance in their internal economy to bring them together in classifying the animal kingdom. The air-bladder which exists between the digestive canal and kidneys in some fishes, becomes vascular, with the form and cellular structure of lungs in reptiles ; the heart has two auricles, the ventricle in most is imperfectly divided, and more or less of the venous blood is mixed with the arterial, which circulates over the body ; but, retaining their gills and being transitional in structure, they are also cold-blooded. In birds, the lungs are spongy, the cavity of the air-bags becoming obliterated by the multiplication of vascular cellules ; the heart is four-chambered, transmitting venous blood to the lungs and pure arterial blood to the body; the temperature is raised and maintained at 90° to 100° Fahr. Thus reptiles, like birds, breathe the common air by means of 75 2 REPtlLES AND BIRDS. their lungs, but respiration is much less active. " Although," remarks Sir Rich. Owen, " the heart of Birds resembles in some particulars that of Reptiles, the four cavities are as distinct as in the Mammalia, but they are relatively stronger, their valvular mechanism is more perfect, and the contractions of this organ are more forcible and frequent in Birds, in accordance with their more extended respiration and their more energetic muscular action." It is true, as Professor Huxley informs us, that the pinion of a bird, which corresponds with the human hand or the forepaw of a reptile, has three points represent- ing three fingers : no reptile has so few.* The breast-bone of a bird is converted into membrane bone : no such conversion takes place in reptiles. The sacrum is formed by a number of caudal and dorsal vertebrae. In Reptiles the organ is constituted by one or two sacral vertebrae. In other respects the two classes present many obvious differences, but these are more superficial than would be suspected at a first glance ; and Professor Huxley believes that, structurally, " reptiles and birds do really agree much more closely than birds with mammals, or reptiles with amphibians."' While most existing birds differ thus widely from existing reptiles, the cursorial or struthious genera, comprising the Ostrich, Nandu, Emu, Cassowary, Apteryx, and the recently extinct Dinornis of New Zealand, come nearer to the reptiles in structure. All of these are remarkable for the shortness of their wings, the absence of a crest or keel upon the breast, and peculiarities of the skull, which bring them nearer to the Reptilian order. But the gap between Reptiles and Birds is only slightly narrowed by these examples, and is somewhat unsatis- factory to those who advocate the development theory, which asserts that all animals have proceeded, by gradual modification, from a common stock. Traces had been discovered in the Mesozoic formations of certain ornitholites, which were too imperfect to determine the affinities ot the bird. But the calcareous mud of the ancient sea-bottom, which has hardened into the famous lithographic slate of Solenhofen, revealed to Hermann von Meyer, in 1861, first the impression of a feather, and, in the same year, the independent discovery of a skeleton of the bird itself, which Von Meyer had named Ardueopteryx lithograph! ta. This relic of a far-distant age now adorns the British Museum (Fig. i). The skull of the Archaeopteryx is almost lost, but the leg, the foot, * Vide, however, p. 8.— ED. CONNECTING LINKS IN CLASSIFICATION. 3 the pelvis, the shoulder-girdle, and the feathers, as far as their structure can be made out, are completely those of existing birds. Two digits of the inanus have curved claws, and, to all appearance, the metacarpal bones are quite free and disunited, exhibiting, according to Professor Huxley, closer approximation to the reptilian structure than any existing bird. Mr. Evans has even detected that the mandibles were provided with teeth. Fig. i. — Archseopteryx lithographica. On the other hand, the same writer points out certain peculiarities in the single reptile found also among the Solenhofen slates which has been described and named Campsognathus lotigipes by the late Andreas Wagner. This reptile he declares "to be a still nearer approximation to the missing link between reptiles and birds," thus further narrowing the gap between the two classes. While we think it proper to point to these structural resemblances of one class of the animal creation to others very different in their external appearance, it is necessary to guard our readers from adopting the inferences sometimes deduced ; that " these infinitely diversified forms are merely the final terms in an immense series of 4 REPTILES AtiD changes which have been brought about in the course of immeasur- able time by the operation of causes more or less similiar to those which are- at work at the present day." Domestication and other circumstances have no doubt produced alterations in the form of many animals ; but none from which this inference can be drawn, except in the imagination of ingenious men, who strain facts to support a preconceived hypothesis. In spite of the innumerable forms which the pigeon assumes by cross-breeding and domestication, it still remains a pigeon ; the dog is still a dog ; and so with other animals. Nor does it seem necessary, or calculated to advance our know- ledge of natural history, to form theories which can only disturb our existing systems without supplying a better. Systems are necessary for the purpose of arrangement and identification ; but it should never be forgotten that all classifications are artificial — a framework or cabinet, into the partitions of which many facts may be stowed away, carefully docketed for future use. " Theories," says Le Vaillant, "are more easily made and more brilliant probably than observations; but it is by observation alone that science can be enriched." A bountiful Creator appears to have adopted one general plan in the organisation of all the vertebrate creation ; and, in order to facilitate their study, naturalists have divided them into classes, orders, and genera, formed on the differences which exist in the structure of their vital functions. The advantages of this are obvious, but it does not fathom what is unfathomable, or explain what is inexplicable in the works of God.* In previous volumes of this seriest we have endeavoured to give the reader some general notions of the form, life, and manners of the branches of the animal kingdom known as Zoophytes, Mollusca, Articulata, and Pisces. We now continue the superior sub-kingdom (to which the fishes also belong) of the vertebrated animals, so called from the osseous skeleton which encircles their bodies, in which the vertebral column, surmounted by its appendage the cranium, forms the principal part. The presence of a solid frame in this series of animals admits of their attaining a size which is denied to any of the others ; while their nervous system is also more developed. There is, consequently, a. more exquisite sensibility in them than in the classes whose history * This, however, is a subject upon which naturalists of the highest rank hold different opinions, many of those most highly qualified to form a correct judgment advocating the doctrine propounded by Mr. Darwin.— -Eo. f "The Ocean World," from the French of Louis Figuier. "The Insect World," from the French of the same author. CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES. 5 we have hitherto discussed. They possess five senses, a heart, a circulation, with red blood. We have now to deal with a class advanced above that of fishes, that of Reptilia, which is divided as follows : — AMPHIBIA — (Batrachia, Cuv.) Animals having ribs or processes, or short, slight, and free ver- tebrae, forming a series of separate centrums, deeply cupped at both ends, one of which is converted by ossification in the mature animal into a ball, which may be the front one, as in the Surinam Toad, Pipa; or the hind one, in the Frogs and Toads, Rana. The skin is nude, limbs digitate, gills embryonal, permanent in some, in most lost in metamorphosis, to be succeeded by pulmonary respiration, or both ; a heart with one ventricle and two auricles. They consist of : — I. OPHIOMORPHA. Coeciliadae or Ophiosoma. II. ICHTHYOMORPHA. Proteidae or Sirens, Proteus, Newts, and Salamanders. III. THERIOMORPHA. Aglossa . . . Pipa or Surinam Toadi Ranida . . . Frogs. Hylida . . . Tree Frogs. Bufonidce . . Toads. CHELONIA, OR TURTLES. Distinguished by the double shield in which their bodies are enclosed, whether they are terrestrial, fresh-water, or marine. The Turtles, Chelonia, have the limbs natatory. SJEfcS?? ) "^s amphibious. Tortoises, Testudo, limbs terrestrial. LACERTILIA. Having a single transverse process on each side, single-headeu ribs, two external nostrils, eyes with movable lids; body covered with horny sometimes bony scales. Lacerta — the Monitors, Lizards ; having ambulatory limbs. Angrn?— Ophisaurus, Bimanus, Chalcides, Seps ; limbs abortive ; no sacrum. AND BIKDS. OPHIDIA. Having numerous vertebrae with single-headed hollow ribs, no visible limbs, eyelids covered by an immovable transparent lid ; body covered by horny scales. It includes : — ViperinlB — the Vipers and Crotalidae. Colnbrince—\h.Q. Colubers, Hydride, and Boidoe. . CROCODILIA. Teeth in a single row, implanted in distinct sockets ; body de- pressed, elongated, protected on the back by solid shield ; tait longer than the trunk, compressed laterally, and furnished with crests above. The several families are :— . Crocodilidce — the Gavials, Mecistops, Crocodiles. Alligatorid The modification which takes place in the respiratory and other organs in Reptilia is described in a few words. " Many fishes have a bladder of air between the digestive canal and the kidneys, which in some communicates with an air-duct and the gullet; but its office is chiefly hydrostatic. When on the rise of structure this air-bladder begins to assume the vascular and pharyngeal relations with the form and cellular structure of lungs, the limbs acquire the character of feet : at first thread-like and many-jointed, as in the Lepidosiren ; then bifurcate, or two-fingered, with the elbow and wrist joints of land animals, as in Amphiuma ; next, three-fingered, as in Proteus; or four-fingered, but reduced to the pectoral pair, as in Siren" In all Reptiles the blood is conveyed from the ventricular part of the heart, really or apparently, by a single trunk. In Lepidosiren the veins from the lung-like air-bladders traverse the auricle which opens directly into the ventricle. In some the vein dilates before communicating with the ventricle into a small auricle, which is not outwardly distinct from the much larger auricle receiving the veins of the body. In Proteus the auricle system is incomplete. In Amphiuma the auricle is smaller and less fringed than in the Sirens, the ventricle being connected to the pericardium by the apex as well as the artery. This forms a half spiral turn at its origin, and dilates into a broader and shorter bulb than in the Sirens, STRUCTURAL DISTINCTIONS. 9 "The pulmonic auricle," continues Sir Richard Owen, "thus augments in size with the more exclusive share taken by the lungs in respiration ; but the auricular part of the heart shows hardly any outward sign of its diversion in the Batrachians. It is small and smooth, and situated on the left, and in advance of the ventricle in newts and salamanders. In frogs and toads the auricle is ap- plied to the base of the ventricle, and to the back and side of the aorta and its bulb." In the lower members of the order the single artery from the ventricle sends, as in fishes, the whole of the blood primarily to the branchial organs, and in all Batrachians at the earlier aquatic periods of existence. In the Newt, three pairs of external gills are developed at first as simple filaments, each with its capillary loop, but speedily expanding, lengthening, and branching into lateral processes, with corresponding looplets, these blood-channels inter- communicating by a capillary network. The gill is covered by ciliated scales, which change into non-ciliated cuticle shortly before the gills are absorbed. In the Proteus anguinus, three parts only of branchial and vascular arches are developed, corresponding with the number of external gills. In Siren lacertina the gills are in three pairs of branchial arches, the first and fourth fixed, the second and third free, increasing in size according to their condition. Thus, the Amphibia have, at some stage of their existence, both gills and lungs co-existent ; respiring by means of branchiae or gills while in the water, and by lungs on emerging from it. All these creatures seem to have been well known to the ancients. The monuments of the Egyptians abound in represen- tations of Frogs, Toads, Tortoises, and Serpents. Aristotle was well acquainted with their form, structure, and habits, even to their reproduction. Pliny's description, however, presents some amount of error and exaggeration. Their history is hid in darkness during the Middle Ages, from which it gradually emerges in the early part of the sixteenth century, when Belon and Rondeletius in France, Salviani in Italy, and Gonrad Gesner in Switzerland, devoted themselves to the study of natural history with great suc- cess. In the latter part of the same century Aldrovandi appeared. During fifty years he was engaged in collecting objects and making drawings, which were published after his death, in 1640, being edited by Professor Ambrosini, of Bologna, the reptiles forming two volumes : in these volumes, twenty-two chapters are occupied by the Serpents. But the first arrangement which can be called systematic was that produced by John Ray, who based his system 75* 10 REPTILES AND BIRDS. upon their mode of respiration, the volume of their eggs, and their colour. Numerous systems have since appeared in France, Germany, and England ; but we shall best consult the interest of our readers by briefly describing the classification adopted by Owen in his classical work on the vertebrata, although no two schemes agree in all their details. The two great classes Batrachians and Reptiles, include -a number of animals which are neither clothed with hair, like the Mammalia, covered with feathers like the Birds, nor furnished with swimming fins like Fishes. The essential character of Reptiles is, that they are either entirely or partially covered with scales. Some of them — for instance, Serpents — move along the ground with a gliding motion, produced by the simple contact and ad- hesion of the ventral scales with the ground. Others, such as Tortoises, Crocodiles, and Lizards, move by means of limbs ; but these, again, are so short, that the animals, with very few exceptions, appear only capable of crawling slowly. Again, some of this class are only furnished with feet in the pectoral region; but this is the exception. The locomotive organs in Serpents are the vertebral column, with its muscles, and the stiff epidermal scutes crossing the under surface of the body. " A Serpent may, however, be seen to progress," says Sir Rich. Owen, " without any inflection, gliding slowly and with a ghost-like movement in a straight line ; and if the observer have the nerve to lay his hand flat in the reptile's course, he will feel, as the body glides over the palm, the surface pressed as it were by the edges of a close-set series of paper knives successively falling flat after each application." In some, as in various Lizards, the limbs acquire considerable strength. There is one genus of small Lizards, known as the Dragons (Draco\ whose means of progression present an exception to the general rule. Besides their four feet, these animals are furnished with a delicate membranous parachute, formed by a prolongation of the skin on the flanks, and sustained by the long slender ribs, which permits of their gliding through the air upon their prey from a considerable height. Batrachians, again, differ from most other Reptilia by being naked; moreover, most of them undergo certain metamorphoses. In the first stage of their existence they lead a purely aquatic life, and breathe by means of gills, after the manner of fishes. Young Frogs, Toads, and Salamanders, which are then called tadpoles, have at that stage no resemblance whatever to their parents in structure. They are little creatures with slender, elongated bodies, destitute of THfi BATRACHIANS. II feet and fins, but with large heads. In stagnant ponds they are frequently found in numbers, where they live and breathe after the manner of fishes. By degrees, however, they are transformed, their limbs and air-breathing lungs commence to develop, when they dis- appear, till the day arrives that they find themselves organised for another existence, when they leave their watery retreat and betake themselves to dry land. "The tadpole, meanwhile being subject to a series of changes in every system of organs concerned in the daily needs of the coming aerial and terrestrial existence, still passes more or less time in water, and supplements the early attempt at respiration by pullulating loops and looplets of capillaries from the branchial vessels.' (Owen.) Nevertheless, they do not altogether forget their native element ; thanks to their webbed feet they can still traverse the waters which sheltered their infancy ; and when alarmed by any unusual noise, they rush into it as to a place of safety. To the Proteus and the amphibious Sirens, where the limbs are confined to the pectoral region, swimming is most natural. They are truly amphibious, and they owe this double existence to the persistence of their gills ; for in these perenni-branchiate Batrachians, arteries are developed from the last pair of branchial arches which convey blood to the lungs : while, in those having external deciduous gills, the office being discharged, they lose their ciliate and vascular structure and disap- pear altogether. The skull in Reptiles generally consists of the same parts as in the Mammalia, though the proportions are dif- ferent. The skull is flat, and the cerebral cavity, small as it is, is not filled with brain. The vertebral column commences at the posterior part of the head, two condyles occupying each side of the vertebral hole (Fig. 2). The anterior limbs are mostly shorter than the posterior, as might be expected of animals whose progression is effected by leaps. Ribs there are none. The sternum is highly developed, and a large portion of it is cartilaginous ; it moves in its mesian portions the two clavicles and two coracoid bones, which fit on to the scapula, the whole making a sort of hand which supports the anterior extremities, and an elongated disc which supports the throat, and assists in deglutition and respiration. The bone of the arm (humerus) is single, and long in proportion to the fore arm. In the Frogs (Rana\ the iliac bone is much elongated, and is articulated in a movable manner on the sacrum, so that the two heads of the thigh bones seem to be in contact. The femur or thigh is much lengthened and slightly curved, the leg being joined together so as to form a much-elongated single 12 REPTILES AND BIRDS. The respiration of Reptiles and some of the Batrachians, like that of Birds and Mammals, is aerial and pulmonary, but it is much less active. Batrachians have, in addition, a very considerable cutaneous respiration. Some of them, such as Toads, absorb more oxygen through the skin than by the lungs. Their circulation is imperfect, the structure of the heart only representing one ventricle ; the blood, returning after a partial regeneration in the lungs, mingles with that which is not yet revivified : this mixed fluid is launched Fig. 2. — Skeleton of a Frog. out into the economic system of the animal. Thus Reptiles and Batrachians are said to be cold-blooded animals, more especially the former, in which the respiratory organs, which are a constant source of interior heat, are only exercised very feebly. Owing to this low temperature of their bodies, Reptiles affect warm climates, where the sun exercises its power with an intensity unknown in tem- perate regions ; hence it is that they abound in the warm latitudes of Asia, Africa, and America, whilst comparatively few are found in Europe. This is also the cause of their becoming torpid in cold latitudes during the winter, not having sufficient heat in themselves to produce reaction against the external coldt re-awakening only Of BATKACH1AMS. \$ when the temperature permits of their activity. Serpents, Lizards, Tortoises, Frogs, are all subjected to this law of their being. Some hybernate upon the earth, under heaps of stone, or in holes ; others in mud at the bottom of ponds. The senses are very slightly developed in these animals ; those of touch, taste, and smell, being very imperfect ; hearing scarcely so much so ; but not so with sight, for their large eyes are provided with contractile eyeballs, which enables certain reptiles— such, for instance, as the geckos — to distinguish objects in the dark. Most Reptiles and Batrachians are almost devoid of voice ; Serpents, however, utter a sharp hissing sound, and Crocodiles howl; again, Geckos are particularly noisy, and Frogs possess the well-known croak. Reptiles and Batrachians can, it is true, be tamed ; but although they seem to know individuals, they do not appear susceptible of affection ; this may be attributed to the slight compass of their brain, as also that insensibility to pain which enables them to support mutilations that would prove immediately fatal to other animals. For instance, the Common Lizard frequently breaks its tail in its abrupt movements. Nor does this curtailment affect him ; for complaisant Nature renews its growth as often as it be- comes necessary. In the Crocodiles and Monitor Lizards, however, 3 mutilated part is not renewed, and the renovated tails of other Lizards do not develop bone. In some instances, the eyes may be put out, or the animal otherwise seriously injured. In the course of time, without the animal having ceased to perform any of its functions, they will be renewed. A Tortoise will continue to live and walk for six months after it is deprived of its brain; and a Salamander has been seen in a very satisfactory state, although its head was, so to speak, isolated from the trunk by a ligature tied tightly round its neck. There is another curious peculiarity in the history of Reptiles and Batrachians : each year, as they awake from their state of torpor, they slough their old covering, or in other words cast their skin. Their growth is slow, and continues almost through the whole duration of their existence ; they are, moreover, endowed with remarkable longevity. This is not very astonishing, if we considei that (at least in cold latitudes) they remain torpid for several months yearly ; thus using up less of the materials of life, and, consequently, attaining to a more advanced age. The activity of organisation in Reptiles and Batrachians is so slight that their stomachs feel less of the exigencies of hunger; hence they rarely take nourishment, and digest their food very slowly. With the exception of the Land Tortoises, whose regimen is herbivorous, most reptiles feed on living prey. Some, such as Lizards, Frogs, and Toads, subsist on worms, 14 KEPTIL&S AMD insects, small terrestrial or aquatic molluscs; others, such as Ophidians and Crocodiles, attack Birds, and even Mammals. Large Serpents, owing to the distensibility of their oesophagus, frequently swallow animals broader than themselves at the moment of seizing their prey. Reptiles, whether Batrachians, Ophidians, or Chelonians, are mostly oviparous, sometimes ovo-viviparous, and generally very prolific. The eggs of some are covered with a calcareous envelope, as in the turtle. Sometimes they are soft, and analogous to the spawn of fish, as in the Batrachians. Most species do not hatch their eggs by sitting upon them, but bury them in the sand, trusting to the heat of the sun, which hatches them in due course. To this the Pythons form a partial exception. Batrachians content themselves with diffusing their spawn or eggs in marshy waters or ponds, or they bear them on their backs until the time of hatching approaches. On leaving the egg young Tortoises have to provide immediately for their own wants, for the parents are not present to bring them nourishment or to defend them against enemies. Parental affection, so manifest among the superior animals, does not exist in oviparous species, except in those that hatch their eggs in the body of the mother. The young are consequently, so to speak, produced in a living state, and fully pre- pared for the battle of life. The loves of these animals present none of that character of mutual affection and tender sympathy which dis tinguishes the Mammalia and Birds.* When they have ensured the perpetuity of their species, they separate, and betake themselves again to their solitary existence. Some Reptiles attain dimensions truly extraordinary, which render them most formidable. Turtles are met with which weigh as much as i, 600 pounds; and carapaces have been found that measured as much as six feet in length. Although the average length of the Crocodile is about eight to nine feet, they have been seen twenty- four and even thirty feet long. In Chelonians the surface of the skull is continuous without movable articulations. The head is oval in the Land Tortoises, the interval between the eyes large and convex, the opening of the nostrils large, the orbits round. The general distinguishing character- istic of Tortoises is the external position of the bones of the thorax, at once enveloping with a cuirass or buckler the muscular portion of the frame, and protecting the pelvis and shoulder bones. The ribs * Birds, however, are oviparous, and nevertheless the strongest parental affec- tion is manifested towards them. — ED. CHARACTERISTICS OF REPTILES, ijj are inserted by means of sutures into these plates, and united with each other. A three-branched shoulder and cylindrical shoulder- blade are characteristic of the Tortoises (Fig. 3). In tropical regions enormous Serpents are found, which are as Fig. 3. — Skeleton of a Turtle. large in diameter as a man's thigh ; and some are reported to have almost reached forty feet in length. Roman annals mention one forty feet long, which Regulus encountered in Africa during the Punic Wars, and which is fabulously said to have arrested the march of his army. These gigantic Reptiles are not, however, enemies which man has most cause to fear, for their very size draws attention to i REPTILES AND BIRDS. them, enabling them to be avoided. Not so with the more minute poisonous Snakes, which glide after their prey without attracting attention, strike it, and puncture the wound with venom, which pro- duces death with startling rapidity. Doubtless this fatal power was the cause of barbarous nations of old worshipping certain Reptiles ; even at the present time these animals are venerated by some savage races of men. The whole class of Reptiles are for the most part calculated to inspire feelings of repugnance, and such has been the prevailing sentiment in all ages. There are people who can- not suppress a movement of fright at the sight of an ordinary Snake, Lizard, or Frog, notwithstanding that they are most inoffen- sive animals. Several causes concur to produce this aversion. In the first place the low temperature of their bodies, contact with which communicates an involuntary shudder in the person who touches them ; then the moisture which exudes from the skins of Frogs. Toads, and Salamanders, their fixed and strong gaze, all combine to impress one painfully, while the odour which some of them exhale is so disgusting, that it has often been known to produce faint- ing ; add to this the fear of a real though often exaggerated danger, and we shall have the secret of the sort of instinctive horror which is felt by many people at the sight of most reptiles. Nevertheless, the poisonous species are exceptional amongst Reptiles, and among Batra- chians there are none, for it is altogether a mistake to take for venom the fluid which the Toad discharges.* Although these animals are re- pulsive in appearance, we can nevertheless recognise their services in the economy of Nature. Inhabitants of slimy mud and foetid swamps, they are incessantly destroying worms and insects which abound there, and which ultimately would become most injurious to animal and vegetable life ; while, in their turn, they find implacable enemies in the Birds, which check an excessive increase in their race. In this manner the equilibrium of Nature is maintained. Some of the animals which now occupy our attention render a direct service to man, being utilised by him for food. Frogs are eaten in the south of France, Italy, and many other countries ; and Adders, under the name of " hedge-eels," are not despised in some localities. We know the favour in which Turtles are held by us, where soup made from them is considered a dish only fit for merchant princes. In other countries, Iguanas, Crocodiles, and even * The Necturus, a siren-like animal inhabiting the lakes of North America, has a series of small fang-like teeth above and below, which are stated to give an envenomed bite. — Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1857* P- 61. For poison-organs in certain fishes, 7'zVfcthe same publication for 1864, p. 155. — ED. FROGS. t ? Serpents are eaten. But viper-broth, which was known to Hippo- crates, we believe, is not to be found now as an article of food. As we have already remarked, the peculiar nature of their organisation leads Reptiles and Batrachians to seek the warmer regions of the earth. It is in those regions that they attain the enormous dimensions which distinguish certain Serpents ; there, too, they secrete their most subtle poisons and display the most lively colours, which, if less rich than those of Birds and Fishes, are not less startling in effect. Many Serpents and Lizards glitter with radiant metallic reflections ; and some of them present extremely varied combinations of colour. Chameleons are found in the same localities, but in the Old World only ; these and some other Lizards are remarkable for changing their colour, a phenomenon which is also seen among the Frogs, but in a smaller degree. Reptiles and Batrachians were numerous in the early ages of our globe. It was then that those monstrous Saurians lived, whose dimensions even are startling to our imagination. The forms of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the early ages of the earth were much more numerous, their dimensions much greater, and their means of existence more varied than those of the present time. Our existent Reptiles are very degenerate descendants of those of the great geological periods, unless we except the Crocodiles and the gigantic Boas and Pythons. Whilst the Reptiles of former ages disported their gigantic masses, and spread terror amongst other living creatures, alike by their formidable armature and their prodigious numbers, we are happy to say that now they are reduced to fewer varieties. There are now but little more than 1,500 species of Reptiles and Batrachians described, and only 100 of these belong to Europe.* BATRACHIA. Animals which compose this class have long been confounded with Reptiles, from which they differ in one fundamental peculiarity in their organisation. At their birth they respire by means of gills, and consequently resemble Fishes. In a physiological point of view, at a certain time in their lives these animals are Fishes in form, habits, and organisation. As they progress in age they undergo permanent metamorphosis — they acquire lungs, and thenceforth an aiirial respiration. It is, then, easy to understand that these animals hold a doubtful rank among Reptiles, which are animals with an * It is impossible, however, to accept these (or, indeed, any other figures) as final. 1 8 KEPTILES AND BIRDS. aerial respiration, and so ought to form a separate class of Verte- brates.* Batrachians establish a transitional link between Fishes and Reptiles — they are, as it were, a bond of union between those two groups of animals. In the adult state Batrachians are cold-blooded animals with incomplete circulation, inactive respiration, and the skin bare. In the introductory section to this chapter we have given the general characteristics which belong to them. The Frogs — Tree Frogs, Toads, Surinam Toads, Salamanders, and Newts — are the re- presentatives of the principal families of Batrachians of which we propose giving the history. The Frogs (Rana} have suffered injury by their resemblance to Toads. This circumstance has given rise to an unfavourable pre- judice against these innocent little Batrachians. Had the Toad not existed, the Frog would appear to us as an animal of a curious form, and would interest us by the phenomena of transformation which it undergoes in the different epochs of its development. We should see in it a useful inoffensive animal of slender form, with delicate and supple limbs, arrayed in that brilliant colouring which is so pleasant to the eye, and which mingles so harmoniously with the carpeting of our fields. The body of the Edible Frog, Rana esculenta (Fig. 4), sometimes attains a length, from the extremity of the muzzle to the end of the hind feet, of six to eight inches. The muzzle terminates in a point ; the eyes are large, brilliant, and surrounded with a circle of gold colour. The mouth is large ; the body, which is contracted behind, presents a tubercular and rugged back. It is of a more or less decided green colour on the upper, and whitish on the under parts. These two colours, which harmonise well, are relieved by three yellow lines, which extend the whole length of the back, and by scattered black marblings. It is, therefore, much to be regretted that prejudice should cause some at least of us to dislike this pretty little creature. For ourselves, we cannot see the banks of our streams embellished by its presence and animated with its gambols without pleasure. Why should we not follow with our eyes their movements in our ponds, where they enliven the solitude without disturbing its tran- quillity? Frogs often leave the water, not only to seek their nourish- ment, but to warm themselves in the sun. When they repose thus, * They are regarded by some naturalists as a sub-class of Fishes rather than as Reptiles ; as piscine forms, certain of which develop to a parallelism with the ordinary reptilian condition of advancement ; their reproduction especially favour- ing this view. — ED. THE EDIBLE with the head lifted up, the body raised in front and supported upon the fore feet, the attitude is more that of an animal of higher organisation than a humble Batrachian. Frogs feed on larvae, aquatic insects, worms, and small molluscs. They select their prey from living and moving creatures, for which they watch, and, when Fig. 4.— The Edible Frog. within proper distance, they spring on them with extraordinary rapidity. A large Indian species (R. tigrina) has been seen to prey occasionally upon young sparrows. Far from being dumb, like many oviparous quadrupeds, frogs have the gift of voice. The females only produce a peculiar low note, caused by the air which vibrates in the interior of two vocal pouches placed on the sides of the neck ; but the cry of the male is sonorous, and heard at a great distance : it is a croak which the Greek poet Aristophanes endeavoured to imitate by the 20 KEPTILES AHD BIRDS* inharmonic consonants, brekekexkoax, koax t It is principally during rain, or in the evenings and mornings of hot days, that frogs are to be heard. Under the feudal system, during the " good old times " of the Middle Ages, the country seats of many of the nobility and country squires were surrounded by ditches half full of water, and, as might be expected, inhabited by a population of frogs. Vassals and villeins were ordered to beat the water in these ditches morning and evening in order to keep the frogs from croaking and disturbing the sleep of the lords and masters of the houses. Independent of the resounding and prolonged cries of which we have spoken, at certain times the male frog calls the female in a dull voice, so plain- tive that the Romans described it by the words " ololo," or " ololygo." " Truly," says Lacepede, " the accent of love is always mingled with some sweetness." When autumn arrives Frogs lose their voracity, and cease to eat. To protect themselves from the cold, when the season has advanced, they bury themselves deeply in the mud, troops of them joining together in the same place. Thus hidden, they pass the winter in a state of torpor. This state gives way early in spring. During the month of March they begin to awake and move about ; soon after, their breeding season commences. Their race is so prolific, that a female can produce from 600 to 1,200 eggs annually. These eggs are globular, and are in form spheroid, glutinous and transparent, in the centre of which is a little blackish globule ; the eggs float on the surface of the water, and at a distance look like froth or air bubbles. All who have observed the small ponds and ditches in the country at this season, will have seen these light glutinous formations swimming on the surface of the water. After a few days, more or less according to the temperature, the little black spot, which is the embryo of the egg, and which has developed itself in the interior of the glairy mass which envelops it, disengages itself and shoots forth into the water — this is the tadpole in its earliest stage. The body of the tadpole at birth is oval in shape, destitute of legs, and terminates in a long flat tail, which forms a true fin ; on each side of the neck are two large gills, in shape like a plume of feathers ; these gills soon begin to wither, without aquatic respiration ceasing, for, besides these, the tadpole possesses interior gills like those of a fish. Soon after, the legs begin to show themselves, the hind legs appearing first ; which acquire a considerable length before the fore feet show themselves. These are developed under the skin, which they pierce through. When the legs have appeared, the tail begins TADPOLES. 21 to fade, and, little by little, withers away, until in the perfect animal it entirely disappears. About the same time the lungs become de- veloped, and assume their functions. In Fig. 5 may be traced the successive phases of* its transformation from the egg to the tad- 4 Fig. 5.— Development of the Tadpole. Egg of the Frog. 2. The egg fecundated, and surrounded by its vesicle. 3. First state of the Tadpole. 4. Appearance of the breathing gills. 5. Their development. 6. Formation of the hind feet. 7. Formation of the fore feet, and decay of the gills. 8. Development of the lungs, and reduction of the tail 9. The perfect Frog. pole, till we finally reach the perfect Batrachian. Through these admirable modifications we see the fish little by little becoming a Batrachian. In order to follow this strange metamorphosis, it suffices to gather some Frogs' eggs, and place them with some aquatic herbs in an aquarium, or in a globe with gold and silver fish. It there constitutes a most interesting spectacle, and we 22 REPTILES AND BIRDS. advise our readers to give themselves this instructive and easy lesson in natural history. At present there exist two species of Frog in Europe : the Green or Edible Frog, and the Common Frog. The Green Frog is that which we have described, and of which we have given a representa- tion in Fig. 4. They are found in running streams and stagnant waters. It is this species to which La Fontaine alludes in one of his fables. Common Frogs are smaller than the preceding ; they inhabit damp places in fields and vineyards, and only return to the water to breed or to pass the winter. The flesh of the Edible Frog is very tender, white, and delicate. As an article of food it is highly esteemed by some, and deservedly so. Prepared in the same manner, Green Frogs closely resemble very young fowls in taste. In almost all parts of France Frogs are disdained as articles of food ; it is only in the south that a taste for them is openly avowed, and there Frogs are sought for and brought to market. Therefore it is not easy to understand how Englishmen came to adopt the epithet " Frog-eaters " as a term to express contempt of Frenchmen. It is a reproach which might be addressed to ProvenQals and Languedocians, like the author of this work, but not at all to the majority of Frenchmen. The Green Tree Frog (Hyla) is easily distinguished by having little plates under its toes. These organs are a species of sucker, by means of which the animal is enabled, like the house-fly, to cling strongly to any surface, however smooth and polished it may be. The smoothest branch, even the lower surface of a leaf, forms a sufficient hold and support to these delicate organs (Fig. 6). The upper part of the body is of a beautiful green, the lower part, where little tubercles are visible, is white. A yellow line, lightly bordered with violet, extends on each side of the head and back, from the muzzle to the hind legs. A similar line runs from the jaw to the front legs. The head is short, the mouth round, and the eyes raised. Much smaller than the ordinary Frog, they are far more graceful. During the summer they live upon the leaves of trees in damp woods, but pass the winter at the bottom of stagnant pools of water, which they do not leave till the month of May, having previously deposited their eggs. They feed on small insects, worms, and molluscs. During the glare of the sun they remain hidden amongst the leaves, but when twilight approaches they become more active. We must repeat of these Green Tree Frogs what we have already said of Frogs : get rid of all prejudice towards their kind, and then you will examine with pleasure their brilliant THE GREEN TREE FROG. 2$ colouring, which harmonises so well with the green leaves they fre- quent ; remark their tricks and ambuscades ; follow them in their little hunting excursions ; see them suspended in a manner which appears marvellous to those who are not aware of the organs that enable them to adhere to the smoothest bodies ; and it will give as much pleasure to the student of Nature as can be derived from the plumage, habits, and flight of Birds. The croak of the Green Tree Frog is less sharp and more agreeable than that of the other species ; it can be pretty well translated by the syllables caraccarac, pro- nounced from the throat It is principally heard in the morning and evening ; and when one frog commences to pipe, all the others imitate it. In the quiet night the voices of these little Batrachians can be heard a long way off. Toads (Bufd) are heavy and ungraceful in shape. It is difficult to comprehend why Nature, while it has been so kind to the Frogs and Tree Frogs, has stamped the Toad with so ungainly a form. These much despised beings are very universally distributed, and occupy an important place in the order of Nature. In colour they are usually of a livid grey, spotted with brown and yellow, and disfigured by a number of pustules or warts. A thick and hard skin covers a flat back ; its large belly always appears to be distended to 24 REPTILES AND BIRDS. an unnatural size ; the head is broader than the rest of its body ; the mouth and the eyes are large and prominent. It lives chiefly in ditches, especially in those where stagnant and corrupt water has lain a long time. It is found in dung-heaps, caves, and in swampy portions of woods. One has often been disagreeably surprised on raising some great stone to discover a toad struggling to avoid the notice of the intruder. It is in obscure and sometimes foetid places of refuge that the toad secretes itself during the day ; only going out in the evening in search of food, when the common species employs Fig. 7. — The Common Toad. short hops as its means of locomotion ; another, the Natterjack Toad (Bufo calamitd), is only capable of crawling. When seized, it voids into the hand a quantity of limpid water exuded through the pores of its skin ; but if more irritated, a milky and venomous humour issues from the glands of its back. One peculiarity of the toad's structure offers a defence from attack. Its very extensible skin adheres feebly to the muscles, and, at the will of the animal, a large quantity of air enters between this integument and the flesh, which distends the body, and fills the vacant space with an elastic bed of gas, by means of which it is less sensible to external injuries. Toads feed upon insects, worms, and LONGEVITY OF TOADS. 2$ small molluscs. In fine evenings at certain seasons they may be heard uttering a plaintive monotonous sound. They collect in ponds, or even puddles, to breed and deposit their eggs. When hatched, the young Toads go through the same metamorphosis as do the tadpoles of the Frogs. Though very inactive, they are nevertheless very enduring ; they respire little, are susceptible of hybernation, and can remain for a considerable time shut up in confinement so restricted as to produce astonishment. It is proper, however, to caution the reader against believing all that has been written about the longevity of Toads. Neither must implicit faith be given to the discovery of the living animal (Fig. 7) in the centre of stones. " That toads, frogs, and newts, occasionally issue from stones broken in a quarry or are discovered in sinking wells, and even taken from coal strata at the bottom of a mine," is true enough ; but, as Dr. Buckland observes, " the evidence is never perfect to show that these Amphibians were entirely enclosed in a solid rock ; no examination is made until the creature is discovered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and then it is too late to ascertain whether there was any hole or crevice by which it might have entered." These considerations led Dr. Buckland to undertake experiments to test the statement. He caused blocks of coarse oolitic limestone and sandstone to be prepared with cells of various sizes, in which he enclosed toads of different ages. The small toads enclosed in the sandstone were found to die at the end of thirteen months ; the same fate befell the larger ones during the second year ; they were watched through the glass covers of their cells, and were never seen in a state of torpor, but at each successive examina- tion they had become more meagre, until at last they were found dead. This was probably too severe a test for the poor creatures, the glass cover implying a degree of hardness and dryness not natural to half amphibious toads. This animal, the Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris\ is badly provided with means of progression, is timid and solitary in habits, and shuns the sight of man, as if it comprehended the re- pugnance with which it is regarded. It is, nevertheless, susceptible of education, and has been tamed. Pennant the zoologist relates some curious details respecting a poor toad which took refuge under the staircase of a house. It was accustomed to come every evening into a dining-room near the place of its retreat. When it saw the light it allowed itself to be placed on a table, where the host fur- nished it with worms, wood-lice, and various insects. As no attempt was made to injure it, there were no signs of irritation when it was 26 REPTILES AND BIRDS, touched, and it soon became, from its gentleness, the object of general curiosity; even ladies came to see this strange animal The poor Batrachian lived thus foj thirty-six years ; and it would probably have lived much longer had not a tame crow, living in the house, attacked it, and put out one of its eyes. From that time it languished and died. Fig. 8.— Surinam Toad. Nearly allied to the Toads (Bufo\ the Surinam Toad monstrosd) holds its place (Fig. 8). Its physioghomy is at once disagreeable and peculiarly odd : the head is flat ^ and triangular, a very short neck separates it from the trunk, which is itself depressed and flattened ; its eyes are extremely small, of an olive, more or less bright colour, dashed with small reddish spots ; it has no tongue. There is only one species of Pipa, viz., the American Pipa, THE SURINAM TOAD. 2f which inhabits Guiana and several provinces of Brazil. The most remarkable feature in this Batrachian is its manner of reproduction. It is oviparous ; and when the female has laid her eggs, the male takes them, and piles them on her back. The female, bearing the fertilised ova, reaches the marshes, and there immerses herself; but the skin which supports her future progeny soon becomes inflamed, erysipelatous inflammation follows, causing an irritation of the integu- ment, which continues till all are absorbed into the skin. The young are rapidly developed in these dorsal cells, and are extricated at a less advanced stage than almost any other vertebrate animal. After extrication, they grow rapidly, and the chief change of form is witnessed in the gills. As to the mother Batrachian, it is only after she has got rid of her progeny that she abandons her aquatic residence.* The Batrachians differ essentially from all other orders of Reptilia. They have no ribs ; their skin is naked, being without scales. The young, or tadpoles, when first hatched, breathe by means of gills, being at this stage quite unlike their parents. These gills, or branchiae, disappear in the tailless Batrachians, as the Frogs and Toads. In the tadpoles the mouth is destitute of a tongue, this organ only making its appearance when the fore limbs are produced. The habits also change : the tadpole no longer feeds on decomposing substances, and cannot live long immersed in water ; the branchiae disappear one after the other, by absorption, giving place to pul- monary vessels. The principal vascular arches are converted into the pulmonary artery, and the blood is diverted from the largest of the branchiae to the lungs. In the meantime the respiratory cavity is formed, the communicating duct advances with the elongation of the oesophagus, and at the point of communication the larynx is ultimately developed. The lungs themselves extend as simple elongated sacs, slightly reticulated on the inner surface backwards into the abdo- minal cavity. These receptacles being formed, air passes into and expands the cavity, and respiration is commenced, the fore limbs are liberated from the branchial chambers, and the first transformation is accomplished. The alleged venomous character of the Common Toad has been altogether rejected by many naturalists ; but Dr. Davy found that * The same phenomena occur, with certain variations, in some other American Batrachians, as the Nototrema marsupiatum of Mexico, and the Notodelphys ovifera of Venezuela. In the Alytes obstetricans of France, Switzerland, and the Rhine district, the ova (about sixty in number) adhere to the hind-legs of the mate I»arent ! — EQ, 28 REPTILES AND BIRDS. venomous matter was really contained in follicles in the true skin, and chiefly about the head and shoulders, although also distributed over other portions of the body. He also pronounced it to be extremely acrid, but innocuous when introduced into the circulation. A chicken inoculated with it was unaffected ; thus, Dr. Davy conjectures that this acrid liquid is the animal's defence against carnivorous mammalia. A dog, when urged to attack one, will drop it from its mouth in a manner which leaves no doubt that it has tasted the secretion. In opposition to these opinions a story is told in France of a lad who had thrust his slightly-wounded hand into a hole, intending to seize a lizard which he had seen enter. In place of the lizard he brought out a large toad. While holding the animal, it discharged a milky yellowish-white fluid, which got introduced into the sore, and this poison occasioned his death ; but it is not stated whether the boy was previously healthy or not. Warm and temperate regions with abundant moisture are the localities favourable to all the Batrachians. Extreme cold, as well as dry heat, and all sudden changes, are alike unfavourable to them. In temperate climates, where the winters are severe, they bury them- selves under the earth or in the mud at the bottom of pools and ponds, and there pass the season without air or food, till returning spring calls them forth. The species of this family are very numerous. MM. Dume'ril and Bibron state that the Frogs (J?ana) number fifty-one species, the tree frogs (Hyla) sixty-four, and the Toads (Bufo) thirty-five. They are found in all parts of the world, the least variety of the race being found in Europe, and the largest in America. Oceania is well supplied with the Tree Frogs. There are several curious forms in Australia, and one species only is known to inhabit New Zealand. The enormous fossil Labyrinthodon, of a remote geological era, is believed to have been nearly related to these comparatively very diminutive Batrachians, • , THE SALAMANDER. THE TAILED BATRACH1A are sometimes called also Urodela (Greek, ovpd, tail ; SfjAoy, manifest), from the fact that they are distinguished by the presence of a tail during the whole stage of their existence. Nevertheless they are subject to the metamorphoses to which all the Amphibians submit. The division, therefore, of Reptiles," says Professor Rymer Jones, " into such as undergo metamorphoses and such as do not, is by no means philosophical, although convenient to the zoologist, for all Reptiles undergo a metamorphosis, although not to the same extent. In the one the change from the aquatic to the air-breathing animal is never fully accomplished ; in the tailed Amphibian the change is accomplished after the embryo has escaped from the ovum." Salamanders have had the honour of appearing prominently in fabulous narrative. The Greeks believed that they could live in fire, and this error obtained credence so long, that even now it has not been entirely dissipated. Many people are simple enough to believe from the Greek tradition that these innocent animals are fire-proof. The love of the marvellous, fostered and excited by ignorant appeals to superstition, has gone even further than this : it has been asserted that hottest fire becomes extinguished when a Salamander is thrown into it. In the Middle Ages this notion was held by most people, and it would have been dangerous to gainsay it. However, naturalists have proved by experiment the absurdity of these tales. The skull of the Land or Spotted Salamander (Salamandra maeulosa, Fig. 9) is well described by Cuvier as being nearly cylin- drical, wider in front so as to form the semi-circular face, and also behind for the crucial branches, containing the internal ears. The cranium of the aquatic Salamander differs from the terrestrial in having the entire head more oblong. In the Land Salamander the body is black and warty, with large irregular yellow spots distributed over the head, back, sides, feet, and tail. They affect retired and moist places, and only issue from their retreat in the night or morning, walking slowly, and dragging them- selves with difficulty along the surface of the ground. They live upon flies, beetles, snails, and earth-worms. They remain in the water to deposit their eggs ; the young are born alive, and furnished with fully-developed gills. The salamander possesses the power of discharging an acrid and milky humour from the surface of its body, with a very strong odour, which serves as a defence again -t unimals 3O REPTILES AND BIRDS. which would otherwise attack it. It has been proved by experiment that this liquid, when introduced into the circulatory system by a small wound is a very active poison, and causes certain death to the smaller animals. This species is found in most parts of Europe, but not in the British Islands. The Black Salamander (Triton alpcstris] has no spots ; it is found on the loftier European mountains, but principally on the highest Alps. Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders, have not a round conical tail like the terrestrial species, but have that appendage compressed or Fig. 9. — Land Salamander. flattened laterally. The males (during the breeding season only) are recognised chiefly by the membranous serrated ridge or crest which extends along the whole length of the back, from the head to the extremity of the tail, as represented in Fig. 10. Newts are found in ditches, marshes, and ponds, which after the breeding season they leave for any moist places they can find on land, often then finding their way into drains and cellars. They are carnivorous, feeding upon different insects and on the spawn of frogs, not even sparing individuals of their own species. The females deposit their eggs singly, fixing them on the under surface of the leaves of aquatic plants. "Some Newts," says Sir Rich. Owen, "deposit their eggs upon aquatic plants, such as Polygonum persicaria, folding the NEWTS, leaf by means of the hind feet in such a way that its under surface is turned inwards and the fold made to stick by the adhesive coating of the egg, which she inserts in the fold." The young are hatched fifteen days after. These animals give utterance to a very peculiar noise, and when touched emit a disagreeable odour. It has been ascertained that Newts can live for a long time, not only in very cold water, but even in the midst of ice, being some- times taken in blocks of ice which are formed in the ditches and ponds which they inhabit. When the ice-flakes melt they seem to ~~H ~-^E SL Fig io.— Newts, or Aquatic Salamanders. awaken from their torpor, and betake themselves to their accus- tomed movements uninjured from their previous loss of liberty. Lacepede states that he found Aquatic Salamanders during summer in pieces of ice obtained from the ice-dealers, where they had remained without movement or nourishment from the time in which they had been enclosed. Newts present another remarkable feature in the facility with which Nature repairs any mutilations they may have undergone. Not only do their tails grow again when broken off, but even their feet are reproduced in the same manner ; and the process may be many times repeated. 32 REPTILES AND BIRDS. The Crested Newt ( Triton cristatus) is frequently found in the neighbourhood of Paris; the skin of its back is rough and warty, of a brownish colour, with large black spots and white projecting points ; the belly has black spots upon an orange ground. The Dutch traveller, Sieboldt, introduced a species of Aquatic Salamander, which inhabits the mountain lakes of Japan. This species is remarkable for its gigantic growth. Instead of being the size of those indigenous to Europe, this Batrachian is four feet and a half in length, and weighs fifty pounds. Magnificent specimens of this Gigantic Salamander, the Sieboldtia maxima, may be seen by the visitors to the London Zoological Gardens. The largest of them measured and weighed as above (March 3, 1869). An analogous large fossil species was described as homo diluvii testis ! The transformation of the tailed Batrachians, from the tadpole condition to the air-breathing and four-footed state, is one of the most interesting exhibitions of Nature, and one which every one may witness. We cannot in our brief description have a more trustworthy guide than Professor Rymer Jones, who selects the water newt (Triton cristatus) as an example : — "Immediately before leaving the egg," he says, " this tadpole presents both the outward form and internal structure of a fish. The flattened and vertical tail, fringed with a broad dorsal and oval fin ; the shape of the body and gills, appended to the side of the neck, are all apparent ; so that were the creature to preserve this form throughout its life the naturalist would scarcely hesitate in classing it with fishes properly so called. " When first hatched it presents the same fish-like body, and rows itself through the water by the lateral movement of the caudal fin. The only appearance of legs as yet visible consists in two minute tubercles, which seem to be sprouting out from the skin immediately behind the branchial tufts, and which are, in fact, the first buddings of anterior extremities. Nevertheless, to compensate to a certain extent for the total want of prehensile limbs, which after- wards become developed, two supernumerary organs are provisionally furnished in the shape of two minute claspers on each side of the mouth ; by means of these the little creature holds on to the leaves which are under water. " Twelve days after issuing from the egg, the two fore-legs, which at first resembled two little nipples, have become much elongated, and are divided at their extremity into two or three rudiments of fingers ; the eyes, which were before scarcely visible, being covered TRANSFORMATION Of NZWTS. 33 by a membrane, distinctly appear. The branchiae, at first simple, are divided into fringes, wherein red blood now circulates ; the mouth has grown very large, and the whole body is so transparent as to reveal the position of the viscera within. Its activity is likewise much increased ; it swims with rapidity, and darts upon minute aquatic insects, which it seizes and devours. " About the twenty-second day the tadpole for the first time begins to emit air from the mouth, showing that the lungs have begun to be developed. The branchiae are still large. The fingers upon the fore-legs are completely formed. The hind-legs begin to sprout beneath the skin, and the creature presents, in a transitory condition, the same external form as that which the Siren lacertina permanently exhibits. " By the thirty-sixth day the young Salamander has arrived at the development of the Proteus angiiinus ; its hind-legs are nearly completed ; its lungs have become half as long as the trunk of the body, and its branchiae more complicated in structure. "At about the forty-second day the tadpole begins to assume the form of an adult Newt The body becomes shorter, the fringes of the branchiae are rapidly obliterated, so that in five days they are reduced to simple prominences covered by the skin of the head ; and the gills, opening at the sides of the neck, which allowed the water to escape from the mouth, as in Fishes, and were, like them, covered with an operculum formed by a fold of the integument, are gradually closed ; the membranous fin of the tail contracts, the skin becomes thicker and more deeply coloured, and the creature ultimately assumes the form and habits of the perfect Newt, no longer possessing branchiae, but breathing air, and in every particular the reptile. " But however curious the phenomena attending the development of the tadpoles of the Amphibian Reptiles may be to the observer who merely watches the changes perceptible from day to day in their external form, they acquire tenfold interest to the physiologist who traces the progressive evolution of their viscera. Especially this is the case when he finds that in these creatures he has an opportunity afforded him of contemplating, displayed before his eyes as it were upon an enlarged scale, those phases of development through which tne embryo of every air-breathing vertebrate animal must pass while concealed within the egg or yet unborn. "One of the most interesting of the Mexican Amphibians," writes Prof. Martin Duncan, " is the so-called Axolotl, or Siredon, which 76 34 REPTILES AND BIRDS. lives in the lake that surrounds the city of Mexico. They are like stout short-legged Lizards in shape, and are from eight to ten inches in length, and have short extremities, there being four digits to the fore limb and five to the hind. The colour is dark grey, or almost black, with dark spots, and there are three well-developed branchiae on each side of its neck. There are teeth in the jaws, and two lines of them on the vomer. Cuvier had doubts about placing the Axolotl amongst the Amphibia with persistent branchiae, but he stated that so many witnesses gave evidence in favour of the branchiae not being lost during growth that he was obliged to do so. Time and research have produced a curious history about these creatures, and have demonstrated their relation to a perfect and non-branchiate form. " The Axolotls furnished with gills reproduce by laying eggs, and at first this was considered sufficient to determine that they were perfect animals, and that no further growth or change was possible. They were placed by zoologists in a genus of the perennibranchiate Amphibia. But in 1865 M. A. Dumeril saw the Axolotls lose their branchiae, and become altered in shape. They resembled In this the Tritons and Salamanders or non-branchiate group, and they became Amblystomes, a kind of Amphibian which has been known before. Some Axolotl eggs turned to creatures like the parent, but after a while they lost their gills and became Amblystomes. The Axolotls can thus become, ' by metamorphosis,' Amblystomes, or adult forms. " The immature Amblystoma (the Axolotl) lays eggs, and the perfect form (Amblystoma) is not sterile, but can produce eggs, some of which develop into the usual larval or Axolotl forms, and others into Amblystomes, and the surrounding conditions appear to have to do with the direction of this evolution. The Amblystomes are numerous, and have the skin much folded on the body ; the tail is thick and almost cylindrical at the base. They have palatine teeth forming two transverse rows, which are re-curved, and the tongue is large and fixed infer iorly." • 35 CHAPTER II. OPHIDIAN REPTILES, OR TRUE SNAKES. REPTILES are, as has been said in the preceding chapter, verte- brated animals, breathing by lungs, having red and cold blood — that is to say, not producing sufficient heat to render their tem- perature superior to that of the atmosphere ; destitute of hairs, of feathers, of mammary glands, and having bodies covered with scales. Snakes, properly so called, have the tympanic bone, or pedicle of the lower jaw, movable, and nearly always suspended to another bone analogous to the mastoid bone, which is attached to the cra- nium by muscles and ligaments, a conformation which gives to these animals the vast power of distension they possess. Their trachea is long, their hearts placed far back, and the greater number have one very long lung and vestiges of a second. They are divided into non-venomous and venomous; and the latter are sub-divided into venomous with maxillary teeth, and venomous with isolated fangs. The Snakes piey almost exclusively on animals of their own killing ; the more typical species attacking such as are frequently larger than themselves, and the maxillary apparatus is, as we have seen, modified so as to permit of the requisite distension. Accordfng to Sir Richard Owen's clear and accurate description, the two superior maxillary bones have their anterior extremities joined by an elastic and yielding fibrous tissue with the small and single intermaxillary bone; the lower maxillary rami are similarly connected. The opposite extremity of each ramus is articulated to a long and movable vertical pedicle formed by the tympanic bone, which is itself attached to the extremity of a horizontal pedicle formed by the mastoid bone, so connected as to allow of a certain yielding movement upon the cranium. The other bones have similar loose movable articulations, which concur in yielding to the pressure of large bodies with which the teeth have grappled. $6 kEP TILES AND BlKDS. The class of Reptiles is divided into three orders: — the OPHI- DIANS, comprehending the Snakes ; the SAURIANS, the Lizards and Crocodiles ; and the CHELONIANS, the Turtles and Tortoises. OPHIDIANS. In Ophidians, commonly known under the name of Snakes, the body is long, round, and straight. They have neither feet, fins, nor other locomotive extremities. Their mouths are furnished with pointed hooked teeth. In the Boas and Pythons the teeth are slender, curved, bending backwards and inwards above their base of attachment. In others each maxillary bone has a row of larger ones, which gradually decrease in size as they are placed further back. These teeth are not contiguous, being separated by consider- able intervals. The smaller non-venomous Serpents, such as the Colubridce, have two rows of teeth in the roof of their mouth. Each maxillary and mandibular bone includes from twenty to twenty- five teeth. In the Rattlesnakes and some other typical genera of poisonous Snakes, the short maxillary bone only supports a single perforated fang. Their lower jaw is highly distensible ; the opening being longer than the skull. They have no neck ; their eyelids are immovable ; their skin is coriaceous, highly extensible, and scaly or granular, covered with a thin caducous epidermis, which de- taches itself in one entire piece, and is reproduced several times in one year. Their movements are supple and varied. In conse- quence of the sinuosity of their bodies — for, though scale-clady Snakes are without apparent means of progression — they make their way with the utmost facility. The very numerous species of the genus inhabit either arid or moist ground, bushes or trees. Some pass much of their time in the water, and one family (that of the Hydrophidai) is exclusively aquatic, even pelagic in the instance of one very widely diffused species, the Pelamis tricolor. In the arboreal Snakes the tail is very long, and highly prehensile ; in others, as the Vipers, it is short and without any prehensility. In the Sea Snakes (Hy drop hides), it is laterally much compressed. Like other true Reptiles, Snakes abound more especially in warm climates, and there are many kinds of them in Australia ; but the order has not a single representative in New Zealand. Most of the Snakes feed on living animals, only a few on birds' eggs. Several kinds of them prey habitually on other Snakes, as the genera Uamadryas, Bungarus, and Elaps, even Psanimophi* ERRONEOUS NOTIONS ABOUT SNAKES. 37 occasionally ; and there are rare instances of non-venomous Snakes preying upon poisonous ones. The venomous kinds first kill their victim by poison ; others by smothering it between the coils of their body. As they do not possess organs for tearing their prey to pieces, nor a dentition fit for mastication, the prey is swallowed entire ; and in consequence of the great width of the mouth, and of the extraordinary extensibility of the skin of the gullet, they are able to swallow animals of which the girth much exceeds their own. The Sea Snakes prey mostly upon fishes, and the ordinary Water Snakes (Homolopsida, &c.) on Frogs and other Batrachians. Certain ^swallowers of birds' eggs have peculiar spinous processes proceeding from the vertebrae of the neck, the object of which is to fracture the shell of an egg during the process of deglutition. Most of the Ophidian Reptiles are oviparous, but many are ovo-viviparous. The Pythons alone (so far as ascertained) perform a sort of incubation, which has been repeatedly observed in captive specimens of these huge Serpents. Many Snakes are remarkable for their great beauty of colouring or for the pattern of their markings; but on account of the poisonous property so many possess, the whole order is popularly regarded with horror and apprehension, and the most foolish tales are current respecting various species of them. Thus many people suppose that there are Snakes which rob cows of their milk ; and the skeleton of a child being found in the same hollow with a number of harm- less Snakes (the North American Coryphodon constrictor), it was con- cluded, as a matter of course, that the serpents must have both killed the child and stripped off its flesh, a thing which no snake could possibly do. People are prone to exaggerate, and commonly evince a fondness for the marvellous that induces folk of hot coun- tries more especially, where the species of Ophidians are numerous, to declare every snake met with to be the most venomous one in •their country; and thus travellers often come away with exceedingly erroneous impressions on the subject. The Indian region surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its Ophi- dians; and almost every investigation of a limited but previously unexplored district, is tolerably sure to add largely to our previous knowledge of them. What, however, the late Sir J. Emerson Tennent asserts of those inhabiting Ceylon is equally applicable to other parts of the Indian region. " During my residence in Ceylon," he remarks, " I never heard of the death of a European which was caused by the bite of a snake; and in the returns of coroners' inquests made officially to my department, such accidents 38 REPTILES AND BIRDS. to the natives appear chiefly to have happened at night, when the reptiles, having been surprised or trodden on, inflicted the wound in self-defence. For these reasons the Cingalese, when obliged to leave their houses in the dark, carry a stick with a loose ring, the noise of which, as they strike it on the ground, is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their path." In some parts of the vast Indian region the natives regard the innocuous Chameleon as venomous ; in other parts various Geckos or other Lizards. In Bengal there is a current notion regarding a terrifically poisonous Lizard, which is termed the bis-cobra, but which has no existence except in the imagination of the natives — • who bring the young of the Monitors and occasionally other well- known Lizards as specimens of the object of their dread. Again, the little Burrowing Snakes (Typhlops\ which, superficially, have much the appearance of earth-worms, are there popularly regarded as highly poisonous, though not only are they harmless, but physically incapable of wounding the human skin. Strangers who are little versed in zoology are commonly led astray by such errors on the part of natives of those countries, and, unfortunately, there is a number of stock vernacular names which are applied to very different species in different localities. Thus, Europeans in India are familiar with the appellation " Carpet Snake," as denoting a very deadly reptile, but nobody can there point out what the Carpet Snake really is; and the one most generally supposed to bear that name is a small innocuous Snake (Lycodon aulicus}, which is common about human dwellings. In the Australian colony of Victoria, however, the appellation Carpet Snake is bestowed upon a terribly venomous species (Hoplocephalus curtus] ; while in the neighbouring colony of New South Wales, a harmless and even useful creature (Morelia spilotes) is habitually known as the Carpet Snake. With regard to the poison of venomous Snakes, attention has lately been directed to the virtue of ammonia or volatile alkali.- This should be administered internally, mixed with alcoholic spirit and water, in repeated doses; and it should also be injected into a vein — about one drachm of the liquor ammonia, of the shops being mixed with two or three times that quantity of water. The patient should be kept moving as much as possible, and the effects of a galvanic battery should also be tried in cases where animation is nearly or quite suspended. By these means it is asserted that some very remarkable cures have been effected in Australia. The Ophidia have many enemies among mammalia, such as the well-known Mongoose, also swine, and various ruminating quadrupeds, DIVISIONS OF SNAKES. 39 as deer and goats. In the Bird class, the famous Serpent-eater, or Secretary-bird of South Africa, is one of their chief destroyers ; and there are various other snake-devouring birds of prey, besides the great African Ground Hornbill — even the Peafowl, sundry Storks, and other waders, seldom fail to attack them when opportunity offers. Compara- tively large birds of the Kingfisher family prey chiefly upon Snakes and Lizards in Australia ; and of Reptiles, besides those Snakes which prey upon others, the Monitor Lizards frequently seize and devour them. The series of Ophidians is arranged by our most eminent herpe- tologist, Dr. A. Giinther, into five subordinate groups, which he characterises as follows : — I. — Burrowing Snakes, living under ground, only occasionally appearing above the surface. They are distinguished by a rigid cylindrical body, short tail, narrow mouth, small head not distinct from the neck, little teeth in small number, and by the absence or feeble development of the ventral shields. They feed chiefly on small invertebrate animals. Not any of them are venomous. II. — Ground Snakes, or species which live above ground, and only occasionally climb bushes or enter the water; their body is more or less cylindrical, very flexible in every part, and of moderate proportions. Their ventral shields are broad. They feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrate animals. By far the greater number of Snakes belong to this category, and it is represented by many variations in all of the three sub-orders to be noticed presently. III. — Tree Snakes, or species passing the greater part of their life on bushes and trees, which they traverse with the utmost facility. They are distinguished either by an exceedingly slender body, with broad, sometimes carinated, ventral shields, or by a prehensile tail Many of the species are characterised by their vivid colouring, of which green forms the principal part. We shall see, in the sequel, that the first and third sub-orders offer numerous instances of Tree Snakes ; the Tree Snakes of the second sub-order being confined to tropical Africa. They feed on animals which have a mode of life similar to their own ; only a few species on eggs. IV. — Fresh-water Snakes, distinguished by the position of the nostrils, which are placed on the top of the snout, and by a tapering tail. They inhabit fresh waters, and are, therefore, excellent swim- mers and divers ; only a few species (which also in external characters approach the following group, that of the true Sea Snakes) venture out to sea. They feed on fishes, frogs, crustaceans, and other water animals, and are viviparous. Not any of them are venomous. 4O REPTILES AND BIKDS. V.*-~Sea Snakes, distinguished by a strongly-compressed tail, and by the position of the nostrils, which are placed as in the last group. They live in the sea, only occasionally approaching the land, feed on marine fishes, are viviparous and venomous. One genus only (Platurus) has the ventral shields so much developed as to be able to move on land. No oceanic serpent is known of gigantic dimen- sions, such as is currently alleged to have been seen by unscientific observers. " Although these five groups," remarks Dr. Giinther, " are not separated from each other by defined lines of demarcation, and frequently pass into one another by intermediate forms, yet a family and genus which should be composed of species of several of these groups would be a very unnatural assemblage of heterogeneous forms." It is also remarked by the same naturalist that there is no sharp boundary line between the order of Snakes and that of Lizards. There are various limbless Saurians of Ophidian appearance, but the systematic position is decided by the structure of their jaws. The Common Orvet, or Slow-worm, is a familiar instance. On the other hand, certain Ophidians remind us, by several characteristics, of the Saurian type— as the Snakes constituting the families Typhlopida, TortricidcZ) Xenopeltidce, and Uropeltidcz, which are distinguished by polished, closely adherent, rounded, sub-equal scales, much resem- bling the smooth scales of various Scincoid Lizards ; most of them have a very narrow mouth, unlike the enormous gape of the typical Serpents ; and some are without that longitudinal fold in the median line of the chin which is so characteristic of most Ophidians ; more- over, most of them have rudiments of the bones of a pelvic arch. "The reason," alleges Dr. Giinther, " why we adopt the view of those systematists who refer such Reptiles to the Ophidians, instead of associating them with the limbless Scincoid Lizards, is the loose connection of the jaw-bones, a character which must be considered as peculiar to the Ophidians, and which is only somewhat less developed in the families mentioned than in the typical forms; the two halves of the lower jaw in Ophidians, namely, are not united by a bony symphysis, but by an elastic ligament. The peculiar mobility of the jaw bones enables the Snakes to extend the gape in an extra- ordinary degree, and to work their prey down through the collapsed pharynx." The same naturalist classifies the Ophidia into three sub-orders, in which the venomous snakes are separated from the others \ but S SNAXF.S. 4 \ to some herpetologists this arrangement must appear rather forced, as his Venomous Colubrine Snakes have certainly a much nearer resemblance in other respects to the Colubridce than they have to the Viperine Snakes. For the most part, these Reptiles are provided with numerous teeth, which are lengthened, conical, thin, and pointed like a needle, and more or less bent backwards. In Dr. Gun trier's yfn-/ sub-order, that of Non-venomous Snakes, the teeth are either entirely smooth, or only the last of the maxillary series is provided with a faint longitudinal groove, which is not intended to convey a virus into the wound, the groove appearing rather to increase the strength of the tooth. Many of them have long teeth in front of the jaws or of the palate, but these are never grooved or perforated, and only serve to afford a firmer hold on the living and struggling prey. " The structure of the venom-tooth is not the same in all poisonous Snakes : in some it is fixed to the maxillary bone, which is as long, or nearly as long, as in the non-venomous Snakes, and generally bears one or more ordinary teeth on its hinder portion. The venom- tooth is fixed, more or less erect, not very long, and its channel is generally visible as an external groove. The poisonous Snakes with such a dentition have externally a more or less striking resemblance to the non-venomous Serpents, and on this account they are designated as Venomous Colubrine Snakes, forming our second sub-order" Two very distinct families are here brought together — viz., the Elapida (which comprises the Cobras and many others), and the Hydrophida (or Sea Snakes). " In the other venomous Snakes, composing the third sub-order, the maxillary bone is extremely short, and does not bear any teeth except an exceedingly long fang, with a perfectly closed externally invisible channel in its interior. Although this tooth also is fixed to the bone, the bone itself is very mobile, so that the tooth, which is laid backwards when at rest, can be erected the moment the animal prepares to strike. This tooth or fang, like all the other teeth, is not only occasionally lost, but appears to be shed at regular intervals. From two to four other venom-fangs, in different stages of develop- ment, destined to replace the one in action, exist between the folds of the gum, and are not anchylosed to the bone." The more charac- teristic venomous Snakes appertain to this sub-order — viz., the two families Crotalidce (comprehending the Rattlesnakes, the Fer-de-Lance, £c.) and Viper idee, (comprising the Vipers, Puff Adders, &c.) Let it be particularly borne in mind that the supposed dis- tinguishing characters of all poisonous Snakes, as assigned by sundry 70* 42 REPTILES AND BIRDS. mischievously ignorant writers, are those of the third of the foregoing sub-orders almost exclusively. Even the broad, flat, and lanceolate form of head is exemplified in certain Tree Snakes of the non-venomous •(Mius Dipsas, and not in the Cobras and others that are quite as deadly — e.g., Hoplocephalus, Bungarus, Naja, Elaps, and others con- stituting the Colubriform family Elapidcz. FIRST SUB-ORDER. Ophidii Cohibriformes (Giinther), Innocuous Snakes. These are distributed by Dr. Giinther under numerous families, of which we can only notice the more prominent and some of the more conspicuous species, in a popular exposition. The Typlilopidce, or Blind Snakes, comprise forms which are the most remote from the true Ophidian type. They live underground, their rigid body and short curved tail being adapted for burrowing. After showers of rain they occasionally appear above ground, and then they are tolerably agile in their serpentine movements. The eye, which is scarcely visible in many species, can give to them only a general perception of light. They feed on worms and small insects, the tongue being forked, and, as in other Snakes, frequently exserted. They are oviparous. The smallest species of Snakes belong to this family, some of them being only half the size of a common earth- worm, to which they bear a superficial resemblance. Such, indeed, are the small vermiform Snakes already referred to as being foolishly considered venomous by most natives of India. Species of this family inhabit almost every country within and near the tropics. The Tortricidcz are akin to the Typhlopidce, and have rudiments of hind limbs hidden in a small groove on each side of the vent, also a longitudinal fold at the chin. The Coral Snake of Demerara (Tortrix scytale] appertains to this family; as also does the genus Cylindrophis, different species of which inhabit the great Asiatic archipelago and the island of Ceylon. The family Xenopeltida consists of a single species only, so far as hitherto known, the Xenopeltis unicolor, which is common in the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries. It grows to three or four feet in length, and when alive is along the back a steel-blue colour, most beautifully iridescent, beneath white; but the blue fades to brown after long immersion in spirits. Young examples have a white collar. Mr. W. Theobald remarks of it that " this snake is common in Lower Pegu and the Tenasserim provinces, and is very malignly beautiful, though of repulsive physiognomy. The skin is loose and HARMLESS SNAKFS. 43 thick, and its habits are nocturnal. The following illustrates its ferocious nature: — I once remarked a Colubrine Snake (Ptyas imicosa\ some five feet in length, in the hedge of the Circuit-house of Bassain. On running down-stairs, the snake had vanished, but on searching for it I saw its tail sticking out of a hole beneath a wooden plant-case. Do what I might I could not drag it out, as it seemed held fast within. I therefore, with some trouble, overturned the plant-case, and then saw that the unlucky Colubrine Snake was firmly pinned by a large Xenopeltis, into whose hole it had unwittingly entered. The Xenopdtis seemed about four feet in length ; but, on perceiving itself uncovered, released its hold of the Ptyas. and made its escape." The Xenopeltis preys chiefly on small mammalia, which it hunts for in their subterranean holes ; and in some respects it approximates the Pythonidce. The Uropcltidce, or shield-tails, constitute a very curious family of Burrowing Snakes, which bear considerable resemblance to the Typhlopida, but have a very peculiar, short, strong, posteriorly shielded tail, adapted for working their way below the surface. The species are mostly small, and hitherto they have been found chiefly in Ceylon, a few only in the peninsula of India. In that island they are by no means scarce, but escape observation from their peculiar mode of life. Dr. Kelaart remarks that " they are timid creatures, seldom making their appearance above ground ; living chiefly in ant- hills or dunghills, sometimes also several feet deep in rich loamy soil. They feed on ants, small earth-worms, and the larvae of insects, and at least one species has been ascertained to be viviparous. Five genera and eighteen species of them are recognised." The Calamaridce. form an extensive family of diminutive slender snakes, from one to two feet in length, many species of which inhabit both the Old World and the New, though the same kinds are not found East and West. They keep to the ground, beneath stones, fallen trees, &c. ; and their food appears to consist chiefly of insects. They are gentle, and never attempt to bite ; they not un- commonly become the prey of the smaller Elapidce, certain of which bear considerable resemblance to the family, but are readily distinguished by possessing the poison-fangs. The Oligodontidce. are another extensive family of small Ground- Snakes, which are peculiar to South-eastern Asia and its great archipelago. They conduct to the terrene genera of the great family Colubrida. The Colubridae are divided by Dr. Giinther into Ground Colubrines ( C0r0«r///>ft?),True Colubrines(C0/#M«#), Bush Colubrines (Dryadina), 44 REPTILES AND BIRDS. and Fresh-water Colubrines (Natricinai) ; and he remarks that " they are found in every part of the temperate and tropical regions, but are only scantily represented in Australia and in the islands of the Pacific. The species are so numerous, and show such a gradual passage between extreme forms, that, although genera can be easily characterised, it is almost impossible to distinguish wider groups by definite characters." Among them the Coronellince approximate to the immediately preceding families, and, like them, live on the ground, and are not generally of brilliant colouring, though a few species which frequent grassy plains are of a bright green colour. The ColubrincR "form, as it were," writes Dr. Giinther, "the nucleus of the whole sub-order of innocuous Snakes ; they are typical forms, not characterised by the excessive development of some particular organ, but by the fairness of the proportions of all parts. Yet some of them have a more slender body than others which always live on the ground ; they are land Snakes, but swim well when driven into the water, or climb when in search of food. They are of moderate or rather large size." In the Dryadiim the form is elongate and somewhat compressed, indicating their climbing propensities ; they have the body not so excessively slender as in the true Tree Snakes, to which they lead off. They are much more numerous in the New World than in the Old, and their ground-colour is very commonly green. The Natricina are generally not very elongate or compressed, and most of them have keeled scales. They freely enter the water in pursuit of their food, which consists chiefly of frogs and fishes. All the Snakes of the preceding three sub-families overpower their prey by throwing some coils of the body round it, and commence to swallow the victim after it has been smothered. The Natricina swallow their prey immediately after they have seized it. Of the sub-family Corondlina, one species of the typical genus Coronella is widely diffused over Europe, and has only of late years been recognised as an inhabitant of the British Islands, the Coronella austriaca. Another, C. girondica, occurs in Italy. Others are found in Africa, America, and Australia. The C. austriaca has somewhat the appearance of the Common Adder, for which it is often mistaken ; but it is non-venomous, though rather fierce, biting and holding on to whatever is placed in its way. As it occurs in Malta (where no venomous species is known to exist), it is doubtless the Viper which seized the apostle Paul. Several other genera are recognised. Of the Colubriim Rhinechis sca/an's, Coluber asculapii, C. quad- rilineatus, Elaphis quater-radiatus, and three species of Zamenis inhabit Europe ; in North America there are to be found five species KINGED SNAKES. 45 of Coluber, as well as the well-known Black Snake (Coryphodon constrictor] of the Anglo-Americans. Other species of Coryphodon or Ptyas inhabit south-eastern Asia, such as the Rat Snakes of Anglo-Indians, of which Ptyas mucosus is particularly common in Hindostan, where it is encouraged by sensible people on account of its animosity to the troublesome Brown Rat (Mus decumanus). The Dryadince are chiefly American, and do not call for particular attention ; but the Natricina are numerous, and of them three species are to be found in Europe — viz., Tropidonotus natrix, T. hydrus, and T. viperinus. Dr. Giinther gives as many as twenty-one species of this genus as inhabitants of the Indian region alone, and there is reason to believe that that number is far from being complete. Others inhabit North America and North-western Australia, and some generic groups have been detached that are not very conspicuously separable. The Ringed Snake ( Tropidonotus natrix, Fig. n) is often found in fine seasons near human habitations. It deposits its eggs, which are fifteen to twenty in number, commonly in dunghills, in one agglu- tinated mass. If exposed to the air, these eggs soon shrivel and dry, and the embryos within perish. The Ringed Snakes (Tropidono- tus natrix] found near rivers and meadows, by the side of water- courses, into which they love to plunge, are sometimes called Water Serpents, Swimming Serpents, Hedge Eels, and other provincial synonyms. They sometimes attain to a yard in length. The summit of their head is covered with nine large scales, disposed in four rings. The upper part of the body is of a more or less darkish grey colour, marked on each side with irregular black spots. Between the two rows of spots are two other longitudinal rows, which extend from the head to the tail. The belly varies from black to a bluish white. Upon the neck are two whitish or pale yellowish spots, which form a kind of half collar or ring, from which its name is derived ; these two spots become much more apparent from being contrasted with two other very dark triangular spots placed near them. They prey upon lizards, frogs, and mice, and they even surprise young birds, and devour eggs : they climb trees with facility. Towards the end of the autumn they seek the most sheltered retreats, approaching even houses ; or they retire into holes at the bottom of hedges when in such an elevated position as to secure them from inundations. The Ringed Snake is found in nearly all European countries, and can be handled without danger. Lacepede gives some interesting details, showing the gentleness of its habits. They are easily tamed, and can be kept in houses, where they soon accustom themselves to those who 4O REPTILES AND BIRDS. have the care of them. At a sign from their keeper, they will twist themselves round his fingers, arms, and neck, insinuate their heads between his lips to drink his saliva, and to hide and warm them- selves under his clothes. In their wild state the adult Ringed Snake lives in the fields ; and, when full-grown, shows great irritation if attacked. When exasperated, they open their mouths, erect them- selves with great activity, and even bite the hand which attempts to lay hold of them. Fig. ii. — Ringed Snake. This Ringed Snake is the Natrix torquatas of Ray. The female is larger than the male. Its food consists principally of frogs, which are generally seized by the leg and swallowed alive. When the skin has just been cast, the Ringed Snake presents beautiful markings when seen swimming across some clear running stream, its head and neck raised above the limpid water and the sun shining on its bright enamelled back. It has been supposed that this Snake casts its skin at fixed intervals ; this, Mr. Bell considers to be a mistake. He has always found that this depended on the tem- perature of the atmosphere and on their state of health. " I have known the skin thrown off," he adds, " four or five times during the year. It is always thrown off by reversing it, so that the transparent T1JE DESERT SNAKES. 47 Covering of the eyes and that of the scales are always found in the exuviae. Previous to this curious phenomenon, the whole cuticle becomes somewhat opaque, the eyes dim, and the animal is evidently blind ; it also becomes more or less inactive, until at length, when the old skin is ready for removal and the new skin perfectly hard under- neath, the animal bursts it at the neck, and creeping through some dense herbage or low brushwood, leaves it detached, and comes forth in brighter and clearer colours than before." The Ringed Snake begins to hybernate about the end of autumn, when they coil themselves up, sometimes in numbers, till the spring again calls them forth. Many instances are told of this Snake being tamed. Mr. Bell had one which knew him from all other persons ; it would come to him when let out of its box, crawl under the sleeve of his coat, and every morning visit him for a draught of milk. The Green and Yellow Snake is also about a yard in length, and is common in the south and west of France ; they have been taken in the forest of Fontainebleau. The beautiful colours in which they are clothed cause them to be easily distinguished from the Viper. The eyes are edged with golden-coloured scales ; the upper part of the body is of a very dark greenish colour, upon which is extended a large number of radiating lines, composed of small yellowish spots of different shapes, some long, others lozenge shape, giving it a chequered appearance. These chequers extend from the head to the tail. The belly is yellowish ; the large plates which cover it have a black spot at each end, and are bordered with a very thin black line. This inoffensive reptile is extremely timid, and generally hides itself from observation, taking to flight at the least alarm. They are said to be easily tamed. The Viperine Snake (Tropidonotus viperinus, Fig. 12) has the body of a greyish or dirty yellow colour, having on the middle of the back a series of blackish spots so close to each other as to give the idea of one small continuous wavy line from head to tail. The sides are covered with isolated spots, forming lozenge-like figures, the centres of which are of a greenish tint. This is the smallest of all the European Colubridcz, and, like the others, it is found in most parts of Europe. The PsammophidcR) or Desert Snakes, are akin both to the Colubrida and to the Tree Snakes of the next family ; but the latter, remarks Dr. Giinther, may always be distinguished either by their green coloration, by the horizontal pupil of the eye, or the absence of a long anterior maxillary tooth. In the Psammophidcz the pupil 48 REPTILES AND BIRDS. of the eye is round or vertical. Most of the species of this family belong to the fauna of tropical Africa, which also produces a slender form {Psammophis degans). The other species are of a stouter habit, frequenting plains, or at all events living on the ground. Of the Indian Psammophis condanarus^ Dr. Jerdon procured one which had killed and was swallowing a small viper (Echis carinata], this being one of the few instances in which a non-venomous Snake has been known to overpower a poisonous one.* We have heard the Fig. 12. — Viperine Snake. same of a small boa-like Serpent (Chilabothrus ?} in the West Indies, which is said to prey upon the formidable Crotalidcz. The Psammo- dynastes pulverulentus has a wide geographical range over south- eastern Asia and its islands. Although innocuous, it has the aspect of a venomous species. In a kindred African family, the Rachiodontida, the species oi; Dasypeltis have the maxillary teeth minute and few in number (four to seven) ; but they have also some remarkable gular teeth, which are formed by the elongated inferior spinous processes of the hinder * The Black Snake of North America undoubtedly preys upon the formidable -Rattlesnake.— ED. 49 Cervical vertebrae. The object of the latter is to crush the shells of birds' eggs, upon which the snakes in question habitually feed. Of the more characteristic Tree Snakes, the Dendrophida have the body and tail much compressed, or very slender and elongated ; the head generally lengthened, narrow, flat, and distinct from the slender neck ; the snout rather long, obtuse or rounded in front ; cleft of the mouth wide ; and the eye of moderate size, or large, with round pupil. These are diurnal Snakes, which live entirely upon trees, where they prey chiefly on arboreal lizards and frogs. Species of them inhabit all tropical countries. They are generally of great beauty; the Indian Chrysopelea ornata is excessively so, being variegated with yellow and crimson upon a black ground, but the crimson soon fades when a specimen is immersed in spirit. Others are very variable in their colouring, as the African Bucephalus capensis and the Indian Dendrophis picta. The next family of Dryiophida, or the Whip Snakes, have a still more slender and elongated body, which has been aptly compared to the thong of a whip. The head is very narrow and long, with taper- ing snout, ending in a protruded rostral shield, which is sometimes modified into a flexible appendage ; the eyes are of moderate size, and all the Asiatic species have the pupil of the eye horizontally linear, and a long fang-like tooth in the middle of the maxillary. The whole of this group are provided with a posterior grooved tooth. They are chiefly nocturnal, and their movements are wonder- fully rapid and graceful among the branches of trees. They are numerous almost everywhere in tropical countries. In general the various Whip Snakes are of a bright leaf-green colour, with two white stripes on the belly, so that they are difficult to discern among the foliage. In the genus Langaha, which is peculiar to Madagascar, the muzzle is elongated into a fleshy appendage, which is covered with small scales, constituting about one-third of the total length of the head. This appendage is dentated in one species (L. crista-galli), and not so in another (L. nasuta). In the Indian genus, Passer itay the snout is long and pointed, termi- nating in a flexible appendage. The name of Whip Snake is applied by Anglo-Indians to all of the species of Dendrophidx and of Dryiophida; and the erroneous notion prevails that they are highly venomous, and that they spurt venom into people's eyes. The same is believed in South Africa of the Bucephalus capensis. Even Gordon Gumming asserts that one night a snake which his servant had tried to kill with his loading-rod flew up at his eye. ;ind " spat poison into it. Immediately," he adds, " I washed it $0 KZPTILES AND well at the fountain. I endured great pain all night, but next day my eye was all right." * Of a beautiful green species (Philodryas viridissimus], apper- taining to the family of Dendrophida, in Brazil, Dr. Wurcherer writes : — " I am always delighted when I find that another Tree Snake has settled in my garden. You look for a bird's nest, the young ones have gone, but you find their bed occupied by one of these beautiful creatures, which will coil up its body, of two feet in length, within a space not larger than the hollow of your hand. They appear to be always watchful ; for at the instant you dis- cover one, the quick playing of the long black forked tongue will show you that you too are observed. On perceiving the slightest sign of your intention to disturb it, the snake will dart upwards through the branches and over the leaves, which scarcely appear to bend beneath the weight. A moment more, and you have lost sight of it." Some of the true Whip Snakes attain to six or seven feet in length, or even more ; and with reference to the vague application of vernacular names (vide p. 38), it may here be re- marked that the little Whip Snake of the Australian colony of Victoria denotes a poisonous Snake of a very different family (the Hoplocephalu sflagelhtm) . The Dipsadida are a numerous family of tropical Tree Snakes, which also have a much compressed body, but short and triangular- shaped head, which is broad behind ; the eye large, having generally a vertical pupil. Some of them attain to six or seven feet in length, and all live on warm-blooded animals. It is remarkable that certain of the species prey on birds solely, whilst others attack only mam- malia. Their coloration varies a good deal ; and species of them inhabit most tropical and sub-tropical countries. The Lycodontida are an extensive family of small Ground Snakes, inhabiting Africa and tropical Asia, which have the body generally of moderate length, rather slender, and the head long and wide, with generally a depressed, flat, and somewhat elongated muzzle ; maxil- lary with a fang-like tooth in front, but without a posterior grooved tooth. The African species feed on mice and other smaller nocturnal * " A Hunter's Life in South Africa," vol. iL, p. 133. Vide also Chapman's "Travels in the Interior of South Africa," vol. ii., p. 34. We have personally captured or assisted in capturing various species of both families, and it is no easy matter to do so sometimes, from the rapidity of their movements among the branches of trees and bushes ; but most assuredly we never saw one of these most beautiful reptiles attempt to dart or to spurt at anybody, and as they have no pohon fangs, the latter must needs be an error.— ED. PYTHONS. 5 1 Mammalia; while the Indian species (which have a vertical pupil) prey chiefly, if not wholly, on the smaller Scincoid Lizards, which they follow into their places of retreat. Lycodon aulicus is also a common Snake in India, and is quite harmless, though often igno- rantly supposed to be dangerous. The Amblycephalidce, or Blunt Heads, comprise a few species of moderate or small size, akin to the Dipsadidce, the narrow mouth of which necessitates their feeding on insects, and they live on trees and bushes, or under the roofs of huts. Of the Indo-Chinese and Malayan Amblycephalus boa, Dr. Giinther remarks that " the head of this most singular snake resembles much that of a mastiff, the lips being arched and tumid. It climbs with great facility, frequenting the roofs of the natives' huts in pursuit of its insect food. It attains to a length of three feet, the tail being a third." Of a second genus, P areas, three species inhabit the same region. The Pythonida, or Pythons, and Boas, are celebrated for the enormous magnitude to which some of the species attain. These are emphatically the great Constrictor Serpents, to all of which the name of Boa Constrictor is popularly applied, although this appel- lation refers properly to one only which is peculiar to South America. Various genera of them inhabit Africa, south-eastern Asia and its islands, Australia, tropical America, and the West Indies. The Pythons are large serpents of Asia and Africa. They live in marshy places and near the margins of rivers. They are non- venomous, but possessed of immense muscular power, which enables some of the species to kill by constriction animals of much larger circumference than themselves. Aristotle tells us of immense Libyan serpents, so large that they pursued and upset some of the triremes of voyagers visiting that coast. Virgil's " Laocoon," so vividly represented in the well-known marble group, owes its origin, no doubt, to the descriptions current of constricting serpents. Quoting Livy, Valerius Maximus relates the alarm into which the Roman army, under Regulus, was thrown by an enormous serpent, having its lair on the banks of the Bagradus, near Utica. This serpent Pliny speaks of as being 120 feet long. Without multiplying instances to which time has lent its fabulous aid, but coming to more modern times, Bontius speaks of serpents in the Asiatic islands as being so various that he despairs of even enumerating them all. " The great ones," he says, "some- times exceed thirty-six feet, and have such capacity of throat and 52 RZPTILES AXb B1KDS. stomach, that they swallow entire boars." He adds that he knew persons who had partaken of a hog cut out of the stomach of a serpent of this kind. " They are not poisonous," he adds, " but they strangle by powerfully applying their folds round the body of their prey." Mr. M'Leod, in his interesting " Voyage of the Alceste" states that during a captivity of some months at Whydah, on the coast of Africa, he had opportunities of observing serpents double this length, one of which engaged a negro servant of the Governor of Fort William in its coil, and very nearly succeeded in crushing him to death. There can be no doubt that the length is here much exaggerated. About thirty feet is the utmost length attained by the most gigantic serpents of which we possess accurate knowledge. The body of the Python is large and round. They live on trees in warm damp places, on the banks of streams or watercourses, and attack the animals which, to slake their thirst, have the mishap to pass near them. Attached by their tail to the limb of a tree, they remain immovable in their ambush until their opportunity comes, when they dart upon their prey with amazing rapidity, wrap their bodies round it, and crush it in their powerful folds. Animals as large as gazelles, and even larger, thus become their victims. Their jaws are extremely distensible, for, having neither breast-bone nor false sides, they can easily increase the diameter of the opening to an almost incredible extent. The Ophidians (as we have seen) surpass all other Reptiles in the number of their vertebrae, with incomplete haemal arches; these constitute the skeleton of the long, slender, limbless trunk. All these vertebrae coalesce with one another, and are articulated together by ball-and-socket joints. Besides this articulation to the centrum, the vertebrae of Ophidians articulate with each other by means of joints which interlock by parts reciprocally receiving and entering one another, like the tenon-and-mortise joint in carpentry. "The vertebral ribs have an oblong articular surface, concave above and almost flat below, in the Python. They have a large medullary cavity, with dense but thin walls, with a fine cancellated structure at their articular ends. Their lower end supports a short cartilaginous mem- brane, closing the haemal arch, which is attached to the broad and stiff abdominal scute. These scutes, alternately raised and depressed by muscles attached to the ribs and integuments, aid in the gliding movement of serpents." The peculiar motion of snakes was first noted by Sir Joseph Banks, and commented on by Sir Everard Home. Sir Joseph was observing a Coluber of unusual size, and thought he saw its ribs come forward PYTHONID&. 53 in succession, like the feet of a caterpillar. To test this, he placed his hand under the animal ; the ends of the ribs were distinctly felt pressing upon the surface in regular succession, leaving no doubt that the ribs form so many pairs of levers, by means of which it moves its body from place to place. The muscles which bring forward these ribs, according to Sir Everard, consist of five sets : — One from the transverse process of each vertebra and the rib immediately behind it, which rib is attached to the next vertebra; the next set goes from the rib near the spine, and passes over two ribs, sending a slip to each, and is inserted into a third, a slip connecting it with the next muscle in succession; under this is a third set, issuing from the posterior side of each rib, passing over two ribs, and sending a lateral slip to the next muscle, and is also inserted in the third rib behind. And so on throughout the five sets of muscles. On the inside of the chest there is a strong set of muscles attached to the anterior surface of each vertebra, and, passing obliquely forward over four ribs, is inserted into the fifth one only in the centre. From this part of each rib a strong flat muscle comes forward on each side, before the viscera, forming the abdominal muscles, and uniting in a middle tendon, so that the lower half of each rib which is beyond the origin of this muscle, and which is only laterally connected to it by a loose cellular membrane, is external to the belly of the animal, and is used for the purpose of progressive motion, while that half of each rib which is next the spine, as far as the lungs extend, is employed in respiration. These observations of Sir Everard Home apply to all Snakes; but the muscles were compared with a skeleton of the Boa Constrictor in the Hunterian Museum, which is thirteen feet nine inches in length. The habit of attaching themselves to trees, and holding on by the tail, their heads and bodies floating listlessly over some sedgy river, is explained by the structure of the tail. Dr. Meyer has minutely described the manner in which they hook themselves to a tree, which gives them the power of a double fulcrum. The apparatus which gives this power is a spur or nail on each side of the vent in the Pythonidcz, in which the anatomist discovered the elements of an unguinal phalanx articulated with another bone much stronger, which is concealed under the skin. Following the arrangement of the Pythonida adopted by Dr. J. E. Gray we find : — I. — Morelia, having a strong prehensile tail, distinct head, truncate 54 REPTILES AND BIRDS. muzzle, crown of the head with small shield-like plates. Of this genus there are two species : — the Diamond Snake (M. spilotes], a native of Australia, and of a bluish-black colour ; and the Carpet Snake (M. variegata), from Port Essington and Swan River. It is whitish, with irregular black-edged olive spots and an olive head, with two or three white spots in the centre of the crown. II. — Python, having the crown shielded to behind the eyes. Of this genus there are two species, which have sometimes been referred to the Boas. The Pythons bear the same general appearance. Upon their bodies is traced a sort of blackish-brown chain, presenting nearly quadrangular links upon a clear yellowish ground, extending from the nape of the neck to the extremity of the tail. The susce- phalous region is partly covered by a large brownish-black spot. Upon each side of the head is a black band, which frequently extends from the nostril, passing by the eye as far as the corners of the lips. P. reticulatus, the Ular Savvad of the Malay countries, found also in Burmah and Siam, has the four front upper labial plates pitted; the frontal plate simple; the head has a narrow, longitudinal, brown stripe. This is one of the most handsomely-marked species of the whole family, its body being covered with a gay lacing of black and golden yellow, it is said to attain the great length of thirty feet, and is stout in proportion. In its native wilds the powers of this gigantic reptile are said to be enormous, being able to subdue a full-grown buffalo ; and even men have been said to become its prey. A Malay proa had anchored for the night under an island of the Celebes. One of the crew had gone ashore in search of the favourite betel nut, and is supposed on his return to the beach to have fallen asleep. In the dead of the night his comrades were roused by his screams ; they pulled ashore with all expedition, but came too late ; the cries had ceased, and the wretched man had breathed his last in the folds of one of these enormous Serpents. They killed the creature, cut off the head, and carried it, together with the lifeless body of their comrade, to the vessel. The right wrist of the corpse bore the mark of the serpent's teeth, and the disfigured body showed that the man had been crushed by the constrictive folds of the reptile round the head, breast, and thighs. The Ular Sawad arranges its eggs by placing them in a group, which is covered by the body. This statement, first made by Mr. Bennett, has been confirmed by the observations of M. Lamare Picquot, and by observations on other species of Python in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in the London Zoological Gardens. SOCK SNAKE. 55 The Rock Snake of India and Ceylon (P. molurus) is another species to which the name of Boa Constrictor has been given. It has the two pairs of front upper, and three hind lower labial shields pitted, and the frontal plates double. Of this gigantic Serpent several speci- mens are generally to be seen in the Zoological Gardens. III. — Hortulia, having the upper and lower labial shields deeply pitted; muzzle and fore- head with symmetrical shield; nostrils lateral. They are natives of Africa, and three species are known, namely, the Natal Rock Snake, having the lower labial shields deeply pitted, the muzzle and forehead with symmetrical shields, the nostrils lateral ; the Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (H. Seb(£), closely resembling the last in many structural points; and the Royal Rock Snake (H. regia), having the four pairs of the upper front labials pitted, the upper ocular plate single, and lower labial shields four in number and broad. The Royal Rock Snake in- habits Western Africa. It is black in colour, marked on the middle of the back with a series of oblong white spots, the sides being marked by another series of large white spots, with one or two black spots in the upper part; the head black, with a streak over the nostrils and the top of the eyes. Fig. 13.— Natal Rock Snake. 56 REPTILES AND BIRDS. The Natal Rock Snake (H. natalensis, Fig. 13) is described by Sir Andrew Smith as being gigantic in size, he having seen a skin measuring twenty-five feet, although part of the tail was absent. " It feeds," he says, " on small quadrupeds ; and for some days after swallowing one it remains in a torpid state, when it may be easily destroyed." Of this opportunity, however, the South Africans never avail themselves; they have a horror of the reptile, but believe that it has an influence over their destinies, and affirm that no one has ever been known to kill one and prosper. The Guinea Rock or Fetish Snake (H. Sebce, Fig. 14) is typical of the genus, and has also been referred to the Boa Constrictor, and closely resembles the Natal Rock Snake.* It is a native of the warmer parts of Africa. A living specimen at the Zoological Gardens was estimated to weigh a hundredweight. Of the genera Liasis and Nordoa there are five species, very imperfectly known. IV. — Epicrates, an American and West Indian species, having the crown scaly, the forehead with symmetrical shields. The Aboma (E. cenchria, Fig. 15) is one of the largest of the group, sometimes attaining dimensions quite gigantic. It is yellowish in colour, with a row of large brown rings running the whole length of the back, and variable spots on the sides ; these are generally dark, with a whitish semi-lunar mark. This formidable reptile has all the habits of its congeners ; it is found in the marshy swamps of tropical America and near the rivers, where it lies in wait for its prey. The Boas, properly so-called, have the scales smooth ; labial shields smooth, not pitted ; the body compressed, tapering to the tail, which is long and prehensile ; the head is comparatively small, being enlarged behind and contracted towards the muzzle, which is rather short. The crown is covered with scales ; the nostrils lateral, between two plates. Four species of this genus are recognised by naturalists, all of which have been described by travellers as the true Boiguacu, or boa constrictor of Linnaeus. This species has the scaly circle of the orbit separated from the upper labial plates by one or two series of scales. A large chain consisting of blackish hexagonal spots, alternating pale oval stains, notched and jagged, extending the whole length of the back, and forming a very elegant design. This species seems to be strictly confined to tropical America. Humboldt found it in Guiana, and the Prince de Wied observed it * A variety very similar to this is known in China. — El?, THE BOAS. 57 in Brazil. All the specimens in the British Museum are from that part of the New World. This is supposed to be the Tlicoatl and Fig. 14— Guinea Rock Snake. Temacuilcahuilia (the words meaning "fighting with five men") described by Hernandez, the latter name being derived from its size 58 REPTILES AND BIRDS. and strength. " It attacks," he says, " those it meets, and over- powers them with such force, that if it once coils itself round their necks, it strangles and kills them, unless it bursts itseli by the violence of its own efforts." The same author states that he has seen serpents as thick as a man's thigh, which had been taken when young by Indians, and tamed. That this Boa attains an immense THE ANACONDA. 59 size is a well-established fact. Shaw mentions a skin in the British Museum, in one of his lectures, which measured thirty-five feet in length. Three other species — the Lamanda (J3. diviniloqud), from Santa Lucia ; the Emperor (B. imperator), a native of Mexico ; and J3. eques, the Chevalier Boa of Peru — are all to be occasionally seen in the Zoological Gardens. The Boa anaconda, more properly Ewiectes murinus (Fig. 16), is also a native of tropical America. The name of Anaconda has be- come well known through Mr. Lewis's celebrated tale so called, in which its predatory habits are displayed in such a manner as to enthral and fascinate the reader, as the author makes the reptile fascinate its victim. The name, Mr. Bennett tells us, is of Cing- halese origin, and is popularly applied to all very large serpents. This species is of a brownish tint, with a double series of colours extending from head to tail ; the sides are covered with annular spots with white discs surrounded by blackish rings. Seba has represented this creature lying in wait for mice ; but these are probably the prey of the young Anaconda. Another provincial name, "El Troga Venado " (the deer swallower), is applied to the matured reptile. The following description of the actions of one of these large non-venomous serpents, which accompanied a specimen sent to the United Service Museum, by Sir Robert Ker Porter, is probably a fair description of the habits of all the large Pythonidce : — " This species is not venomous, nor is it known to injure man (at least not in the country of Venezuela) ; however, the natives of the plain stand in great fear of it, never bathing in waters where it is known to exist. Its common haunt, or rather domicile, is invariably near lakes, swamps, and rivers ; likewise close to wet ravines produced by inundations of the periodical rains. Animals which repair there to drink, and even fishes, are its prey. The creature lurks watchfully under cover of the water, and, while the unsuspecting animal is satisfying its thirst, suddenly makes a dash at its nose, and with a grip of its back-reclining range of teeth, never fails to secure the terrified beast. In an instant the sluggish waters are in turbulence and foam. The whole form of the serpent is in motion ; its huge and rapid ceilings soon encircle the struggling victim, and but a short interval elapses ere every bone in the body of the expiring prey is broken." Sir Robert then describes the manner in which the prey is swallowed, being previously lubricated by the serpent's saliva ; but Professor T. Bell, after carefully watching the constricting serpent's mode of swallowing its prey, asserts that this is a delusion, "The 6o REPTILES AND BIRDS. mucus is not poured out till it is required to lubricate the dilated jaws and throat for the seemingly disproportionate feat." Fig. 16. — Anaconda. The small, but very distinct family of Erycida have the body of moderate length, cylindrical, covered with small and short scales; the tail very short, with only a single series of subcaudal scales; head somewhat elongate; eye rather small, with vertical A CROCHORDID&. 6 1 pupil. Adult individuals have, like the Pythons, a short conical prominence in a groove on each side of the vent ; this being the extremity of a rudimentary hind limb. " The snakes of this family," remarks Dr. Gunther, "show great similarity to the Pythons and Boas with regard to their internal structure as well as to their external characters. But their tail is very short, not flexible, and much less prehensile; and whilst the serpents just mentioned are more or less arboreal, frequenting marshy places with luxuriant vegetation, the Eryrida inhabit dry, sandy, or stony plains, burrowing with the greatest facility below the surface, and entering crevices and holes in search of their prey, which consists of mice, lizards and other burrowing snakes. Probably they are semi-nocturnal, and able to see in dark places as well as in the night. They are found in Northern Africa, in the islands of the Mediterranean, in the arid parts of India, and probably in Arabia : two species are known to have been brought from Sikkim." The Cursoria elegans is said to be from Afghanistan ; Eryx jaculus inhabits Greece and Egypt ; and there is also JS. thebaicus in the latter country, and £. Johnii in India. Another Indian species is the Gongylophis conicus, which the natives erroneously persist in declaring to be venomous. The Eryx Johnii is frequently found in the possession of the serpent-charmers of its native country, who mutilate the end of its short thick tail in such a manner that the scarred extremity somewhat resembles the form of the head. Such specimens are shown as deadly two-headed snakes, and, as such, are occasionally brought alive to Europe. An example of this species lived in the London Zoological Gardens for about eight years, and fed regularly on young mice. The keeper assured Dr. Gunther that it frequently covered its prey with saliva. It always kept itself hidden below the gravel at the bottom of its cage. This species attains to a length of nearly four feet, the tail measuring but four inches. The Acrochordida, constitute a very remarkable small family, of which one genus is terrene and another highly aquatic in its habits. Whether a third genus, the Javanese Xenodermus, should be referred to it, is doubtful, in the opinion of Dr. Giintier. These snakes have the body of moderate length, rounded or slightly compressed, and covered with small wart-like not imbricate tubercular or spiny scales ; tail rather short, prehensile ; head rather small, not dis- tinctly separated from the neck, and covered with scales like those of the body ; nostrils close together at the top of the snout ; teeth short, but strong, of nearly equal size, and situate both in the jaws 62 REPTILES AND BIRDS. and on the palate. These serpents are viviparous. One of them, Acrochordus javanicus, inhabits Java and the Malayan peninsula, where it is considered rare. It grows to a length of eight feet, and its habits are terrene. The late Dr. Cantor justly compares its physiognomy to that of a thorough-bred bull-dog ; a female in his possession brought forth no fewer than twenty-seven young in the course of about twenty-five minutes. At birth they were active, and bit fiercely. Hornstedt found a quantity of undigested fruits in the stomach of this Serpent! On which Dr. Gunther remarked that no opportunity of making further observations on the habits of this remarkable Snake should be lost. The aquatic member of this family, Chersydrus grauulatus, is to be found from the coasts of India to New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. Sometimes it is met with at a distance of three or four miles from the shore. Mr. W. Theobald remarks that it is plentiful in the Bassain River (in British Burmah), in salt water below Gnaputau, and, with various other Sea Snakes, is frequently swept by the tide into the fishing baskets of the natives. The ebb-tide, running like a sluice, sweeps various fishes, crustaceans, snakes, and even porpoises occasionally, into the broad mouths of those baskets, where they are at once jammed into a mass at the narrow end of the creel. " The Chersydrus" he adds, " is more nearly connected with the Hydrophidcz than with the next family, being as essentially aquatic as any of the former, to which, save from its wanting the poison-gland, it might be appropriately referred. Indeed, it has been erroneously asserted by some authors to be venomous." The HomalopsidcE are an extensive family of Snakes, of thoroughly aquatic habits, which are only occasionally found on the margins of rivers ; several of them enter the sea, and in some parts of their organisation they approximate to the true marine Snakes. They may be easily recognised by the position of the nostrils on the top of the snout, which enables them to breathe by raising only a very small portion of the head out of the water, an arrangement which is like- wise seen in the hippopotamus, the crocodile, the sea snakes, and other aquatic animals. Many of them have a distinctly prehensile tail, by means of which they hold on to projecting objects. Their food consists either entirely of fishes, or (some species) of crusta- ceans. All appear to be viviparous, and the act of parturition is performed in the water. Not any of them attain a larger size than three or four feet in length. In captivity they refuse to feed. All the Asiatic species of this family have a grooved fang at the hinder extremity of the maxillary bone. The species are numerous, SEA SNAKES. 63 and are arranged into many generic divisions. The majority are from the grand Indian region, extending to China and to Australia, but there are also several from the New World. The Herpeton tenta- culatum, of Siam, is very remarkable from its snout terminating in two flexible, cylindrical, scaly tubercles, which are supposed to be employed as organs of touch under water — perhaps to discern its food, which as yet has not been ascertained. The largest known example of this curious Snake is only twenty-five inches long, of which the tail measures six inches. We now proceed to the first family of Poisonous Snakes, that of THE SEA SNAKES (Hydrophidcc), which are very distinct from all that follow, though less so from certain of the harmless species appertaining to the two families last treated of. Some of their distinctions have been already noticed (p. 40), but they are especially characterised by their highly compressed tail, indicative of their thoroughly aquatic habits.* According to Dr. Gunther, there is no other group of Reptiles the species of which are so little known, and the synonymy of which is so much confused, as that of the Sea Snakes. Most naturalists who have worked on them have been misled by the idea that the species were not nearly so numerous as they actually are. Mr. W. Theobald makes out as many as twenty-five inhabiting the Bay of Bengal and the adjacent seas, to which area this group of reptiles is mainly confined, a few species extending to northern Australia, and one, the most emphatically pelagic, the 2'elamis bicolor, even to the Pacific Ocean. One genus only, Platunts, approaches the Land Snakes in several of its characters ; having much the physiognomy of an Elaps, with the cleft of the mouth not turned upwards behind, as in other Sea Snakes ; the eye also is rather small, nor is the tail at all prehensile. There are two species of this particular form, one of which, F. scutatiis, is rather common, and its geographic range extends from the Bay of Bengal and the China seas to the coasts of New Zealand; the distribution of the other, P. Fischeri, being nearly as extensive. The great genus Hydrophis has the posterior part of the body highly compressed ; and most of the species are more or less of a bluish lead-colour, like that of the sea, * Varieties of this family are extremely numerous in the southern Chinese Sea, the Straits of Banca, Malacca, and Sunda ; but from being knuwn to be extremely are seldom molested. — ED. 64 REPTILES AND BIRDS. or black, banded with white or yellowish white. They are so abundant in the Indian seas that some of them are taken with every haul of a fishing-net, and they are helpless and seemingly blind when out of the water, the fishermen commonly seizing them one after the other by the nape and throwing them back into the sea. Some of them {Microcephalophis of Lesson) have the head very small and the neck exceedingly slender, while the compressed body is large and thick. THE COLUBRINE VENOMOUS SNAKES. These are comprised under the one family, Elapida, all of which have an erect, immovable, grooved, or perforated fang, in the fore- part of the maxillary bone. There is little in their external appear- ance to distinguish them from the harmless Colubrine Snakes, to which they are more nearly akin — in all but their poison-fangs — than they are to the Rattlesnakes and Vipers ; yet some of the most poisonous of Ophidians appertain to this family, as exemplified by the well-known Cobras of the Indian region and of Africa, and also by some of the worst Snakes that inhabit Australia. In the colony of Victoria alone several species of Snakes are known, one only of which, Morelia variegata, is harmless ; and one only of them, the formidable Death Adder (Acanthopis antarctica], belongs to the sub-order of the Viperine Snakes. The rest are included among the Colubriform Venomous Snakes, and most of the accidents from poisonous Snakes in that colony are due to what is there known as the Carpet Snake (Hoplocephalus curtus\ while the Snake that bears the same name in the adjacent colony of New South Wales is the innocuous Morelia spilotes, which is a small Serpent of the family of Pythonidce. Of the total number of Snakes known in all Australia, by far the greater number are venomous, which is the reverse of what occurs elsewhere. Only about five species, however, are really dangerous throughout the great island-continent, for in many of them the poison is by no means virulent. Thus, of Diemensia psammophis, which sometimes exceeds four feet in length, Mr. Kreftt remarks that " its bite does not cause any more irritation than the sting of a bee." Also, that " the bite of Hoplocephalus variegatus is not suf- ficiently strong to endanger the life of a man. I have been wounded by it several times," writes Mr. Krefft, "and experienced no bad symptoms beyond a slight headache ; the spot where the fang entered turning blue to about the size of a shilling for a few days." Again, of Brachysoma diade.ma, "This very handsome little snake is venomous, but never offers *.o bite, and may be handled with THE COBRAS. 65 impunity.5' Far otherwise, however, is the venom of Hoplocephalus cur/us, and also of some others. H. curtus is one of the worst Snakes ot Australia, where it inhabits the more temperate parts of the country from east to west. Its bite is almost as deadly as that of the Indian Cobra, to which it is considerably allied. " A good- sized dog bitten became paralysed within three minutes, and was dead in fifty minutes afterwards ; a goat died in thirty-five minutes ; a porcupine ant-eater (Echidna hystrix) lived six hours ; and a common tortoise, an animal which will live a day with its head cut off, died in five hours after being bitten." The H. suptrbus replaces it in Tasmania. The Cobras (Naja) are widely known, alike from the virulence of their poison and for their remarkable dilatable disc or " hood" on the nape, the ribs which support this hood being much elongated. Two species are commonly recognised, the Cobra di Capella of Southern Asia, Fig. 17 (Naja tripudians], and the Asp (N. haje] of Africa; but there are marked local varieties of both species, and the N. sputatrix. of the Malay countries should probably be recognised as a third species. Those of India, with Ceylon, have a mark like a pair of spectacles upon the hood ; while those of Burmah and the neighbouring countries eastward, have only an oval black spot upon it. In India the commonest colour of this formidable reptile is uniform brown, though many are of a pale yellowish straw colour; and there are others of every shade between that and black. It grows to a length of about five feet, seldom more. " Almost every writer on the natural productions of the East Indies," remarks Dr. Guiither, "has contributed to the natural history of this snake, which has been surrounded by such a number of fabulous stories, that their repetition and contradiction would fill a volume." It is very generally diffused over the Indian region, though, as Mr. Theobald notices, from its nocturnal habits, it is less often seen than many harmless species. "This snake is, I believe," he adds, "of inoffensive habits, unless irritated, but is, of course, a dangerous neighbour to have in a house.* Not only in Burmah, where the respect for animal life is greatest, but in India also, I have known a cobra enticed or forced into an earthen jar, and then carried by two men across a river, or some distance from the village, and liberated. * Although the Cobra di Capella is so plentiful in India, we could never hear of one instance of a European being bitten by one during a residence or many years in that country. They prey chiefly on rats — the presence of which is the attrac- tion which brings them about human habitations — occasionally upon young chickens, and commonly upon toads. — Ep. 77 66 REPTILES AND BIRDS. Dr. Giinther remarks that, 'singularly enough, it has never been obtained in the Valley of Nepal/ This is very easily accounted for," continues Mr. Theobald, " since few would venture to kill a cobra, even for scientific purposes, in the rigorously Hindu State of Nepal. In British India, decent Hindus will not kill a cobra ; and if one has taken up his abode in a house, it is permitted to remain, or else carefully inveigled into an earthen pot, and carried away as described. Of course only the orthodox Hindu is so careful to abstain from injuring the cobra, and their reverential feeling is now perhaps rather the exception than the rule." A fine example of the more formidable Cobra (Hamadryas elaps], to be noticed presently, was obtained from an earthen pot which had floated out to sea. Sir J. Emerson Tennent mentioned that " the Cinghalese remark that if one cobra be destroyed near a house, its companion is almost certain to be discovered immediately after— a popular belief which I had an opportunity of verifying on more than one occasion. Once, when a snake of this description was killed in a bath of the Government House at Colombo, its mate was found in the same spot the day after ; and again, at my own stables, a cobra of five feet long having fallen into the well, which was too deep to permit its escape, its companion, of the same size, was found the same morning in an adjoining drain.* On this occasion the snake, which had been several hours in the well, swam with ease, raising its head and hood above water ; and instances have repeatedly occurred of the Cobra di Capella voluntarily taking considerable excursions by sea" (or by rivers, as many persons have witnessed). Cobras are much dreaded, for they instil the most subtle poison into their victims. Their manners are very singular. When at rest the neck of the animal is no larger in diameter than the head ; but when under the influence of passion and irritation, it raises the front part of its body vertically, holding it straight and rigid as an iron bar, the neck swelling at the same time. The lower part of the body rests upon the ground, and serves as a support to the upper part, which is movable and capable of locomotion. This faculty of dilating the neck is as striking a trait in the organisation of the Cobras as the rattle is in Crotahis. The ancient inhabitants of Egypt adored them ; they attributed to their protection the preserva- tion of grain, and allowed them to live in the midst of their cultivated * "Pliny," remarks Sir J. E. Tennent, "notices the affection that subsists between the male and female Asp (or African Cobra) ; and that if one of them happens to be killed, the other seeks to avenge its death." — I^IB. viii., c. 37. I.— Snake Charmers, CHARMERS. fields. It is the serpent chiefly used by snake-charmers, terribly fatal as its bite is known to be. The action of the snake-charmer is as follows : he takes in his hand a root, the virtue of which is supposed to preserve him from the venomous effects of the bite of the Cobra. Drawing the reptile from the cage in which he keeps it confined, he irritates it by presenting a stick to it ; the animal immediately erects the fore part of its body, swells its neck, opens its jaws, extends its forked tongue, its eyes glitter, and it begins to hiss. Then a sort of battle commences between the serpent and the charmer ; the latter, striking up a monotonous sort of song, opposes his closed fist to his enemy, sometimes using his right hand and sometimes his left (PLATE I.) The animal fixes its eyes upon the fist which threatens it, follows all its movements, 70 REPTILES AND BIRDS. balances its head and body, and thus simulates a kind of dance. Other charmers induce the Cobra to make a variety of movements of the neck and head by playing upon a whistle or flute. It is said that these mysterious jugglers are able, by some sympathetic action they possess, to plunge these dangerous enemies into a sort of lethargy and death-like rigidity, and to bring them at will out of this momentary torpor. It is certain, at any rate, that they handle these animals, whose bite is extremely dangerous, with considerable im- punity. It is supposed by some that these charmers take the precau- tion of exhausting the venom of the Cobra every day by forcing it to bite something several times before exhibiting it, or by drawing its poisonous fangs. The Asp (Naja haje) has a less dilatable neck ; it is of a greenish colour, and marked with brownish spots. It is smaller than the former ; is found in the west and south of Africa ; and is especially common in Egypt. It was said to have been this reptile which caused the death of Cleopatra. The genus Hamadryas of Cantor (Ophiophagus of Gunther) differs very little from the true Cobras, but has a less developed hood, and a single small tooth placed at some distance behind the fang. The only species (H. daps] attains to thirteen feet in length, and is proportionately formidable, being much less timid and retiring in its habits than the Cobras of the genus Naja. It preys habitually on other Snakes, and seems to be more plentiful eastward of the Bay of Bengal than it is in India. In Burmah it is styled the Gnan ; and Mr. Theobald tells us that its venom is fatal in a few minutes. " One of these snakes/' he adds, " was brought in alive, and a snake- charmer came up to display his command over the animal. At first, (as I am told) the snake seemed cowed by the authoritative ' Hah ' of the man ; but suddenly, through some carelessness on his part, the snake struck him on the wrist. The poor fellow at once ran off home to get an antidote, but fell down before reaching his own door, and died in a few minutes. When at Tongho," continues Mr. Theobald, " I heard a case of an elephant being killed by one of these snakes, which I have no reason for doubting. The elephant was a fine powerful male, and was pulling down with his trunk some creepers or boughs, when a large Gnan, which was disturbed in the tree, struck the elephant on the trunk between the eyes. The elephant at once retreated, became faint, and died in about three hours." This terrible Snake would appear to be not uncommon in the Andaman Islands, and its range of distribution extends through the Malay countries to the Philippines and to New Guinea, POISONOUS SNAKES. ?t The genus Bungarus is so called from the vernacular appellation of Bungarum, which is applied to one of the species on the Coro- mandel coast. Some of them are very like Cobras without the hood, as the Krait (B. cczruleus), which is a much-dreaded snake in India, but the geographic range of which extends neither to the countries eastward nor to Ceylon. The Snakes of this genus have a row of broad hexagonal scales along the middle of the back. The Krait grows to four feet and a half in length, and has the upper parts of a bluish or brownish black, either uniform or more generally marked with numerous narrow white cross-lines, which mostly radiate from a white vertebral spot In its habits it resembles the Cobra, preying on small mammalia, lizards, toads, and probably other snakes occasionally. The Raj -samp (literally, Lord Snake) is a larger and thicker species than the Krait, beautifully marked throughout with alternate broad rings of black and golden-yellow. This one is found almost generally throughout the Indian region, and would seem to prey entirely on other Snakes, especially of the Tropidonotus genus. It is of very sluggish habits, and frequents moist places and the vicinity of water. A species or local variety (B. ceylonicus). takes its place in Ceylon, and there is also a kindred species (B. semifasciatus) in China and Formosa. According to Cantor, the Bungarums are capable of darting nearly the anterior half of the body. Their bite is very dangerous ; but " the magnitude of the danger," remarks Dr. Giinther, " depends, as in other venomous snakes, on many circumstances — chiefly on the size and energy of the individual snake and on the place of the wound. As the fangs of the Bungarums are comparatively short, the wound is always superficial, and can be easily excised and cauterised ; also, experiments made on some of the lower animals show that the general effect on the whole system becomes visible only after a lapse of time." Of poisonous snakes akin to the Bungarums, there are \hzXenur elaps bungaroides, founded on a single specimen received from the Cossyah hills (north of Sylhet); and the Megarophis flaviceps, which inhabits the Indo-Chinese and the Malayan countries, but not India. The latter attains to more than six feet in length, and when alive or fresh the head and neck are vivid blood-red, which soon fades to a pale buff hue in specimens immersed in spirit, and hence the faulty name of flaviceps. Several genera — such as Glyphodon, with two ascer- tained species ; Diemensia, with four ; Hoplocephalus, with eight ; Pseudechis, with one ; Pseudo-naja, with one ; Brachysoma, with three ; and Vermicalla, with one — are peculiar to Australia with 7 2 KEPTtLES AND BIRDS. Tasmania, but besides these and other species of Colubriforni Venomous Snakes in that range of territory, more yet remain to be discovered ; there is one described as Pseudo-elaps super tiliaris> which is suspected to be a second species of Pseudo-naja. The Cyrtophh scutatus of South Africa is a sort of hoodless Cobra, without any small teeth behind its fangs. In America there is only the genus Elaps, with numerous species, which are mostly of small size, and in some instances are very brightly coloured, as one of the Coral Snakes* of Brazil (£. corallinus), which is beautiful coral-red, with the body encircled by equidistant black rings. The genus Elaps in America is represented in Africa by Homorelaps, in the Indian region by Callophts, and in Australia by Vermicalla. In general these are small and slender snakes, too much so to be held in much dread. What Di. GUnther remarks of the species of Callophis will apply, as we believe, equally to the others :— " They appear to prefer hilly countries to the plains, live constantly on the ground, and are slow in their movements. In their habits, in their form, and in their power- less muscular organisation, they show the greatest similarity to the Calamaria; and this is why the Callophides feed almost entirely on the latter, the venomous snake being able to overpower the non- venomous. Both of these genera have also the same geographical distribution ; and Ceylon, where we do not find the Calamarice, is not inhabited by a single Callophis. If we are allowed to judge from the number of individuals of both genera brought to Europe in collections, the Calamaricz are about twice as numerous as the Callophides. Cantor, who had opportunities of observing them, states that they are generally seen lying motionless, with the body thrown into many irregular folds, but not coiled. Although they are diurnal, their sight, from the minuteness of the pupil, appears to be as defective as their sense of hearing, and they may be closely approached without apparently being aware of danger. He never observed them to strike voluntarily, even when provoked, and he had difficulty in making an adult C. gratilis bite a fowl, although, of course, the venom of these Snakes is as virulent as that of a Viper, the animals used for the experiments having died in the course of from one to three hours after they had been wounded. Therefore the greatest caution should be observed in catching or handling these Snakes. The shortness of their fangs and the small quantity of their poisonous fluid, however, will always give a very fair chance of recovery if the proper remedies be applied, should an accident occur." Two or three * This name is also applied to the harmless Tortrix scytale (tide p. 42. ) TtiE VIPERINE SHAKES. J?'3 species of this genus inhabit India, and the rest are found in the Indo-Chinese and Malayan countries, one of the most common of them (C. intestinalis) having likewise been received from the Philippines. The C. nigrescens of the mountains of southern India attains to four feet in length, but it is mostly about half that size, or even smaller. Lastly, we arrive at THE VIPERINE SNAKES, which have a long, perforated, erectile fang on the maxillary bone, which is extremely short and bears no ether teeth. This is described in greater detail subsequently (pp. 87 and 88). They are arranged under the two families, Crotalidtz and Viperida. The Crotalidce, or Pit Vipers, have the body robust, the tail of moderate length, or rather short, sometimes prehensile ; head broad, sub-triangular, frequently scaly above or imperfectly shielded ; a deep pit on the side of the snout, between the eye and nostril ; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil. They are viviparous. The Pit Vipers are found only in Asia and America; those of the New World surpassing the Asiatic species in size, and therefore they are much more dangerous. Some live in bushes, others on the ground. A rudiment of the curious caudal appendage of the American Rattle- snake is found as a simple spine-like scale in the Asiatic species, constituting the genus Halys. Some have the head covered with scales, having small shields on the edge of the forehead and brows ; the cheeks are scaly, and the tail ends in a spine. Of these the American genus Craspedocephalus and the Asiatic genus Trimeresurus have the sub-caudal plates two- rowed to the tip. The genus Craspedocephalus comprises the terrible Fer-de-Lance of certain islands in the West Indies and of the mainland of South America, where four other species are recognised — one of them being found as far north as Mexico. The Fer-de-Lance (C. lanceolatus,Y\g. 18) attains to a length of nearly six feet; its colour generally yellow, sometimes greyish, or even marbled with brown ; the head, which is large, is remarkable for a triangular space, the three angles of which are occupied by the muzzle and the two eyes. This space, raised at its front edge, represents the head of a lance, large at its base and slightly rounded at the summit On each side of the upper jaw, one, sometimes two, and even three, fangs are visible ; all of which the animal makes use of for ' the pur- 77* 74 REPTILES AND BIRDS. pose of wounding and discharging his venom. Of the poison fangs of the Fer-de- Lance, Sir Rich. Owen remarks that "they (in common with the Rattlesnake and Viper) are coated with a thin layer of a sub-transparent and minutely cellular cement. This disposition of the dentinal tubes is obedient to the general law of vertically, and Fig. 18. — Fer-de-Lance. the external surface of the tooth can be exposed to no other pressure than that of the turgescent duct with which it is in contact." It feeds on lizards and the smaller mammals, especially rats, but it is capable of killing large animals, such as oxen. The negroes working among the sugar-cane, and soldiers in the Martinique service, often become victims to the Fer-de-Lance. This snake is, unfor- tunately, very prolific ; and its venom is so subtle, that animals bitten RATTLESNAKES. 75 by it invariably die within a few hours of becoming inoculated with the poison. The wound produces extreme pain, and is im- mediately followed by more or less livid swelling; the body be- comes cold and insensible, the pulse and respiration slower, the head confused, coma appears, and the skin turns bluish; some- times extreme thirst and spitting of blood are experienced, till paralysis attacks the whole system. Other species are known in South America, viz., C. brasiliensis, C. bilineatus, C. elegans^ and C. atrox. All of these are most highly formidable and dangerous Snakes, and are held in especial dread. Ten or more species of Trimeresurus occupy their place in the woodland districts of tropical Asia and its islands. In them the hinder labial shields are the smallest. The head is triangular, covered above with small scales, except the foremost part of the snout and the superciliary region, which generally are shielded ; the body possesses more or less distinctly-keeled scales, in from seventeen to twenty-five series ; while the tail is prehensile. These reptiles are more or less arboreal, as is indicated by this latter peculiarity, and by their green or varied coloration. " In general," remarks Dr, Gunther, " they are sluggish, not attempting to move out of the way, and as they very closely resemble the branch on which they rest, they are frequently not perceived until they prepare to dart, vibrating the tail, and uttering a faint hissing sound, or until they have struck the disturber of their rest. Accidents caused by them, therefore, are not of uncommon occurrence, and it is a fortunate circumstance that comparatively few of them attain to a size of more than two feet, so that the consequences of their bite are less to be dreaded than that of various other poisonous snakes. Indeed, numerous cases are on record which show that the symptoms indicating a general effect on the system were of short duration, extending only over from two to forty-eight hours, and confined to vomiting, retching, and fever. After the pain and swelling of the bitten member or spot have subsided, the vicinity round the wound becomes discoloured, mortifies, and is finally thrown off as a black, circular slough, after which health is speedily restored. The bite of larger specimens, from two to three feet long, is more dangerous, and has occasionally proved fatal ; so that the greatest care should always be observed in the immediate treatment of the patient. When roused, these snakes are extremely fierce, striking at everything within their reach ; and Cantor states that in the extreme of fury they will fix their fangs in their own bodies. Frogs, small mammalia, and birds, form their food, and I have never found a lizard or snake in their stomach." ? REPTILES AND BIRDS. Three or more of the species inhabiting India and Burmah are of a beautiful leaf-green colour, which changes to dull blue after long immersion in spirit. The commonest of them, T. carinatus, varies remarkably in colouring in the Andaman and Nicobar islands; if, indeed, the species be quite the same. These grow to over three feet in length. The kindred genus, P. eltopelor, is founded on a single species inhabiting the mountains of Southern India, P. macrokpisy which is remarkable for the very large scales with which its head and body are covered. The Lachesis, with two species, is another kindred genus in South America, in which the end of the tail has four rows of scales underneath. The Callosdasma rhodostoma is a very formidable reptile of this same series, which inhabits the Malay countries. It has a remarkably broad head, and grows to three feet or more in length. Dr. Gunther states that " it is one of the most beautiful and most dangerous of venomous snakes. Feeding on frogs, it frequents grassy plains, and approaches gardens and human dwellings. Kuhl was eyewitness to a case where two men, bitten by one and the same snake, expired five minutes after." Another Malayan species is known as the Atropos acouba. The genus Halomys is characteristic of the fauna of Central Asia, the species being found in Tartary, on the northern side of the Himalayas, in China, in Japan, and in Formosa. One of them occurs in the Western Hima- layas, at an altitude of 9,000 feet, and another has been referred to this genus from the mountains of Southern India. The " carawalla " of Ceylon (Hypnale nepa) is likewise found on the mountains of Southern India. It is a small species, but a good deal dreaded, " although," remarks Dr. Gunther, " its bite is but exceptionally fatal to man, and in such cases death does not occur before the lapse of some days. There is therefore some hope of restoring the patient by a timely application of proper remedies." Its crown is more shielded than is usual with Snakes of this family and it varies much in colouring. The rest of the Crotalidce are American, and consist of the famous Rattlesnakes and their immediate kindred. In the genus Cenchris the tail ends with a spine, and the tip of the tail has several rows of scales beneath. The well-known Copperhead (C. con- tortrix) belongs to this genus, and the Black Water Viper (C. pistivorus}. The last has bred repeatedly in the London Zoological Gardens, and is rather a large species, of very aquatic propensities. " The Copperhead/' according to Dekay, " is a vicious reptile, and its venom is justly dreaded, being considered as deadly as th*t of the Rattlesnake j and an instance is recorded in which a horse, RATTLESNAKES. 77 struck by one of these reptiles, died in a few hours. Its motions are sluggish, and when approached it assumes a threatening aspect, raising its head and darting out its tongue. It chiefly occurs in pastures and low meadow grounds, where it feeds on field-mice, frogs, and the smaller disabled birds." The poison of the Black Water Viper is equally to be dreaded. The true Rattlesnakes have the tail furnished with the extra- ordinary appendages at its tip which will be described presently. According to differences in the shields and scales covering the head, Dr. Gray arranged them into three genera — Crotalophorus, with three species ; Uropsophus, with one ; and Crotalus also with one, C. horridus^ which appears to be the only one known in South America. Of the Common Northern Rattlesnake (Uro- psophus durissus), Dekay remarks that, " Although furnished with such deadly weapons, the rattlesnake can scarcely be termed a vicious animal, for he rarely strikes unless almost trodden upon. When suddenly disturbed, he throws himself into a coil, and warns the aggressor by rapidly vibrating his rattles, which, however, can scarcely be heard beyond the distance of a few yards. This is most usually the case, but they occasionally strike without the slightest warning. At the moment the snake strikes, he ejects the venom forcibly into the wound. In an instance of a very large rattlesnake from Florida (C. horridus\ which was irritated, he struck violently against the iron wire on the side of the cage, and spurted the venom to the distance of three feet."* The fibulae, or rattles, seldom exceed fifteen in number, and are rarely so many. The Common Northern Rattlesnake (Uropsophus durissus, Fig. 19) sometimes attains to six feet in length, the middle being about the size of a man's leg ; t the colour of the back is grey, mixed with yellow. Upon this foundation extends a longitudinal row of black spots, bordered with white ; towards the muzzle the flat head is covered with six scales larger than the others, and disposed in three transverse rows, each formed of two scales. The males are smaller, much more brightly and markedly coloured than the other sex. The very long and visible fangs are situated in front of the upper jaw. The scales on the back are oval, and raised in the middle by a bone which extends in the direction of their greatest diameter. * We have seen a Cobra thus spurt its venom against the plate-glass cover of the box in which it was kept. — ED. f That the Timber Rattlesnake of the United States sometimes grows to the length of seven or eight feet we have no doubt j the Prairie Rattlesnake, however., seldom exceeds two feet.— ED. fo REPTILES AND BIRDS. The under part of the body is furnished with a single row of large plates. The Rattlesnake owes its name to a remarkable peculiarity in its structure ; the extremity of the tail is furnished with horny cells, articulated one into the other. When the animal is irritated it causes its tail to vibrate, which produces a sound like the dry husks Fig. 19. — Northern Rattlesnake. of beans which still retain their seeds when shaken by the wind, thus giving warning of the proximity of this terrible enemy. The sibilant rattle of these appendages is not very loud, but it may be heard ten paces off. Rattlesnakes feed on small mammals, or upon other reptiles. They are oviparous ; and, for some time after they are hatched, the young are said to seek a refuge in the mouth of their mother. Wood- land or prairie are selected by them, according to the species they CHARMING A RATTLESNAKE. 79 belong to, but never cultivated land if uncultivated can be found. The shadow of an old fallen tree is often a lurking-place chosen by them. Audubon, the celebrated ornithologist, says that he has often met with rattlesnakes rolled up in a state of torpor when the temperature was low. Rattlesnakes are revered by some of the American abori- gines, who know how to lure them from their houses , for it is a singular fact that this terrible animal is not insensible to the sound of music. Chateaubriand's remarks will be read with interest : — " In the month of July, 1791," says this celebrated writer, "we were travelling in upper Canada with some savage families of the Ounou- tagnes. One day, when we had stopped in a plain on the banks of the river Genedie, a rattlesnake entered our camp. We had a Canadian amongst us who played on the flute ; wishing to amuse us, he approached the animal with this new kind of weapon. At the approach of his enemy, the splendid reptile at once coiled itself up spirally, flattened its head, puffed out its cheeks, contracted its ears, and showed its envenomed fangs, while its forked tongue moved rapidly, and its eyes burned like red-hot coals ; its body became inflated with rage, rose and fell like a pair of bellows; its dilated skin bristled with scales ; and its tail, which produced a sinister sound, oscillated with lightning rapidity. The Canadian now began to play upon his flute. The snake made a movement expressive of surprise, gradually drew its head backwards, closed its inflamed mouth, and, as the musical sounds struck it, the eyes lost their sharpness, the vibration of its tail relaxed, and the noise which it made became weaker, and finally died away altogether ; the coiled-up line became less perpendicular, the orbs of the changed snake opened, and in their turn rested in wider concentric circles on the ground. The scales of the skin were also lowered, and immediately recovered their wonted brilliancy, andj turning its head slowly towards the musician, it remained immovable in an attitude of pleased attention. At this moment the Canadian walked away a few steps, drawing low and monotonous tones from his flute; the reptile lowered his neck, opened a way among the fine grass with its head, and crawled in the steps of the musician who thus fascinated him, stopping when he stopped, and following him when he began to move away. The snake was thus conducted from our camp in the midst of a throng of spectators— as many Redskins as Europeans — who could hardly believe their eyes." It is generally agreed that rattlesnakes only attack men in self*- deitnce, but it is at all times a dangerous neighbour, and it is im- portant to know how to keep them at a distance in countries where- SO REPTILES AND BIRDS. they abound.* The pig is an excellent auxiliary in obtaining this result. In the western and southern States of North America, when a field or farm is infested by these poisonous reptiles, it is usual to put a sow with her young brood there, and the snakes, it is said, will soon be destroyed. It appears that owing to the fatty matter which envelops the body of this animal it is safe from the venomous bite. Besides, it likes the flesh of the snakes, and eagerly pursues them. According to Dr. Franklin, when a pig sees a rattlesnake, it smacks its jaws, and its hairs bristle up ; the snake coils itself up to strike its enemy; the pig approaches fearlessly, and receives the blow in the fold of fat which hangs upon the side of its jaw. Then it places a foot on the tail of the snake, and with its teeth he begins to pull his enemy to pieces, and eats it with evident enjoyment. t The pig is not the only animal employed to destroy rattlesnakes. Dr. Rufz de Lavison, who long resided in the French Antilles, and was afterwards manager of the Jardin d'Acclimatation, of Paris, has published a highly interesting work, in which he relates the very im- portant services which certain birds, especially the Secretary-bird, or Serpent-eater (imported from South Africa), render by destroying rattlesnakes in the West Indies. We have said that the Crotalida are some of the most dangerous of any Snakes ; let us mention some facts which show the frightful power of their venom. A Crotalus, about three feet in length, killed a dog in about fifteen minutes, a second in two hours, and a third in about four hours. Four days after it bit another dog, which only survived thirty seconds ; and another, which only struggled four minutes. Three days afterwards it bit a frog, which died at the end of two seconds ; and a chicken, which perished at the end of eight minutes. An American, named Drake, arrived at Rouen with three live rattlesnakes. In spite of the care which he had taken to preserve them from cold, one of them died. He put the cage which con- tained the other two near to a stove, and excited them with a small stick, to assure himself that they were alive and in health. As one * It is currently believed in parts of the United States that, if a ring of the bark of the white ash tree be placed around a camp, these reptiles wil not cross it. f Dekay, in his "Natural History of New York," remarks that it is a popular belief that hogs are particularly destructive to rattlesnakes ; but neither their bristly hide nor their thick teguments afford them perfect immunity from the stroke of this reptile. I was informed by a respectable farmer that he lost three hogs in one season by the poison either of the Copperhead or Rattlesnake.— ED. EXPERIMENTS WITH RATTLESNAKES. 8l of the snakes made no movement, Drake took it by the head and tail and approached a window, to see if it was dead ; the animal turned its head quickly, and bit the unfortunate man on the back of his left hand ; as he replaced it in the cage he was bitten anew in the palm of the same hand. "A doctor! a doctor!" cried the un- happy man. He rubbed his hand upon some ice which was close by, and two minutes after he bound the wrist tightly with a cord. Four hours later a doctor arrived, and cauterised the wound ; but alarming symptoms soon appeared. Syncope, noisy respiration, scarcely any pulsation, and involuntary evacuations, followed ; the eyes closed, their pupils contracted; the limbs became paralysed, and the body cold. Drake died at the end of nine hours.* Some experiments made by a friend of Dr. Bell seem to present different results. This gentleman had received a living rattlesnake from America, intending to try the successive effects of its bite upon some rats. He introduced one into the cage with the snake : it immediately struck the rat, and the latter died in two minutes. Another that was placed in the cage ran to the farthest corner, uttering cries of distress. The snake did not attack it immediately ; but after about half an hour, on being irritated, it struck the rat, which, however, exhibited no signs of being poisoned for several minutes ; nor did it die for about twenty minutes after the bite had been inflicted. A third rat, remarkably large, was then introduced into the cage, and exhibited no signs of terror, nor did it seem to be noticed by its dangerous companion : after watching some time, the gentleman retired to bed, leaving the rattlesnake and rat in the cage together. In the morning the snake lay dead, and the rat had supped on the muscular part of its backbone. Unfortu- nately, Dr. Bell does not remember at what season this experiment took place, but thinks it was not in very warm weather.f The climate of France, differing only slightly from that of the United States, is consequently well adapted for the production of rattlesnakes. If a living male and female of these dangerous Crotalidce were to escape from a menagerie, their progeny would soon infest the country. It is for this reason that public exhibitions of rattlesnakes are forbidden in France. Nevertheless, two or three may be seen in the collection of the Museum of Natural History at Paris, enclosed in a double cage, every measure of precaution being taken which prudence demands. * This is unusual, for we have known both men and animals bitten by them, and although they suffered most acutely, they in all cases recovered. — ED. f Summer is the season when their bite is most severe. — Ep. 82 REPTILES AND BIRDS. It is a remarkable fact that the poison is secreted after death. Dr. Bell, in his " History of British Reptiles," adduces the following as evidence of the facts : — He was dissecting very carefully and minutely the poison glands of a large rattlesnake, which had been dead some hours ; the head had been taken off immediately after death ; yet, as Dr. Bell continued his dissection, the poison con- tinued to be secreted so fast as to require to be dried up occasionally with a sponge or rag : and his belief is, that there could not be less than six or eight drops of the poison. It is obvious that such experiments require the utmost caution, seeing that preserved speci- mens are not without danger. The family of the Viperidcz, or true Vipers, are peculiar to the Old World, inclusive of Australia, with the sole known exception of one species in Peru. They have generally a robust body, with non- prehensile tail ; the head broad or thick, generally scaly above or incompletely shielded ; the eye of moderate size, with vertical pupil, and they are at once distinguished from the Crotahda by the absence of the pit below the eye. The scales are keeled except in one genus (Acanthopis). For the most part, these reptiles inhabit exposed and arid situations, though perhaps all of them will take to the water on occasions, as does the common British Adder. They are divided, firstly, into those which have a depressed head, rounded on the sides, and covered with acutely-keeled scales. Some of these have large nostrils in the centre of a ring-like shield, edged with a large scale above. Such are the genera Daboia in the warmer parts of Asia, and Clotho, which is peculiar to Africa — both genera are extremely venomous. The famous Tic-polonga of Ceylon (Daboia elegans) is also widely diffused over India and Burmah. It is beautifully marked with three rows of white-edged, oblong, brown spots. Occasionally the spots forming the middle row are connected like the beads of a necklace, whence the name Cobra monil (literally Coluber moniliger\ applied to the young of this Viper by the Indo-Portuguese, and now corrupted into "cobra de manilla," which bears the reputation of being a highly poisonous Snake of diminutive size ; it attains, however, to a length of nearly five feet, the tail then measuring about eight inches, with considerable thickness of body. It is nocturnal, and preys chiefly on mice. In Bumiah this formidable Viper is dreaded almost as much as the Hamadryas. It has been obtained in the Himalayas at an elevation of 5,500 feet, at Almorah, and elsewhere. Mr. Theobald has known one to kill a bull-terrier in twenty minutes. The D., xanthina is a second species of this form inhabiting Asia Minoc. PUFF ADDERS. 83 The genus Clotho consists of the Puff Adders of Africa, of which there are at least four or five species. Among the best known of them are the ordinary Puff Adder (C. arietans], and the Berg Adder (C. atropos} of the Cape colonists. The Rhinoceros Puff Adder (C. nasicornis of Guinea) has the scales over the nostrils of the male produced into a long re-curved spine ; and in the Homed Puff Adder (C. comuta, Fig. 20) of South Africa there is a group of small horn- like scales over each eye. Examples of the Common and of the Fig. 20.— The Horned Puff Adder, Rhinoceros Puff Adders may generally be seen in the reptile house of the London Zoological Gardens. The last-mentioned is a huge Viper of wondrous beauty, both of colouring and in the complex pattern of its markings, especially as seen when it has newly shed its epidermis ; but the aspect of its surprisingly broad, flat, and triangular-shaped head, unmistakably betokens its terrific powers. Its head is remarkably massive. One peculiarity of the Puff Adders is that they sometimes hold on to their victim by their long fangs. Thus, of the common C. arietans Sir A. Smith remarks that " although generally inactive, it is by no means so when attacked— its move- ments are then bold and energetic, and when once it seizes the ob- 8.J. REPTILES AND BIRDS, noxious object, it retains its hold with great determination, and some considerable exertion is often necessary to detach it."* The traveller Burchell remarks of this snake that its venom is said to be most fatal, taking effect so rapidly as to leave the person who has the mis- fortune to be bitten no chance of saving his life, but by instantly cutting out the flesh surrounding the wound. "Although I have often met with this snake," he adds, " yet, happily, no opportunity occurred of witnessing the effects of its poison ; but, from the uni- versal dread in which it is held, I have no doubt of its being one of the most venomous species of Southern Africa. There is a pecu- Fig. 21. — The Unadorned Puff Adder. Harity which renders it more dangerous, and which ought to be known to every person liable to fall in with it. Unlike the generality of Snakes, which make a spring or dart forward when irritated, the Puff Adder, it is said, throws itself backwards, so that those who should be ignorant of this fact would place themselves in the very direction of death, while imagining that by so doing they were escaping the danger. The natives, by keeping always in front, are enabled to destroy it without much risk. The Snakes of South Africa, as of Europe, lie concealed in their holes in a torpid state during the * In "Chapman's Travels in the Interior of South Africa" (vol. ii., p. 59), we read — "May igth. I lost my best dog, Caesar. He had seized a large Puff Adder by the tail, and shook it. When the snake was released it darted at the dog's face, and having fixed its fangs in its cheek, stuck there like 3 bull-dog until it was killed. The dog only survived ten minutes." — ED. AMD ECfflS. $5 Colder part of the year. It is, therefore, only in the hottest summer months that the traveller is exposed to the danger of being bitten." Dr. Gray refers doubtfully to this genus both the Echidna inornata (Fig. 21) of Sir A. Smith, and the E, mauritanica of Dumeril and Bibron, from Algeria ; likewise a Peruvian species named Echidna ocdlata by Tschudi, which is the only known instance of a member of this family inhabiting the New World. The appellation Echidna, however, belongs properly to the Porcupine Ant-eaters, of the class Mammalia. The species of Cerastes and of Echis have the nostrils much smaller than the preceding, and are Vipers of less formidable size. In the two species of Cerastes, or Horned Viper, the eyebrows of the male bear commonly a sort of horn. C. Hasselquistii is com- mon in Egypt ; and the other, C, Richii, inhabits Tripoli. Of Echis there is one species in Egypt and North Africa, E. arenicola; and another in India, E. carinata. The latter grows to about twenty inches long, of which the tail measures two inches and a third. These Vipers commonly lie half-buried in the sand, which they much resemble in colour. They feed upon Centipedes (Scolopendra), and no case is known of their bite having proved fatal. The remaining Viperidcz have the head more or less shielded. They are divided by Dr. Gray into Vipera (with two European species, not found in Britain — V. aspis from the Alps, and V. ammodytes from the countries bordering on the Mediterranean) \ Pelias, which contains only the common British Adder, P. bents; Sepedon, with one species only, from South Africa, S. hamachates ; Causus, with also only one African species, C. rhombeatus ; and finally Acanthopis, founded on the Death Adder of the Australian colonists, A. antarctica, which is the only member of the family ViperidcR known to inhabit Australia, where the poisonous Colubrine Snakes are so numerous. It is also the only known species the scales of which are smooth or not keeled. It seldom exceeds thirty inches in length, and varies a good deal in colour. Like other Viperidcz, it is sluggish in its movements, but when irritated it flattens itself out generally in the form of the letter S, turning round to one side or the other with astonishing rapidity, but never jumping at its enemy or throwing itself backward, as the Puff Adders are described to do. The Death Adder is found in almost every part of Australia northward of the thirty-sixth parallel of south latitude. The Common Adder (Pelias berus^ Fig. 22), is not improbably the "EX»S of Aristotle, and the Vipera of Virgil, as it is the Manasso of the Italians, the Adder of the country-people in England and 86 REPTILES AND BIRDS. Scotland, and the Vipkre of France. It is found in all these countries, and in Europe generally. The Common Adder varies from thirteen or fourteen inches to sometimes double that length ; and from two to three or even four inches in girth. Its general colour varies considerably : in some it is olive, in others reddish-brown, sometimes of an ashy-grey ; at other times it is greyish-black. A waving brown or blackish line runs along the back. A row of unequal spots of the same colour is observable Fig. 22. — The Common Adder. on the flanks ; the belly is slate-coloured • the head nearly triangular, a little larger than the neck, obtuse and truncated in front, and covered with granulated scales. Six small plates cover the muzzle, two of which are perforated for the nostrils, which are lateral, forming a blackish spot. Above is a sort of V shape, formed by two black bands. The upper jaw is a white ground, spotted with black ; the lower jaw is yellow. The eyes are small and sharp, edged with black. The tongue is long, grey, and forked. Adders are met with in the wooded, stony, and mountainous regions of southern and temperate Europe — in France, Italy, England, Germany, Prussia, Sweden, Poland, and even Norway. ADDERS, 87 They are also occasionally found on the heaths near London and in the neighbourhood of Paris ; they are met with at Montmorency, and in the forest of Fontainebleau. They feed upon lizards, frogs, molluscs, worms, insects, and small mammalia, such as field-mice, shrews, and moles. They pass the winter and early spring in deep hollows, in a state of torpor, where they are sheltered from the cold. It is not unusual to find several adders coiled up together in one heap, entwined and interlaced together.* The movement of Adders is abrupt, slow, and irregular. They appear to be shy and timid creatures, shunning the day, and only seeking their food in the evening. The young come into the world alive ; so long as they are maintained within the mother, they are enclosed in eggs with membranous shells. Soon after their birth the young Vipers, whose length does not exceed six or seven inches, are abandoned by the parent, and left to shift for themselves. They do not, however, acquire their full development till they are six or seven years old. Adders are justly considered objects of fear and horror both to men and to other animals, as they bear with them a formidable apparatus, of which it is important that both the structure and the mode of action should be known. This venomous apparatus is composed of three parts — the secreting glands, the canal, and the hooked fangs. The gland is the organ which secretes the venom ; it is situated upon the sides of the head, behind and a little beneath the globe of the eye ; it is formed of a number of inflated bladders, composed of a granular tissue, and disposed with great regularity along the excretory canal, not unlike the barbs of a pen-feather. This arrange- ment, however, is only visible through a microscope. The tube destined to conduct the secreted venom through the gland is straight and cylindrical ; after being filled, in its short journey it ends in two peculiar hook-like teeth, called fangs, tapering to a point, and horn-like. They are much longer than the others, and placed one to the right, the other to the left, of the upper jaw. The adder, then, is furnished with two of these poison-fangs ; they are curved and sharp- pointed, convex anteriorly, and furnished with a straight duct which commences in one part by a slit placed at the anterior part of its base, terminating by a second and smaller cleft towards its point, and on the same side. This last cleft is like a little trench or fine furrow, which extends the whole length of its convexity. These hooked teeth are surrounded by a fold of the gums, which receives * In the Highlands of Scotland I have twice observed this.— ED. S5 REPTILES AND BIRDS. and partly hides them, like a sheath, when they are at rest. They are attached to the upper maxillary bones, which are small and very mobile, and are put in motion by two muscles. Behind them are dental germs, intended to replace them when they fall out. The other teeth in the roof of the mouth belong to the palate, where they form two rows. Such are the terrible weapons of the Viper group. It is not, therefore, as many persons still believe, with the tongue that the Adder inflicts its wound ; the forked, projecting tongue serves them as a feeler, and to drink with, but cannot inflict a wound. We have said that when in a state of repose the hooked teeth are hidden ; when the animal wishes to use them, they issue from Fig. 23. — Fangs and tongue of an Adder. their fleshy sheath, somewhat in the same manner as the claws of a cat when about to be used as weapons of offence (Fig. 23). Adders use their fangs to seize the small animals which serve as their prey. They do not voluntarily attack a man. But if he imprudently places his foot on or attempts to seize them, they will defend themselves vigorously. Let us note how this reptile takes its prey. In this case it may be supposed to act without passion, merely obtaining food, which it simply seizes, sinking its fangs into the body of its victim. In proportion as these penetrate the body of the animal the poison flows into the canal, which again conducts it to the fangs under the influence of the contracting muscles, by which they are raised and made to press upon the gland ; causing the venom to be injected into the wound. Adders bite in this manner when seized by the tail or middle of the body ; but when they are at liberty, and become irritated, they strike rather than bite. At first they coil themselves up into several VIPER WOUNDS. 89 superposed circles, then they will uncoil themselves to their whole length with excessive quickness, extending their body like a spring, drawing it back with the rapidity of lightning, and gliding over a space equal to their own length, for they never leave the ground. They will now open their jaws wide, erect their fangs, and strike, first throwing back their heads, by which means they contrive to strike as with a hammer. Dr. Bell expresses doubts, in his " History of British Reptiles," of the existence of any well-authenticated case in Great Britain of an adder bite terminating fatally.* At the same time he cautions all persons against running any risks in the heat of summer and autumn, when the poison is most virulent. The remedy applied to such a bite is to rub the part with olive oil, over a chafing dish of coals, and to take a strong dose of ammonia (spirits of hartshorn) internally.! Open copses, dry heaths, new woodland clearings, and sandy wastes, are the usual haunts of the adder. It was long supposed that Adders, and Snakes generally, exercised a sort of magnetic action — a power which has been called fascina- tion. This impression has been attributed, not without reason, to a less mysterious cause ; namely, the sentiment of profound terror which these creatures inspire. This terror manifests itself in animals by tremblings, spasms, and convulsions. The sight of a venomous snake sometimes renders its victims immovable, incapable of flight,, and as it were paralysed, in which helpless condition they are seized without opposing the slightest resistance. M. Dumeril, while pur- suing experiments in the Museum of Natural History demonstrative of the sudden and mortal action of the bite of a viper on little birds,, saw a goldfinch which he held in his hands die suddenly merely at. l • i r the sight of one. In warm countries wounds produced by the larger species of these terrible reptiles are extremely dangerous — they swell, become red and ecchymose, and sometimes livid; the wounded person is- seized with syncope, fever, and a series of morbid symptoms, which' often terminate in death. The remedy is to bind immediately & ligature above the wound with a band, such as a rolled handkerchief,, a cord, or a string, so as to stop all communication of the blood with, the rest of the body, and thus prevent the absorption of the venom intcv * A few cases have been known. — ED. f Subsequent experiments with the virus of the Indian Cobra have conclusively proved that ammonia is not a sufficient antidote. — ED. QO REPTILES AND BIRDS. the system till more effectual means can be adopted. It is well to suck the wound and make it bleed ; it is necessary also to make an incision, so as to expose the internal parts, and then to cauterise the wound immediately, either with a red-hot iron or by means of a caustic agent. For this purpose the following composition may be employed : — Perchloride of iron 60 grains. Citric acid 60 ,, Hydrochloric acid 60 „ Water 144 ,, A few drops of this is poured on the wounded part, which is then covered with a small piece of lint. Iodine or iodinet of potassium can also be employed. M. Viand-Marais substituted the following composition for this compound with great success : — Water 50 grains. Iodinet of Potassium 50 ,, Metallic iodine 50 , , To facilitate the introduction of caustic into the wound, the same naturalist invented a little bottle closed with emery; the stopper, which is long and conical at the lower end, plunges into the liquid. By means of this stopper the medicated substance can be made to penetrate by drops as far as the bottom of the wound, which has been previously enlarged by the bistoury. But all these means are only useful when applied immediately. The limbs and round about the wound must, besides, be rubbed with ammoniacal liniments. Afterwards emollient poultices should be used to lower the swelling and reduce the chances of congestion ; while tonics, sudorifics, and sometimes ammoniacal potions should be given internally. Never- theless, let us repeat that what has to be done must be done at once. Hesitation means imminent risk of death. It is a remarkable fact that this venom, which is one of the most virulent poisons known, can be taken internally with impunity. It is neither acrid nor burning, and only produces a sensation on the tongue analogous to that caused by greasy matter. But if introduced into a wound in sufficient quantities, it enters into the blood, and causes death with frightful rapidity. This is a characteristic common to all morbid and venomous virus. The strength of the venom varies according to the species of Snake, and likewise the condition of the animal. The same species is more dangerous in hot than in cold or temperate regions. The bite VENOM OF SNAKES. §\ is serious, according as the poison is more or less abundant in the glands, and probably with the degree of rage experiencea by the animal, as Sir Richard Owen supposes. Of snakes in general it has been remarked that "all strangers in countries where these reptiles abound are apt to exaggerate their danger ; but in a year or two they think as little of them as we do in England. I never knew an instance of a snake attacking a person unless it was trodden upon or molested, and even then they almost always give warning by hissing, or endeavour to effect their escape. During my residence in the Cape Colony I have at different times trodden on them or kicked them in the grass unintentionally, but was never bitten." * * Moodie's " Ten Years in South Africa," vol. i., p. 318. . • • . CHAPTER III. THE ORDER OF LIZARDS-SAURIANS. THIS is the second order of the great section of scaly reptiles (Squamata\ as distinguished from the shielded reptiles (Cata- phracta). The name Saurian, Zatpos, given by Aristotle to the genus of lizards, has been more comprehensively applied to a group of reptiles which have the body elongated, covered with scales, or having the skin rough like shagreen. They have, for the most part, four feet, the toes of which are furnished with hooked claws ; the eyelids are movable, and the jaws armed with encased teeth ; they have a distinct tympanum, a heart with two auricles and a single ventricle, sometimes partially valved, having sides and a sternum. They are not subject to metamorphosis, and, finally, they are furnished with a tail. "By far the greater number of the Saurians," writes Dr. Giinther, "are easily distinguished from the other orders of Reptiles by their elongated form, by their movable thorax covered with skin, by the presence of legs, and by their general integu- ments, which are either folded into scales, or granular, or tubercular, or shielded ; still, there are many Saurians which, at a superficial glance, might easily be taken for members of the preceding order, that of the Snakes ; and it cannot be denied that there is a gradual transition from one of these orders to the other. On the part of the Saurians, we allude to those which have no externally visible limbs, and which combine with a greatly elongated, cylindrical body, the peculiar kind of locomo- tion we observe in Snakes. Yet the greater affinity of these Reptiles to the ordinary Lizards is indicated by another character, which is in intimate connection with their mode of life. The Snakes, having movable maxillary bones, and mandibles not joined by a symphysis, are enabled to swallow other animals of appa- rently greater bulk than their own. In the Saurians the maxillae are fixed and immovable, and the mandibles are joined by an SA URIANS. 93 osseous suture, so that the cleft of the mouth can be dilated only in the usual vertical direction. Moreover, in these limbless Saurians we always find bones of the shoulder hidden below the skin, whilst no trace of them can be discovered in the true Snakes. The motions of some Lizards are extremely slow, whilst thgse of others are executed with very great but not lasting rapidity. Many of them have the power of changing their colours, which depends on the presence of several layers of cells loaded with different pigments ; these layers the animal compresses by more or less inflating its lungs, whereby the changes in the coloration are effected." Dr. Giinther does not follow Dr. Gray in arranging all true Reptiles into the two grand divisions of Shielded Reptiles ( Cataphracta) and Scaly Reptiles (Sguamata) ; but he includes the Crocodilidce among the Saurians as a first grand division of them, Emydosauri ; and the other Lizards constitute his second grand division of them, Lacertini. These latter are again primarily divisible according to the structure of the tongue. Thus, in the series of Leptoglossa, the tongue is elongated, forked, and exsertile, much as in the Ophidians ; in that of Pachyglossa the tongue is short, thick, attached to the gullet, and is not exsertile ; and in the Vermilingues it is worm-like, club-shaped in front, and very exsertile. The various genera of Saurians which have either not a trace of external limbs, or have them more or less diminutive and rudimentary — either the usual two pairs or one pair only, and in the latter case sometimes the fore and sometimes the hind pair being deficient — are included among the Leptoglossa, or the series which have a forked and protrusile tongue ; and so far as is practicable, we will commence by noticing the different serpentiform genera ; only, in a classification which is not confessedly superficial, it will be found that the various snake-like Saurians appertain to several distinct natural families, most of the other genera belonging to which have, in sundry cases, limbs that are well developed. Some of them, therefore, will have to be noticed as the different families to which they belong are successively treated of; and there will yet remain the curious ser- pentiform family of Amphisb(znid