A

United States Department of Agriculture,

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY— Circular No. 15.
H. W. WILEY, Chief.

RESULTS OF BORAX EXPERIMENT. '

The bulletin of the Bureau of Chemistry, No. 84, containing the first
report on the influence of preservatives, coloring matter, and other sub-
stances added to foods, on health and digestion, contains several hun-
dred pages. Under existing law no more than 1,000 copies of any
bulletin containing more than 100 pages can be published. The edition
above-named, therefore, will be sufficient to supply only the demands
of libraries and a very limited number of specialists engaged in similar
investigations. For this reason it is advisable, to prepare in a condensed
form a statement of some of the principal points considered in Bulletin
84 for more general distribution. The work of which the following digest
is presented was undertaken in accordance with the authority conferred
by Congress upon the Secretary of Agriculture to investigate the influence
of various substances added to foods upon health and digestion. The
exact wording of the act is as follows:

To investigate the character of proposed food preservatives and coloring matters
to determine their relation to digestion and health and to establish principles
which should guide their use.

The necessity for an investigation of this kind is found in the very
general use of certain chemical compounds for preserving foods, and
also in the very common use of certain coloring matters for imparting
fco foods a tint resembling that of nature, which the foods may have lost,
or of producing certain colors in food products which are attractive to
fce eye of the consumer.

The use of preservatives in food products is as old as civilization, and
there is no occasion in these investigations for extending the scope of
the authority given to the study of the long-established preservative
agents. Moreover, these preservative agents which have been so long
in use are condimentary in character and reveal themselves at once by
taste or odor to the consumer. The more important of these common
and long-established preservatives are salt, sugar, vinegar, and wood
smoke. Alcohol has also been long used as a food preservative, but
does not rank in antiquity and in generality of use with those just
mentioned.

One of the chief characteristics of the modern chemical preservative
is that it is often almost without taste or odor, and for this reason its
presence in a food product, unless specifically proclaimed, would not

1 Digest of Bulletin No. 84, giving the plan of work and conclusions as to
effects of boric acid and borax on digestion and health.

be noticed by the consumer. But while this is true of most of the pre-
servatives used in the preparation of foods (except the condimental
substances mentioned) in the quantities employed, this does not mean
that in a concentrated form they have neither taste nor odor. Quite
the contrary is true. Nearly all of them in a concentrated state reveal
themselves either by taste or by odor. For instance, salicylic acid in a
pure state is easily distinguished by the taste, and' sulphurous acid in
the form of gas or in a nearly saturated solution is distinguished by its
odor and irritant effect upon the nostrils. Nevertheless small quantities
of salicylic acid can be placed in food products without the consumer
being able to detect it, and the same is true of sulphurous acid.

Legislation of various kinds in different countries and in the different
States of the United States 1 has been enacted concerning the use of
preservatives and coloring matters in foods. This legislation is of
varying character, prohibiting in some countries what is allowed in
others, establishing rules and regulations which are local in character,]
and, in general, producing a state of affairs which is annoying to the
manufacturer of food products and the dealers therein, and which, by
the diversity of laws and decisions relating thereto, does not secure to
the consumer the full benefit which was intended. The desirability of
some investigation, therefore, was apparent, in order to establish certain
principles concerning the use or prohibition of these substances, whicht
by reason of their more general applicability, may influence local and
general legislation in a matter tending to secure a greater uniformity
and efficiency, it is also evident that if these investigations could be
conducted under some direction not particularly interested in the con-.-
struction of any law, nor associated in any commercial way with the
interests of either manufacturer or consumer, they would have a
greater weight.

The Secretary of Agriculture is manifestly the proper official to
undertake and direct such an investigation. The interests of the
Department over which he presides are associated alike with producers,,
manufacturers, and consumers of food products, and thus any bias
which might exist in other quarters in favor of any particular interest
would be eliminated. For this reason the investigations conducted
tinder his direction, even if no more thorough, painstaking, or reliable
than if carried on under other auspices, would be commended more
generally by reason of their freedom from influences which might tend
to divert them from their intended purposes.

PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION.

In determining the method by which these investigations should ba:
conducted a careful study was made of similar researches carried on

^U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Chemistry, Bui. 69, Parts I- VI ; Bui. 83^
Part I.

under other auspices, both in this and in foreign countries. A survey
of the field of research in this direction shows that. three principal
methods of procedure have been followed.

In the first case may be cited those investigations which have been
conducted by means of artificial digestion. Fortunately for science,
the various ferments which are active in digestion in the living animal
have been isolated and prepared in a reasonably pure state. By secur-
ing as nearly as possible the other conditions which obtain during
digestion in the living body, artificial digestion similar thereto can be
secured. Thus if food properly comminuted and kept, at the tempera-
ture of the stomach, in motion similar to that produced by the peri-
staltic action of the intestines, be treated by the proper digestive acids
and ferments, the chemical actions which occur are entirely similar to
those which take place in the living organ itself. Thus the ferments
which digest starch and sugar, those that act upon protein, and those
that act upon fats can be studied without the living organism. The
results which have been obtained by this method of investigation are
most valuable, and when the preservatives and coloring matters in
question are added, any changes which are produced, either in the
degree or in the rate of digestion, can be easily ascertained.

In the second case the problem may be studied by experiments con-
ducted upon the lower animals, and from the results of these experi-
ments inferences may be drawn applicable to the human animal. This
line of experiment and investigation has also great merit. The animals
operated on are kept under close control. The amount of food which
they consume is easily ascertained. The excreta they produce are col-
lected, and a complete chemical control can be instituted in connection
with the digestive process. When preservatives and coloring matters
are added to the food of animals thus treated, any changes which take
place in the digestive processes or any lesions which are produced in
the organs of the body can be ascertained. This method of investiga-
tion also has the additional merit that at the end of the period of
observation the animal may be killed, and changes in its organs, which
were so slight as to produce no observable effects during life, may be
sought and discovered. Thus, minute or incipient lesions of the
digestive organs, or of the other organs of the body, are brought to
light which otherwise would escape notice. If the digestive processes
in the lower animals were exactly the same as those in the human ani-
mal this method of investigation would necessarily be accepted as final
and conclusive ; but each species of animal has its own peculiarities of
digestion, and, therefore, the results produced on one species of animal
by a certain course of treatment might not be secured with an animal
of a different species or genus. This fact has led investigators to under-
take a third kind of research, namely, experiments with the human
animal itself.

This method of investigation also has advantages as well as many
disadvantages. For the most part, such investigations are carried out
upon volunteers, since no one could be forced to undergo any such
experimental treatment except as a punishment for crime. In the sec-
ond place the intelligence of the human animal may also be utilized in
the study of the effects produced. Symptoms which the lower animals
might have of distress or malaise, when in the incipient stage, might
escape notice altogether, whereas similar symptoms in a man would be
described. Further, it must be admitted that animals under confine-
ment, as is necessarily the case when experiments are made with them,
are not wholly in a' normal state, whereas the man who volunteers for
an experiment of this kind would not chafe or become restive under
confinement. Again, it must be considered that as the object of the
investigations above outlined is necessarily applicable to the digestion
and health of man, it is evident that the experiments made upon man
would be the most decisive in all cases.

The one great disadvantage of experiments of this kind is the inability
to absolutely control the experimentee. Where a large number of per-
sons is to be considered and the experiment is to extend over a long
period, it is evidently impracticable to secure a direct personal control
of every action of each one during the whole time. In the present case
the young men selected, who volunteered for the experiment, continued
their usual vocations^ They were simply placed upon their honor and
neither watched nor confined. The data which are obtained in this
way are, therefore, open to the objection, in some cases, that the rules
and regulations set for the conduct of the experiment may have been
transgressed without the knowledge and consent of the observer. While
this is a valid objection and should have full consideration, it must not
be forgotten that among the twelve young men upon whom the experi-
ments were conducted, it is not likely that the violations of their pledge
of honor would be sufficiently numerous to affect in any marked degre
the results as a whole. Further, it must be remembered that the greater
number of those upon whom experiments were made were young men
of approved character, many of them had college training, and a large
majority of them were engaged in scientific pursuits. All these facti
are of more or less importance in considering the character of the data
secured. It would be unwise to claim that among so many persons,
and amid so many temptations, no violation of the pledge took place J
yet it must be admitted that upon the whole we can be reasonably cer-l
tain that the obligations voluntarily assumed were discharged faithfully)
and conscientiously. Any departures from the set rules of conduct
which might occur would not be made with any design of affecting the
data, and, therefore, as a whole, the errors which might arise from thisl
source would, according to the doctrine of probabilities, be largely com-j
pensatory. Thus, while in any individual case the data might be rendered

unreliable by reason of such departures from the set rules, the results
as a whole would not be seriously affected. The plan of the work, there-
fore, included the idea of conducting the investigation with volunteers —
young men, most of whom were connected with the Department of Agri-
culture— and provided that during the period of observation they should
continue in their usual vocations.

DETAILS OF ORGANIZATION OF THE WORK.

CONTROL OF SUBJECTS.

A large number of volunteers offered their services for the investiga-
tions above outlined, from whom twelve were selected. Each appli-
cant was required to fill in a blank describing the usual conduct of his
daily life. This blank is as follows :

Descriptive blank to be filled out by applicants for Hygienic Table.

1. Name and address.

2. Date of birth.

3. Have you had any sickness confining you to your room within a

year? If so, state nature and duration.

4. Are you subject to indigestion ? If so, state character and fre-

quency.

5. Do you use coffee, tea, or chocolate with your meals? If so,

state at which meals and which beverage you prefer.

6. Do you use tobacco ? If so, state in what form, at what times,

and quantity.

7. Do you use wine, beer, or other alcoholic beverages?

8. Do you go to stool regularly ? At what hours ?

9. At what hours do you usually urinate ? A

10. At what hours do you go to bed ? How many hours do you

usually sleep ?

11. Do you engage in any unusual or violent exercise ? If so, what ?

All applicants who were addicted to the use of alcoholic beverages
were excluded for the reason that alcohol, having a certain food value,
and the habit of using it often being a strong one, the difficulty of
refraining from its use would at times become very great. Moreover,
it was desired not to complicate the character of the diet by the intro-
duction of any alcoholic beverage. Applicants addicted to the moder-
erate use of tobacco were accepted on condition that a statement be
made covering the usual quantities of tobacco consumed, the character
thereof, and the methods of consumption. Such applicants were
admitted to the hygienic table agreeing, among other things, to con-
tinue the use of tobacco regularly during the whole period in the man-
ner described. The members of the table having been selected, each
one was required to subscribe to the following pledge :

I hereby agree, on my honor, to follow implicitly the rules and regulations
governing the hygienic table of the Bureau of Chemistry during the time that I
am a member thereof. I agree, during my attendance at the table of observa-
tion, to use no other food or drink than that which is provided for me, with the

6

exception of water, and that any water not used at the table will be measured
and reported daily as a part of the ration. I further agree that I will continue
to be a member of the hygienic table for a period of at least six months, from
December 1, 1902, unless prevented by some illness, accident, or unavoidable
absence. I agree to continue the regular habits of my life, to indulge in no
unusual excess of labor or exercise, and if tobacco be used it shall be used at
such times and in such amounts as will be agreed upon between myself and the
Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry.

I further agree that I will not hold the Department of Agriculture, nor any
person connected therewith, responsible for any illness or accident that may
occur during my connection with the hygienic table.

In experiments of this kind it is evident that it is necessary to rely
to a certain extent upon the honor of the person under observation.
The only other method would be to exercise continued surveillance day
and night, which, under the circumstances of these experiments, was
quite impracticable. At the completion of an experimental period, in
retiring from the experimental table and passing to the recreation table,
the candidate was required to subscribe to the following certificate :

I hereby certify on my honor that during the period beginning and

ending , I have not partaken of any food or drink (except water

reported) other than that furnished at the hygienic table of the Bureau of Chem-
istry, and that I have accurately recorded all the items of food and drink
received at the table.

I further certify that I have not engaged in any excessive or unusual physical
exercise ; that I have followed, in so far as possible, the regular tenor of my
daily life in respect of work, exercise, and sleep ; that I have observed to the
best of my ability and recorded accurately the data relating to weight, tempera-
ture and pulse ; and that I have observed faithfully all the regulations connected
with the experimental work at the hygienic table.

By thus placing the young men on their honor, by interesting them
in the work, and by giving them periods of rest duiring which they were
at liberty to eat moderately at other tables than those set in the Bureau
of Chemistry, practically the same results which would have been
obtained by an absolute control of animals experimented upon both
during the periods of eating and the intervening periods were secured.

HOURS OF MEALS.

The hours of meals were fixed as follows: Breakfast, 8 a. m.,
luncheon, 12 m., dinner, 5.30 p. m. The members of the table were
urged to be as prompt as possible at meals, although in certain cir-
cumstances some latitude was allowed. Inasmuch, however, as the
food had to be weighed in advance of the meal time, it was desir-
able that all should be present promptly at the hour in order that the
food should not grow cold or stale. It perhaps would have been desir-
able to extend the meals over a longer period had it been convenient,
since the arrangement above described made a very long interval be-
tween the dinner, which was finished usually by a quarter past six, and
the breakfast of the next morning — in all about fourteen hours during

which no food could be taken — while, on the other hand, all of the
meals were included within a space of about ten hours. An earlier
breakfast, say at 7 o'clock, and a later dinner would have been desir-
ahle, but the employment of the young men and -other conditions of the
environment, made any different arrangement from that adopted incon-
venient to the majority of those under observation. Further than this
it should be mentioned that the hours selected for the meals were those
which are customary for those who are engaged in the civil service
of the United States. For this additional reason it perhaps was wiser
not to attempt to change the hours of meals in order to avoid having so
:long a period between the dinner and the breakfast.

The breakfast and dinner were made the principal meals, while the
luncheon was of a lighter character, no meat being served.

THE BILL OF FARE.

Since the young men were to be kept under observation for periods
of from 30 to 70 days, it was clearly desirable to make the bill of fare as
varied as convenient. To this end the meats selected were roast beef,
beefsteak, lamb, veal, pork, chicken, and turkey. Fish and oysters
were also used. The eggs, which were served twice a week, may also be
included with the meats. The butter was of the best quality which
could be made, and was free from coloring matter and salt. The milk
and cream were obtained from dairies carefully inspected by the authori-
ties of the District of Columbia and personally visited by the Chief of
the Bureau of Chemistry. The vegetables wrere those of the season, and
where they could not be obtained otherwise, the best grades of vege-
tables preserved by sterilization alone were used. The soups, in order to
secure uniformity in their composition, were purchased of large manu-
facturing firms making a specialty of soups. The fruits were those of
the season or preserved without antiseptics. In all cases it was stipu-
lated that none of the foods furnished should be treated with any pre-
servative, and in no case was this injunction violated, in so far as our
examinations extended. All the preserved foods which were employed
had either been kept in cold storage, as w^as the case of the meats and
the fowls, or been subjected to sterilization and subsequent exclusion of
the air, as was the case with some of the vegetables, fruits, and soups.
Assurances that these bodies were free from any chemical preservative
or other antiseptic were secured from all the dealers, and the assurances
were confirmed by our own examinations. Coffee and tea were allowed
in moderate, uniform quantities to those who were in the habit of drink-
ing these beverages. Desserts of various kinds were employed at regu-
lar times, consisting of custards, rice pudding, and ice cream made
with the best cream, sugar, and a flavoring substance. A liberal supply
of fruits was incorporated with the food supply, either those in season

those preserved by sterilization.

8

The bill of fare was varied every day, but recurred regularly in seven-
day periods. This arrangement avoided the monotony of eating the
same character of food on successive days, and, at the same time,-!
favored simplicity by the regularly recurrent use of established rations!
This was convenient, both for the cook and for the steward, to guide in
the one case in the methods of the preparation of the food, and, in the
other, to determine the character of the supplies to be purchased.

Two rooms in the basement of the laboratory building were equipped
as kitchen and dining room respectively. The kitchen was supplied with
two gas ranges and a full supply of culinary utensils. The dining
room was plainly, yet substantially, furnished with the necessary articles
for preparing a table in a neat, attractive, but not expensive manner.

SERIES AND PERIODS OF OBSERVATION.

Three divisions were made of each series of observations, namely,
fore period, preservative period, and after period. The time assigned
to each of these periods varied, and the total time of the three periods
varied from 30 to 70 days.

During the entire time of observation the rations of each member of?
the table were carefully weighed or measured, and the excreta collected.

The object of the " fore .period " was to determine as nearly as possi-
ble the quantity of food required to maintain the body weight at
nearly a constant figure, and to determine the normal metabolism as a
basis of comparison with that of the preservative period. Preceding
the fore period the quantities of food freely chosen by each individual
were noted, so that some idea might be formed of the proper amount
to be weighed or measured. If it was evident that too much food had
been habitually consumed, keeping the body in a plethoric state, the
rations were cut down somewhat in order that this condition might be
removed. The quantity of the ration was, therefore, varied either by1
increase or decrease, until at the end of about ten days there was no,
very marked daily change in weight. It was found impracticable, howJ
ever, to secure an absolute constancy of body weight, since the climatic
conditions, slight differences in the amount of exercise, and variations
in the quantity of excreta all combined to produce Variations in weight
(as ascertained at any given period of the day), which are more or less
independent of the actual quantity of food consumed. In order that
these daily variations may be eliminated from consideration in the com-
parison of data, the average weight for the "fore period" is taken as
the initial point.

The quantity of the ration having been thus determined by the
observations of the "fore period" the " preservative -period " is entered
upon. During this time the quantity of ration previously determined
is given without variation, except in case of sickness or some unavoid-
able condition, and to this ration a certain quantity of the preservative
to be studied is added.

9

Borax was selected as the first preservative to be experimented with,
both because it is probably the most important of the commonly used
preservatives and also because it lends itself to purposes of demonstra-
tion the most readily. The preservative was exhibited in two forms,
namely, borax and boric acid, as it was thought possible that the soda
entering into the former might produce some modification of the
results.

! During the first part of the experiments here described, the borax or
boric acid was mixed with the butter. In later periods of the study it
Iras deemed advisable, for many reasons, to administer the preservative
|n capsules. When it was realized that a certain article of food con-
tained the preservative a natural distaste for this article was developed,
due largely, perhaps, to mental attitude. Since it was known by all
that preservatives were administered, there seemed to be no valid reason
why they should not be given in capsules in order that the prejudice
against any particular article of food might be avoided. It is true that
objection might be made to this method because it is so different from
the actual method of consuming preservatives when added to foods in
the ordinary way. Preliminary experiments with the gelatine of the
capsules showed that it dissolved in a very few moments in the diges-
tive ferments. This having been established, it is evident that in a
few minutes after the administration of a capsule containing borax its
gelatinous envelope would be dissolved, and by the peristaltic action of
the stomach the contents of the capsule would be mixed with that of
the stomach. It is hardly necessary to add that the food value of the
•apsule in each case was determined and allowed for in making the
balance of the daily rations.

In the administration of the preservative, small quantities were first
given, approximately as much as would be consumed in eating foods
preserved with borax, such as butter and meat. These quantities were
progressively increased for the purpose of reaching, if possible, the limit
of toleration of the preservative by each individual. For each variation
of the quantity given a separate study of the digestive processes as
influenced by the preservative was made.

At the end of the preservative period, the after period began. During
the after period practically the same quantities of food were given as
in the preservative period, the preservative, however, being omitted.
The object of this after period was to restore the individual as nearly
as possible, if there had been any disturbance of his physical state, to
the condition precedent to the beginning of the experimental period.

During the entire time from the beginning of the fore period to the
end of the after period the foods were weighed or measured and analyzed,
and the excreta collected and analyzed.

10

MEDICAL SUPERVISION.

It was deemed important to have competent medical supervision of
the members of the experimental class in order that the results of the
investigations might be studied also from the point of view of the phy-
sician. It was also thought best that this supervision should come fol
this purpose from an official source. To this end the Secret my of Agri-
culture addressed the following communication to the Secretary of the
Treasury :

I have the honor to ask that you request the Surgeon-General of the Public!
Health and Marine Hospital Service to detail a physician from his staff to make
physical and medical examinations of the young men employed in this Depart-
ment in testing the effect of preservatives upon the health of the consumer.

There -will not be any very great drain upon the time of this expert, since the I
examinations are to be made only about once in ten days, on six young men,*,
and will not consume, probably, over two hours, making a total of not to exceed J
six hours' service per month.

In this connection I beg to suggest that the Surgeon-General arrange with i
Dr. H. W. Wiley, the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry, for the details of these
examinations.

. The following reply was received to the above communication :

I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your communication of January
28, 1903, requesting that the. Surgeon-General of the Public Health and Marine]
Hospital Service be asked to detail a physician from his staff to make physical
and medical examinations of the young men employed in your department in,
testing the effect of preservatives upon the health of the consumer.

In reply I have to inform you that your communication has been forwarded
to the Surgeon-General of the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, wh<l
informs me that he will detail Assistant Surgeon-General H. D. Geddings to make
the desired examinations.

The Surgeon-General further informs me that he has communicated with Prof.|
H. W. Wiley, the Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry of your Department, and
that Doctor Geddings has been instructed to arrange details with Professor Wiley
in the matter.

In harmony with the above arrangement, Dr. Geddings regularly vim
ited the young men under experiment once a week, giving them a
careful physical examination, inquiring in regard to sj^mptoms of any.
disturbances in their physical state, and prescribing for them when they
fell ill, either incidentally to their work or independently thereof. Un-j
fortunately, in several cases, the members of the training table suffered
severely from colds, influenza, and grippe to such an extent as often to I
lose the value of their services during a whole period. These cases oil
illness, not due to the action of the preservatives, are duly noted in the
proper places in the details of the experimental work.

EXAMINATION OF THE BLOOD.

Any changes which might take place in the relative number of cor-i
puscles in the blood, or in the blood coloring matter, are of value in
determining the general effect of the added preservatives upon health

11

land digestion. To study this, the ordinary methods of counting the
blood corpuscles and measuring the coloring matter in the blood were
followed. Valuable help in the initiation of this work was obtained
from Dr. Wm. B. French and Dr. E. B. Behrends. The actual exami-
nation of blood, for the purposes mentioned, was conducted by Messrs.
B. J. Howard and C. P. Knight. The work on the examination of the
blood was not commenced at the beginning of the experiment, and so
;it does not cover the whole time of the experimental work.

DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE.

; The temperature of the blood was taken sub lingua before and after
'dinner each day. This method is probably the least accurate of any in
1 common use. It is, howrever, convenient and easy. Since the chief
object of the determination \vas to disclose any notable departures from
the normal the method was considered fairly reliable.
:> Standard clinical thermometers of maximum registration were used
for this purpose, each subject being supplied with a separate thermom-
eter. These thermometers wrere all graduated through the courtesy of
the Bureau of Standards.

The rate of pulse was also determined in connection with the deter-
mination of the temperature. This is, however, not a matter of so
very much importance because of the ease with which the rate of pulse
is varied by exercise and emotional influences.

In general, an attempt was made to control as fully as possible all
the avenues which might lead to any useful information concerning
changes, even of a minute character, in the functional activities of the
body during the period of observation. As has already been intimated,
the final verification of any small changes of an organic nature, espe-
cially of incipient lesions which may take place, is denied in experi-
ment upon human beings, but, in so far as possible, any intimations of
such changes, which could have been secured by any of the ordinary
methods of study, were noted.

In data of this kind, namely the determination of the temperature,
pulse beat, etc., where dependence is placed upon the subject himself,
there are doubtless errors of observation which are undetected.
Instructions, however, were given, and in so far as possible carried out,
to the effect that any variation of a marked character must be verified
by a second observer. This rule applied, not only to the variations in
the body weight from day to day, but also to the departure of the tem-
perature from the normal, and to the variations in the rate of pulsation
of the heart. Thus, whenever one individual in the class noted any
marked variation from the normal he called upon either one of the
superintendents or one of his fellows to verify the numbers which he had
observed. By taking this precaution many errors which otherwise
Id have crept into the reports were avoided.

wou

12

BODY WEIGHTS.

The weights of the body were ascertained by means of a platform
scale with agate bearings, and of a delicacy sufficient to register easily
differences of weight of 10 grams when carrying a man of average
weight. The subjects were weighed naked, as it is not safe to assume
that the weight of clothing remains constant, for even if the same kind
or character of clothing be worn, the variation in weight is very great
because of changes in the hygroscopic condition of the atmosphere.
Thus a given amount of clothing would show very different weights on
a dry and on a wet day.

In the general discussion of the influence of weights it is always i
advisable to take the average weight for a period of days rather than
the separate weight for any one day. In the interpretation of the value
of the body weight it should not be forgotten that a loss in weight must
not be interpreted to mean always defective nutrition, nor a gain in
weight be attributed always to conditions favorable to health. The
accumulation of an excessive amount of fat is not an evidence of excel-
lent digestion or normal increase. It may be due to a perversion, to
some extent, of the processes of assimilation. On the other hand a.
loss of weight is not always to be interpreted as indicating an unfavoil
able condition of nutrition, because in persons who indulge in overl
feeding, or who have accumulated excessive fat for other reasons, a
diminution of weight may be distinctly favorable to better digestion anl
health. Nevertheless, in a state of normal equilibrium when the food
supply remains constant, any marked variations in weight can not bf
regarded as wholly normal.

DIFFICULTIES CONNECTED WITH THE WORK.
COLLECTION OF EXCRETA.

Aside from the usual difficulties connected with analytical practice^
which must always be taken into consideration, there are some special
points in connection with a work of this kind which must be mentioned.
These difficulties are connected chiefly with the collection and analysis
of the excreta. The principal object in the analysis of the excreta, as
is evident, is to establish the relation between certain ingested elements
and those which appear in the excreta. Certain forms of food are more
or less completely changed in passing through the body, and are oxi-
dized and manifested as heat and energy. The fats and carbohydrates
are types of food of this kind. Certain other elements in foods, while
they undergo marked changes of combination during digestion, assimi-
lation, and excretion, appear in the excreta in practically the same
quantity in which they are found in the food. Among these substances
may be particularly mentioned nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus.

In a state of equilibrium, where the body is exercising all of its func-
tions in a normal manner, and where there is neither increase nor

13

(decrease in body weight, the quantities of nitrogen, sulphur, and phos-
phorus which are excreted should be the same as those which are
ingested in the food. This should not be construed to imply that the
actual elements eaten on one day appear in the excreta of the next day.
This is far from being the case. It may require many days, weeks, or
even months, for a given particle of nitrogen, sulphur, or phosphorus
ingested in the food to reappear in the excreta. It is sufficient, how-
ever, for the purpose of establishing the balance between these ingested
i substances and those which are recovered in the excreta to assume that
the quantities forced out of the body each day when in a normal state
are equivalent in all respects to those which are introduced. As an illus-
tration, the case of a tube long enough to hold a hundred marbles may
be cited. If an additional marble be forced in at one end of the tube,
a marble of equal magnitude will be forced out at the other, and thus
the balance will be maintained in the tube. So in a state of equilib-
rium each molecule or atom of nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulphur enter-
ing the body will be represented by a similar molecule or atom of these
respective substances forced out of the body.

Were it practicable in experiments such as these to collect absolutely
every particle of emergent nitrogen, for instance, the balance between
the entering and departing nitrogen should be complete. In these experi-
ments, however, no attempt was made to collect any of the nitrogen
except that removed from the body in the urine and feces. This, of
course, represents nearly all of the nitrogen excreted, but not quite all.
Small amounts of nitrogen are separated from the body in the hair, the
nails, and the desquamations from the surface of the body. Thus in a
perfectly normal state of the body the sum of the nitrogen excreted in
the urine and feces would not represent the total amount ingested in
the food. On the other hand, in abnormal states of the body, where the
breaking down of the tissues is going on more rapidly than their build-
ing up, just the reverse condition would prove true. The same state-
ments may be made with reference to the sulphur and phosphorus.

It is evident, however, that, if a relation can be established between
the total amount of these substances entering the food and that leaving
the body in the urine and feces, any disturbance of that relation by the
addition of an abnormal constituent to the food, such as a preservative,
can be easily detected. Therefore, for the purposes of these investiga-
tions, the fact that complete collection of these elements from the body
is not secured is not a valid objection to the deductions which are made
from the data. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out with clearness
and frankness that in the conditions in which these experiments were
made there are possibilities of error which must not be overlooked.
Carelessness on the part of the observer himself in the collection of the
excreta, a violation of the pledge in regard to the conduct of life, or an
error in analysis would each tend to render the results of less value.

14

That such errors have been wholly excluded from the data submitted is
not likely. On the other hand, errors of this kind which may have been
introduced could not have been purposely made in order to modify the
final results of the investigation. Hence it is fair to assume that such
errors are to a certain extent compensatory, and that they do not affect
seriously the conclusions based upon the data as a whole. Those who
have worked in investigations of this kind, however, will understand I
the great difficulties which attend them, as well as the care which has i
to be exercised in their conduct, and will be the more ready to excuse
any unavoidable error which may have crept in, either in the conduct of
the work or the morale of those who were subjected to the experiment.

EFFECTS OF REGULAR HABITS OF LIFE.

Another important factor must be considered in the interpretation of;!
the data which have been obtained in these experiments, namely, the
effect of regular habits of living, uniform quantity of diet, and general
control of the appetite upon the physical well being of the subject.

It is usually considered by physiologists and physicians that regular
habits of life conduce to health and strength. This theory has been
corroborated by the results of the experimental work here detailed.
While it is true that in -many instances during the progress of the
investigation the members of the table were made temporarily ill by
the quantities of the preservatives administered, it is, nevertheless, anj
interesting fact to note that at the end of the year after the final " after
period" had been passed, they appeared to be, and declared themselves
to be, in better physical condition than when they entered upon the
experimental work seven months before.

This fact, as has already been stated, must not be neglected, since it,
is evident that the tendency toward a good physical state and good
health produced by the regular habits of life might counteract the
unfavorable tendency of any exhibited preservative, so that at the end
of the observation, if the results were judged only by the condition of
the subject at that time, they might be pronounced negative or even
helpful, whereas in point of fact, the preservative might have produced
injurious effects. Self-restraint, temperance, regularity of exercise, reg-
ularity in hours of sleep and hours of work are believed to have favora-
ble effects, and these were manifested in a marked degree throughout
the whole of the experimental work.

MENTAL ATTITUDE.

That the personal attitude of the individual experimented upon
influences, to a certain degree, the progress of digestion is undoubtedly
true. Every physician and physiologist is familiar with the marked
effect which mental states produce upon the bodily functions. These
effects may be either favorable or unfavorable. Cheerful surroundings,

15

good company, and, in general, an agreeable environment tend to pro-
mote the favorable progress of digestion. A reversal of the conditions
of environment to the disagreeable, combined with mental depression,
bad news, and other unfavorable conditions, have exactly the opposite
effect.

The question, therefore, arose in connection with the experimental
work as to the advisability and possibility of preventing the mental
attitude from producing any effect. A careful consideration of all the
conditions of the problem made it clear that it would be impossible to
conduct the experiments in any way which would exclude from the
knowledge of the participant the fact that preservatives were added to
the food. It was fully understood that he was employed for this pur-
pose, and the very moment that the observation began upon his daily
life, by weighing the food and collecting the excreta, he would be
aware of the fact that he was under observation and was probably par-
taking of preservatives.

The question also arose whether or not the preservatives should be
given in capsules openly or whether they should be concealed in the
food itself. Both of these methods received a thorough experimental
trial. When the preservative was mixed with the food in such a way
as to conceal its physical appearance, a certain dislike of the food in
which it was supposed to be was manifested by some of the members
of the table. Those who thought the preservative was concealed in the
butter were disposed to find the butter unpalatable, and the same was
true with those who thought it might be in the milk or the coffee.
When, on the other hand, the preservative was given in the capsules
with the full knowledge of the subject, much less disturbance was
created. In fact, after a day or two, when the subject became used to
the fact that he was taking a preservative, it was apparent that the
effect of the mental attitude was not at all noticeable. All the foods
offered were relished because they were known to contain no preserva-
tive, while the preservative, itself, exhibited in the form of a capsule,
imparted no bad taste or other disagreeable effect.

If an experiment of this kind were to be continued only a few days it
is evident that the mental attitude of the subject would be a matter of
much concern, but when from 30 to 70 days are employed in one series
of observations, and especially when the observations are continued for
many months, this effect rapidly wears away, and probably does not
influence the final results in any appreciable manner.

The young men were cautioned to avoid discussing the development
of any symptoms which they might notice among themselves and were
urged not to dwell upon any indications of abnormal conditions which
they might experience, but to keep their minds employed on their usual
vocations and to avoid thinking, as much as possible, about the experi-
ts which they were undergoing. In most cases this course of pro-

16

cedure had its desired effect, and from the general deportment of those
upon whom the experiments were made it may be stated, with a con-
siderable degree of confidence, that the mental state as a whole had very
little influence upon the course and progress of digestion.

It is in this particular, namely, the mental attitude, that experiments
conducted with artificial digestion and experiments conducted upon the
lower animals have decided advantages. Yet it must be admitted that
in the latter case the confinement to which the animals are subjected
probably produces a mental attitude more prejudicial to normal physio-
logical processes than that produced in the case of the man who under-
stands fully the conditions which surround him.

CLASSIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA.

The great difficulties of correctly studying the extensive data which
these experiments have given and drawing therefrom the proper conclu-
sions are fully realized. The utmost care must be exercised in these
cases to remove all possible personal bias and to free oneself, in so far
as possible, from the weight of authorities which have been consulted.
Public opinion, also, must not be forgotten in this respect, especially
when it is considered that it is almost universally believed by the great
majority of our people that added preservatives are always injurious and
in many instances poisonous. But even when personal bias, weight of
authority, and public opinion are eliminated from the problem, it is
still a most difficult one. So many elements enter into its study, so
many conditions difficult to control, so many idiosyncrasies are to bl
reckoned with, so many external causes influencing health are beyond
control, that it is difficult in many cases to decide, where variations are
noticed, as to the exact or even the apparent cause which has produced
them.

The problem, therefore, has been attacked with a full knowledge of
its difficulty and with the desire to be conservative and free from dog-
matism. It would probably be better if all the detailed data which
have been secured could be printed in connection with this discussion,
so that the critical reader might be able in every instance to refer to
the original figures. Enormous space, however, would be occupied b;
the data, and the fact that in most cases they would be of little use i
detail has led to the decision to publish only summaries, with such
detail as may be necessary to point out the way in which the general
data have been obtained. If, as may appear later on, all points of th
problem have not been elucidated, the failure has not arisen either fro
lack of .desire or from want of industry in the conduct of the experiment.
It is to be attributed rather to the limitations placed upon the observers,
either by lack of experience or by lack of knowledge how to properly
classify, digest, and study the data at their disposition. A serious
attempt has been made to present these data in their full significance,

17

and in no case has any tampering therewith been counseled, desired, or
permitted. The unfortunate fact that many of the data are contradic-
tory must be accepted without question. As the judge and the jury in
the light of contradictory evidence seek to decide which is the more
trustworthy, so have the data herein contained 'been interpreted with a
view, if possible, to give the greater weight to those which deserve the
j greater credit.

To give an idea of the volume of work involved in this investigation
the following approximate estimate is given of the number of samples
analyzed and the number of record and calculation forms used, though
this but inadequately represents the detail of the work in all its phases.

Number of samples analyzed, etc.
[Number of days of observation, 196.]

Food samples 2,550

Urine samples 1,175

Feces samples 1,175

Microscopical examinations :

Urine 125

Blood _. 60

Total _ 5,085

Number of record sheets, balances, etc.

Menu sheets___ 3,618

Daily sheets 1,206

Amount and composition of food 1,206

Food calculation sheets 75

Feces :

Amount and composition 35

Calculation sheets 65

Urine sheets 20

Balance tables __ 200

Total 6,425

Each one of these analyses, forms, and tabulations was used in pre-
paring the summaries and conclusions which follow.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
RATIO OF FOOD CONSUMED TO BODY WEIGHT.

Of interest in connection with the other purposes of this investigation
is a study of the relation of the weight of food consumed to the body
weight which was made in detail during the first series of observation.
This study was made of each individual article of diet, and included a
statement of the ratio of the weight of food, including the water con-
sumed, and the ratio of the weight of the dry matter in the food to the
body weight. During the fore period, first series of observations, the
average daily weight of the moist food, including water drunk, was 4.20

£' cent of the total weight of the body ; during the preservative period
A 7717— —2

18

4.22 per cent, and for the after period 4.21 per cent. That is. in about
twenty-four days the average healthy young man would consume a
quantiity of moist food, including water drunk, equal to his own
weight.

It is seen by the above that the administration of the preservative
caused very little .variation in the weight of food consumed compared
with the wreight of the body.

Reduced to water-free basis, the quantity of food consumed in rela-
tion to the weight of the body is as follows :

Per cent.

Fore period %- 0.96

Preservation period 0.99

After period 1.01

These data show that there is very little difference between the total
quantity of dry matter in the food during the three periods. The
total quantity of dry matter in the food consumed daily is in round
numbers 1 per cent of the weight of the body. For a man weighing 150
pounds, therefore, the quantity of dry matter daily consumed in the
food is about 1.5 pounds. It is also interesting to note that the daily
ratio of the moist food, including the water drunk, is a little more than
four times as great as that of the dry food.

Similar data for the other series of observations are recorded, but the
further discussion of the problem is not deemed necessary.

INFLUENCE OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE WEIGHT OF THE BODYJ

In every series there was a marked tendency on the part of boric acid
and borax to diminish slightly the weight of the body, although this
tendency was in some instances checked during the after periods and
portion of the loss of weight was regained. In general, however, the!
was a tendency to continue the loss of weight during the after period

EXCRETION OF THE ADDED PRESERVATIVES.

The borax and boric acid taken into the stomach during the progress
of these experiments were excreted almost entirely by the kidneys. I
the first series of experiments 83.05 per cent were thus excreted, in th
second series 82.85 per cent, in the third series 63.87 per cent, in th
fourth series 82.96 per cent, and in the fifth series 75.17 per cent. Du
ing the course of observation 607.4 grams of preservative were given
either in the form of boric- acid or the equivalent in borax, of whi<
468.69 grams were excreted in the urine, or 77.16 per cent of the whole
These numbers include the data for Series III where the quantity of the
preservative recovered in the urine appears to be abnormally low. I
round numbers it may be said that 80 per cent of the boric acid and bora
taken into the system in foods is excreted in the urine. It is probabl
that the rest is chiefly excreted with the perspiration. Only small quan
titles are found in the feces.

19

<TECT OF THE PRESERVATIVES UPON THE COMPOSITION OF THE FECES.

A careful study of the effect of the preservative administered upon
the composition of the feces shows a slight tendency to increase the
amount of water therein. There is, however, no tendency of any marked
nature, even when the preservatives are given in large quantities, to
excite diarrhea. The administration of the preservative produces a
slight increase in the weight of dry matter in the feces.

INFLUENCE OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE METABOLISM OF

NITROGEN.

There is only a slight effect produced as a whole, as determined by
the data of experiment, upon the excretion of nitrogen. The individ-
ual variations are somewhat marked, showing the danger of depending
too positively upon data from only one or two persons. A slight tend-
incy is shown, however, on the part of the preservative to decrease
the excretion of nitrogen, which tendency becomes more marked after
the withdrawal of the preservatives. For instance, the average nitro-
gen balance of the four series of observation (excluding Series II),
during the fore periods is 1.009, during the preservative periods 1.12,
and during the after periods 1.74 grams per day. Expressed as a per-
centage the combined data show an excretion of 94.2 per cent of nitro-
gen taken in the food during the fore periods, 93.6 per cent in the pre-
servative periods, and 90.1 in the after periods.

The general summary of all the experiments with borax and boric
acid indicates the largest elimination of nitrogen in the fore periods, an
intermediate amount in the preservative periods, and the smallest elim-
ination in the after periods.

This relation is either produced by causes other. than the administra-
tion of the preservative or the effect of the preservative continues after
ks administration has ceased and even after the preservative itself has
•eased to be excreted from the body. It is not impossible that such
an influence may be exerted. The retarding influence of the preserva-
ative probably increases with the length of the experiment, especially
in those cases in which the amount of preservative administered is pro-
gressively increased. When the administration of the preservative is
discontinued, the elimination of nitrogen is probably at the lowest point
(if depressed by the preservative), and yet during the first days of the
after period (at least while the preservative is still in the system) the
amount of nitrogen eliminated is probably a!s low as on the preceding
days. There may be a tendency of the preservative in the large amounts
in which it is administered to increase the formation of difficultly soluble
compounds of nitrogen, and by that means, if no other, retard its elim-
ination from the body.

20

THE EFFECT OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE METABOLISM OF
PHOSPHORIC ACID.

A study of the data relative to the influence of boric acid and borax
upon the metabolism of phosphorus reveals many contradictory results.
When, however, all the data are collected into one expression it is
found that the influence of these bodies added to the food is distinctly
marked on the metabolism of phosphorus and phosphoric acid. There
is a distinct tendency shown by them to increase the quantity of phos-
phoric acid excreted during the period of the administration of the pre-
servative. In the combined data of Series I, III, IV, and V the aver-
age per cent of phosphoric acid, taken in the food, eliminated during
the fore periods of observation is 97.3, during the preservative periods
103.1 per cent, and during the after periods 97.0 per cent.

INFLUENCE OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE ELIMINATION OF FAT.

The influence of boric acid and borax upon the metabolism of fat iaj
not very marked. There is a slight tendency shown to decrease the
elimination of fat in the feces during the administration of the presenm
ative, and a tendency to recover is shown during the after periods. The!
percentage of fat ingested in the food, eliminated during the fore periods
is 4.1, during the preservative period 4.0 per cent, and during the after
periods 4.2 per cent. These data show that almost no disturbance in the]
metabolism of fat is caused by the administration of the preservative.

INFLUENCE OF BORIC ACID AND BORAX UPON THE OXIDATION OF THE
COMBUSTIBLE MATTER IN THE FOOD.

The collected data of all the series (except Series II) show that 6.4
per cent of the combustible matter in the food is eliminated, unbumedj
during the fore periods, 6.6 per cent during the preservative periods, and
7.0 per cent during the after periods. These data show a slight tend-i
ency on the part of the preservative to interfere with the combustion oi
the food in the body, and this tendency is continued in even a mor4
marked manner during the after periods.

INFLUENCE OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE SOLIDS EXCRETED.

The solids summary for all of the series (except Series II) shows thati
the average quantity of solids in the food during the fore periods is 631.5
grams, during the preservative periods 627.6 grams, and during the after]
periods 614.1 grams. The average dailjr quantity of solids appearing inn
the feces in the fore periods is 25.6 grams, in the preservative periods]
28.6 grams, and in the after periods 28.3 grams. The average quantity]
appearing in the urine during the fore periods is 64.48 grams, during]
the preservative periods 59.37 grams, and in the after periods
grams. The average balance of total solids during the fore periods i

21

544.701 grams, during the preservative periods 539.875 grams, and dur-
ing the after periods 530.123 grams. These data show a marked tend-
ency on the part of the preservative to increase the total solids excreted
in the feces and to decrease the total solids excreted by the urine.
There is a distinct tendency manifested by the preservative to interfere
with the processes of digestion and absorption. Inasmuch, however, as
the total quantity of solids administered in the food varied slightly in
the different periods, a fairer interpretation is obtained by comparing the
percentages of the total solids exhibited in the food eliminated by the
feces and urine respectively. In this comparison it is found that the
total percentage of solids in the food eliminated in the feces during
the fore periods is 4.1, during the preservative periods 4.6, and during
the after periods is 4.6. The percentage of solids in the food eliminated
in the urine during the fore periods is 10.2, during the preservative
periods 9.5, and during the after periods 9.1. These percentages indi-
cate also very strongly the influence exerted by the preservative men-
tioned above. It must be remembered, also, in this connection that
practically 80 per cent of the preservative administered is recovered in
He urine, increasing to that extent the total solids thus eliminated. In
spite of this, however, there is a marked decrease in the total solids in
Be urine and a marked increase in the total solids in the feces.

EFFECT OF BORIC ACID AND BORAX UPON THE URINE.

Elimination of nitrogen. — The combined data of the four series
(excluding Series II) show that the percentage of nitrogen ingested in
Ibe food eliminated in the urine during the fore periods is 85.7, during
»e preservative periods 85.1, and during the after periods 81.1 This
shows a tendency on the part of the preservative to diminish the per-
Bntage of nitrogen excreted in the urine, and this tendency is continued
m a very marked manner in the after periods.

I Reaction. — The data of Series II, III, and V show a marked tendency
on the part of boric acid to increase the acidity of the urine. In no
Rise during the administration of boric acid was an alkaline reaction
•served. In the case of the urine the marked acidity imparted to it
by boric acid is continued in most cases throughout the after periods.
Kie data of Series IV and V-on the contrary show a marked tendency
ft the part of borax to diminish the acidity of the urine and in several
•stances this substance imparted to the urine an alkaline reaction,
ftiese facts indicate that a large part of the borax and boric acid
lf administered is excreted unchanged in chemical composition.

Quantity. — Very little effect is produced by these preservatives upon

•I the volume of urine, although there is a slight tendency manifest to

• ! decrease the amount. There is a slight tendency also manifested during

the administration of the preservatives to decrease the total solids in

the urine. In this connection, however, it must be considered that the

22

season of the year has a marked effect upon the amount of urine
secreted, the tendency being to secrete larger quantities in cold weather
than in warm. Combining the data of Series I, III, IV, and V f<j
those members completing the series we find that the average daily
amount of urine secreted during the fore periods, per individual, is 96J
cc, during the preservative periods 960 cc, and during the after period
952 cc. These data show7 almost no effect of the preservatives on th
quantity of urine secreted, but there seems to be a slight tendency
decrease the amount secreted in the preservative and after periods.

Albumin. — In those few cases wrhere there wras normally a mere trac<
of albumin in the urine it is shown by the data that the general tend
ency of the preservative used is to increase the trace of albumin in th
urine, and this increase is manifested also during the after periods.

Microscopic bodies. — Microscopical examinations of the urine wer
made for the following substances :

Uric acid crystals; Urates ; Oxalate of lime; Phosphates: (a) Crystallin
phosphates, (b) Amorphous phosphates; Epithelium cells of all kinds ; Leuccj
cytes; Red blood cells; Casts: (a) Hyaline, (b) Finely granular, (c) Coarse!
granular, (d) Epithelial, (e) Other forms; Mucous cylindroids ; Mucou
strands.

The microscopic examinations wrere made at three periods durin
each series except in Series I, during which time the microscopic supei
vision of the urine had not been instituted. The examinations wer
made once during the fore period, once or more during the preservativ
period, and once near the close of the after period.

Reviewing the data as a whole in regard to the appearance of theg
microscopical bodies in the urine the facts which appear prominently
are the great variations in the number and character of these micrc
chemical bodies. They occur constantly in some cases in very muc;
greater abundance than in others. There are a few cases, in fact, quit
a number, where the relative abundance of these bodies seems to b
increased during the administration of the preservative. There is
smaller number of cases in which the contrary fact occurs. In th
greater number of cases, however, the administration of the preserve
tive appears to have had no influence upon the relative abundance o
these bodies. The data, therefore, as a whole, can not be regarded ad
conclusive respecting the influence of the preservative upon the numbjl
or kind of microchemical bodies occurring in the urine.

THE EFFECT OF THE PRESERVATIVE UPON THE NUMBER OF CORPUSCLES!
AND UPON THE HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD.

There wras no regular influence established relating to the effect <x
the preservative in increasing or decreasing the number of corpuscle!
in the blood. The data in individual cases are often contradictory anc
a general summary of them leads to no conclusive result. The final

23

lieduction can only be drawn that if the preservative affects the number
l)f corpuscles and the amount of hemoglobin at all, it does .so in very
Irregular manner, differing in different individuals and in a way which
Lan not be used as a basis of any definite conclusion.

CONCLUSIONS.

NECESSITY OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES IN THE BLOOD.

In the consideration of the action of preservatives of a mineral nature,
Buch as borax and boric acid, it must be remembered that the animal
bs well as the plant possesses a certain mineral hunger. In other
words, mineral substances play a double role in animal and plant
nutrition. First, they may serve as real foods, necessary to the forma-
tion and nutrition of the tissues. In the second place they are neces-
sary to the functional activity of the various organs of the body, irre-
spective of any part they may take in direct nutrition.

The necessity of saline solutions in the blood is known to every phy-
sician and physiologist. If the blood were deprived of all of its saline
(constituents, the circulation would be impeded, restricted, or stopped,
and death would result. In cases of collapse in disease saline injec-
tions in the blood are often used as a restorative measure. These salts
in solution stimulate the heart's action and undoubtedly are active in
the osmotic operations of the cells. This is one of the facts which
show the intimate relation existing between physical chemist^ and
physiology.

Common salt is the most frequent and most abundant of the saline
constituents of the blood, but the alkalinity of the blood is not due, of
course, to common salt, which is a neutral substance. The existence
of alkaline carbonates or other alkaline salts is necessary to the vital
functions. While it is true that the digestion in the stomach takes
place in an acid solution, it is likewise true that any excessive acid
must be neutralized and enough of alkali added in the small intestine, in
order that the further digestion of the food may properly take place.
That saline bodies other than common salt or the alkaline carbonates
may be useful, however, in the performance of the vital functions can
not be denied, though it might be difficult to demonstrate their absolute
necessity. Hence the introduction of saline bodies, which may or may
not be of an antiseptic character, -may, within certain limits, have a
favorable influence upon health and digestion. At the same time it
should not be forgotten that all excess of such bodies imposes upon the
excretory organs an additional burden, which, while it might not impair
their efficiency even for a number of years, might finally produce a con-
j dition of exhaustion which would be followed by serious consequences.
Especially is this remark true of the kidneys, which appear to be a
general clearing house for all the surplus of saline matters ingested in
the foods.

24

ARE MINIMAL QUANTITIES OP PRESERVATIVES PERMISSIBLE?

It is admitted by all who have examined the subject in a critical
way, even by the users of preservatives, that in certain maximum
quantities the limit of toleration is reached in each individual and
positive injury is done. But it is also well recognized that many, if
not all, of the usual foods when used in large excess produce injurious
results. The many cases of disease produced by overeating, or by eat-
ing improperly prepared or poorly cooked foods, or by eating at
unusual times, are illustrations of this fact. Upon this basis and
upon the further statement that when used in extremely small quan-
tities the preservatives in question can not be regarded as harmful, is
founded the principal argument in favor of the use of the preservatives,
aside from the fact that the foods themselves are kept in a better and
more wholesome state.

It is only proper to give to this argument full consideration and not
to brush it aside as illogical and irrelevant. It is evident that any
attempt to determine experimentally the effect of extremely minute
quantities of any preservative, even when used continuously, would not
be likely to lead to any definite result. In the foregoing data we have
illustrations of the fact that even large quantities of the preservative
employed — larger by far than would probably ever be found in any
food product — do not always act in such a way as to permit of definite
interpretation. The claim, therefore, that the use of such preservatives
is justified when the amount is extremely small, and when even these
small amounts are used only at intervals and not continuously, id
worthy of careful consideration.

An illustration which is pertinent may be taken from the particular
preservatives with which the foregoing experiments have been mad^j
namely, boric acid and borax. One of the food products to which the
preservatives are very commonly added is butter. This stateme:
should not be taken to imply that in butter prepared for domestic u
in this country borax is found to any considerable extent. When bu
ter, however, is to be transported over long distances, and necessari
kept a long while, the addition of borax is very frequently practiced.

The dietetic data which have been accumulated in the course of f
experiment show that the quantity of butter consumed daily varies fro
30 to 70 grams. Suppose, as a maximum, we say that the quantity
butter consumed in any one case daily is 100 grams, and that it contai
1 gram of boric. acid or an amount of borax equivalent thereto,
maximum quantity of boric acid used in a day in this case would
1 gram. In point of fact, however, it would rarely, if ever, reach thi
amount, but even in those cases where butter is eaten freely proba
half a gram would be about the maximum quantity consumed,
ther than this, 1 per cent of boric acid, or its equivalent in borax, i

25

butter is a very large quantity. Probably, as a rule, not more than one-
half of 1 per cent is employed. In this case the quantity of boric acid
likely to be consumed by any one individual in a day would be reduced
t<> one-quarter of a gram.

In the case of 'meats preserved by borax, although larger quantities
are eaten than of butter, it is not likely that any larger quantities of
liorax would be consumed. Thus it appears that those who habitually
eat butter and meat preserved with borax might be consuming a half a
gram or a little more of boric acid per day. But preserved meats are
not regularly eaten, and hence the quantity mentioned is likely to be
overestimated. It would be unwise to affirm in a case of this kind, in
the light of the data obtained by the experiments, that such a minimum
consumption of borax, and especially when not a continuous one, would
prove deleterious within any reasonable time of observation. The ques-
tion then arises, Does the absence of such proof or the impracticability
of obtaining it serve as a justifiable excuse for the use of this preservative?

This question ought not to be decided alone, because the principle of
the decision must stand, not only for boric acid and borax, but for every
preservative used in foods. In other words, whatever principle is estab-
lished for judgment as to the use of boric acid in small portions must
also be applied to the use of every other preservative used in foods.
The principle must also be still further extended so that whatever may
be established as regards butter or meat must be admitted in respect of
every other substance used in food. Hence before admitting the full
force of the argument based on minimal quantities the full significance
of such an admission must be considered and the practically unlimited
extent of its application acknowledged.

This leads to the discussion of the fact that in the majority of cases
the labor of freeing the system from added preservatives falls princi-
pally upon the kidneys. In the method of life in vogue in this country
the kidneys are already hard-worked organs. Americans probably eat
more freely than the citizens of almost any other country, with the
possible exception of England. Large quantities of nitrogenous foods
are consumed. In the breaking down of the nitrogenous tissues the
kidneys are the chief organs for the excretion of the debris. The addi-
tion of any further burden, therefore, no matter how minute, is to be
deplored. If, however, the principle be admitted that injurious sub-
stances may be used in such small quantities as to be practically harm-
less, then we find the way open for loading upon the kidneys many dif-
ferent functions in addition to those which they now discharge. If they
may be justly called upon to eliminate the small quantities of boric acid
added in food they can not logically be freed from the necessity of elim-
inating also minute quantities of salicylic acid, saccharin, sulphurous
acids and sulphites, together with the whole list of the remaining pre-
servatives, which are eliminated principally through the kidneys. It

26

would be useless to contend that the occasional consumption of small
quantities of boric acid in a sausage, in butter, or in preserved meat
would produce even upon delicate stomachs any continuing deleterious
effect which could be detected by any of the means at our disposal, but
naturally it seems that this admission does not in any way justify the
indiscriminate use of this preservative in food products, implying, as it
would, the equal right of all other preservatives of a like character to
exist in food products without restriction.

It appears, therefore, that there is no convincing force in the argu-
ment for the use of small quantities unless it can be established that
there is only a single preservative used in foods, that this preservative
is used in only a few foods, that it will be consumed in extremely
minute quantities, and that the foods in which it is found are consumed
at irregular intervals and in small quantities. On the other hand the
logical conclusion which seems to follow from the data at our disposal
is that boric acid and equivalent amounts of borax in certain quantities
should be restricted to those cases where the necessity therefor is clearly
manifest, and where it is demonstrable that other methods of food
preservation are not applicable and that without the use of such a pre-
servative the deleterious effects produced by the foods themselves, by
reason of decomposition, would be far greater than could possibly come
from the use of the preservative in minimum quantities. In these cases
it would also follow, apparently, as a matter of public information and
especially for the protection of the young, the sick, and the debilitated,
that each article of food should be plainly labeled and branded in regard
to the character and quantity of the preservative employed.

EFFECT OF BORIC ACID AND BORAX UPON GENERAL HEALTH.

The most interesting of the observations which were made during the
progress of the experiments was in the study of the direct effect of
boric acid and borax, when administered in food, upon the health and
digestion. When boric acid, or its equivalent in borax, is taken into the
food in small quantities, not exceeding half a gram (7i grains) a day, no
notable effects are immediately produced. The medical symptoms of the
cases in long-continued exhibitions of small doses or in large doses,
extending over a shorter period, show in many instances a manifest
tendency to diminish the appetite and to produce a feeling of fullness
and uneasiness in the stomach, which in some cases 'results in nausea,
with a very general tendency to produce a sense of fullness in the head,
which is often manifested as a dull and persistent headache. In addi-
tion to the uneasiness produced in the region of the stomach, there
appear in some instances sharp and well-located pains which, however,
are not persistent. Although the depression in the weight of the body
and some of the other symptoms produced persist in the after periods,
there is a uniform tendency manifested after the withdrawal of the pre-

27

servative toward the removal of the unpleasant sensations in the
st«>inach and head above mentioned.

The administration of boric acid to the amount of 4 or 5 grams per
.day, or borax equivalent thereto, continued for .some time results in
most cases in loss of appetite and inability to perform work of any
kind. In many cases the person becomes ill and unfit for duty. Four
grams per day may be regarded then as the limit of exhibition beyond
which the normal man may not go. The administration of 3 grams
l>er day produced the same symptoms in many cases, although it
appeared that a majority of the men under observation were able to
take 3 grams a day for a somewhat protracted period and still perform
their duties. They commonly felt injurious effects from the dose, how-
ever, and it is certain that the normal man could not long continue to
receive 3 grams per day.

In many cases the same results, though less marked, follow the
administration of borax to the extent of 2 grams and even of 1 gram
per day, although the illness following the administration of borax and
boric acid in those proportions may be explained in some cases by
other causes, chiefly grippe.

The administration of borax and boric acid to the extent of one-half
gram per day yielded results markedly different from those obtained
with larger quantities of the preservatives. This experiment, Series V,
conducted as it was for a period of fifty days, was a rather severe test,
and it appeared that in some instances a somewhat unfavorable result
attended its use. On the whole the results show that one-half gram
per day is too much for the normal man to receive regularly. On the
other hand it is evident that the normal man can receive one-half gram
per day of boric acid, or of borax expressed in terms of boric acid, for
a limited period of time without much danger of impairment of health.

It is, of course, not to be denied that both borax and boric acid are
recognized as valuable remedies in medicine. There are certain
diseases in which these remedies are regularly prescribed, both for
internal and external use. The value which they possess in these cases
does not seem to have any relation to their use in the healthy organism
except when properly prescribed as prophylactics. The fact that any
remedy is useful in disease does not appear to logically warrant its use
at any other time.

It appears, therefore, that both boric acid and borax, when continu-
ously administered in small doses for a long period, or when given in
large quantities for a short period, create disturbances of appetite, of
digestion and of health.

H. W. WILEY, M. D.,

Approved : Chief, Bureau of Chemistry.

JAMES WILSON,

Secretary of Agriculture.

RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT

TO— H^ 202 Main Library

LOAN PERIOD 1
HOME USE

2

3

4

5

6

ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS

Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date.

Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405.

DUE AS STAMPED BELOW

RECEIVED

NOV 0 2 1995

fMlTJOl It ATI/^K' r^f IT

v/lnuULATION DEP

FORM NO. DD6

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY
BERKELEY, CA 94720

YC 69407

BERKELEY LIBRARIES