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For explanation see page 58 ff.
(By permission of Prof. Krnst Haeckel, Gabriel Max and Franz Hanfstaengel.)

THE RISE OF MAN

SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE
HUMAN RACE

BY

PAUL CARUS

®€ov yap teal yo/os eoyiO'

ILLUSTRATED

CHICAGO
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY

LONDON AGENTS

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD.
1907

COPYRIGHT BY

THE Op£N COURT PUBLISHING Co.
1906,

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

The Divinity of Man i

Evolution 5

Anthropoid Apes , 15

Primitive Man 37

The Neanderthal Man 43

Du Bois's Pithecanthropoid. * 53

Civilization and the Race. . . .\. . . : 61

The Triumph of the Best 78

THE DIVINITY OF MAN.

A»J old and pious Irish woman (so the story goes) called
at the library for Darwin's Descent of Man, but re-
turned the book speedily, saying, "I thought it was on a
'dacent' man, but I am dis'pinted, it is mere gibberish
about apes and that kind o' things."

Whatever errors the good old Irish woman may be
guilty of in spelling, the truth is that in spite of the science
of its author the book is one-sided, and attempts only to
trace the physiological connection of man with a series of
lower animals. If the theory of evolution holds good
(which is no longer doubted by any true scientist) , the
descent of man is continuous since the beginning of life
on earth. There is no break in the ladder of life, but
when we trace the genealogy of man, we ought not to for-
get the Apostle's word,1 who when addressing the Athe-
nians in the market-place of their city, quoted from some
of the Greek poets* the line :

"Tov (sc. ®eov) yap KCU ye'vos e
(For God's offspring are we.)

The idea that we are the offspring of God is Greek,
not Hebrew, but the sentiment has become a part of our
religious ideas. At the time of Christ monotheism had
attained its most rigid form among the Jews, and any

1 Acts xvii, 28.

2 The words occur in fragments of Aratus and Cleanthes.

2 THE RISE OF MAN.

orthodox rabbi would have scorned the idea of attributing
to God offspring in any sense of the word.*

Mohammed who had imbibed similar traditions under
similar circumstances in opposition to the Christian idea
of divine sonship, declared, for the same reason, most
emphatically that ' ' God is neither begotten nor a begetter. ' '
The Apostle Paul, however, being born and raised in
Tarsus, was accustomed to the Gentile ways of thinking,
more than he himself knew, and so he was not offended at
the Gentile belief that claimed a divine origin for man.
But to prove it according to the method of the age by
quoting Scriptures, he had to fall back on a Gentile au-
thority. Paul quotes not the Bible but a pagan poet.

Thus it came to pass in the Gentile Christian Church
that the legend of the creation of man from the clay of
the ground was given a Gentile interpretation. The whole
creation, it was thought, had been made by God, but now
we are told that man is the offspring of God. The story
in Genesis is now interpreted to mean that the human
body was especially formed by God himself, and that God
himself blew into the nostrils of the clay figure the breath
of life. Whatever the rabbinical meaning of the legend
may have been, it was interpreted by Christian exegetists
after the precedence of St. Paul in the spirit of the Gentile
conception, to denote a unique or separate and indeed a
divine origin of man. The idea that man had been made
of dust and that finally he should return to dust was now
limited to his body, as Longfellow says :

"Dust thou art, to dust returnest,
Was not spoken of the soul.1'

And the passage in Ecclesiastes (iii, 18-20) where we

* The expression " sons of God" (C""t '?$ ^3) occurs only in a passage (Gen.

vi, 4) which is quite ancient, reflecting the conception of an age in which the faith
of Israel did not as yet differ in any essential point from the religion of the Gentiles.
It has always been felt to be out of place in the Old Testament and has continued
to be a stumbling block to the orthodox and an acknowledged difficulty to inter-
preters.

THE DIVINITY OF MAN. 3

read concerning "the estate of the sons of men," that
uthey themselves are beasts," has been simply ignored.

Darwin's views were bitterly opposed, although it
would seem more dignified if God had fashioned the first
man (not directly from a clod of soil, but indirectly after
a long preparation of the material) through series of inter-
mediate stages of lower animals, from the infinitely more
refined organism of an anthropoid brute. Yet, even from
the standpoint of modern science we can still insist that
man, though his body consists of the same material as
the dust of the earth, holds an unique position among the
rest of creation.

The sway of conservatism, however, is great, and so
the people trained in the old views of thought clung with
tenacity to a literal belief in the story of Genesis. In
spite of all that Darwin said in favor of the kinship of man
to the rest of animate creation, almost half a century
passed before the doctrine of evolution gained ground and
became universally recognized ; and there were no other
objections to it, than the implication as to man's descent
from lower forms of life and the denial of the legend that
God had formed him directly from the dust of the earth.

At present there may be no one trained in modes of
scientific thinking who does not unhesitatingly accept the
doctrine of evolution with all that it implies ; but having
understood the physiological solution of the origin of man,
it may be wise to look at the argument of the reactionary
party, whose main contention consists in ridiculing the
idea that man was descended from the ape.

When the writer of these lines was a child, he knew
a pleasant gray haired teacher of a country parish school,
who used to tell the story that when he once explained to
his children the first chapter of the Bible, one of the boys,
the son of a rich farmer, rose and said: "Mr. Teacher,
my father says we are descended from the ape." Our
sage old pedagogue cut off all further perplexities by say-

4 THE RISE OF MAN.

ing : "It would not be proper here to discuss the private
affairs of your family." Thus he imputed the blame of
a lowly origin to the families of those who believed in
evolution, and had the laugh on his side, but what re-
mained for the others ? A direct origin from the dust !
They were of the earth earthy.

Reactionary minds who upheld a literal belief in the
legend of man's creation from the dust of the ground,
went too far when they disclaimed the doctrine of the evo-
lution of all higher life from simple beginnings, but they
were right in one point, viz., in the sentiment that man
is not of the earth earthy, but that the very feature which
constitutes man's manhood is of a nobler origin, and that
after all man, in this sense, can claim the privilege of
divine sonship.

EVOLUTION.

ET us investigate the nature of the problem and un-
derstand what constitutes the distinctive feature of
man and in what way the humanity of man made its first
appearance on earth.

The distinguishing characteristic between man and
the brute is reason ; and reason, the faculty that sees the
general rule in a special example, enables man to foresee
the possible or probable course of events, to make plans,
to avoid danger, and to sow the seed in summer with the
expectation of reaping the harvest in the fall. All other
creatures must adapt themselves to surroundings ; man
alone can adapt the surroundings as well as all other con-
ditions to his wants.

The question is, whence did the faculty of reason
come ? Was it innate within the germs of the physio-
logical ancestors of man or did it come to him from with-
out?

We must remind the reader here of the fact that the
term " evolution" is really a wrong word. When a com-
mon origin of all life on earth was first advocated by nat-
uralists, which was done in the middle of the eighteenth
century by Kaspar Friedrich Wolf (1733-1794) , and later
on by Haller (1708-1777) , Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus
(1776-1837), Lamarck (1774-1829), Geoffrey Saint-
Hilaire (1772-1844), Goethe (1749-1832), Von Baer
(1792-1876), and others, there were two theories offered
in explanation : one was called "evolution," or in German

6 THE RISE OF MAN.

Auswickelung, i. e., unfoldment (literally, "outrolling")
—a theory of development from within, the other uepi-
genesis," or the theory of development by additional
growth from without. According to the theory of evolu-
tion, the nature of the higher animals was assumed to be
predetermined by the mysterious disposition of their orig-
inal life-plasma, in about the same way as the chicken,
with all its limbs, its bodily and psychic faculties, is some-
how pre-existent in the ovule of the egg. However, ac-
cording to the epigenesis theory, new properties are
acquired by experience, and thus it would appear that
external conditions determine the further development of
life. The term Devolution" was used in those days in
its original meaning of something being unfolded (rolled
out) from a latent state into a visible and plainly percep-
tible form, but since Darwin's time, we use the word in
place of u epigenesis "; for the theory of epigenesis has
practically been established on the basis of observation
and experiment, and the Germans speak no longer of
Auswickelung, but of Entwickelung. The majority of
naturalists of this age hold that growth of the higher life
is not directly due to the latent qualities of ancestors, but
is the result of new acquirements conditioned by extended
experiences under definitely given surroundings. The
progress which mankind is making still in its onward
march to the higher planes of existence, is due to the les-
sons of life and not to the mysterious potencies of pri-
mordial germs.

The chicken's egg is different from the primordial
life-plasma. Its ovule contains in the latent form of dis-
positions the experiences of all its ancestors — a kind of
race-memory which will reproduce the chick type by evo-
lution in the original sense of the term.1

1 This statement is subject to certain restrictions which we do not care to dis-
cuss in detail in this connection. The ovule contains the memories of the chick-
race, but its growth takes place by repeating the process of epigenesis.

The egg does not contain feathers, or eyes, or a bill, or feet, but certain life-

EVOLUTION. 7

If the doctrine of epigenesis be true, we must insist
that those features which constitute the manhood of man
are not contained in a latent form in his brute ancestors,
but they are a new acquisition which comes from without,
not from within. Of course we must understand that only
that animal which has passed through all the preceding
degrees can be graduated to the higher sphere of life, and
in this sense the experiences of the lower animal are
still preserved and must be presupposed in all future
advance.

Reason originates through language. Abstract
thought becomes possible by naming things. Names
stand for whole classes and thus a speaking animal is able
to classify his experiences and distinguish the general
features of phenomena from that which is particular and
incidental. The uniformities of nature, however, are only
the manifestations of those factors which scientists formu-
late as natural laws. In their totality they constitute the
world-order, and they, in short, are the divine presence
that pervades the entire domain of creation. Reason is
nothing but the tracing of these uniformities, and thus
human reason is the divinity of the cosmos reflected in
consciousness. In this sense the divine is the more re-
alized in a living creature, the higher its life rises in the
scale of evolution, and we can truly say that the upward
movement acquires its rationality from above, not from
below.

Evolution in the animal world is adaptation to sur-
roundings. The polar bear adapts himself in the color
of his skin and in his habits to his environment, while the
insects of Madeira lose their power of flight and have to
a great extent become wingless. There is a survival of
the fittest everywhere, but natural selection does not al-
ways favor the strongest and the best. The ablest flyers

impulses which under proper conditions will change the yolk into the several organs
of a chick's body. Thus in the limited sense of the word, the term " evolution "
would be misapplied even here.

8 THE RISE OF MAN.

on the islands are swept by the winds into the ocean and
only the weak survive, those who are lacking in a special
virtue, not the bravest, not the strongest, not the best !

There are also periods in history when society is rad-
ically corrupt and the spirit of the time makes it actually
impossible for good men to exist and act morally. The
evil influences of tyranny, of corruption, or of hypocrisy
sweep the brave, the courageous, the honest, the thinking
out of existence and allow only the weak, the degenerate,
the unthinking to remain. It is true that whatever nation
falls under such a blight is doomed. Other nations will
take her place, and indeed there have been a number of
peoples entirely blotted out in such a way from the face
of the globe. We have retrogressive as well as progress-
ive adaptation, and in many cases adaptation is no sign
of progress either in the physical world, or the moral pro-
gress of human beings. The law of adaptation explains
survival, but not progress.

Mr. Spencer defines progress as " a passage from a
homogeneous to a heterogeneous state ... It is a contin-
ually increasing disintegration of the whole mass accom-
panied by an integration, a differentiation, and a mutual,
perpetually-increasing dependence of parts as well as of
functions, and by a tendency to equilibrium in the func-
tions of the parts integrated." Complexity, he maintains
is a sign of a higher evolution, and it is true — in many
respects higher forms of existence are richer, more elabo-
rate, more specialized, than lower forms. But is com-
plexity, therefore, the criterion of progress ? Can we use
it as a test whenever we are in doubt in a special case ?
Does it show us the nature of progress, its meaning and
importance ?

It appears that Mr. Spencer's explanation is not even
generally true, for there are most weighty and serious
exceptions which entirely overthrow the validity of this
formula. Is not the progress in the invention of ma-

EVOLUTION. 9

chinery from the more complex to the less complex ?
Invent a machine for a special kind of work which is
simpler than those at present in use, and the amount and
exactitude of work being equal, on the strength of its
simplicity alone it will be considered superior and will
soon replace the more complex machinery in the market.

Mr. Herbert Spencer, the philosopher of evolution,
overlooked the main point when he attempted to explain
evolution in terms of matter and motion. Evolution
means change of form, and this change of form has a spe-
cial meaning. Evolution is not a material process and
not a mechanical process, and the attempt to solve the
problem of evolution on the ground of materialism or me-
chanicalism (i. e. to express its law in terms of matter
and motion) must necessarily be a failure. Mr. Spencer,
it is true, recognizes the importance of the formal element,
for his view of increasing complexity involves form and
change of form. Yet he selects a mere external feature
(one that is not even universal) as characteristic of evo-
lution and he neglects the very meaning of the change of
form. This meaning remaining as an irresoluble residue
in his philosophical crucible might find a place of shelter
under the protecting wings of the Unknowable ; but this
meaning of the change of form is the very nerve of the
question and all other things are matters of detail and
secondary consideration.

The evolution of the solar system, being a mechan-
ical process, may find in the Kant-Laplace hypothesis a
purely mechanical solution. But the evolution of animal
life is not a purely mechanical process. There is in it an
element of feeling which is not mechanical. I do not mean
to say that the nervous process which takes place while
an animal feels is not mechanical. On the contrary I
consider all processes which are changes of place, biolog-
ical processes included, as instances of molar or molecular
mechanics. But the feeling itself is no mechanical phe-

10 THE RISE OF MAN.

nonienon. It is a state of awareness and in this state of
awareness something is represented. This state of aware-
ness has a meaning, which may be called its contents.

I do not hesitate to consider the meaning that feeling
acquires as the characteristic feature not only of animal
but especially also of intellectual life — of the life of man.
From meaning-freighted feelings soul-life originates. Let
every special feeling, representing a special condition or
object, be constituted by a special form of nerve-action,
and we should see the soul, the psychological aspect of
nerve-forms, develop together with the organism. A
higher development leads naturally, as a rule but not
without exceptions, to a greater complexity of nerve-form.
Yet it is not this complexity which constitutes the evolu-
tion of the soul and the progress in the development of
the organism. The progress of soul -life must be traced
in the meaning with which the feelings that live in the
action of these nerve-forms, are freighted.

What is this meaning ?

The different soul-forms (so we may for brevity's
sake call these feelings, living in the different nerve-struc-
tures) represent special experiences and through these
experiences the surroundings of the organism are depicted.
The soul accordingly is an image of the world impressed
into living substance and depicted in feelings. This how-
ever is not all ; the soul is more than that. It is also the
psychical aspect of the reaction that takes place in response
to the stimuli of the surroundings. And this reaction is
indeed the most important part in the life of the soul.
The former may be called by a generalized name cogni-
tion or intelligence, the latter activity or ethics. The
former has no other purpose than to serve as an informa-
tion for the proper direction and guidance of the latter.

The world is not a chaos of material particles. Blind
chance does not rule supreme. On the contrary we see
order everywhere and law is the regulating principle in

EVOLUTION. 11

all tilings and processes. The world is not a meaningless
medley, but a cosmos which in its minutest parts is full
of significance and purport. And this truth has found a
religious expression in the God-idea. The world con-
sidered in its cosmic grandeur is divine, and when in the
process of evolution the soul develops as an image of the
world, the divinity of the cosmos is also mirrored in the
soul. The higher animal life rises, the more does it par-
take of the divine, and it reaches the highest climax in
man and finally in the ideal of a perfectly moral man — in
the God-man.

The test of progress must be sought in the growth of
soul. The more perfectly, the more completely, the more
truthfully the world is imaged in the soul-forms, so as
to enable mankind, (the individual man as well as the
race,) to react appropriately upon the proper occasions,
to be doing and achieving, to act wisely, aspiringly and
morally, the higher we have risen on the scale of evolution.
It is not the complexity of soul-forms which creates their
value, it is their correctness, their congruence with reality,
their truth. Evolution sometimes leads to a greater com-
plexity. In the realm of cognition it does so wherever
discrimination is needed. But sometimes again it will
lead to a greater simplicity. Complexity alone would
have a bewildering aspect, it must be combined with econ-
omy, and the economy of thought is important because it
simplifies our intelligence ; it enables us not only to see
more of truth at once but also to recognize the laws of
nature, the order of the cosmos, and its divinity.

How much more complex is the Ptolemaic system
of the stellar universe than that of Copernicus and Kepler
and yet no one doubts that the latter on account of its
greater simplicity represents a more advanced stage than
the former, and ranges higher in the scale of progress.

The test of progress, in one word, is the realization
of truth extensive as well as intensive, in the soul of man.

12 THE RISE OF MAN.

The more truth the human soul contains and the more it
utilizes the truth in life, the more powerful it will be, and
the more moral. In this way the soul partakes of the
divinity of its creator, call it nature or God ; it will come
more and more in harmony with the cosmos, it will more
and more conform to its laws, it will be more religious,
the holier, the greater, the diviner, the higher it develops
and the further it progresses.

The characteristic feature of evolution is not, as Mr.
Herbert Spencer has it, a change from homogeneity to
heterogeneity, but the gradual approach of an acquisition
of truth. Those creatures who have a clearer, and broader,
and a more correct conception of the world-order that per-
vades all things, and whose attitude in life is correspond-
ingly adjusted, range higher than those whose souls are
only dimly lit up by reason or obscured by error and pas-
sion. Not complexity is the test of progress, but ration-
ality. And our conception of truth ought to be, not a
mere theoretical insight into certain laws, but truth
practically applied ; truth respected, cherished, and fol-
lowed ; truth loved, and truth lived out. Truth in this
sense, i. e., truth that has become part of our souls, is
not mere rational knowledge, but justice, and goodness,
and lovingkindness.

Truth, and reason, and goodness are not made of the
dust. Reason is a perception of the relational facts, and
it supports the ideals of life. Truth and goodness apper-
tain to the immaterial, the purely formal, the spiritual.
None of these qualities can be said to be qualities of matter ;
they do not reside, in whatever latent form it may be, in
atoms or molecules. They develop by experience ; they
are added unto the budding life ; they are the product of
an epigenesis, which originates under the guiding influ-
ence of the cosmic order with all that it implies, and if
there is any sense in the expression " divine," that cer-
tainly, and that alone, is worthy of the name.

EVOLUTION. 13

The word of Christ that 1 1 the Kingdom of Heaven
suffereth violence, and the violent take it by force," does
not apply to the origin of Christianity alone but is gener-
ally true and will find its application whenever an im-
portant advance is made in the development of mankind.
It must have proved true also when the first intelligent
and intelligible sounds were uttered in the little circle of
a primitive ape-man family, when cries and shouts
changed to words, rendering possible an intercommuni-
cation of mind with mind, and begetting in them a purer,
a clearer, a more definite, and a truer conception of the
world.

Life is like the tree that grows upward. Its roots
grow down into the depths of the earth. Its nourishment
is from below, but the power that quickens it and imparts
to it the strength to rise higher, is the energy furnished
by the sunbeams and comes from above.

While it is true that man's body consists of matter
and is of the earth, his spirit is spiritual and reflects the
divinity of the world which represents itself to the natural-
ist as the cosmic order of law-ordained conditions. With-
out taking exception to the truths established by com-
parative zoology, which proves the kinship of man with
the lower animals and traces its bodily form back through
a series of brute ancestors, assuming the existence of the
intermediate type of the so-called pithecanthropes or ape-
man, we may rightly say that St. Paul's idea of man's
divine sonship holds good and will remain true forever.

Having established the two sides of the ascent of man,
his rise from below and the help that comes to him from
above while he is learning the lessons of life, we shall bet-
ter appreciate the significance of the period of transition in
which man was just emerging from the brute state and
soaring with mighty impulse upward to the higher plane
of spiritual life and rational comprehension. No doubt
this primitive ape-man must still have been a ferocious

14 THE RISK OF MAN.

creature, and we can very well imagine that he was daring
and bold and savage. It must have been dangerous for
any weaker mammal to cross his path or to fall a prey to
his ruthless hands, for he was still thoughtless and in-
considerate. He had to make his living from roots and
berries and nuts, perhaps also by eating the flesh of some
birds and animals that he might catch, and life must have
been hard on him. Yet we must not forget that the ten-
derer feelings of friendship, conjugal affection, and paren-
tal love must have been at least as strongly developed in
him as they are in many brute animals, for the probability
is that the most essential features that the ape-man ac-
quired in his ascent came not only from his keener intel-
ligence, but also, perhaps even mainly, from an increased
refinement of his sentiment.

The doctrine of evolution would have been accepted
without much opposition, had it not been for its implication
of the descent of man from some brute ancestry. All
possible arguments have been exhausted to weaken the
theory proposed by Darwin and his successors. How
much has been said and written about the "missing link,"
as if the acceptability of the doctrine of evolution depended
solely upon the verification of the transition from the
brute animal to the intelligent homo sapiens. The truth
is that there are innumerable missing links in the scale
of life, and it will forever be impossible to point out every
single phase through which man has passed since he
started from the beginning.

In the meantime many discoveries of primitive human
remains have been made which indicate that there was
indeed no gap between the highest ape types and the lower
races of man, which corroborates the assumption that
man is descended, not from the ape, but after all from
some animal kin to the ape.

T

ANTHROPOID APES.

HAT comparisons are odious is an old proverb which
is applicable when in judging of the higher animals

APOLLO.
A new orang-utan in the Zoological Gardens of London.

we are involuntarily struck with a strong similarity to
man. Although the apes range indisputably higher than

16 THE RISE OF MAN.

any other creatures except homo sapiens, so self-styled,
their very aspect is repulsive to us, and if we analyze our
sentiments we will be compelled to admit that we have
become prejudiced on account of the tacit comparison we
make to ourselves. Apes range far below man, and man
deems it opprobrious that they should be considered kin
to him, and yet how human are they ! We abhor them
as a caricature of ourselves. They appear like an attempt
at manhood which has turned out a conspicuous failure.
If an ape did not remind us of a human figure, we would
find in the expression of his face, his stature, his carriage,
and general deportment, as much beauty as that which
we admire in a St. Bernard or a full-blooded Arabian
steed.

Let us try to divest ourselves of the odium of com-
parisons and consider the ape race with that natural in-
terest which we cherish for all life, so as to be impartial
in our judgment, and we shall find that the eye of the
chimpanzee is remarkably soulful, that the manners of
the orang-utan are astonishingly affectionate, and the
devotion of the gorilla to his family is manly to a degree
that compels respect.

* * *

Prof. H. Klaatsch, one of the foremost anthropologists
of Germany, speaks pretty authoritatively in the name
of his colleagues when he says in a new, large and popular
work, Weltall und Menschheit? that man can scarcely
have developed from any of the anthropoid apes, but that
both man and ape must have developed from one common
ancestor now extinct. The three large groups of anthro-
poid apes, the gorilla, chimpanzee and orang-utan* must
be regarded as degenerates from a higher type, for they are

1 Edited by Hans Kraemer. Published by Bong & Co., of Berlin, Leipsic,
Vienna and Stuttgart. 5 vol. <}to.

2 The popular pronunciation utang, which has obviously originated by its
rhyme with orang, is incorrect. Orang means "man" and utan, "woods" in
the Dajak language.

ANTHROPOID APES.

17

most like man in their childhood and youth and develop
their beast characters as age advances. They have lost
their adaptability, and being unfit to survive any consid-
erable change in climate or mode of life, seem to be des-
tined by nature to die out.

Gorilla and chimpanzee are closely related to each
other while the orang-utan forms a group by himself.
The latter is very delicate in his health and so almost

ORANG-UTAN.
(Brehm's Thierleben, I, 83.)

every district harbors a special species. He is found only
in Borneo and some of the adjacent islands. We might
call him a pessimist, for he has a melancholy temper and
is generally in a contemplative mood. He prefers solitude
to company and shows a disinclination to leave the wooded
swamps of his native district. In captivity he is most
human in his affections. It is a common experience with
keepers, that the orang-utan if threatened by an admon-

H

ANTHROPOID APES.

19

ORANG-UTANS.
(Brehm's Thierleben, I, facing page 83.)

20 THE RISE OF MAN.

ishing finger, will come up like a rueful child and plead
forgiveness in a plaintive voice. He will embrace the
keeper as if to pacify him, and his whole demeanor seems
to say, " Do not be angry ; I will be good." It is difficult
to keep him long in captivity, however, for he usually
dies of consumption after a short time. His mouth is
almost of a spherical shape, which makes his face repulsive
without, however, succeeding in hiding the good-natured
character of his psychical disposition.

The orang-utan appears to us awkward in his move-
ments, but he is not, for he walks along with great rapid-
ity on the stoutest branches in the dense forests of his
marshy home. He does not jump but swings himself
from tree to tree with unexpected agility. He rarely
descends to walk on the ground but remains true to his
name, "a man of the forest-trees." Travelers (among
them Wallace who has closely observed the habits of the
orang-utan in Borneo) declare that he is fearless and
peaceful. There are no animals stronger than he except
the crocodile, and if a crocodile dares to attack either him-
self or a member of his family, he throws himself upon
the enemy's back and, clutching him from behind, lacer-
ates his throat.

The gorilla, who among all the brutes has a skeleton
most like man's, must once have lived in herds to attain
his present state. He is not without the more tender
emotions and intelligence, but living now in isolation,
and lacking the influence of intercommunication with
large numbers of his fellows, he has grown irritable and
savage although the reports in regard to his ferocity are
greatly exaggerated. He leaves other animals and man
alone and is not aggressive without sufficient provocation ;
but when he sees his family imperiled, he is dangerous in
fight. He will accompany the fleeing members of his

PLATE I. JOE THE ORANG-UTAN AT DINNER.

6 years old ; a member of Edwards' Zoological Exhibition. The Edwards
brothers have a special knack of photographing their simian pets in inter-
esting attitudes, and the posing animals seem to say "How human we are!"

PLATE II. JOE THE ORANG-UTAN WRITING.

He is distinguished by his docility, simulating his betters even where he
can not do like them. We know he can not write, but here he sits pencil
in hand and pretends to write.

ANTHROPOID APES.

21

GORILLAS.
(Brehm's Thierleben I, facing page 56.)

8878

22

THE RISE OF MAN.

family for a short distance, and then turn upon the hunter,
for he is not a co\vard and will never turn his back upon
an enemy. He challenges his antagonist without hesi-

SKELETONS OF MAN AND GORILLA.

(«) Skull of male gorilla, (6) female.
(From the Berlin Anatomical Muse\im. Brehm's Thierleben, I, 40.)

tation, his excitement being that of anger, never of fear,
and the traveler who is not wary may pay dearly for hav-
ing braved his wrath.

HEAD OF GORILLA.
(Brehm's Thierleben, I, 80.)

Dr. Brehm gave the name of " Tschego" to this gorilla about whose classifi-
cation he seems to have been in doubt.

24 THE RISE OF MAN.

Like all other anthropoid apes the gorilla is vegetarian
in his diet. He eats berries, ribs of banana leaves, coco-
nuts and similar vegetable food. He seems to possess
strong teeth for the purpose of opening nuts whose shells
man can break only with a heavy hammer. Being strong
he requires much food, and is a voracious eater. By a
constant need of new food he has developed migratory
habits, and his presence is destructive to all edible plants

YOUNG MALE GORILLA.

(After Hartmann.)

in his neighborhood. He is an .especially unwelcome
guest to sugar-cane plantations, where he can do great
harm in a short time.

The first historical information about the gorilla we
find contained in an ancient work entitled Periplous Han-
nonis (Expedition of Hanno) which describes the Cartha-
ginian admiral's bold enterprise of founding colonies in

ANTHROPOID APES.

25

the far west. He rounded the Sierra Leone and makes
the following report :

' ' The third day after we had sailed and had passed
through the torrid streams, we came to a bay called the
Southern Horn. In the background, there was an island

YOUNG GORILLA OF THE LEIPSIC ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS.

(From the Ittustrirte Zeitung, October 19, 1905 )

with a lake and within this lake there was another island
on which wild people were living. . The majority of them
seemed to be women with hairy bodies, and our inter-
preter called them gorillas. We could not catch any of

26

THE RISE OF MAN.

the males when we gave pursuit. They escaped easily
because they climbed over gorges and defended them-
selves with rocks. We caught the females but we could
not take them with us because they bit and scratched. So
we were obliged to kill them. We skinned them and sent
their hides to Carthage."

Pliny, referring to Hanno's account mentions that
these skins were still extant in his time and were pre-
served in the temple of Juno, which we must assume to be
the temple of Istar.

! -^1

TWO POSTURES OF THE LEIPSIC GORILLA.

(From the Illustrirte Zeitung, October 19, 1905.)

3934

Dr. Brehm has a great deal to say about the gorilla.
He quotes from Wilson, Ford, Du Chaillu, Reade and
others, among whom Du Chaillu 's accounts are perhaps
the most interesting, but must be used with care as they
are uncritical and ostensibly written more for the purpose
of entertainment than to give exact information. The
description of his first encounter with a gorilla is very
graphic. This native of the forest had been creeping

PLATE III. ORANG-UTAN DISTINGUISHED FOR HIS ERECT WALK.
This orang-utan is about four years old, and Mr. Edwards believes that he
was caught when very young and must have been a household pet in a
native family in the Malay Archipelago where he was a playmate of the
children from whom he acquired at a tender age some human habits, espe-
cially his erect posture which is unusually straight and which he can keep
up longer than any other simian.

PLATE IV. JOE THE CHIMPANZEE.

A distinguished member of the Edwards' Zoological Exhibition. Mr. J.
S. Edwards writes that this photograph is of a male chimpanzee, about six
years old, and the most intelligent animal he has ever owned. Joe always
wears a sweater, and when enjoying himself in play his laugh sounds more
human than that of any other ape. In his actions he is very like a child
and suggests at once a relationship to homo sapiens.

ANTHROPOID APES. 27

through the underbrush , but when he discovered the party
of hunters, he stood bolt upright and fearlessly met their
eyes. There he stood at a distance of about thirty feet
and without the slightest indication of fear struck his
breast with his powerful fists so that it resounded like a
metal drum. That was his signal of defiance and chal-
lenge, and between its repetitions he would utter such a
roar that it might be considered the most peculiarly dis-
tinctive and frightful sound of the African forests. It
began with a bark like that of a large dog, but ended in
peals like distant thunder. The hunting party stood
motionless on their guard, while the animal's eyes gleamed
more fiercely, the tuft of hair on his forehead alternately
rose and fell, and he showed his terrible fangs. As he
came nearer step by step with his defiant gesture and roar,
the explorer says he looked like the creatures, half man
and half beast, which old masters used in representing
the inhabitants of hell. When he came to within twelve
or fifteen feet the hunters fired and the victim fell with
an almost human groan.

The Zoological Gardens in Leipsic boast at present
of a young gorilla bought by Herr Pinkard in London,
and the young anthropoid has so far enjoyed good health
in his northern climate. Judging from the experiences
we have of other anthropoid apes, it is scarcely probable
that he will live to a good old age for all of them have
died prematurely of consumption. An artist of the
Illustrirte Zeitting, Hermann Schiissler, has drawn the
interesting specimen in several characteristic attitudes,
and we here reproduce some of his most satisfactory
sketches.

4t 4e #

The chimpanzee, although considerably smaller than
man, is perhaps nearest to him in organization. At any
rate Professor Friedenthal proved their consanguinity.
It is a well-known scientific fact that the serum of the

28 THE RISE OF MAN.

blood of one animal is poison when injected into the ar-
teries of another individual of a different genus, because
red blood corpuscles dissolve in strange serum. Professor
Friedenthal has proved, however, that kindred species
will not suffer greatly by an interchange of serum ; for
while the interchange of the serum of a cat and a rabbit
would be destructive to the life of either, in the case of
the horse and the ass, or the dog and the wolf, the results
are not fatal. In view of these facts it is of great interest
to learn from his experiments that man and chimpanzee
possess blood that can be similarly interchanged.

Chimpanzees live in herds, and a company of them
gives the impression of a jolly frolicking party of children
dressed up as satyrs or fauns. They inhabit the tropic
parts of Africa. Besides being literally kin of blood to
man, the chimpanzee among all of the primates is the
only ape that possesses an indication of lips. Man is the
only animal that is in possession of two lips. All the
monkeys have a sharp mouth without the gentle curvature
which is so expressive in the human face. The chimpan-
zee's mouth, too, is sharply cut off, but the margins are
at least slightly pink in color, while those of the gorilla
and the orang-utan are as dark as the snouts of lower
beasts.

The chimpanzee is smaller and more slender and
graceful than the gorilla. He is not so strong, but far more
intelligent. By nature he is a strict vegetarian ; but in
captivity he learns to take flesh and broth. As soon as
accustomed to it he even enjoys and prefers meat to his
former diet. Of one chimpanzee, who was brought
up in captivity, we are told that at first he refused meat,
but by and by he became accustomed to it and soon took
the same food as man.

Chimpanzees in captivity are easily accustomed to
imitate human society. They sit at the table like men, use
spoons and even knives and forks. They also are easily

PLATE V. JOE RECEIVES BAD NEWS FROM HOME.
This is the same Joe that is represented in Plates IV and VI.
plainly shows his disappointment.

His face

PLATE VI. JOE AND SALLIE AT HOME.
A Chimpanzee couple of Edwards' Zoological Exhibition.

ANTHROPOID APES.

29

accustomed to alcoholic drinks and exhibit the same symp-
toms as man if they take too much. We are told that
once a mirror was handed to a chimpanzee who appeared
suddenly as if struck with awe. After a state of greatest
agility he became extremely thoughtful. He looked up
to his trainer as if questioning him as to what the strange
object could be. He then investigated the mirror,
touched it with his hands, looked behind it, and behaved

CHIMPANZEE.
(Brebm's ThierZeben, I, 68.)

in quite the same manner as do savages when they see
reflected pictures in a mirror for the first time.

The natives of Africa agree in regarding the anthro-
poid apes as a low class of human beings, and are firmly
convinced that they only pretend not to be able to speak,
for the purpose of shirking work. They say that if they
were found out, many would certainly keep them as slaves
and deprive them of their happy liberty in the forests.

30

CHIMPANZEE.
(Brehm's Thierleben, I, facing p. 68.)

8870

ANTHROPOID APES.

31

Most assuredly the anthropoid apes may seem happier
abroad and certainly they are accustomed to their liberty.
But it would be a grave mistake to think that they have

YOUNG CHIMPANZEE.
Photograph from life by Dr. Heck of Berlin. (Weltallu. Menschheit, II, 171.)

an easy and pleasant life. They have to make their living
as much as any other animal, and it appears that they

32

THE RISE OF MAN.

POSTURES OF VARIOUS MAN-APES.
1-5, Gorillas; 6-8, Chimpanzees.

ANTHROPOID APES.

33

POSTURES OF VARIOUS MAN-APES.
1-5, Orang-utans; 6-8, Gibbons.

34

THE RISE OF MAN.

have a very hard time of it. Being vegetarians they need
a greater mass of food than if they were carnivorous, and
it is not impossible that the man-ape who rose to the
higher existence of an ape-man and finally to that of man,
had one great advantage over his less fortunate cousins
by changing his diet. The anthropoid apes have to put

LAR AND HULOCK.
After Hanhart. (Brehm's Thierleben, I, p. 94.)

in all their time in hunting for food and eating it, while
the omnivorous ape-man gained more leisure and more-
over had his wits sharpened by becoming a hunter.

**

To the anthropologist the lower apes are less inter-
esting, but we may mention especially the long-armed

ANTHROPOID APES.

35

monkeys or kylobates, among whom the gibbon is perhaps
the most noteworthy. Others of interest on account of
their quaint appearance and habits are the hulock and the
proboscis-monkey. The latter does not range very high,
but should be mentioned in this connection on account of
the human appearance of his profile, due solely to the
development of his nose which however might rather be

PROBOSCIS MONKEY.
(Brehm's Thierleben, I, p. no.)

called a proboscis. His similarity to man is more appa-
rent than real, for his nose unlike that of man is movable ;
it can be pushed out and pulled back, but if extended to
its full length, it closely resembles a very strongly devel-
oped aquiline nose.

One important similarity between man and ape is the
development of the teeth. Both have 8 incisors, 4 canine

36

THE RISE OF MAN.

teeth and 20 molars ; yet it is well known that in the
higher races, the hindmost molars grow at a mature age
and are generally subject to early decay. It seems as if
the development of the brain implied a decrease in the
organs of mastication. The jaw bones grow smaller and
the facial angle approaches more and more nearly to 90°.
The similarity between human and Simian teeth, how-

HEAD OF PROBOSCIS MONKEY.

After Brehm. After Wiedersheim.

(Haeckel's Anthropogenic, p. 607.) ( Weltall und Menschheit, II, 145.)

ever, is limited to the apes of the old world. Those of
America possess thirty-six teeth in all, and preserve more
the features of the lower mammals in this as well as in
other particulars. Their noses, too, are turned upward,
while the noses of the Old World apes all go downward.
Hence their name, Catarrhines, derived from the Greek

kata

downward," and rhinos, "nose."

PRIMITIVE MAN.

r I ^HERE lias been much discussion concerning the
J_ locality where man first originated, and the common
opinion among a great many naturalists points towards
the sunken continent in the Indian Ocean. It seems to
have included Australia in the east and covered the Sunda
Islands reaching to Madagascar on the West. Presumably
it connected Asia and Africa with New Zealand. It has
been called Lemuria as the supposed home of the Lemurian
or monkey tribe.

We will let the theory pass as probable, although we
think that it will be difficult to designate any definite
locality as the place of the origin of man, for it seems
that a change of surroundings may repeatedly have taken
place and this would have favored a higher development,
new conditions demanding new adaptations and eliciting
thereby new faculties. Lemuria must have been large
enough and its geography varied enough to have been a
territory in which the first man-ape could have appeared,
while the higher development of the race seems to have
taken place farther north in Central Europe.

The human race, though still in a very brutish con-
dition, must have existed in the Antarctic Continent or
Lemuria before the separation of Australia from Asia.
In the Museum at Sidney there is a slab containing im-
prints of human feet which according to Professor
Klaatsch's opinion bear all evidences of having been
made by primitive man. A sandstone ledge of the same

38 THE RISE OF MAN.

formation shows traces of a bird long since extinct. The
same anthropologist has found in his recent trip to
Warnambool, in the state of Victoria in Australia, a great
number of stone tools and implements, human and ani-
mal fossils dating back to the paleolithic period.

TYPE OF AN ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN.

After a photograph. ( IVeltatt und Mcnschhcit, II, 315.)

It has been pointed out that Australia is a unique and
isolated continent which harbors a number of intermediate
species. It contained the lowest known human race which,
however, has died out since the arrival of the white man.
The wild dog called dingo, the duckbill, the kangaroo and

PRIMITIVE MAN.

39

other marsupialians are living there now. Man and dingo
are the only creatures who represent the higher mammals,
and we may therefore assume that they are late arrivals.
The Australian race was the lowest of all known mankind,
ranging even beneath the African negro. While not very
ferocious they possessed scarcely any civilization and be-
longed still to the paleolithic period. They did not yet
understand how to polish stones, nor to make the simplest
kind of pottery.

SKULL OF ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN. 386B

Showing the protruding brows. After the original in the Museum
of Ethnology in Leipsic. ( Weltall und Menschheit, II, 337.)

Dr. Schotensack of Heidelberg, who assumes that
mankind originated in or near the Indo-Australian Archi-
pelago, claims that the Antarctic continent fullfilled all
conditions for the development of the human race from
lower forms. There were no beasts of prey to contend
with, and man had there a chance to develop his type
without let or hindrance. There were plenty of herbiv-

40 THE RISE OF MAN.

orous animals of low intelligence which invited him to
develop into a hunter and to change his nature into that
of an omnivorous which distinguishes man from the apes.
The country is partly wooded and partly prairie-land and
so encouraged the upright walk. The hollow trees con-
tained plenty of honey, and the Australian bee lacks a
sting. It is further peculiar that the dog, at all times
closely allied to man, was his only companion on the
Australian continent.

While favorable conditions are often productive of

OLD MAN'S SKULL FOUND AT CRO-MAGNON. 3893

After Broca's Conference s«r les Troglodytes de la VezZre. (Le-
normant's Histoire ancienne de V orient, I, 145.)

good results, we would point out that the highest develop-
ment is generally not obtained by them alone, but by a
change from favorable to unfavorable. Favorable condi-
tions develop new varieties with certain free exuberance,
and give them a chance to establish new qualities, while
unfavorable conditions put individuals to the test and
select those that are fittest to survive. While the lower
type of mankind (the man-ape) appears to have been
developed in a Southern climate, it seems almost certain

PRIMITIVE MAN. 41

that a selection of the fittest has been made in the rougher
regions of the north, and this supposition seems to be
borne out by the fact that so far decidedly all the higher
types of primitive man have been discovered in central
Europe, while of the very lowest there are not a few (viz. ,
the Neanderthal man and those represented by the relics
of Spy and Krapina) that find a most primitive counter-
part only in the relics of the ape-man of Java discovered
by Professor Du Bois, called pithecus antJiropus erectus
Du Bois.

Progress in our days is not made because man likes

WOMAN'S SKULL FOUND AT CRO-MAGNON.
From the same source as the preceding illustration.

to advance and learn new lessons, but mainly because he
must progress and discover. Man must make new inven-
tions because competition and the struggle for life force
him to do better than others and rise higher. It is as if
nature were whipping man onward and forward, and there
are only a few individuals that have acquired a natural
impulse to work, to advance, and to inquire. There are
very few indeed that labor for the sake of progress and for
the love of it.

We may assume with great probability that the
most important step taken by life in its higher advance,

42 THE RISE OF MAN.

viz., in its transition from a primitive existence to a social
and more truly human existence, was done under compul-
sion and under the penalty of perdition for the unsuccess-
ful. The rational being, called man, is probably the sur-
vivor only of a great number of man-apes that died out
because they were unable to take the step and fulfil the
stern demands made on them by circumstances.

The perfection of mankind, must most presumably
be sought in the North, not in the South ; in a place
where life is hard, not where life is easy, and we may
assume that by some catastrophe, a number of ape-man
families were cut off from the sunny regions of the south-
ern countries, and had to fight their way in a dreary north-
ern climate, where they would unfailingly perish unless
they acquired the necessary altruism to help one another,
and the indispensable intelligence to protect themselves
against the inclemencies of hostile conditions.

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.

IN the year 1857 a human skeleton was discovered in a
limestone cave (commonly called the "little Feld-
hofner Grotto ") in the Neanderthal near Dornap, between
Diisseldorf and Elberfeld. And how hot were the contro-
versies about the character of the bones as well as the
formation of the skull ! Virchow, so liberal in politics

LATERAL VIEW OF THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL.
After Schwalbe.

and reactionary in science, advised caution and declared
that these bones might be the remains of an imbecile and
degenerate individual.

Professor Virchow claimed that no conclusion could
be drawn from one isolated instance ; but in the meantime
other skeletons and skulls of a similar type have been
discovered, which prove that the Neanderthal man was

44 THE RISE OF MAN,

not an isolated individual, but', the representative of a race
that must have inhabited the caves of Europe at the time
when mankind had just risen into existence. The skulls
of Egisheim, of Brux, and of Cannstatt, all characterized
by an approach to the ape type, and two skeletons dis-
covered by Messrs. Fraipont and Lhoest in 1897 near Spy,
Belgium, belong also to a race that was not very distant
from the Neanderthal man. The cave in which the latter

FRONT VIEW OF THE SUPRAORBITAL REGION.1 1775

After Schwalbe.

were found contains in the drift, flint implements of the
crudest kind, and bones of the rhinoceros, the cave bear,
the cave hyena, and other remnants of the earliest stone
age.2

Renewed investigations of the Neanderthal skull
have justified the theory that it belongs to a primitive
man. These new discoveries in connection with the re-
newed and careful investigations of the skull have dis-

1 The fracture in the right temporal region is plainly visible and is obviously
due to a vigorous blow which, however, may have been made at the disinterment.

A groove is visible over the extreme part of the right eye, slanting over the
supraorbital ridge, and ending in an incision. These marks have been the object
of much discussion. The incision appears to be the passage for the supraorbital
nerve, for it has its analogon, although in a much weaker form, on the right side ;
but the depression appears on one side only, and thus it is possible that it is the
result of an injury received and cicatrized during life. Some of the little holes can
be definitely identified as passages for blood-vessels, and none of them seem to be
caused by disease.

2 Prof. G. Schwalbe of the University of Strassburg in Alsace has devoted an
especial monograph to the subject, which he has published in the Banner Jahr-
bucher, No. :o6, pp. 1-72, under the title " Der Neanderthalschadel." The article
has also appeared in a special reprint.

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN. 45

pelled all doubts concerning the nature of the Neanderthal
remains. We may say without fear of contradiction that
the discussion has passed the critical stage, and all an-
thropologists of reputation agree that we have here the
specimen of a primitive race whose forehead still preserves
the orbital ridges of lower animals, and the facial angle
of which is considerably lower than that of the lowest
negro type, being only slightly higher than that of an-
thropoid apes. The Neanderthal skull measures 62°, the

OCCIPUT OF THE NEANDERTHAL SKULL.*
After Schwalbe.

two skeletons of Spy 57.5° and 67°, while the highest apes
reach 56°. The facial angle of the human race of to-day
averages from 80° to 85°.

While the forehead of the Neanderthal man is narrow
and low, the occiput is well developed, and though judg-
ing from his bones he must have been a strong creature
and presumably ferocious in fight, he may not have been
lacking in kindly sentiments, as indicated by the width

1 On the right parietal bone we discover a cicatrized hole made by a pointed
instrument, which looks, as Virchow says, as if it were made by a " bayonet," or
" a sharp stone," or "any other pointed weapon," perhaps a lance, or an arrow.
It was healed during the lifetime of our subject.

The occipital bone shows further a rough depression which Virchow suspected
to be the result of a disease, but anatomists (among them Recklinghausen) declare
that similar formations are not of unfrequent occurrence among normal skulls.

The linea nuchea supremo, dextra is strongly marked. We notice further an
unusual development of those parts from which the neck muscles originate.

46

THE RISE OF MAN.

CRANIUM OF THE PRIMITIVE MAN OF SPY, BELGIUM.

From a cast of the original in the Museum at Liege. (Weltall

und Menschheit, II, 294.)

CRANIUM OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.
From the original in the Provincial Museum at Bonn.
und Menschheit, II, 20.)

(Weltall

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.

47

of his cranium. And what a story do the remains of the
Neanderthal man tell ! One ulna received an injury
which was healed during the life time, but must have con-
siderably hampered the use of his arm. The right parie-

RIGHT ULNA.
Normal.

LEFT ULNA.
Pathological.1

tal bone of the skull shows the mark of a cicatrized injury
which appears to have been made with a pointed weapon,
an arrow or a lance. A furrow in the right superciliary
ridge is another irregularity which seems to have been

1 The left ulna shows that the individual to which this bone belonged received
a severe injury during lifetime the cure of which was left solely to nature. The
right ulna is normal and its surfaces of the processus coronoides are well preserved,
but on the left ulna a fracture is visible. Here the incisura radialis is filled
up with newly formed bone substance and thus brought this spot, destined to re-
ceive the capitu/um radii, into direct contact with the humerus, the bone of the
upper arm. The result must have been that the arm could not be fully extended.

Above the left ulna we reproduce the end view of the pathological processus
coronoides. The cicatrized injury appears on the left side.

48

THE RISE OF MAN.

caused by some violent blow and must have been an ugly
gash over the right eye. Finally we notice a fracture

A RESTORATION OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.' 1773

near the right temple which was presumably done by the
spade of the laborer who unearthed these ancient bones.

1 This picture is a retouched photograph taken of a model made by Guernsey
Mitchell according to the instructions of Prof. Henry A. Ward of Chicago.

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.

49

Otherwise it would justify the post-mortem statement of a
violent death.

Accordingly the life of the Neanderthal man must
have been one of fierce struggle either with rivals of his
own type or with the cave bear and other ferocious beasts,
perhaps with both, and finally he succumbed in the battle
for life, perhaps also in a fight with his own or his tribe's
enemies.

The pithecanthropoid whose remains were found in
the Neander Valley, although no longer an isolated in-

PROFILE VIEW OF CRANIUM OF PRIMITIVE TYPES.
Lenormant, flistoire anctenne de I 'orient, I, 138.

stance of primitive anthropology, still commands a special
interest and will, in addition to the comments and pic-
tures presented to our readers, justify the publication of
some pertinent quotations which were collected by Mr.
Charles H. Ward of Rochester.

Dr. Fuhlrott describes the locality where the remains
were discovered in the early part of 1857 as follows :

"A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man, and
about 15 feet deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide,
exists in the southern wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is
termed, at a distance of about 100 feet from the Diissel, and about

50 THE RISE OF MAN.

60 feet above the bottom of the valley. In its earlier and uninjured
condition, this cavern opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front
of it, and from which the rocky wall descended almost perpendicu-
larly into the river. It could be reached, though with difficulty,
from above. The uneven floor was covered to a thickness of 4 or
5 feet with a deposit of mud, sparingly intermixed with rounded
fragments of chert. In the removing of this deposit the bones were
discovered. The skull was first noticed placed nearest to the en-
trance of the cavern; and further in, the other bones, lying in the
same horizontal plane. Of this I was assured in the most positive
terms by two laborers who were employed to clear out the grotto,
and who were questioned by me on the spot. At first no idea was
entertained of the bones being human; and it was not till several
weeks after their discovery that they were recognized as such by
me, and placed in security. But, as the importance of the discov-
ery was not at the time perceived, the laborers were very careless
in the collecting, and secured chiefly only the larger bores ; and to
this circumstance it may be attributed that fragments merely of the
probably perfect skeleton came into my possession."

Dr. Fuhlrott condenses his conclusions in these three
statements :

"First: That the extraordinary form of the skull was due to
a natural conformation hitherto not known to exist, even in the
most barbarous races. Second : That these remarkable hum m
remains belonged to a period antecedent to the time of the Celts
and Germans, and were in all probability derived from one of the
wild races of North western Europe, spoken of by Latin writers;
and which were encountered as autochthones by the German immi-
grants. And thirdly ; That it was beyond doubt that these human
relics were traceable to a period at which the latest animals of the
diluvium still existed; but that no proof in support of this assump-
tion, nor consequently of their so-termed fossil condition, was af-
forded by the circumstances under which the bones were discovered."

Darwin mentions the subject in The Descent oj Man:
"The belief that there exists in man some close relation be-
tween the size of the brain and the development of the intellectual
faculties is supported by the comparison of the skulls of savage
and civilized races, of ancient and modern peoples, and by the
analogy of the whole vertebrate series. Dr. J. Bernard Davis has
proved, by many careful measurements, that the mean internal

THE NEANDERTHAL MAN.

51

capacity of the skull in Europeans is 92.3 cubic inches; in Ameri-
cans 87.5; in Asiatics 87.1; and in Australians only 81.9 cubic
inches. Professor Broca found that the nineteenth century skulls
from graves in Paris were larger than those from vaults of the
twelfth century, in the proportion of 1484 to 1426; and that the in-
creased size, as ascertained by measurements, was exclusively in the
frontal part of the skull — the seat of the intellectual faculties.

FOSSIL RELICS OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN IN THE PROVINCIAL MUSEUM

AT BONN.
( WeUall und Menschheit, II, 3 )

Prichard is persuaded that the present inhabitants of Britain have
'much more capacious brain-cases' than the ancient inhabitants.
Nevertheless, it must be admitted, that some skulls of very high
antiquity, such as the famous one of Neanderthal, are well devel-
oped and capacious."

Huxley in Man*s Place in Nature says .
" Under whatever aspect we view this cranium, whether we

52 THE RISE OF MAN."

regard its vertical depression, the enormous thickness of its super-
ciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its long and straight squamosal
suture, we meet with apelike characters, stamping it as the most
pithecoid cf human crania yet discovered .... And indeed, though
truly the most pithecoid of human skulls, the Neanderthal cranium
is by no means so isolated as it appears to be at first, but forms, in
reality, the extreme term of a series leading gradually from it to the
highest and best developed of human crania."

Finally we quote the statement of a distinguished an-
thropologist still living, Prof. Paul Topinard, who in his
Anthropology makes the following statement :

"Human palaeontology commences with the Post-pliocene or
Mammoth epoch. Examples of it are few in number, and not read-
ily capable of classification. De Quatrefage and Hamy, however,
have not flinched from this difficult task. By joining together

THE JAWBONE OF NAULETTE COMPARED WITH THAT OF A CHIMPANZEE.

fragments of male skulls from Cannstatt, Eguisheim, Brux, Denise,
and the Neanderthal, and female skulls from Stroengences, L'Olmo,
and Clichy, they succeeded in discovering in them certain common
characters; that is to say, dolichocephaly, a remarkable sinking of
the vault of the skull, or platycephaly, a great recession of the
frontal bone, and a very marked development of the superciliary
arches. Of all the specimens, the most remarkable are the calva-
rium of the Neanderthal and the jaw of La Naulette. Any one
accustomed to handle the skulls of the anthropoid apes will be
immediately struck with the great resemblance between them. The
Neanderthal especially reminds one of the calvarium of the female
gorilla, which is similarly staved in, as it were, or of the skull of a
hylobate. The superciliary arches are altogether simian, although
the skull is clearly human. Its capacity, estimated at 1200 cubic
centimetres, dissipates all doubt on the subject."

DU BOIS'S PITHECANTHROPOID.

w

HILE digging for fossils on the island of Java,
Professor Du Bois discovered some bones in the

SKULL OF PREHISTORIC MAN OF SPY IN BELGIUM.

From Professor Fraipont's photograph of the original in the Museum

at Liege. ( Weltall und Menschheit, II, 21.)

year 1891 on the banks of the Bengawan river near the
Trinil farm. The sand is volcanic and so the theory sug-

54

THE RISE OF MAN.

gests itself that the creature to whom these interesting rel-
ics belong became the victim of a volcanic eruption, yet
he was saved to posterity in the same way as the cities of
Pompeii and Herculaneum. When the rain water carried
away the volcanic dust it scattered and took with it some
of the bones. We might further mention that they are
all in a petrified condition and nothing of the originally
organic substance is left. There in the midst of tertiary

THE KRAPINA CAVE IN CROATIA.
( Weltall und Menschheit, II, 23.)

drift Professor Du Bois came quite unexpectedly upon a
cranium which in form is midway between the human and
Simian skulls. At a distance of about twenty-five metres
he found a human femur which in addition to its unusual
straightness shows a diseased growth, the latter being an
evidence of an injury received during lifetime and partly
healed. There was also nearby a molar tooth unequivo-

DU BOIS'S PITHECANTHROPOID.

55

cally human but unusually broad with widely diverging
roots.

CRANIUM OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS Du Bois. 3863

Seen from side and top. ( Weltatt und Menschheit, II, 177.)

The straightness of the femur induced Professor Du
Bois to call his foundling by the qualifying appellation

56 THE RISE OF MAN.

erectus, but Hermann Klaatsch and his colleagues have
pointed out that the typically human bone is exactly dis-
tinguished by a slight curve, and so it appears that the
straightness of the bone has nothing to do with man's
erect carriage. Hence it is not impossible that Du Bois's
pilhecus anthropits erectus may have been nearer in his
walk to the Simians than his discoverer assumes.

The broadness of the tooth and the expanded charac-
ter of its roots indicate that the jawbone must have pos-
sessed sufficient space for molar teeth, and thus favor the
assumption that the mouth of its mainly herbivorous
owner was more Simian than human.

While the breadth and length of the Javan ape-man's
skull are not inconsiderable, its height is extraordinarily
low, and the processes at its rear for the attachment of the
muscles of the back plainly prove that the owner of this
interesting relic possessed a very short stout neck not
unlike that of the anthropoid apes.

In addition to these characteristic traits the skull of
Du Bois's man exhibits the same orbital ridges as the skull
of the Neanderthal man, a feature also noticed in the fossils
of the Spy and Krapina caves. All other skulls of primi-
tive men that have so far ever been discovered, especially
the skulls of the Cro-Magnon cave in the valley of Vezere
(France) , are of a higher type and represent a nearer
approach to the human, both by an absence of the orbital
ridges and by a considerably increased height and brain-
capacity.

There are enough traces of the ape-man to establish
his whilom existence beyond a shadow of doubt, but theer
are not enough facts to give us any further information
about details. No one knows how many centuries or
millenniums it took to develop the species pithecanthropus
into primitive man, and why the former became extinct
with the appearance of the latter is a subject of surmise,
not of positive knowledge.

DU BOIS'S PITHECANTHROPOID.

57

RELICS OF THE PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS.

Left femur : (i) front view, (2) outside view, (3) back view,
(4) from below, (5) inside view of lower end. Third upper
right back tooth, (6) showing surface of mastication (6a) back

58

THE RISE OF MAN.

OUR FRONTISPIECE.

The artist Gabriel Max has dared to reconstruct an
image of the ape-man, and having devoted many years of
study to the shape of the anthropoid Simians as well as to

o "5

<n «^

H r*^

the doctrine of evolution, he has thrown his ideas on can-
vas and dedicated his picture to his friend Prof. Ernst
Haeckel of Jena.

DU BOIS'S PITHECANTHROPOID.

59

The picture is at first sight repulsive. There we
have portrayed a family of the ape-man, kin to the species
found in Neanderthal, Cannstatt, and Spy, who must have
been more savage than the savages. His brutish nature

MADONNA AND CHILD. (By Gabriel Max.)

still shows in his bodily appearance and yet the more we
look at the picture the more it gains on us !

Verily, we discover a close resemblance of the scene
represented by Gabriel Max to pictures of the holy family.
And considered rightly, the similarity is by no means

60 THE RISE OF MAN.

fortuitous, for here we have indeed a holy family. It is
an uncultured primitive couple of a speechless tribe of
forest men, yet the hope of progress and a brave determi-
nation to take up the battle of life for the sake of the babe
that is born to them becomes visible in the mother's eyes.

Gabriel Max was equal to the great task of showing
man at the beginning of his career in a low state, and he
understood how to make us comprehend that we behold
here, not the downfall to a state of degradation, but the
rise to a higher and nobler development of life. We can
plainly see that these creatures, half animal, half man,
contain in their aspirations the grand possibilities of hu-
manity. The picture is of extraordinary exactness if
judged from the standpoint of anthropology, but even if
it were not, the main idea of the artist comes out clearly
and is vividly pictured before us — a brute rising into man-
hood ! This much is certain, that the artist has under-
stood how to portray the ancestors of man not as mere
brutes, but as aspirants for a higher life, at a moment
when their souls were blossoming out into that fuller
mentality, which, with its intellectual depth and moral
breadth, we call human.

Gabriel Max was prepared for his task in a twofold
manner ; first by his study of the physiology and anatomy
of the ape and his knowledge of the doctrine of evolution,
and secondly by his previous work in the line of Madonna
paintings. The influence of the latter is so strong that
the weak point noticeable in all the Christian representa-
tions of the holy family (the depression of the ideal father
into a mere foster-father) is still apparent here. The
father of the babe looks too much like St. Joseph, like an
old reliable servant and an uninterested guardian, not like
a husband and parent, who takes a personal interest in
his wife and child and would burn with rage at any danger
that might disturb the peace of his little family circle.

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE.

WE have no intention of entering into the intricate
problem of the mode of progress, and will not ven-
ture to decide the mooted question of Weismann whether or
not acquired characteristics are inherited ; consequently
whether evolution is due to a selection of certain germs
fit for survival, or to the use and disuse of several organs
which will either strengthen or weaken certain qualities.
All rival theories on this subject agree as to the main facts.
They all accept the doctrine of evolution and vary only
as to the explanation attributing to nature different modes
of operation. The Lamarckian school explains evolution
mainly by use and disuse of organs. Function is first.
Function produces modifications in the structure of living
organisms, and these modifications become organic so as
to be inherited. The proposition of the inheritance of
acquired characteristics, however, has been challenged by
Weismann, who claims that no unequivocal instance that
could serve as a proof has yet been produced, for all ex-
periments of artificial mutilation have failed and thus favor
the opposite theory that the type of the race is permanent.
Moreover, evolution of new species takes place in instances,
such as ants and bees where a heredity of acquired charac-
ters is absolutely excluded. Neither the queen nor the
drone takes part in the labors of the hive and yet we can ob-
serve the origin of new species, in which the characteristics
of the worker-bee and the worker- ant are modified. Ant
communities as well as bee hives are like living organisms,

62 THE RISE OF MAN.

in which the single organs are split up into innumerable
individuals and there can be no question that the wonib
(i. e. the queen) of the collective creature lives physio-
logically in absolute separation from the rest and no direct
transmission of acquired characteristics of the workers is
possible. According to Weismann, therefore, the process
of evolution is due to a selection of germs containing
characteristics better adapted to conditions, and the rise of
a difference in these germs is not due to any use and dis-
use of organs, or whatever the workers may do or leave
undone.

Weismann 's critics pointed out that in human society
the children of scholars would show a greater refinement
than the children of their brothers who had lived as farm-
ers, that the latter showed more bony structures than the
former, and so indicated that use and disuse affected the
system, and that these characteristics became hereditary ;
but Weismann explains such instances by a predisposition
contained already in the germ. He would say that the
predisposition to become a scholar or a farmer was already
contained in the germs, and had determined the occupation
of the several numbers of one and the same family, and
though this would seem strange at first sight, it can not
be disproved.

It is a well known fact that the little toe of man is
undergoing at present a constant degeneration, commonly
attributed to the use of shoes, but Weismann proves that
this degeneration can not be due to the pressure of shoes
because it takes place in perfect independence of the use
of foot-wear. The degeneration of the little toe is trace-
able also among savages who never in their lives had a
shoe on their foot, and also in the bodies of the most an-
cient mummies, who lived before the invention of our
modern boots. The reason of this degeneration accordingly
is not the actual use and disuse of the little toe, but be-
cause the use of the toe is not needed, and so the individ-

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE. 63

uals with an imperfect toe had for millenniums the same
chance of survival as those in whom it was as fully devel-
oped as other toes. If such conditions in which the im-
perfect form of a limb has no special disadvantage continue
for any length of time imperfections are naturally favored,
or at least on equal terms with normal forms, and so the
crippled limb will through panmixia gradually displace
the original form.

If Weismann's view is correct the race can be modi-
fied only by a modification of the germ. While this would
slacken the pace of evolution, it would at the same time
act as a check on sudden changes and thus make the ad-
vance wherever it occurs more assured. It would base
the mutation not on haphazard incidents or particular con-
ditions of individuals, but would have them rooted in the
more recondite region of the germ, where they would be
more stable and less easily displaced. The evolution of
the race would be accomplished by a selection, not of in-
dividual characteristics, but of racial traits, which would
prevent rapid obliterations of well established character-
istics, and put the appearance of new modifications to a
severe test.

Changes are brought about by two forces that coun-
teract one another ; one is expansion, the other elimination.
When conditions are favorable life sprouts forth and pro-
duces great varieties of new forms, some of which possess
desirable qualities, while others indicate a weakening of
the type and aberrations. Good times produce superior
types together with many others that are inferior, but
when the time of tribulation arises the weaker forms
quickly die off and leave only the stronger ones. Good
times give a chance to any form of life, while hard times
put creatures to the test and select the fittest for survival.
In good times the weak and the strong, the clever and the
stupid, the poorly endowed and the well equipped, have
frequently equal chances to make an easy living, and

64 THE RISE OF MAN.

there is a tendency that makes both the tares and the
wheat grow together in liberal exuberance. If nature had
not hard times in store for her creatures, evolution would
lack definiteness and would scatter in many directions ; for
in that case freakish and degenerated formations would
not be excluded but grow in unlimited possibilities. We
owe it to hard times that the evolution of life favors a
definite type which leads higher and produces better and
stronger creatures, thereby pruning the exuberance of
wild tendencies and cutting off the aberrations from the
straight and narrow path of progress.

Professor Lloyd Morgan in his book on Animal Life
and Intelligence (p. 114 ff.) explains the effect of an al-
ternation of good and hard times thus :

"During good times varieties, which would be other-
wise unable to hold their own, might arise and have time
to establish themselves. In an expanding area migration
would take place, local segregation in the colonial areas
would be rendered possible, differential elimination in the
different migration-areas would produce divergence.
There would be diminished elimination of neutral varia-
tions, thus affording opportunities for experimental com-
binations. In general, good times would favour variation
and divergence.

' ' During the exhibitions at South Kensington there
were good times for rats. But when the show was over,
there followed times that were cruelly hard. The keenest
competition for the scanty food arose, and the poor ani-
mals were forced to prey upon each other. ' Their cra-
vings for food,' we read in Nature ', 'culminated in a
fierce onslaught on one another, which was evidenced by
the piteous cries of those being devoured. The method
of seizing their victims was to suddenly make a raid upon
one weaker or smaller than themselves, and, after over-
powering it by numbers, to tear it in pieces.' Blimina-
tion by competition, passing in this way into elimination

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE. 65

by battle, would, during hard times, be increased. None
but the best organized and best adapted could hope to
escape."

The law is not limited to animal life but holds good
also with man. Professor Morgan says :

4 ' The alternation of good times and hard times may be
illustrated by an example taken from human life. The
introduction of ostrich-farming in South Africa brought
good times to farmers. Whereupon there followed diver-
gence in two directions. Some devoted increased profits
to improvements upon their farms, to irrigation works
which could not before be afforded, and so forth. For
others increased income meant increased expenditure and
an easier, if not more luxurious, mode of life. Then came
hard times. Others, in Africa and elsewhere, learnt the
secret of ostrich-farming. Competition brought down
profits, and elimination set in — of which variety need
hardly be stated."

These observations convey a moral lesson which
will make us appreciate the significance of misfortunes
which all creatures have to encounter at times, in the
development of life. We would not have reached our
present state of civilization had the human race not pre-
viously met with enormous hardships and times of trial.

And the end is not yet, for there is more in store for
us, although it is not probable that there will be again
such universal and thorough eradication of whole tribes and
communities, for civilization holds misfortune in check
and acts as a saving power of extraordinary efficiency ;
yet in the measure that it does so it retards the develop-
ment of the racial type.

Civilization is a new factor in the world and it is dif-
ficult to prophesy what it will accomplish. No one doubts
that it is here, nor can we question its beneficial effects
which appear most obviously in the mutual assistance that
man offers to man in social and charitable institutions,

66 THE RISE OF MAN.

thus mitigating the fierceness of the struggle for existence
and keeping alive those things which otherwise would
have died.

The spirit of civilization is reflected mainly in the
ethical tendencies of the religions which characterize this
period, foremost among them being Buddhism and Chris-
tianity. The trend of it might be expressed in the word
of Jesus who in his turn quotes from the Hebrew fore-
runners and path-finders of the age of the Son of Man that
ua bruised reed shall he not break, and smoking flax
shall he not quench."

Civilization is practically the religion of the present
age, for whatever faith different people or nations may
confess, all religious leaders of the living present endeavor
to bring it abreast with the moral principles of civilization.
In fact if they try to prove their religion to be true, they
are mostly satisfied with pointing out that it supports and
agrees with our ideal of civilization.

But while we can not sufficiently praise the boons of
civilization, we must at the same time recognize that like
all things of this world, civilization has its weak points. It
would be a mistake to think that civilization per se pro-
duces a higher type of man. It renders life comfortable but
does not make the type progressive. Progress in all lines
is the result of necessity and the man of yesterday could
not have produced the civilization of to-day without having
previously been prepared for it by a selection of the fittest,
who were chosen to do the work ; as Dr. Charles E. Wood-
ruff puts it, " Brain makes civilization, and civilization
never makes brains."

The period of anthropogenesis, i. e., the age in which

* American Journal of Insanity. No. i, p. 10, July, 1901.

After the first publication of my articles on the rise of man (in The Open Court,
March 1904 and Jan , Feb. 1906) Dr. Woodruff courteously sent me his essay en-
titled " An Anthropological Study of the Small Brain of Civilized Man and its Evo-
lution," which contains a number of pointed conclusions; and passing over such
arguments as would in my opinion need modification I will make extensive quotations
and reproduce two of his diagrams.

68 THE RISE OF MAN.

the human race originated, was a continued era of hard
times. There was no other shelter than the caves acci-
dentally formed by nature. Food was scarce and difficult
to procure, while the struggle with wild animals, especially
the mammoth and the bear, must have taxed the energy
of a primitive community to the utmost.

Civilization may be characterized as man's mastery
of hard times ; its aim is to continue good times, and so
it preserves the unfit and allows their qualities, by what
Weismann has called panmixia, to continue as typical fea-
tures of the race. In this way the brain capacity of man
shows a very insignificant advance since the time of sav-
agery, for the higher a civilization and the prosperity of
a community ranges, the easier it will be for lower types
of mankind to survive.

Dr. Woodruff says :

uln whatever direction we seek, we are sure to find
remarkably clear evidence that man's brain developed to
its maximum size long before the dawn of civilization by
the process of natural selection in an environment which
eliminated the least intelligent in each generation, and
that civilization always checks the process.

' ' Our pre-glacial ancestor, in that tropical climate
which extended nearly to the pole, may have had so little
trouble in getting food that it was the active and agile in-
telligent ones best fitted to escape the enemies of the
times, who were the best adjusted to the environment and
who survived in greater numbers. Now what a change
occurred in the very slow and gradual approach of the long
cold 1 What a struggle began with a wiping out of species
which could not find fit variations adjusted to the change,
and what a mortality there must have been among our
most stupid ancestors, and therefore what a rapid evolution
of brain when the most intelligent survived, and no others,
in each generation.

"Like the protozoon, man was at first a jack-of-all-

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE. 69

trades, and a skillful one too. Instead of being gregarious
he was probably a free lance like an amoeba, possibly liv-
ing in pairs either temporarily like the birds or a more or
less permanent union. After a long time those who were
grouped into communities survived because they could
live better than in independence. By union a community
was better fitted for existence just as the protozoon colo-
nies. A long time after living in a clan, man was almost
as independent as when he was a free lance. He prac-
ticed all his functions just as before and the colony was
nothing more than a group of individuals living indepen-
dently but near together. It was precisely like the first
multicellular organisms which were composed of identical
cells each of which did exactly like all its neighbors. There
was no division of labor.

1 ' This was probably the period of man's greatest aver-
age brain development. Long after his organization into
tribes and even nations, at or even after the dawn of civi-
lization, each man could do every thing well. He could
hunt, fish, build houses, make arms, chip flints, be a sol-
dier and fight, protect his home, tan hides, make clothes
of skins and sandals of leather, look after a wife or so, and
he knew much about the weather, woodcraft, zoology and
botany too. Indeed he could do all these things before
he had learned to talk except by a few cries and grunts.
Dr. G. A. Reed (Present Evolution of Man) says he has
seen Maoris of New Zealand equal in power of mind to
average Europeans.

' We should think for a moment what a large amount
of brain it requires to do all this successfully. The skill
and intelligence needed in woodcraft alone would tax the
mental powers of the average modern man. Then we
must think of the result of not having enough intelligence
to do all this, — inevitable death — for in those conditions
men were too busy keeping themselves alive to have any
spare time to preserve the weaklings.

70 THE RISE OF MAN.

''During this time and for a very long time previous,
survival of the fittest was the same thing as survival of
the brainiest. It is certain that when by climatic changes,
man's environment became unfriendly, he had to think,
scheme and contrive or die. There must have been a rapid
evolution of brain if we are to judge from embryologi-
cal evidence and of course a great mortality among the
less intelligent. It is possible that a single thought may
have been sufficient to save one man out of many, for if
he had happened to think that he ought to hide some food,
he may have had enough to tide him over a period of win-
ter starvation which carried off most of the tribe. We
know that just such period of stress, carrying off the less
provident, actually occurred among our Pacific Coast
Indians as late as the end of the first half of the present
century."

Civilization alleviates the lot of man. The beginning
of this tendency becomes apparent even in the age of the
caveman and it is on the increase, the whole of society
being made more and more responsible for the comfort of
all its members. With a gradual spread of civilization,
the unfit are no longer eliminated. Says Dr. Woodruff :

u A man possessed of a single useful faculty may suc-
ceed in civilized life, though his general intelligence may be
so limited that he would have perished in a savage life.
He is adjusted to a civilized environment and fit for sur-
vival, but in a savage environment he would be so out of
adjustment as to perish in the struggle for existence.

' ' Psychologists have frequently called attention to
the fact that in civilized life among laborers there are
many imbeciles whose defects are hidden because they are
never called upon to do anything requiring intelligence.
All of these men are fitted for survival now, whereas in
prehistoric times they would have perished before matu-
rity if not killed by their parents.

1 ' Every degree of intelligence can find a sphere of

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE.

71

72 THE RISE OF MAN.

activity in which to struggle successfully for existence as
a specialized unit in organized society. They are all fitted
for survival and they all leave offspring."

The origin of civilization is due to favorable conditions
in which man can make use of his superiority acquired
during hard times.

The oldest fossils of anthropoid apes are found in the
eocene and miocene strata, and we must assume therefore
that the genesis of man started in the pliocene period.
The pliocene period then is the age of the man-ape who
left no records, for the implements he used for many mil-
lenniums were the stones he picked up and the bones of
the hunted animals he had gnawed. Accordingly we can
not expect to find unequivocal evidences of his activity or
intelligence. When he first began to chip flints he ceased
to be a man-ape and became an ape-man or pithecanthro-
pus, a fair promise of the true man.

Almost simultaneously with the appearance of the
ape-man is the beginning of the ice age which reached its
climax in the pleistocene period and must have been very
hard on this new species in the animal creation. It was
a severe school, but to its very severity man owes his
most precious qualities, foresight, earnestness of purpose,
responsibility and conscience, based upon a feeling of sol-
idarity with other members of the same community

We assume that this ape-man or pithecanthropus had
been temporarily cut off from a retreat to warmer regions
and so he was compelled to work out the progress of the
race under penalty of extinction. We assume further that
from time to time some families or tribes escaped to the
south and found there more comfortable surroundings, but
as soon as their hardships ceased, their development was
arrested, and so their several types constitute the mile-
stones on the path of progress, mementoes of what the
man of today might be had he not longer remained in the
school of anthropogenesis. There are the Veddas of

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE. 73

Ceylon, the Nigritoes of the South Sea Islands, the Bush-
men, the Hottentots, the Negroes of darkest Africa, and
of the Soudan. In the meantime the advance of the race
continued in the north.

We must regard the Neanderthal man as a typical
specimen of the ape-man, while the skeletons of Spy in-
dicate already an advance. One skull of Spy possesses
very little more brain capacity than the Neanderthal man,
while the other indicates a considerable increase, as can
be seen in the diagram of Fraipont and Lohest.

OUTLINES OF THE SKULLS OF THE NEANDERTHAL MAN AND OF THE TWO

SKELETONS OF SPY. 3479

From Fraipont and Lohest.
The dotted lines represent the calvaria of the Spy skulls.

Further progress is rapid. We find the Cro-Magnon
type succeeded by the Mediterranean race, and different
types bred in different parts under different conditions pro-
duced longheads and broad heads whose intermixture again
constituted a favorable factor in the production of the most
intelligent specimens of mankind, who at last were suffi-
ciently well equipped in brain capacity to be fit material
for the production of civilized man.

Man's growth of brain power during the ice age was
rapid if compared to previous periods in the history of

74 THE RISE OF MAN.

creation although it was slow enough if measured by the
rapid changes of the present time, and this is one main
reason why there are so few traces of man's activity in
the incipient stage of his manhood. All further steps of
anthropogenesis through the stone ages, the paleolithic,
the mesolithic, and the neolithic, can be traced at least in
large outlines, and in the bronze age the dawn of history
already begins to shed a clearer light upon the further ad-
vance of mankind toward civilization.

In the neolithic period the pace of civilization enters
into a new period of unprecedented progress. Of the ab-
rupt changes at the beginning of this period Dr. Wood-
ruff says :

"An apparently sudden appearance of neolithic cul-
ture also depends upon the fact that civilization increases
in a geometrical rate, because each new invention adds
something to all previous ones, or acts as a multiplier,
not a mere addition. Great inventions also are often a
mere assembling of many previous minor ones. The
steam engine for instance was built up of thousands of in-
ventions, dating back even to the discovery of metals, and
it is but one factor in all subsequent advance. It is also
a matter of comment that great revolutionizing inventions
are really very simple affairs. The advance in culture is
so tremendously rapid now, not because the multiplier is
any greater than with the mesolithic savage but because
the multiplicand is tremendous. It is quite likely that a
colony of modern farmers suddenly made ignorant of met-
als and transported to our iron fields, would take just as
long, if not longer, to discover metals on their farms than
did neolithic man, for they invent and discover just as
slowly as ever. Marsh's estimate of 12,000 years for a
savage to civilize himself must be entirely too short. It
must have taken 160,000 years for paleolithic inventions
to accumulate sufficiently to amount to a mesolithic stage,

76 THE RISE OF MAN.

remembering of course that in the early part of that time
he had less brain to work with than the lowest living races.

"It was not until 60,000 years more had passed that
the sum of mesolithic inventions reached a neolithic age
and the more rapid increase towards the end of course
made it appear like a sudden jump in culture. In no other
way than by assuming a geometrical increase of culture
can we explain that remarkable jump to the neolithic.
The mesolithic had but rude tools and pottery, no grain
and the only domestic animal was the dog. The new age
had pottery, artifical caves for houses, then lake dwellings,
and such a sudden appearance of cows, pigs and goats
that they were once thought to have been brought into
Europe from the east, though a much later invasion really
did occur. Yet we know from recent experiments that
new varieties of domestic animals can arise in a much
shorter time by artificial selection than we once thought
— the estimates of biologists are undergoing constant re-
duction. So that the domestication of the above animals,
though perhaps started by the mesolithic man, may have
been accomplished by the neolithic in a short time, for we
know that these bones were fairly numerous in the late
neolithic.

* ' The pig and the horse were unknown to the early
Egyptians and also to the Akkadians before the Semitic
invasion. The wonderful resemblance between many
breeds of domestic animals for a long time after birth so
that experts may be deceived as to the breed until near
maturity, is strong evidence of the very late specialization
of these varieties by artificial selection.

( ' These suddenly appearing domestic animals are al-
most exclusively gregarious, and had undergone a natural
selection for millions of years, fitting them for a semi-
dependent existence in herds, and the transference of that
dependence to man was an easy matter and need not have
taken long."

CIVILIZATION AND THE RACE. 77

It is obvious, then, that evolution during the period
of anthropogenesis consisted in an advance of the type of
man, while at present the type is more stationary during
the advance of civilization which moves forward with an
increasingly rapid acceleration.

While it may be granted that civilization no longer
eliminates the unfit in wholesale exterminations, it can
not be said to mean a discontinuance of the further ad-
vance of the race, but the modus operandi is less drastic
and therefore perhaps slower. While the unfit are pre-
served (or rather, while the elimination of the unfit has
been considerably reduced) those individuals who repre-
sent a superior type are rendered conspicious by the ac-
quisition of power, money, distinction, or fame. There
are certain aristocracies forming, commercial, political,
industrial, scientific, artistic, social and otherwise, and
prominence within the several spheres of human activity,
is partly a positive advantage, a means of survival, partly
a stimulus to progress. Thus the process of evolution is
not stopped but only modified, and though the fierceness
of the struggle is abating the pace of advance is by no
means checked. The main difference between the present
and the age of anthropogenesis is mainly this, that primi-
tive man struggled for survival, — for bare existence, while
now the premium of the victor is success in life, promi-
nence, wealth, or fame.

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST.

THE concluding chapter of The Rise of Man shall be
devoted to the explanation of an important truth
which is frequently misunderstood, viz., that man rose
from a brute condition by virtue of superior qualities, not
by brutishness and viciousness. Professor Huxley,
strange to say, insists on the immorality of nature, and
he is inclined to attribute the rise of man to his tiger-like
fierceness and fox-like cunning, which, it is claimed, he
learned in the stern school of life. But there is a flaw in
Professor Huxley's reasoning, and while we are fully
aware of the fierceness of the struggle for existence we
cannot account for the gradual rise of mankind, except by
the fact that primitive man cultivated in his family life
social faculties and other noble instincts which improved
his animal nature and made him what he is today.
Professor Huxley says :

"From the point of view of the moralist the animal world is
on about the same level as a gladiator's show. The creatures are
fairly well treated, and set to fight — whereby the strongest, the
swiftest, and the cunningest live to fight another day. * * *

"In the cycle of phenomena presented by the life of man, no
more moral end is discernible than in that presented by the lives of
the wolf and of the deer. * * *

"As among these, so among primitive men, the weakest and
stupidest went to the wall, while the toughest and shrewdest, those
who were best fitted to cope with their circumstances, but not the
best in any other sense, survived."

The infuriated savage may be cruel to his enemies,

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST. 79

but we must not forget that the fury with which he takes
up the combat is prompted by the love of his wife and
child, or of his whole tribe, and the rise of mankind would
not have taken place without a growth of the more refined
sentiments of sympathy, kindness, and love. Professor
Huxley undervalues the use of morality in the struggle
for existence. Man survived not because of his toughness,
or his shrewdness, but because of his moral qualities.
The antediluvial fox was perhaps shrewder, and the lion
or bear tougher, than the prehistoric savage or man-ape ;
but they were lacking in the social attachment which
binds single individuals together with the ties of love, of
family, and of friendship. Moral feelings, or rather the
capacity and conditions of the growth of moral feelings,
the tendency to reveal moral qualities, is not absent in the
higher animals, especially mammals, and among mam-
mals the several species of apes.* Attachment to others
of their own kind makes animals gregarious and primitive
man sociable. A social animal develops more morality
than solitary beings, and the shrewdness of a social being
becomes intelligence.

Intelligence is more powerful as a weapon in the
struggle for existence than shrewdness, because it does
not lack in morality ; it is more in unison with the cosmic
order. Human speech is the product of intelligence and
not of shrewdness. Man was able to develop speech only
because he was moral enough to be social, and this moral-
ity elevated man above the rest of the animal world.
Among savage tribes the most intelligent and not the
shrewdest survived.

It is an undeniable fact that in any given district the
tribes who were lacking in morality, even when the very
shrewdest and toughest, had to go to the wall, while in
the end the more moral remained victorious.

* Witness for instance the affection of the monkey mother for her sick child in
Landseer's famous painting.

80

THE RISE OF MAN.

It is a wrong historical view to imagine that the Ro-
mans conquered the world because they were shrewder,
stronger, and more ferocious than their neighbors. They

THE SICK MONKEY. (By Landseer.)

conquered the world because they possessed in addition to
strength a rare moral quality — the quality of justice.
With regard to their exercise of justice, indeed, they were

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST. 81

by no means perfect ; but they were more advanced, more
moral and better in this respect than any other nation of
their time, cultured Greece not excepted. Yet even the
strength of the Romans was not the physical force of a
ferocious bull ; it was the moral strength of courage.

It will thus be seen that morality affords the power
to survive, and if the primitive savage was not moral in
the present acceptation of the word, he was in his time
relatively the most moral being on earth, and this gave
him more strength than toughness or shrewdness could
ever afford.

Prof. Huxley declares in other passages of the same
essay :

"The history of civilization — that is, of society — on the other
hand, is the record of the attempts which the human race has made
to escape from this position. * * *

"But the effort of ethical man to work toward a moral end by
no means abolished, perhaps has hardly modified, the deep-seated
impulses which impel the natural man to follow his non-moral
course."

Professor Huxley adds with special reference to the
civilization of the English nation of to-day :

"We not only are, but, under penalty of starvation, we are
bound to be, a nation of shopkeepers. But other nations also lie
under the same necessity of keeping shop, and some of them deal
in the same goods as ourselves. Our customers naturally seek to
get the most and the best in exchange for their produce. If our
goods are inferior to those of our competitors, there is no ground
compatible with the sanity of the buyers, which can oe alleged,
why they should not prefer the latter. And, if that result should
ever take place on a large and general scale, five or six millions of
us would soon have nothing to eat. We know what the cotton
famine was ; and we can therefore form some notion of what a dearth
of customers would be.

"Judging by an ethical standard, nothing can be less satis-
factory than the position in which we find ourselves. In a real,
though incomplete, degree we have attained the condition of peace
which is the main object of social organization (and it may, for
argument's sake, be assumed that we desire nothing but that which

82 THE RISE OF MAN.

is in itself innocent and praiseworthy — namely, the enjoyment of
the fruits of honest industry). And lo ! in spite of ourselves, we
are in reality engaged in an internecine struggle for existence with
our presumably no less peaceful and well-meaning neighbors. We
seek peace and we do not ensue it. The moral nature in us asks
for no more than is compatible with the general good; the non-
moral nature proclaims and acts upon that fine old Scottish family
motto, 'Thou shalt starve ere I want.' Let us be under no illusion,
then."

With all due respect to the facts presented by Pro-
fessor Huxley, we must object to the conclusion at which
he arrives. Professor Huxley's view of morals is based
on the error that the wolf is immoral while the sheep is
moral. The strong one is supposed to be an evil-doer,
simply on account of his strength, while the weak one is
supposed to be good simply on account of his weakness.
Not the hero is glorified that ' ' fights the good fight of
faith," but the martyr that allows himself to be slaugh-
tered without resistance.

This ethics has long been fostered by Christian mor-
alists, because unfortunately Christ was compared to a
lamb that is sacrificed, and because, in one of his alle-
gories, Christ compares the good to sheep whom he will
place at the right hand. The allegory is misinterpreted.
It is neither the weakness nor the inactivity, but the purity
of the sheep that is approved by Christ. How much is
blamed, in another parable, the inactive and cowardly
servant who buried the talent that was entrusted to him !

This ovine morality has detracted much of the pith
and strength from Christian ethics. It has made it tame
and weak and even despicable. Morality is not, as many
lamb-souled moralists pretend, the negative quality of
suffering ; morality according to modern ethics is the pos-
itive virtue of energetic activity. Ours is, as the scientist
correctly states, a struggle for existence ; and those who
consider it meritorious to succumb to injustice and vio-
lence justly go to the wall. Their enemies, unjust though

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST.

they may be, are comparatively more moral, for they are
their superiors in the virtue of courage which gives them
strength and power.

Prof. Huxley describes how the moralist, in the effort
to restore harmony, tries to account for the iniquities in
this world. He says :

"From the theological side, we are told that this is a state of
probation, and that the seeming injustices and immoralities of
Nature will be compensated by and by. But how this compensa-
tion is to be effected, in the case of the great majority of sentient
things, is not clear. I apprehend that no one is seriously prepared
to maintain that the ghosts of all the myriads of generations of
herbivorous animals which lived during the millions of years of the
earth's duration before the appearance of man, and which have all
that time been tormented and devoured by carnivores, are to be
compensated by a perennial existence in clover; while the ghosts
of carnivores are to go to some kennel where there is neither a pan
of water nor a bone with any meat on it."

This would indeed be a consistent consequence of a
soft -brained and weak-hearted system of ethics, which
praises the innocence and meritoriousness of mere suffer-
ing, and depicts as the ideal of morality a millennium of
eternal peace, where the struggle for existence is unknown,
where no labor nor painstaking is necessary and all time
is spent in the glorification of an all-wise Creator.

Such a state of absolute perfection is impossible and
we must smile at the ingenuousness of those philosophers
who pretend to teach modern ethics and still adhere to the
old millennium idea of a life of perfect adaptation where
universal happiness will prevail.

The error in this Utopian idea is easily seen if we
understand that the struggle for existence is inherent in
nature. The struggle for existence is not only not in
contradiction to ethics, it is on the contrary its most im-
portant factor, which must be taken into consideration and
is taken into consideration by the monistic view of ethics.
The old ethical view demands that man shall not resist

84 THE RISE OF MAN.

evil ; that lie shall leave off fighting and humbly allow
himself to be trodden under foot. But the ethics of mon-
ism does not make man unfit for life, it renders him fitter
in the struggle for existence. It teaches that so long as we
are in harmony with the One and All of nature, so long
as we remain in accord with natural laws, we shall be best
able to resist evil. And this we can only do by constantly
exercising our faculties and strengthening brawn and brain
for the continued struggle, — which will cause us, it is true,
much trouble and uneasiness, but at the same time will
raise us to a higher level ; it educates us and enhances the
work of our existence.

Professor Huxley's scathing criticism is only justified
if applied to the ovine morality of those who see a virtue
in sheepishness. Humanity, Christian and anti-Christian,
is under the influence of the sheep allegory still. But the
struggle for existence will continue, it can not be abolished
because it is a natural law, and sheepishness will never
triumph in the world of real life.

Morality is not negative, it is not mere submission
to evil, no pure passivity, no suffering, simply : morality
is positive. Not by the omission of certain things do we
do right, but by straining all the faculties of mind and
body to do our best in the struggle for life which we have
to fight. We may be weak, and we may feel our weak-
ness. The greater should our efforts be, to fight the
struggle ethically. We may be poor in spirit and we may
feel our want, but nature will supply us with that which
we want, if we but earnestly struggle to acquire it. He
who is strong in spirit and in body, he who feels his
strength and misuses it, will not be the conqueror in the
end. It is not the self-sufficient that are blessed ; but
those who are aware of their insufficiency. This only, in
my opinion, can be, or at least ought to be, the meaning
when Christ says :

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST. 85

"Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of
heaven."

We must be on our guard against unfeelingsternne.ss,
yet on the other hand let us not drop into the other ex-
treme. We must be on our guard against ethical senti-
mentality also. There is too much preaching about the
sweetness of religion and the rapturous delight of ethics.
Yet this saccharine religiosity is just as impotent and use-
less as that ovine morality which glorifies in its weakness
and does not struggle for strength.

Austere rigidity in religion and ethics is like a rose
without odor, it is life without gladness, and obedience
without loving devotion. The passivity of a lamb-like
submission is idealized weakness fortified and strength-
ened by moral vanity and sugared over with sentimental
enthusiasm.

Religion and ethics, we do not deny, are full of sweet-
ness and noble joys, yet at the same time they are stern;
they are of an unrelenting severity and majesty. It is
only the unison of both, the strength of austerity and the
fervor of sentiment, that makes morality wholesome,
sound, and healthy.

The moral law is a natural law, it may be contrasted
to, but does not stand in contradiction with, the other
natural laws of a lower order. The deeper we investigate
the more we shall be convinced that benefits acquired by
injustice will prove to be injurious in the end : very often
they are even the beginning of the ruin. Truth and jus-
tice are the most powerful weapons in the struggle for
existence. Truth and justice will always conquer in the
end. It often takes more time than the life of a single
individual to see the triumph of truth ; but we can be sure,
even if the defenders of truth and justice die, if they suc-
cumb to their immoral enemies, that truth and justice will
survive.

It is the belief in truth and justice which lies at the

86

THE RISE OF MAN.

bottom of all religious and ethical views, and it is justified
in both the realm of natural science and in the history of
mankind.

In one sense, we can say man is throughout self-made.
He had to climb the ladder of evolution, and every one of
his bodily and mental qualities is acquired by himself. But
in another sense, we can say that man is nothing by him-
self ; nature has made him. She led him step by step to
find that which alone made him what he is — a rational

ARROW-HEADS AND HARPOONS OF REINDEER BONES FROM LAUGERIEBASSE.

Originals in Mus^e du Jardin des Plantes, Paris.
Menschheit, II, 272.)

( Weltall und

being, a tool-making creature. Those who deviated from
the path prescribed by nature, were hopelessly doomed
to extinction. The path is prescribed in general outlines
only ; it admits of infinite variations in all its details,
but certain general conditions are rigid and do not allow
of any deviation.

The history of inventions represents a ladder on
which we can always reach only to the next rung. The

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST.

87

possibility of making each step is, upon the whole, defi-
nitely determined by the laws of existence.

Nature leads man onward, as it were, step by step,
as if she pursued a special and well-calculated method of
education. The mechanical contrivances to be invented

BONE CARVING FROM A DILUVIAL STATION IN SOUTHERN FRANCE.

After Piette (Weltall und Menschheit, II, 280.)

SEWING NEEDLES OF BONE SPLINTERS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM
(Weltall und Menschheit, II, 274.)

are suggested by our surroundings, and man finds them
as soon as he reaches a stage of maturity that enables him
to detect them.

The earliest inventions are the best evidences of the
fact that nature herself made the first inventions possible

THE RISE OF MAN.

to man. The invention of pottery, for instance, appar-
ently came about by attempts to heat liquid food in drink-
ing vessels, such as skulls and gourds. When exposed
to heat the vessels began to burn, and to protect them
against the fire they were covered on the outside with clay.
There can be no doubt that for a long time vessels to be
used for cooking were such clay-covered skulls and gourds,
for great numbers of them have been found in various

REINDEER BONES MADE INTO IMPLEMENTS.

From the Musee du Jardin des Plantes, Paris. ( Weltall und

Menschhett, II, 271.)

districts which testify to this fact. That the skull or
gourd was not an essential part of the cooking vessel was
perhaps, as we say, accidentally discovered, i. e., not by
forethought or reflection through a process of reasoning,
but simply through the actual experience that the gourd
within the clay rotted away or wore off, while the clay
cover not only remained serviceable but proved superior
to other vessels that still contained their gourds. And

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST.

89

a. STONE OF COLLORGUES ; b. SARDINIAN

MENHIR. 3:

VENUS OF BRASSEMPOUY.
After Piette.

HUMAN FIGURE CARVED FROM
4960 A HORSE'S TOOTH.*

HUMAN FIGURES OF IVORY

AND BONE.

After Miiller and Cartailhac.

*This cut is reproduced from Weltatt und Menschheit, and the others on this
page from Woermann's Geschichte der Kunst.

90

THE RISE OF MAN.

thus the pot was invented not by the wisdom of man but
by nature, who, as it were, taught him the object lesson ;
and man's merit consists only in having attained through
previous object lessons the ability to understand the lesson.
How long it sometimes took men to learn a lesson
taught by nature is difficult to say. But certain it is that

AN AMERICAN INDIAN MAKING FIRE.

even to-day all inventions are made in the same way.
Nature teaches the lesson, and we are her disciples. The
higher we rise, the more quickly we can climb ; and this
produces the impression that we could climb in any direc-
tion we please ; but we can not, and our inventive gen-

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST. 91

iuses are only the better disciples of nature, our great and
kind teacher.

While we may fairly well assume that the ancestors
of the human race must have been fierce in battle and
presumably wilder than the savages of Australia and
Africa, we have good reason to believe that the first dawn
of humanization was not without many redeeming features
of humaner qualities. The age of primitive man must,
at any rate, have been an interesting era stirred by a pe-
culiar intellectual activity. What a miracle must have
been the first appearance — or shall we say accidental in-
vention— of firemaking, produced while boring holes with
a hard stick in soft wood. So many relics of artifacts, art
representations as well as utensils of most ancient date
have been discovered, that some anthropologists speak of
this period as a first efflorescence of the arts, and we may
fairly well assume that there were among this primitive
race of ape-men quite a number of geniuses, both invent-
ors and artists. A review of the fragments discovered in
many places shows that in hours of leisure their imagina-
tion prompted them to represent objects uppermost in
their minds. They drew pictures of the mammoth which
they hunted, of the reindeer, of the cave-bear, fish, bison,
and the horse. They sculptured ornamental staves, the
use of which has not yet been determined, though they
may have served the purpose of scepters. They made
needles of bones, fashioned horns of the reindeer into
hammers, and from flint produced arrow-heads and knives.
It is peculiar that no figure of man either carved or drawn
has been discovered, but there are several sculptured
women which are for plausible reasons supposed to belong
to the very oldest relics of human art. One of them, very
awkwardly carved and scarcely recognizable as a woman's
form, is called the Venus of Brassempouy. Another fe-
male torso belonging to the Collection de Vibraye at Paris,
and now in the National Museum there, was found in

92

THE RISE OF MAN.

Laugerie Basse, but there are no records to tell whether
it served as a doll or represented a goddess to be used for
purposes of worship.

PREHISTORIC CARVINGS IN IVORY AND HORN.

After Lartet and Christy's Reliquiae Aguitanicae, and Dr. Hamy.
(Lenormant's Histoire ancienne de Portent, I, 142.)

In spite of the ferocious character of primitive man,
we have no reason to believe that he was under all condi-
tions dangerous and beastlike. On the contrary there is

THE TRIUMPH OF THE BEST. 93

no fact that would prove him to have been less kindly
dispositioned than such highly advanced animals, as the
elephant, the St. Bernard dog, or even the bear. Primi-
tive man must have been social by nature, for the origin
of humanity is due to communal life. .Language has
developed through the desire and want of intercourse,
through the need of an exchange of thought caused by
communal life, communal labor, communal interests, all
of which presuppose a social disposition, which would be
impossible without the qualities of friendly and kindly
sentiment. This humane feature in primitive man has
not yet been sufficiently recognized, although it must have
been the most significant factor in the origin of the human
race.

Man's origin is due to a rise, not a fall ; nor has the
ascent been made by foul means. The prize has been
fairly won. Civilization is not brought about by an op-
pression of the weak, or by fraud and rascality. It is the
product of honest work ; of a bard yet fair struggle, and
of noble aspirations.

INDEX.

Acquired characteristics, 61.
Animals, Domestication of, 76.
Ant communities, 61.
Anthropogenesis, School of, 72 ; Steps

of, 74; stopped by civilization, 77.
Anthropoid Apes, 15 ff.
Ape-man, 13-14; and man-ape, 42,

72; of Java, 41, 56; Omnivorous,

34-

Arrow-heads, 86.
Australian, Picture of, 38; Skull of,

39-
Auswickelung, 6.

Baer, Von, 5.

Bee hives, 61.

Best, Fittest not always the, 7-8.

Bible, 2.

Bone carved horse, 87.

Brain development, 69; Curve of, 75;

Rapid evolution of, 68; Survival

of the, 70.
Brehm, 26.
Broca, 51.
Brux, 44.
Buddhism, 66.

Cannstatt, 44.

Catarrhines, 36.

Caveman, Age of, 70; Home of the,

7i-

Chicken and egg, 6.
Chimpanzee, 16, 27 ff. ; Pictures of,

29> 3°> 31) plates iv-vi, facing pp.

27, 28, 29.

Christ, 13 ; compared to a lamb, 82.
Christianity, 66.
Civilization, continued good times,

68; Curve of, 75; a new factor, 65;

preserves the unfit, 68; Weak points

of, 66.

Communal life, 93.
Comparisons are odious, 15.
Complexity, 8-9, 12.
Copernicus, 11.
Criterion of Progress, 8-9.
Crocodile, 20.
Cro-Magnon type, 56, 73.

Darwin, i, 3, 6, 14, 50.

Davis, J. Bernard, 50.

Degeneration of the little toe, 62.

Dingo, 38.

Dispositions, 6.

Divine, 12.

Domestication of animals, 76.

Du Bois, Professor, 53, 54, 55.

Du Chaillu, 26.

Duckbill, 38.

Ecclesiastes, 2.
Economy of thought, n.
Edwards's Zoological Exhibition,

plates i -vi, facing pp. 20-21, 26-29.
Egg and chicken, 6.
Egisheim, 44.

Elimination and expansion, 63.
Entzi.'ickelung, 6.
Epigenesis, 6.
Europe, Central, 37.
Evolution accepted, i, 3 ; Meaning of,

9; a wrong word, 5.
Expansion and elimination, 63.

Feelings, Meaning of, 10; not mech-
anical, 9-10.
Firemaking, by boring holes, 90, 91.

96

THE RISE OF MAN.

Fittest, not always the best, 7-8.
Fraipont, 44.
Friedenthal, 27 f.
Fuhlrott, 49, 50.
Function, 61.

Gentile interpretation, 2.

Gibbon, 35.

God, no begetter, 2; or nature, 12.

God-idea, n.

God's offspring, i.

Goethe, 5.

Good and hard times, 63 ff.

Gorilla, 16 ; Description of, 20 ff. ;

Pictures of, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26;

vegetarian, 24.
Greek quotation, I.

Haeckel, 18, 58.

Haller, 5.

Hamy, 52.

Hanno, 24ff.

Heaven, Kingdom of, 13.

Herculaneum, 54.

Horse, Bone carved, 87.

Hulock, 34, 35.

Huxley, 51, 78, 81, 82, 84.

Immaterial, The, 12.
Intelligence and shrewdness, 79.

Jaw-bone of Naulette, 52.

Joe and Sallie at home, plate vi,

facing p. 29.
Joe, the Chimpanzee, plates iv and v,

facing pp. 27, 28.
Joe, the orang-utan, plates i and n,

facing pp. 20, 21.
Joseph, St., 60.

Kangaroo, 38.

Kant-Laplace hypothesis, 9-10.

Kepler, n.

Kingdom of Heaven, 13.

Klaatsch, H., 16, 37.

Krapina cave, 54, Fossils from, 58.

Lamarck, 5.
Lamarckian school, 61.
Language and reason, 7.
Lar, 34.

Lemuria, 37.
Lhoest, 44.

Life grows upward, 13.
Longfellow, 2.

Madonna paintings, 60.

Mammoth, Fighting the, 67.

Man, Genesis of, in the pliocene pe-
riod, 72 ; Unique position of, 3.

Man-ape, 37, 40 f. ; and ape-man, 42,
72.

Maoris, 69.

Marsh, 74.

Materialism, 9.

Max, Gabriel, 58 ff. ; Madonna of, 59.

Mediterranean race, 73.

Mesolithic, 74, 76.

Missing link, 14.

Mitchell, Guernsey, 48.

Mohammed, 2.

Monotheism, Rigid, I.

Morality in the struggle for exist-
ence, 79; power to survive, 81.

Morgan, C. Lloyd, 64, 65.

Nature needs man, 87 ; or God, 12 ;

whipping man onward, 41.
Neanderthal man, 43 ff., 73.
Neolithic period, 74, 76.

Omnivorous, ape-man, 34; Man, 40.

Orang-utan, Derivation of, 16 ; De-
scription of, 17-20; Pictures of, 15,
17, 19, plates i-m, facing pp. 20, 21,
26.

Ostrich-farming, 65.

Ovine morality, 82, 84, 85.

Paleolithic, 74.
Panmixia, 63.
Paul, Apostle, 2.
Pinkard, 27.

Pithecanthropus, 13 - 14, 53 ff., 72 ;
erectus, Cranium of, 55 ; Relics of,

57-

Pliny, 26.
Pliocene Period, Genesis of man in

the, 72.
Pompeii, 54.
Prichard, 51.
Proboscis-monkey, 35 f.

INDEX.

97

Progress, 41 ; Criterion of, 8-9.
Ptolemaic system, 11.

Quatrefage, De, 52.

Race-memory, 6.
Rats, South Kensington, 64.
Reason, 5, 12; and language, 7.
Reed, Dr. G. A., 69.
Reindeer bone instruments, 88.
Rise to higher life, 60.

Saccharine religiosity, 85.

Saint-Hilaire, Geoffrey, 5.

Schotensack, 39.

Schiissler, 27.

Schwalbe, G., 44.

Serum of chimpanzee, 28.

Sewing needles, 87.

Shrewdness and intelligence, 79.

Sick monkey, The, 80.

Sidney, Slab of Museum at, 37.

Simplicity, II

Skeletons of anthropoids, 18 ; of man

and gorilla, 22.
Skull of Australian, 39.
Slab of Museum at Sidney, 37.
Sonship, Divine, 4, 13.
Soul-forms, 10-11.
South Kensington rats, 64.
Spencer, Herbert, 8, 9.

Spy, 44; Skeletons of, 73; Skull of.

53-
Survival, not always progress, 8.

Teacher's story, 3.
Teeth of man and ape, 35 f.
Test of progress, Truth, n.
Times, Good and hard, 63 ff.
Toe, Degeneration of the little, 62.
Topinard, Paul, 52.
Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold, 5.
Truth and justice, Belief in, 85; not
made of dust, 12; test of progress,

11-12.

Uniformities, 7.
Unique position of man, 3.
Upward, Life grows, 13.
Utopian idea, 83.

Vegetarian, Chimpanzee, 28 ; Gorilla,

24.

Venus of Brassempouy, 89, 9
Virchow, 43.

Ward, Charles H., 49.

Ward, Henry A., 48.

Warnambool, 38.

Weak points of civilization, 66.

Weismann, 61, 62, 63.

Wolf, Kaspar Friedrich, 5.

Woodruff, Dr. Charles E., 66, 70, 74.

Plant Breeding

Comments on the experiments of
BURBANK & NILSSON. By

Hugo DeVries, Professor of Botany in the University of Amsterdam.

Pages, XIII + 351. 114 Illustrations. Printed on fine enamel paper. Cloth,

gilt top, $1.50 net; $1.70 postpaid. (7s. 6d. net.)

Under the influence of the work of Nilsson, Burbank, and others, the principle of
selection has, of late, changed its meaning in practice in the same sense in which it is
changing its significance in science by the adoption of the theory of an origin of species
by means of sudden mutations. The method of slow improvement of agricultural varie-
ties by repeated selection is losing its reliability and is being supplanted by the discovery
of the high practical value of the elementary species, which may be isolated by a single
choice. The appreciation of this principle will, no doubt, soon change the whole aspect
of agricultural plant breeding.

Hybridization is the scientific and arbitrary combination of definite characters. It
does not produce new unit-characters; it is only the combination of such that are new.
From this point of view the results of Burbank and others wholly agree with the theory
of mutation, which is founded on the principle of the unit-characters.

This far-reaching agreement between science and practice is to become a basis for
the further development of practical breeding as" well as of the doctrine of evolution.
To give proof of this assertion is the main aim of these Essays.

The results of Nilsson have been published only in the Swedish language; those of
Burbank have not been described by himself. Prof. DeVries's arguments for the theory
of mutation have been embodied in a German book, "Die Mutationstheorie" (2 vols.
Leipsic, Vat & Co.), and in lectures given at the University of California in the summer
of 1904, published under the title of "Species and Varieties; their Origin by Mutation."
A short review of them will be found in the first chapter of these Essays.

Some of them have been made use of in the delivering of lectures at the Universities
of California and of Chicago during the summer of 1906 and of addresses before various
audiences during my visit to the United States on that occasion. In one of them(II.D.),
the main contents have been incorporated of a paper read before the American Philo-
sophical Society at their meeting in honor of the bicentennary of the birth of their
founder, Benjamin Franklin, April, 1906.

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Space and Geometry in
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Dr. Ernst Mach, Emeritus Pro-
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The Vocation Ot Man. By Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Translated
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Essay on the Creative
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The book contains a critical and descriptive introduction, and the entire Chinese
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and Religion. A Study of Spinoza's Metaphysics and of
his particular utterances in "regard to religion, with a view to determining
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attitude toward it. By Elmer Ellsworth
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Aristotle on His Prede-

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Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids and Israel.

A Treatise Upon the Antiquity and Influence of the Avesta. By Dr.
Lawrence H. Mills, Professor of Zend Philology in the University of
Oxford. 1906. Pp. 460. Cloth, gilt top. $4.00 net.

Professor Lawrence H. Mills, the great Zendavesta scholar of Oxford, England, has
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dispensable for a comprehension of the origin of our faith.

and olDle* Three Lectures on the Significance of Assyrio-
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fusely illustrated. 1906. Pp. xv, 240. $1.00 net.

A new edition of "Babel and Bible," comprising the first, second and third lectures
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pages. _ ^ _ ___

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The Story of Samson And Its Place in the Relig

" ious Development of Mankind.

By Paul Carus. 80 illustrations. Pp. 183. Comprehensive index.

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Dr. Carus contends that Samson's prototype is to be found in those traditions of all prim-
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matter how mythological, is more conservative than is at first apparent. Though the bibli-
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solar epic which glorifies the deeds of Shamash in his migration through the twelve signs of
the zodiac, there may have been a Hebrew hero whose deeds reminded the Israelites of Sha-
mash, and so his adventures were told with modifications which naturally made the solar
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References are fully given, authorities quoted and comparisons are carefully drawn be-
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other. The appendix contains a controversy between Mr. Geo. W. Shaw and the author in
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An E*P°sition °j *« Main Character-
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Chinese Life and Customs

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Our Children

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of correction and guidance. Each detail is forcefully illustrated by informal
incidents irom the author's experience with his own children, and his suggestions
will prove of the greatest possible value to young mothers and kindergartners.
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