THE ROLE OF SUBJECT MATURITY

IN THE DETERMINATION OF

PREFERRED ESSENTIAL TIIERAPISI CHARACTERISTICS

BY
DAVID R. STONE

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL

OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
1980

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The names of a great many kind and tolerant people should be
placed next to the investigator's on this dissertation. The members
of my doctoral committee deserve top billing, especially Dr. Audrey
Schumacher, whose patient, guidance and continued support of my
work have finally borne fruit. Dr. Larry Severy also has spent a
great deal of time and energy in providing technical assistance and
encouragement on this project, without which it might never have
been completed. The rest of the committee--Dr. Louis Cohen,
Dr. Hugh Davis, and Dr. Marilyn Holly--also have been quite tolerant
and helpful throughout the duration of this research.

Special thanks are extended to Ms. Diane Peters, Dr. Stan Jones,
and Ms. Lore Nielsen, for the many hours they contributed in rating
the therapist tapes, and for also being very supportive of my work.
My appreciation is offered to another friend, Mr. Michael Miller,
who gave a great deal of time to the portrayal of the "client"
role on the therapist tapes. Finally, a sincere debt of gratitude
is owed to a very special friend, Ms. Cheryl Boggess, who ably
met the challenge of translating and typing a very rough draft
into an acceptable final copy.

Most of all, I would like to thank a very special young man,
to whom this and all my work is dedicated: my son, Bryan. He makes
all of my efforts seem worthwhile.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT vr

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW 4

Background Research: Mechanisms of Preference Development 4

Theoretical Formulations 4

Empirical Research 8

The "transference hypothesis" 8

Attitudinal analysis: essential elements of

cl ient attitudes 12

Patient Preferences 17

Basic Therapeutic Roles 17

Modalities of therapist providing behavior 19

Modalities of therapist modeling behavior 21

Dimensions of Therapist Providing Behavior 23

Therapist activity: directi veness vs.

nondirecti veness 23

Therapist affect: warmth vs. detachment 32

Therapist cognition: awareness vs. non-awareness 40

Dimensions of Therapist Modeling Behavior 42

Competence 42

Autonomy 44

Self-confidence 45

Page

Independent Variables: Client Maturity, Dependency

and Sex 47

Maturity and dependency 47

Sex 4g

Summary and Implications 51

Summary 52

Implications 55

Hypotheses 53

Therapist Preferences 58

Mediating Variables: Subject Anxiety and Dependency 62

Early Development of Therapist Preferences 64

Operational Definitions 65

CHAPTER III

METHODS 68

Subjects 68

Instruments 68

Design 70

Procedures 72

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS 74

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION 96

General Therapist Preferences 96

Subject Variables Related to Maturity: Anxiety and

Autonomy 100

Developmental Origins of Therapist Preferences 112

Page

APPENDIX A

PERSONAL DATA SHEET 119

APPENDIX B

IDEAL-SELF/OTHER RATING SCALE 120

APPENDIX C

CLIENT'S REACTION QUESTIONNAIRE 121

BIBLIOGRAPHY 122

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 127

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Council

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

THE ROLE OF SUBJECT MATURITY

IN THE DETERMINATION OF

PREFERRED ESSENTIAL THERAPIST CHARACTERISTICS

By

David R. Stone
March, 1980

Chairman: Audrey S. Schumacher, Ph.D.

Major Department: Department of Clinical Psychology

The present investigation addressed several problems pertaining
to preferences of therapist behavior. A theoretical framework was
proposed to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of therapist
behaviors. A distinction was made between expectations and preferences
of therapists, and between measures of hypothetical and actual thera-
pist qualities. A primary goal was to explore relationships between
subject personality factors, such as anxiety and autonomy, and the
choice of characteristics for therapist and father figures, as a step
toward understanding the process of development of therapist pre-
ferences, and predicting those choices for individuals.

Eighty-eight psychology undergraduates completed a personal data
sheet, the 16 PF, and the Ideal-Self/Others Rating Scale (ISORS). The
first two measures provided information about the subjects' background

and personality, while the third indicated their idealistic preferences
for four figures, including a therapist and a father. Subjects then
listened to two five-minute audiotaped versions of analogue therapy
sessions. The "model" therapist tape was constant across all eight
conditions, and thus was heard by every subject. The "provider"
therapist tapes varied with each condition, with a total of eight
such tapes being utilized. The model therapist was scripted to exhibit
high levels of personally-oriented qualities, i.e. self-awareness,
self-confidence and independence, but moderate levels of interpersonally-
oriented characteristics, i.e. intuition, warmth and advice/guidance.
The eight provider therapists were scripted for moderate levels of
the personal qualities, but offered varying (high-low) levels of the
interpersonal characteristics, resulting in a 2X2X2 configuration.
After listening to the provider therapist tape assigned to their
condition and that standard model tape, subjects completed the Client
Reaction Questionnaire (CRQ), which rated satisfaction with the
therapists' performance.

Data analysis offered mixed results with respect to the hypotheses.
As a group, the subjects stated a significant preference for a thera-
pist who was guiding, intuitive, self-confident, self-aware and
warm (p<.001). Paired t-tests indicated that of the three basic
qualities of interpersonal behavior--warmth, di recti veness and
awareness--the latter played the largest role in determining over-
all subject preferences (p<-.001). Grouping subjects into a 2X2
matrix according to their high vs. low scores on 16 PF Anxiety and
Independence factors did not substantially alter their ideal -therapist

ratings, except that those subjects with high anxiety scores preferred
a warm therapist significantly more often than did low anxiety scorers
(p<.001). Whether high or low in independence, low anxiety subjects
expressed greater satisfaction with the model therapist than with the
group of provider therapists (p^.001). The same was true of high
anxiety/low independence subjects, although to a somewhat lesser
extent ( p<. 01 ) . However, selected provider therapists tended to be
rated at least equally as satisfactory as the model by several subject
subgroups. Neither subject anxiety nor independence was found to be
significantly related to ideal-father preferences. However, subjects
generally exhibited substantial agreement that the ideal father and
therapist should be confident and intuitive leaders, and somewhat warm.

The findings suggest several conclusions. First, therapist
awareness appears to be essential in determining males' preferences
of therapist qualities. Second, there is a discrepancy between
preferred therapist qualities to which males admit and those they
find most satisfactory, with the individual's anxiety level playing
a mediating role in his satisfaction ratings. Third, therapist pre-
ferences are related to subjects' attitudes toward father figures,
and thus might have their roots in childhood. Further investigation
into the relationship between various client personality characteristics
and satisfaction measures of therapist behavior could help elucidate
this theoretical issue and aid in dealing with the practical problem
of premature termination from therapy by male clients.

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

As a relatively recent entry into the competition for the

clinical investigator's interest, the subject of the kinds of

behavior the client seeks in a therapist has only been a contender

for two decades. Nevertheless, in that brief period of time, the

study of client preferences of therapeutic behavior has attracted

substantial empirical attention. No doubt part of this attention

is due to the fact that measurement of such preferences can be made

comparatively simple and straightforward, a major advantage to any

problem in psychotherapy research. However, a more important factor

probably has been the rising interest in premature client termination:

a phenomenon which appears to be related to the client's pre-existing

attitudes toward the anticipated therapist (Heine and Trosman, 1960;

Heller and Goldstein, 1961; Kumler, 1968). Nonetheless, little

success has been achieved in elucidating some of the more basic

variables which contribute to the determination of these pre-

therapy attitudes. The present investigation will examine the role

that two variables related to maturity, i.e. the subject's levels of

anxiety and dependency, play in his adoption of a particular

attitudinal posture toward an unknown and unseen therapist.

The bulk of the applicable literature tends to be atheoretical

and, therefore, little attention has been given to the mode of

development of one's preferences of therapist behavior. Yet,

1

preliminary consideration of how such attitudes might typically
originate is useful in understanding the rationale behind one's
adoption of attitudes that are seen in adulthood. Especially
intriguing to the present investigator is the question of a possible
linkage between a prospective client's initial attitudes toward an
unknown therapist and his idealistic perceptions of his parents.
That such a connection might exist, at least for selected individuals,
is suggested by the relevant literature. Therefore, Section I of the
following research review will consist of a cursory exploration of
possible mechanisms of development of these therapist preferences,
and will emphasize Freud's notion of transference, which has stimu-
lated a significant empirical response. This discussion should supply
background information useful in studying the issue of client
preferences within some semblance of an historical perspective, as
well as facilitate consideration of initial client attitudes toward
therapists.

From the discussion of the development of therapist preferences,
the review will then proceed to their analysis and evaluation. It
will commence on a broad scale by attempting to specify the basic
types of behavioral orientations available to the therapist, termed
"interpersonal" and "personal." These orientations will be examined
in the context of two illustrative therapist roles, which will be
termed "provider" and "model." It will be suggested that the
"provider" role revolves around the therapist-client interaction,
while the role of "model" is more a reflection of the therapist's
feelings about himself.

Next, several different modalities of therapist behavior will be
explored which seem to be illustrative of the above two general roles.
It will be suggested that there exists three such modalities ("cogni-
tion," "affect" and "activity") which can account for most, if not
all, therapist behaviors, and that these modalities apply to both
the interpersonal orientation of the "providing" therapist and the
"personal" orientation of the "modeling" therapist as well.

The discussion will then turn to the delineation of the major
dimensional characteristics of therapist behavior which exemplify the
more general modalities mentioned above. It will be these character-
istics which will be measured directly in the present investigation.
Consideration finally will be given to the subject variables of
anxiety and dependency, which are implicated by the available research
as playing an essential role in the determination of an individual's
specific pre-disposing attitudes toward, and post-therapy satisfaction
with, a therapist. It is believed that by studying such attitudes on
this level and in light of existing data pertinent to these variables,
inferences can be made relevant to the basic issue of premature client
termination in male clients.

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

Background Research: Mechanisms of Preference Development
Theoretical Formulations

Freud (1935) was the first clinician to describe a pattern of
patient attitudes which did not seem to correlate to the therapist's
behavior. He labeled the phenomenon "transference," and portrayed
it as a capricious yet essentially passive entity, often insidious
but at times painfully obvious in its manifestations. The term
itself derived from Freud's belief that the treatment situation itself
could not account for the origin of the powerful emotions often
directed at the therapist. Rather, he felt that transference repre-
sented a pre-existing tendency to respond to the therapist in
patterns originally adopted as a means of resolving conflicts with
parents. Freud viewed this behavior dispostion as essentially
benign, and even helpful, so long as its effect was favorable to
the work in which the two persons were cooperating. However, he
believed that when it becomes transferred into a resistance,
attention must be paid to it (Freud, 1935).

A summary of the psychodynamic theory's conception of the origin
and characteristics of transference is offered by Crisp (1964b). The
patient's initial attitude toward the therapist is typically a
composite of feelings termed "positive transference." This reaction
is based upon an attitude of idealization, in which the therapist

is viewed as excessively benign, dependable and concerned for the
client's welfare. Often associated with this idealization is a
dutiful, submissive, hopeful and dependent attitude on the client's
behalf. Idealization is seen as being first developed in relation
to earlier authoritarian figures, usually the father and/or mother.
This attitude is partially the result of a defensive, socializing
adjustment by the young child when the expression of his feelings
of hostility toward the restraining parent proves unacceptable, and
he is punished. Such punishment and criticism, or its anticipation,
leads to anxiety associated with suppression or repression of the
capacity to respond aggressively. The emerging conscious attitude
is idealization, associated with dependency, submission, and a
desire to please, which is viewed as a reaction formation against
aggressive impulses.

As Crisp (1964b) indicates, such an individual's attitude toward
authority figures, including the therapist, is viewed as neurotic
and potentially bipolar. If these figures do not respond to his
submissive needs and dependent demands, or fulfill the idealized
role in some way, then his basic, subconscious feelings of anger may
be evoked, leading to the conscious experience of considerable
anxiety. When the subconscious hostility does finally erupt in
the therapeutic situation, it is termed "negative transference"
and serves as a primary target of the therapist's efforts.

Thus, the psychoanalytic conceptualization of transference
involves idealization, hostility and dependency on the part of the
client. Another element which often looms as an obstacle to

progress in therapy is the patient's sexual feelings for the therapist.
However, such feelings usually remain below consciousness until the
therapeutic relationship has existed for some time, and therefore are
believed to have little effect on the client's initial attitudes.

The views of contemporary writers toward the transference
phenomenon have tended to stray from that of traditional psycho-
analytical thought, as evidenced by Rollo May's experiential con-
ceptualization. May (1958) believes that the neurotic individual
does not transfer feelings he once felt toward his parents to his
spouse or therapist. Rather, because of a lack of development
beyond the restricted forms of experiencing of infancy, such an
individual later comes to perceive spouse or therapist through the
same distorted "spectacles" as he once perceived father or mother.
May calls for an understanding of the problem in terms of perception
and one's relationship to the world, which he believes obviates the
necessity of viewing transference in the sense of a displacement of
detachable feelings from one object to another.

Although he retains the term "transference" to apply to
strongly-held interpersonal attitudes, Apfelbaum (1958) presents
an experiential formulation of the development of initial attitudes
toward a therapist that is quite similar to that of May (1958).
Apfelbaum reasons that when transference is seen as a unitary
phenomenon, ever present yet unfolding as a relationship progresses,
it then becomes a small step to identify transference with the
interpersonal facet of character. Earlier interpersonal attitudes
can persist and influence the perception of others in the present,

not because of a compulsion to repeat, as implied in the analytic

interpretation, but because they have become an integrated part of

the individual's life pattern.

While the essential nature of transference for Freud was

passive, for Apfelbaum (1958) it is a complex of attitudes which

exhibit a very active character:

. . . 'transference' here refers to relatively
inflexibly-held beliefs regarding human nature,
that is, the behavior and motives of other
persons. These attitudes mould interpersonal
experience, creating misperceptions and in-
appropriate responses to others, (p. 4)

Apfelbaum believes that transference operates within the patient

upon his initial contact with the clinic, and does not develop

only as therapy proceeds. In this framework, therefore, the

patient's "transference attitudes" mediate his initial experiences

with the therapist, causing him to misperceive the therapist's

behavior in accordance with the nature and strength of the

"transference attitudes."

This association between one's attitudes toward parents and

therapist was incorporated into an interpersonal theory of

personality development proposed by Schutz (1958). This theory

hypothesizes the existence of three fundamental, universal needs,

known as "inclusion," "control," and "affection." The second major

postulate of theory is of special relevance to this study:

An individual's expressed interpersonal behavior
will be similar to the behavior he experienced in
his earliest interpersonal relations, usually
with his parents, in the following way:
Principle of Constancy: When he perceives his
adult position in an interpersonal situation to

be similar to his own position in his parent-child
relation, his adult behavior positively covaries
with his childhood behavior toward his parents (or
significant others) . (p. 1967)

Schutz effectively avoids the transference issue completely, choosing

instead to explain this perceived similarity between parent and

therapist in terms of a general developmental task of dealing with

adult authority figures. This avoidance of the transference notion

illustrates its lack of utility in describing such an attitudinal

and behavioral similarity, should one actually exist.

In the presentation of the above theoretical formulations,

complexity and completeness have been forsaken for brevity. It

is apparent that all share one similarity, in that they hypothesize

a relationship between one's attitudes toward parents and those toward

other significant adults, particularly a psychotherapist. In the

section to follow, it will be observed that even this basic hypothesis

is open to question, and that there is little sound empirical

evidence to support any of the above theoretical views.

Empirical Research

The "transference hypothesis"

As one might expect, the experimental investigation of client's

attitudes toward parents and therapists has proceeded along several

lines of study. One of these has had as its focus the evaluation

of the question of the existence of transference in the therapeutic

domain, although as indicated above, proof of the phenomenon's

existence always requires an inference from the data. Perhaps the

earliest study of this question, which is often termed the "trans-

ference hypothesis," was conducted by Chance (1952). She began by
securing the attitudes expressed toward her as therapist of eight
members of a therapy group during the first twelve sessions. These
patients' statements were then rated by graduate students as
friendly, hostile or ambivalent. Later, the patients, who allegedly
no longer remembered having made the statements, rated each one
twice: once as it applied to the relationship with their therapist,
and once for that with their "significant parent," who was identified
prior to the study by examination of individual case information.
Chance found significant correlations between the two ratings for
five of the eight patients. These data lead the investigator to
conclude that many patients assume similar conscious attitudes toward
their significant parent and their therapist, resulting in the
inference that the patients "transfer" their attitudes from their
parents onto the therapist. Of course, this inference was never
directly tested.

There is a host of glaring weaknesses in the methodology of
Chance's (1952) investigation, three of which are noted by Meltzoff
and Kornreich (1970): (1) the proceedings of the group sessions were
recorded from memory, (b) the majority of three judges ruled in the
final selection of patient statements from an originally larger pool,
and (c) the ratings of the therapist were always made prior to the
ratings of the patients, leading to the possibility of an order
effect. In addition to these problems, two which are more obvious
and possibly more important are the small sample size and a
possibility of a lack of patient candor in owning their earlier

10

statements, which were incorporated into the principal instrument
of the investigation.

A somewhat different approach to investigating the "transference
hypothesis" was taken by Sechrest (1962), who utilized Kelly's Role
Construct Repertory Test (Kelly, 1955) to compare patients'
attitudes toward their therapist with their views of 15 other
significant persons in their lives. The investigator administered
the instrument to 28 hospitalized and 11 clinic patients once
around the time of the second interview and again around the eleventh
interview. Sechrest found that at both points during treatment the
therapist was likely to be described as being most similar to the
physician, the minister and the liked teacher, and was far less
likely to be described as similar to either parent or to a member of
the patient's family. Therefore, the patients' reactions to other
professional persons whom the therapist was seen as being most like
and their reactions to the therapist were very similar. Sechrest
concluded that patients' responses to a psychotherapist are often
elicited by his most obvious stimulus characteristics, rather than
by the patients' early experiences with parents.

The study by Sechrest (1962) has its difficulties, the most
problematic of which is the question of experimental demand
characteristics. It is not clear whether the subjects were very
aware of the range of characteristics they had with which to compare
the various persons on the Repertory. Instead, the qualities rated
were left to the subjects' discretion. It seems little wonder that
they chose the most obvious ones rather than the potentially more

11

sensitive personality characteristics which might be more closely
related to the transference question.

Crisp (1964a, b) adopted a method similar to that of Sechrest
(1962), but eliminated the weakness mentioned above. He added 36
personality constructs to a Kelly grid and administered the instru-
ment to several groups of patients and nonpatients varying in social
class. Crisp found a modicum of evidence supporting both the
existence of a similarity in attitudes toward parent and therapist,
as well as the grid method of maintaining a record of changes in
patients' attitudes. However, his claim of support for the trans-
ference phenomenon, like those of investigators using similar
designs, was unfounded in that it was purely inferential.

The final study pertinent to the issue of a possible relation-
ship between one's attitudes toward parent and therapist was con-
ducted by Berzon (1962), and based upon Schutz's interpersonal
theory of personality (Schutz, 1958). Berzon used two therapy
groups, one of which was predominately female (N = 13), the other
mostly male (N = 12). Both tended to be college-educated and of
upper socioeconomic class. Measures included the Perception-of-
Parents Behavior Questionnaire, a Perception-of-Others sort to
describe other group members, and a Similarity-to-Parents sort.
Berzon found that clients did not initiate interaction with fellow
clients on the basis of perceived similarity to their more threatening
parent, but rather on the basis of their own initiation into the
group. The investigator concluded that the ongoing dynamics of
group process provided a source of insight into group interaction
not usually equalled by the transference perspective.

12

In summary, the results of the few studies conducted along this
line of endeavor indicate that the possibility of an association
between the attitudes of an individual toward parents and an unknown
therapist is still open to question. Even in the studies reporting
positive findings (Chance, 1952; Crisp, 1964a, b), the modest
results do not merit the inferential leap necessary to suggest
causality, and to thereby support only the mechanism theorized by
the "transference hypothesis." Any of the other positions (May,
1958; Schutz, 1958; Apfelbaum, 1958) could also account for the
findings.
Attitudinal analysis: essential elements of client attitudes

The second major line of study of client attitudes toward parent
and therapist consists of attempts to discover the essential
components of attitudes held by the client toward the therapist prior
to the first therapeutic encounter. One of the most comprehensive
studies along this line of thought is that of Apfelbaum (1958), who
secured pre-therapy Q-sorts from 100 college clients indicating
their expectations of the therapist. Cluster analysis yielded five
clusters, designated by the investigator as A (N = 26), B (N = 18),
C (N = 14), AB (N = 12), and D (N = 5). Twenty-five subjects'
attitudes did not fall into a cluster, and groups AB and D were
dropped, resulting in a loss of 42% of the subjects. Thus, little
can be said for the generality of the results of this study.
Nevertheless, a more detailed look at the findings might provide a
backdrop useful for the examination of other studies.

13

In his item analysis, Apfelbaum labeled the largest three
clusters Nurturant (A), Model (B) and Critic (C). Subjects falling
into group A expected a guiding, giving and protective therapist.
Subjects in cluster B expected a therapist to be tolerant, accepting,
nondirective, and in general, a model of personal adjustment. Those
subjects whose responses fell into category C tended to expect the
prospective therapist's behavior to be primarily guiding, analytical,
aloof and critical. Study of a variety of data (e.g., MMPI profiles,
case material, measures of stayingness) indicated that the expectation
clusters were apparently associated with strongly-held interpersonal
expectations, which were in turn related to general personality
functioning and consequently to the subsequent character of the client-
therapist relationship.

Further analysis of the data yielded two general dimensions
underlying these three types of attitudes. The first was that of
warmth-nurturance-protectiveness vs. coldness -indifference-detachment.
The other dimension was labelled directiveness vs. nondirectiveness.
Apfelbaum viewed these dimensions collectively as basic to the
therapist attitudes of at least those subjects of his study who fell
into his three highest frequency categories.

The data specifically relevant to the development of similar
attitudes toward parent and therapist are gleaned from the personality
measures of Apfelbaum's subjects. In brief, the results of these
measures and other data on the undergraduate clients utilized in
this study were as follows: Subjects whose expectations of the
therapist fell into clusters A (Nurturant) or C (Critic) tended to

14

present lists of problems to the counselor, rather passively antici-
pating such action to stimulate the counselor's nurturance (group A)
or critical appraisal (group C). Such action by group A subjects
seemed to occur out of a feeling of weakness, those of group C out
of a feeling of wrongness. On the MMPI , C-group subjects shared
many of the characteristics and a similar overall level of maladjust-
ment as A-group clients, but were not as self derogating. Neither
group expected sympathy or understanding from others. However, the
A-group would relish such a response, while the C-group would
probably reject it outright. Finally, members of the C-group (mostly
males), who expected a critical, detached male therapist, gave
indications of having had difficulty in relationships with their
fathers during formative years.

On the other hand, those clients who expected a model type of
therapist (group B) tended to be generally better adjusted than the
Other two groups. They felt in much less need of the counselor's
help, were less dissatisfied with themselves and others, and had
higher scores on ego strength than did members of group A. However,
relative to both other groups, group B clients (who tended to be
mostly female) tended to be more detached from the counseling
relationship and less concerned with their problems. Finally, they
openly indicated feelings of closeness with their fathers.

In general, then, both A and C groups were quite concerned
about their problems, with those in group A seeking a solution
through nurturance and those of group C through criticism. Both
groups appeared to have a jaundiced view of the world and were

15

distrustful of the motives of others. The A clients felt that
the counselor would, for reasons of his own, wish to reassure and
support them, while the C clients expected that he would, for
equally egocentric reasons, wish to tell them what was wrong with
them. While these group differences in expectations of therapist
behavior were, as Apfelbaum suggested, quite possibly related to
the client's relationships with early significant others, the only
real clue given was the difficulty C clients reported with their
fathers.

While Apfelbaum's data serve as a rich source of information
regarding the essential elements of clients' attitudes toward
therapists, new and intriguing questions seem to rise Phoenix-like
from the ashes of those that have found explanations. For example,
if the C-group clients (1) tended to react counteractively to the
dependent role of the client, (2) had a history of difficulty with
their fathers during childhood, and (3) as adults anticipated an
unknown male authority figure to behave critically and insensitively
toward them, then the temptation is irresistible to speculate that
the attitudes of these adults toward male authority figures is in
some way associated with the clients' early experiences with the
familial counterpart of that figure, the father. Only the nature
of the association would appear to be open to genuine controversy.
Those theorists with a stake in proving the transference hypothesis,
of course, would conclude from Apfelbaum's evidence that this is a
clear case of the transference of relatively hostile feelings from
the father to the unknown therapist. However, such a conclusion

16

is clearly not merited for the elementary reason that association does
not prove causal i ty.

A somewhat more conservative view would be taken by theorists
such as May (1958) and Apfelbaum (1958) himself, who might conclude
that the clients with this kind of anticipatory attitude toward an
unseen therapist were basing it upon their presumably unsatisfactory
experiences with a similar authority figure at an earlier time.
That is, they expect as adults only what they have learned to expect
in the past: that a male in a position of power is inclined to
be critical, aloof and insensitive toward them. These experiential ly-
inclined theorists would assign responsibility for such attitudes
to a kind of developmental insufficiency in interpersonal relation-
ships which continues to influence the individual's attitudes and
behavior toward authority figures in the client's adulthood. Thus,
once again it is clear that no single theoretical framework accounts
for similarities between client perceptions of parents and therapists,
to the exclusion of all the others.

A second question arising from Apfelbaum's data which is equally
as fascinating as the first is as follows: If the members of the
C-group are characterized by the above attributes and attitudes
toward their fathers, what about the members of the A-group? Those
individuals expected a therapist to be warm and nurturant toward them,
much like an over-protective mother. Did these clients, who
evidently did not run into major conflicts with their fathers as
children, instead have a mother who held the position of authority
in the family, and a father who tended to be benign (or perhaps

17

absent) more than anything else? In order to even begin to answer
this question, it would be necessary to obtain some measure of the
subjects' feelings toward their mothers, which Apfelbaum does not
report.

By contrast, Apfelbaum's B-group, which was largely composed
of well-adjusted females, expressed no dissatisfaction with their
fathers. Neither did they have unrealistic expectations of the
therapist, and the indications were that they were much more detached
from treatment than the other two groups. Dependency would not
seem to be a major issue for such clients, in light of the evidence,
thus raising a final question: Is this group of clients the only
one of the three which is not in some way searching for a more
satisfying relationship with a parent-figure than they had as
children? Is the reason that their anticipated therapist is a
model, after whom they can pattern their adult lives, rather than
someone who will give them something (either warmth or criticism),
due to the fact that they have surmounted that milestone of develop-
ment which requires severing the cord that bonds the young child
to his parents? Apfelbaum's data provide the basic groundwork
necessary to ask these questions. The present investigation will
seek evidence which may help in find their answers.

Patient Preferences
Basic Therapeutic Roles

In general, analysis of available research seems to support
the existence of two primary behavioral postures open to a therapist
in fulfilling his function as a facilitator of growth for the client.

18

These postures, or orientations, may be termed most simply (a) inter-
personal and (b) personal , and each reflects to a great extent a
different facet of the therapeutic process. Each orientation is
frequently illustrated by a therapist who plays a characteristic
role, designated below as "provider" (interpersonal) and "model"
(personal ) .

The role of "provider" is that which is frequently brought to
mind when one considers the task of the therapist, and its examina-
tion necessitates focusing upon the interaction between therapist and
client. As will be seen below, the bulk of the research to date
deals with various aspects of this therapeutic function.

The role of "model" is somewhat different. Although it might
be argued the therapist who engages strictly in modeling behavior is
providing the client with a worthwhile experience, the link of
giving that is involved in such behavior appears substantially
more tenuous than in other ways in which he might give something to,
or do something for the client. Indeed, to classify modeling as
"providing" behavior seems accurate only to the extent that it is
therapeutic, and therefore beneficial to the client. It would
appear that the client would have to invest a good deal more effort
in receiving the benefits from a therapist who merely models
appropriate, mature behavior than from one who actively offers him
reinforcement, e.g. warmth, guidance, etc. Thus, the focus in
studying the role of model is much more upon the therapist himself,
rather than upon the cl ient- therapist interaction, although clearly
the client is necessarily involved to some extent. The discussion
that follows should elucidate this distinction.

19

Modalities of therapist providing behavior

Utilizing a quasi cross-cultural approach, Berrick (1970)
sampled the therapist expectancies of the heterogeneous population
in Hawaii. A Q-sort describing a wide range of possible therapist
behaviors was given to 77 subjects representing three "ethnic"
groups (Caucasian, Japanese and part-Hawaiian), three levels of
social functioning (inpatient, outpatient and nonpatient), and both
sexes. Factor analysis of the Q-sort data yielded eight factors
which described expected therapist types. One of these was very
similar to the "nurturant" type found by Apfelbaum (1958), while
two others seemed to be like, but not equivalent to, his "model"
and "critic" types. Three more factors appeared to be combinations
of two or more of the above, while the last two seemed to be original
to Berrick 's study.

Lorr (1965) utilized Schutz's principle of constancy (Schutz,
1958) as the theoretical impetus for an investigation of the post-
therapy attitudes of 523 VA outpatients. The subjects were asked
to rate their former therapists' major personality characteristics
and also to judge their own progress in treatment. Analysis of
the ratings yielded five factors; "understanding," "accepting"
(includes "nurturant"), "authoritarian" (includes "advising,"
"directive"), "independence-encouraging," and "critical-hostile."
The patients' improvement ratings were found to be positively
correlated with their perception of the therapist as understanding,
accepting, and independence-encouraging, but negatively related
to his being seen as authoritarian and critical-hostile.

20

A comparison of Lorr's factors with those of Apfelbaum (1958)
at this point is obligatory. It will be recalled that Apfelbaum
also derived five factors from his data on the expectations of his
patients. Two of these factors were discarded, possibly for lack of
subscription by subjects since they proved to be the least popular
factors. Nevertheless, one factor (AB) was subscribed to by only
two fewer subjects than the next factor, which was retained. It is
assumed that factor AB was labelled such because it shared qualities
of factor A (Nurturance) and B (Model), and therefore might actually
have been discarded for its lack of discriminative ability relative
to the other three major factors. If this reasoning is correct,
then a case can be made for the existence of a high degree of
congruence between Apfelbaum's factors, derived from patients'
expectations of therapists, and Lorr's factors, which described
post-treatment patient ratings. More specifically, the description
of Apfelbaum's factors A, B, and it is presumed AB, seems to relate
closely to that of Lorr's factors of understanding, accepting, and
independence-encouraging. Conversely, Apfelbaum's factor C (Critic)
can be assumed to be very similar to Lorr's factor of "critical-
hostile." Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude that even the
dissimilar populations of VA patients and prospective undergraduate
counseling clients conceive of psychotherapists from similar
perspectives.

More compelling than the similarities between the two sets of
specific factors is the congruence in the more basic dimensions
upon which all the factors appear to be founded; for closer

21

scrutiny of the factors of Lorr and Apfelbaum compels the conclusion
that those of Apfelbaum reflect two different modalities of therapist
behavior, and that all but one of Lorr's five factors logically find
a home within one or the other dimension. That is, Apfelbaum's
warmth-nurturance-protectiveness vs. coldness -indifference-detachment
dimension clearly reflects affective behavior on the part of the
therapist, while the directiveness vs. nondirecti veness dimension
exemplifies the therapist's level of activity. The factors which
Lorr terms "accepting" and "cri tical -hostile" seem to fit nicely
at opposite ends of the affective continuum, while his "authoritarian"
and "independence-encouraging" factors fall roughly at opposing
ends of the activity continuum.

At this point, one can only wonder about the patterns of trans-
ference attitudes given by the 42" of Apfelbaum's subjects that
were discarded. Nevertheless, a third basic modality of therapist
behavior can be hypothesized which would account for Lorr's fifth
factor. This dimension encompasses what might be termed the "cogni-
tive" behavior of the therapist, of which, intellectual understanding
of the client's dilemma is a primary facet. Of course, communication
of such understanding is a very complex task involving a variety of
therapist behaviors; but the ability to comprehend a wide range of
client problems, particularly in the same perspective as the client
himself, seems largely a function of this modality.
Modalities of therapist modeling behavior

It is apparent from the discussion above that those few
studies which attempted to analyze the essential elements of client

22

preferences also reported findings that were consistent with the
notion that another important role of the therapist was that of
model. Both Apfelbaum (1958) and Berrick (1970) found evidence
to suggest that some clients preferred a therapist who did not act as
a provider, but instead, who simply stood as an example of certain
behaviors, feelings, values, etc., which appealed to them. Even
the findings of Lorr (1965) could be interpreted to provide a small
amount of support for this view, to the extent that his factor of
"independence-encouraging" is not seen as being actively guiding;
for it would seem that independence is a behavior which would be
instilled more readily in a client's repertoire by a therapist who
modeled independence than by one who chose to actively direct the
client toward behaving in an independent manner. Certainly the
data of Hutcherson (1967) suggest this hypothesis.

Apfelbaum's study, when compared with those of Lorr (1965) and
Berrick (1970), offers the most lucid evidence suggesting a client
preference for a modeling therapist as completely separate from a
providing one, and only Apfelbaum's data offer a glimpse of the
qualities constituting such a model. Apfelbaum states that this
kind of therapist is preferred by clients who wish him to be
tolerant, accepting, nondirecti ve, and in general, a model of
personal adjustment (Apfelbaum, 1958). It is almost as if they
want little more than a picture of maturity with which to compare
themselves. Implied in this conceptualization of the well-adjusted
modeling therapist is a non-defensive, self-secure individual who
will neither guide nor direct, and who will be emotionally involved

23

only as an interested fellow human being, rather than having any
semblance of an intense emotional investment in the client. If
this list of inferred qualities is scrutinized, as it will be below,
it becomes evident that the basic topic under discussion is the
therapist as person, i.e. his own self-conception, as reflected in
his level of maturity. Thus, it is not really his active nor
his affective behavior to which these clients are attracted, but
the overall image he projects by simply being himself which they
view as being most important. Nevertheless, it will be suggested
later that even this modeling behavior, despite its relatively
passive nature, also can be analyzed in terms of cognitive, affective
and active behaviors.
Dimensions of Therapist Providing Behavior

Utilizing the hypothetical triad of acti vi ty , affect and cogni-
tion* as its operating framework, the discussion now proceeds to a
closer consideration of the major dimensions which appear to have the
most empirical support, and which seem to be logically described
by these three modalities of therapist providing behavior.
Therapist activity: di recti veness vs. nondi recti veness

Because most forms of psychotherapy rely heavily upon the
therapist's verbal techniques and abilities, a reasonable measure

*It should be acknowledged at this point that this behavioral
triad shares terminology with that used by Krech, Crutchfield and
Ballachey (1962) to describe the essential components of attitudes.
While it seems reasonable that similar elements should apply to
attitudes as well as more general forms of behavior, the usage of
identical terminology in this study was coincidental.

24

of his activity would seem to be his level of verbal directiveness.
However, a major difficulty in using this dimension is the large
variability in definition of the term. Most investigators appear
content to assume there is a general consensus as to which kinds
of therapist behaviors constitute directiveness and nondi recti veness ,
and therefore see no need in specifying these behaviors. The writer
has found no such consensus that would meet an acceptable level of
reliability. Thus, for the purpose of categorization under the
label of "activity," directiveness will be generally gauged by
the extent to which the therapist attempts to impose his own
structure upon the course and direction of the session, such as
through the use of an inquisitive, or perhaps a guiding, approach.
Similarly, nondirecti veness will refer to the degree to which he is
content to follow rather than lead, and listen rather than inquire
or enl ighten.

Overall and Aronson (1963) investigated the expectations of
therapist behavior held by a sample of 40 outpatients lower in
socioeconomic status and educational level than the national average.
As predicted, patients who failed to return for the second session
were found to have significantly greater discrepancies between their
pre-therapy expectations and their view of the initial interview.
Most of the discrepancy was accounted for by the therapist being
less active, medically-oriented and supportive than they anticipated.

The premature termination phenomenon was also the subject of an
earlier study by Heine and Trosman (1960), who administered a patient
expectation questionnaire to all new outpatients referred to a clinic

25

over an eight-week period (N = 46). Six weeks were arbitrarily
defined as the cutoff in separating continuers from terminators.
When length of continuance data were combined with that from the
questionnaires, it was found that continuers expected to be active
collaborators in their treatment, while terminators tended to
expect to passively cooperate with the therapist, In addition,
continuers anticipated advice or help from the therapist in changing
their behavior, while terminators expected medicine or diagnostic
information.

Although it is not necessarily standard practice among writers
in this area of study, the present investigation will distinguish
between expectations of patients and their preferences, in regard to
therapist characteristics. There is some evidence to suggest that
such a distinction may be helpful (Klepac, 1969). The studies
reviewed thus far in this section have been confined to client
expectations. Those that follow will deal also with client preferences
which represent the topic under study.

Garfield and Wolpin (1963) utilized a questionnaire to measure
the attitudes toward, and expectations of therapy held by 70
applicants for treatment to a psychiatric institute. The findings of
these investigators were similar to those of Heine and Trosman (1960),
in that, while a majority of these clients believed that an under-
standing of oneself was important for therapeutic change, they
nevertheless preferred the therapist to spend a substantial amount
of time providing them with advice.

26

The question of the universality of this tendency to expect the
prospective therapist to be advice-giving and directive has been the
subject of a number of studies other than those discussed above.
Ilutcherson (1967) had n therapist role-play four therapeutic approaches
on audio tape; two represented the high and low conditions of
patient responsibility, while the other two represented high and low
independence. These conditions reflected the degree to which the
therapist encouraged the patient's responsible behavior and whether
he assumed a directive or nondirective role. Sixty-four undergraduate
male and female students with no therapy experience completed the
I-E Scale and the Autonomy Scale of the Omnibus Personality Inventory.
They then listened to all four tapes, rating their reactions to the
therapist in each. Hutcherson found that the two approaches empha-
sizing patient responsibility were preferred significantly more than
the other two. Therefore, since one of these tapes was directive
and the other nondirective, and both were equally preferred, he
concluded that responsibility more than independence appeared to be
the primary factor determining these subjects' preference; however,
it is apparent that therapist directiveness rather than client
independence was evaluated.

In an investigation of a similar design, Kumler (1968) obtained
the expectations of therapist characteristics from 120 college
students and compiled them into an "expectation Q-sort." He then
had subjects view eight brief videotapes of role-played therapy in the
eight conditions of a 2X2X2 design, in which the therapist's age,
directiveness and warmth were manipulated. The results indicated

27

that the subjects' reactions to the therapist were more favorable
if he conformed to their expectations of age and warmth than of
directiveness. Like Hutcherson (1967), Kumler found no support for
any pervasive effect of the therapist's level of directiveness
among a nonclient group of college subjects.

In his investigation of the role of authoritarianism as a
patient's personality trait in the therapy situation, Vogel (1961)
asked 62 clinic patients to complete the California F Scale and an
instrument describing their ideal therapeutic relationship. The
investigator found that the patient who possessed authoritarian
personality characteristics tended to describe his preferred therapist
as directive, paternalistic and nurturant.

Plummer (1966) secured the reactions of 42 male college students
waiting to enter into a counseling relationship to films of three
different therapists interacting with the same client. Also obtained
were measures of the would-be patients' need structures through
their responses to the Picture Identification Test. Plummer found
that significantly more subjects preferred the therapist who appeared
to be independent and controlling, was not nurturant, and who did
not attempt to solve the client's problems for him. The investigator
concluded that this therapist seemed to fulfill the needs and desires
of a majority of the subjects, who were young adult males struggling
with the issue of dependency and seeking acceptance as mature
individuals. The implication is that the subjects viewed this
therapist as a prospective model. Unfortunately, a shadow of doubt
is cast upon these findings by a significant order effect of thera-
pist presentation.

2S

Klepac (1969) obtained the Q-sort therapist expectations from
48 college subjects, 24 of whom were expecting a directive therapist,
while the other 24 were anticipating a nondirective one. Half of
the subjects from each group were interviewed via closed circuit
television by a directive therapist, the other half by a nondirective
one. All subjects were forced to press a switch at least once per
second to continue viewing the therapist on the monitor. This switch-
pressing was considered an index of the reinforcing value of the
therapist. Subjects also rated their reactions to the therapist by
the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory and an original scale
consisting of six items..

Klepac found that subjects rated themselves more willing to
enter treatment with the therapist who behaved directively than with
the nondirective one. Also, the directive therapist induced more
switch-pressing behavior in subjects than did his nondirective
counterpart. Unfortunately, the sex of the subjects was not
specified. Therefore, it is unknown whether or not these results
are in accord with those of Reiter (1966), Hagebak and Parker (1969),
and Heilbrun (1961b), regarding sex differences in the preferences
of subjects for therapist directi veness ,

Helweg (1971) presented 77 college students and 77 inpatients
a film of the directive techniques of Albert Ellis and the nondirective
techniques of Carl Rogers, after which the subjects recorded their
preferences. They also completed the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale,
Rotter's I-E Scale, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and Gordon's
Survey of Interpersonal Values, It was found that undergraduates and

29

patients who stated a preference for the directive approach were more
dogmatic and externalized than were those preferring nondirective
techniques. Patients choosing the Ellis approach were more anxious
and less educated than those preferring the approach of Rogers.
Finally, both students and patients preferring the nondirective
approach valued independence as a basis for relating to others. This
finding is in accord with those of Hutcherson (1967), who implies
that patient preferences for independence and for a nondirective
therapist are highly correlated.

The issue of the effect of personality differences on clients'
preferences of therapist behavior was also the subject of an in-
vestigation by Reiter (1966). Two hundred twenty college freshmen
were administered the Therapist Behavior Scale, MMPI, Self-Activity
Inventory, and the I-E Scale, Analysis of the data indicated that
the preference for a directive over a nondirective therapist varied
with a host of patient characteristics, including aqe, sex, ego
strength and defensi veness. In general, the less directive therapist
was preferred by females who were high in ego strength and in social
desirability needs, and low in self/ideal-self discrepancy --in short,
by females who would typically be viewed as well-adjusted in this
culture. This pattern is reversed for those females preferring the
more directive therapist. On the other hand, males as a group
tended to prefer the more directive therapist. Those who did not
were found to exhibit a higher self/ideal-self discrepancy and less
defensi veness than those who expressed a preference for the directive
therapist, Reiter concluded that therapist preferences of male

30

undergraduates were related to the individual's overall level of
defensiveness, a conclusion which is supported by Rosen (1967).

Substantial support for Reiter's findings and interpretations
for males can be found in the results of a study by Hagebak and
Parker (1969). These investigators had 40 male undergraduates who
scored high on measures of dominance and 40 scoring low play the
role of clients with an assortment of problems, in the process
choosing between 32 pairs of high and low resistant client responses
following the therapist's statements. The results indicated that
nondirective therapist techniques elicited the most "client"
resistance and that low dominant subjects offered more resistant
responses than high dominant subjects. There was also a significant
interaction between type of client problem and the "client's"
preference. Nondirective therapist statements were followed by
more resistant statements in all client problem areas except
academic, the area viewed by subjects as the least severe of all
choices .

The results of these last two studies indicate that nonclient
undergraduate males appear to prefer the directive over the non-
directive approach, especially when their attention is focused upon
a problem of any significant severity. Males with such preferences
rank higher on measures of defensiveness and lower on measures of
self/ideal-self discrepancy than males who prefer less directive
techniques. The impression that one receives from these findings
is that males preferring the directive approach are perhaps more
concerned with appearing adequate and mature, and thereby conforming

31

to cultural stereotypes, than are those who prefer nondirecti ve
techniques. Additional support for this hypothesis comes from
Heilbrun (1961b), who found that male and female clients conforming
mostly to the cultural model of masculinity or femininity tended to
terminate therapy prematurely. For males, such a model included a
virtual denial of one's dependency upon others in dealing with
personal difficulties, similar to the denial manifested by the
male subjects expecting the Critic for a therapist in the study by
Apfelbaum (1958).

In summary, several statements appear to be warranted by the
literature regarding the role of therapist directiveness in
determining a client's preferences and reaction to treatment. It
seems fair to conclude that the variable of therapist directiveness
has received substantial empirical attention and can be considered the
primary general component of the therapist's activity during the
treatment session. However, the response this behavior evokes in
the client appears to be influenced by several other factors,
especially client sex (Reiter, 1966) and variables related to his/her
maturity (Vogel , 1961; Hagebak and Parker, 1969). In some cases
it is also unclear as to whether the subject's response is due to
the therapist's level of directiveness, or to his degree of emotional
involvement in his work (Heine and Trosman, 1960; Overall and
Aronson, 1963). A confounding of these two variables may be at
least partially responsible for the divergent results of Overall
and Aronson (1963), Hutcherson (1967) and Hagebak and Parker (1969).

32

Therapist affect: warmth vs. detachment

In scanning the literature, it quickly becomes apparent that,
as intuition would predict, the most popular affective behavior of
the anticipated therapist from the client's perspective is that
which is often labeled nurturance or warmth. However, like the
issue of therapist directiveness, the quality of warmth in a
therapist does not seem to be either universally expected or pre-
ferred by prospective clients in therapy, although some consisten-
cies do seem to exist.

It is common knowledge that Carl Rogers was one of the first
to publicly defend certain types of emotional responsivity on the
part of the therapist toward the client. Indeed, his classic
paper on the "necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic
personality change" (Rogers, 1957) posited that significant
positive alteration of client behavior in the absence of the
predominately affective qualities of genuineness, empathy and
unconditional positive regard was quite unlikely to occur. Several
of Rogers' colleagues helped contribute two more factors--non-
possessive warmth and the willingness to be known--which they
believed deserved to be placed on that list (Truax and Carkhuff,
1967). Again, it will be noted that the first of these qualities
is affective in nature (warmth), and, in fact, the one to which most
clients and nonclient subjects alike seem to allude in their
statements of satisfaction with and preferences for therapist
behavior.

33

Rogers and his collaborators are by no means alone in their
belief that the effective and desirable therapist is the one who,
all other things being equal, adequately communicates his fooling
for the client. Grater, Kell and Morse (1961) assume that anyone
who is genuinely interested in psychotherapy as a profession will
have nurturance as a basic need; otherwise, according to these
writers, that individual will be unlikely to attain true satisfaction
in his clinical work. This view is echoed by Schofield (1970),
who convincingly argues that the warmth and concern which is
communicated by the therapist to the client is of paramount
importance in enabling that individual to engage in meaningful
self-disclosure, and thus to be able to ignore the formalities
of customary social roles. The lack of these therapist qualities
apparently would be conducive to a more business-like atmosphere,
which in Schofield's view, would result in less progress in treatment.

Evidence that clients expect their therapist to be nurturant
and/or warm derives principally from two studies. Since they have
both been described in more detail in the foregoing discussion, only
brief mention need be made of them here. Apfelbaum (1958) found
that his sample of 100 male undergraduates who were awaiting
assignment to counselors were inclined to expect three kinds of
therapists. That type expected by the largest number of clients
(26%) was termed the "Nurturant" therapist, because the descriptions
given him by the clients corresponded most closely to such a label,
In an attempt to replicate this study for a cross-cultural sample
of subjects from Hawaii, Berrick (1970) was only able to find

34

partial support for all of Apfelbaum's three therapist types.
However, the one type she discovered which was most clearly related
to Apfelbaum's categories was the "Nurturant" type of therapist.

The vast majority of investigations relevant to the subject of
therapist nurturance and warmth are based upon patient preferences
rather than expectations of therapist behavior. Hiler (1958)
conducted one of the earliest of such studies in an attempt to
analyze patient-therapist compatibility. The experimental method
involved relating the number of responses given by a patient on
the Rorschach to the length of his stay in therapy. Hiler's data
indicated that those therapists rated as most warm and friendly by
three staff psychologists tended to retain in treatment a larger
percentage of "unproductive" patients (on the Rorschach) than those
therapists who were rated as least warm and friendly.

It is obvious that the study by Hiler (1958) is open to
criticism from several quarters. First, it appears that there was
a confounding of the variables of therapist sex and warmth, in
that female therapists retained more of the patients who were rated
"unproductive" on the Rorschach than did males. Second, Hiler
chose a rather large, arbitrary number of interviews (20) as
the cutoff for distinguishing between continuers and terminators.
Finally, the selection of the total number of responses given on
the Rorschach, although popular during the time period in which
this study was conducted, can certainly be questioned as an adequate
measure of the predicted productivity of a client in therapy. Taken
together, these difficulties substantially weaken Hiler's findings
and inferences.

35

For all of its weaknesses, however, the early investigation by
Hiler is helpful to the purposes of the present study in that it
provides a glint of a phenomenon of which Hiler himself seemed to be
aware, but one which he did not pursue. The issue in question is a
possible relationship between the status of male client and the
preference for a warm or nurturant therapist. The existence of such
a relationship was suggested by Apfelbaum (1958), although his
experimental design was not really adequate to subject it to viable
test. Nevertheless, it will be recalled that 26% of Apfelbaum's
clients, most of whom were male, reported expectations of being
assigned to a nurturant male therapist. In addition, it was
concluded from a wealth of clinical evidence that it was this same
group of clients which tended to have significant difficulty with
feelings of helplessness, which were accompanied by a yearning
for a role in which they could be dependent in a relatively passive
manner uppn the therapist for support, rather than actively become
engaged in finding a solution for their own problems. Finally,
it was noted that these clients eventually remained in counseling
for a protracted length of time, compared to the other two client
groups, in the absence of a corresponding increase in positive
therapeutic movement.

Support for this hypothesis comes from a variety of studies,
several of which have been described more completely in the previous
section. Overall and Aronson (1963), in their investigation of the
expectations and termination rates of patients belonging to the
lower socioeconomic class, found that compared to those patients

36

who failed to return to the clinic following the initial interview,
continuers exhibited less discrepancy between their pre-therapy
expectations and their subsequent rating of the first interview.
One of the categories in which there was most discrepancy for
terminators was that of therapist level of support! veness . That is,
less emotional support was forthcoming from the therapist than the
patient had anticipated prior to the session. The obvious impli-
cation is that those patients who did not return chose not to do
so because they were disenchanted with the relatively "cold"
therapist they had encountered.

Feifel and Eel 1 s (1963) analyzed the responses to an open-
ended questionnaire of 63 ex-patients of a VA clinic at the close
of therapy. The investigators found that these ex-patients emphasized
the importance to them of having had the opportunity to talk over
problems and of the "human" characteristics of the therapist.
Conversely, major detrimental effects noted by these ex-patients
were the therapist's expression of irritation, anger and boredom--
all emotional responses generally not associated with warmth and
nurturance, A follow-up study four years later yielded a
suggestion by these ex-patients that the therapists try to increase
their communications of warmth and interest for the patient.

In a similarly-designed study, Lorr (1965) surveyed the attitudes
of VA outpatients toward their therapists. One of the five
resultant factors was an attitude of "acceptance," which included
expressed feelings of interest and nurturance on the part of the
therapist. This accepting attitude was also viewed by the patients
as being positively related to their improvement in therapy.

37

One of the major limitations of studies such as those of Feifel
and Eel 1 s (1963) and Lorr (1965) is that little is known of the
personality characteristics of the patient respondents, Wallach
(1962) attempted to circumvent this limitation by correlating the
therapist preferences of a large sample (N = 216) of predominately
(90%) male college students with their scores on the F Scale, a
measure of authoritarianism. Wallach presented the subjects with
written descriptions of the major personality qualities of the three
types of therapists found by Apfelbaum (1958), and found that 82%
of the subjects preferred the "Critic," while only 16% chose the
"Nurturant" type. Further, those subjects choosing either the
"Nurturant" or the "Model" therapist scored higher on authoritarian-
ism than those choosing the "Critic"

The findings of Wallach (1962) support the hypothesis that
males with adjustment difficulties tend to prefer nurturant thera-
pists for several reasons. First, the subjects utilized were all
nonpatients; Therefore, relatively few would be expected to be
experiencing significant personal difficulties, and the majority
would not likely be quick to indicate their desires for a nurturant
therapist even if they had them. Second, those who did indicate
such a preference also tended to score high on authoritarianism,
suggesting some problem in dealing with authority figures, and
possibly a tendency to assume a passive-dependent posture toward
them. This explanation also seems to be quite in line with the
findings and conclusions of Apfelbaum (1958). Finally, Wallach's
description of the Critic emphasized client autonomy and personal

AH

responsibility, qualities highly valued by healthy college males
(Hutcherson, 1967).

In another study very similar to that of Wallach, Vogel (1961)
administered the F Scale and an original instrument designed to
gauge the individual's preferred therapeutic relationship to two
samples of outpatients. One group was composed of college students
seeking counseling at a university counseling center, while the
other was a heterogeneous group of outpatients from the surrounding
community. Both sexes were represented equally in each sample.
Like Wallach (1962), Vogel found a significant relationship be-
tween patient authoritarianism and preference for a nurturant
therapist, but for only the community clinic patients. No such
correlation was found for the student group, possibly because of
differential responsiveness of the younger women in the student group
on the measure of authoritarianism compared to their older counter-
parts in the other group (Reiter, 1966).

A study which does not seem to support the hypothesis in
question is that of Plummer (1966), whose male college clients
tended to prefer a counselor high in the qualities of autonomy,
exhibition and rejection, and low in nurturance. In general, these
students apparently preferred a counselor after whom they could
pattern their own behavior, rather than one who would just provide
them with warm support. However, several weaknesses in the
investigative method tend to undermine the validity of these
findings, particularly the observation of an order effect of
therapist presentation.

39

Two final investigations are relevant to this topic. Kumler
(1968) found that the reactions of a sample of nonclient college
students were more favorable to a therapist if he conformed to their
expectations of age and, more importantly, warmth. Similarly,
Greenberg (1969) reported that male and female student subjects
who were made to believe that a therapist was either warm or
experienced, as opposed to cold and inexperienced, were more attracted
to him, more receptive to his influence, and evaluated his work
more positively. Further, those told that he was warm were more
willing to meet with him and were more easily persuaded by his
communications. Again, it should be noted that in the study by
Kumler (1968), subject sex was unspecified, but presumably males and
females were included.

In summary, another major dimension of therapist behavior which
appears to be of substantial importance to many clients and non-
client subjects alike is that involving therapist affect. For
the general client population, a therapist who manifests qualities
related to interpersonal warmth or nurturance is usually preferred
to one who is lacking in such qualities (Overall and Aronson, 1963;
Feifel and Eells, 1963; Lorr, 1965). The warm, nurturant therapist is
most often preferred by persons, usually males, either engaged in
or preparing to engage in a psychotherapeutic relationship
(Apfelbaum 1958; Feifel and Eells, 1963). In addition, nonclient
college students of both sexes also tended to express a preference
for a warm therapist (Kumler, 1968; Greenberg, 1969). Nevertheless,
there is some evidence to suggest that as a group, nonclient college

40

students—especial ly males--would rather have a therapist who
emphasizes the client's autonomy and responsibility, even if it is
in a critical manner, than one who primarily exudes warmth and
positive feelings (Wallach, 1962). As the discussion below will
suggest, the principal mediating variable appears to be related to
the subject's sex and level of maturity, particuarly his relative
success in coping with the issues of personal adequacy and dependency.
Therapist cognition: awareness vs. non-awareness

Relatively little research has been conducted in the area of
client expectations and preferences of the therapist's "cognitive"
behavior. A reason for the dearth of such evidence has already
been mentioned, namely the fact that investigators have not
attempted to separate the major dimensions of therapist behavior
into such categories as those used in the present study.

Two notable investigations do not mention evidence of specific
client expectations regarding the therapist's cognitive character-
istics. Apfelbaum's (1958) data from the expectations of male
college clients yielded only two dimensions, involving therapist
warmth and directiveness. Vogel (1961) reported that his authori-
tarian clients preferred a therapist who was directive, paternalistic
and nurturant. None of these qualities seem to have their locus
in strictly cognitive behavior.

The study of Lorr (1965), however, yielded different results.
It will be recalled that he asked clients to complete questionnaires
describing their therapists, and to rate their own improvement in
treatment. One fo the five factors found in the analysis of the

41

descriptions was "understanding," a quality which can be viewed as
illustrative of an experienced therapist's cognitive abilities.

Just one other study was found in the literature supporting
the notion that clients have preferences regarding a cognitive
modality of therapist behavior. In his investigation of the
preferences and expectancies of therapist age and sex, Boulware
(1969) reported that the most important single determinant of the
preferences of undergraduate students was their expectancy about
the therapist's ability to understand their problem. Taken out
of the context of the present discussion, this statement would
probably merit scant attention by the reader. However, the fact
that only two studies in the area even mention the importance to
the client of a therapist's cognitive characteristics—specifically
the quality of understanding—makes one wonder if perhaps this
sphere of therapist behavior is usually taken for granted, and
consequently has been treated as a non-issue by investigators of the
subject.

Clearly, there is a semantic difficulty with the term "under-
standing." The verb "understand" denotes intellectual comprehension
of a problem or event, and therefore, as an intellectual qualtiy,
is void of any affective meaning. However, the adjective and noun
forms of the term, i.e. "understanding," have a connotative meaning
of tolerance or sympathy with another's situation or condition.
Thus, they connote affect. While Lorr (1965) and Boulware (1969) do
not attempt to distinguish between these two meanings in their
discussion of therapist understanding, it is apparent that such a

42

distinction must be made in the present investigation so that this
therapist characteristic, which is typically ignored despite its
heuristic promise, can be meaninqfully evaluated. Because this topic
is vital to the purpose of the present study, it will receive further
elaboration in a later section.
Dimensions of Therapist Modeling Behavior
Competence

In an earlier subsection of this review, it was noted that
there was research which suggested that some prospective clients
prefer a therapist not to behave in a particularly active manner so
much as they just want him to "be." More specifically, they appear
to wish him to be a model of positive adjustment, or personal
maturity (Apfelbaum, 1958). Because maturity is such an elusive,
value-laden construct requiring scrutiny if it is to be useful in
an empirical endeavor, attention will now be given to this subject
within the context of psychotherapeutic behavior. An exhaustive
review of the body of literature devoted to the area of personality
adjustment, psychological maturity, self-actualization, etc., will
not be attempted, however.

There are those who would say that the premier characteristic
of personality maturity is that which is most commonly termed
"competence," a quality which has received a fair amount of attention
among researchers in this area. Havel ick and Vane (1974) studied
the imitative behavior of 188 fifth- and sixth-grade children in
response to models of two conditions of competency. The investiga-
tors found that the high competency model was imitated significantly

43

more than the less competent one, and that children with below-
average achievement records imitated significantly more than their
peers with better records. These findings are supported by those of
Strichart (1974), who also found a main effect of model competence
in a comparison study of retarded and nonretarded adolescents.
In addition, Strichart found that less competent subjects exhibited
more imitative behavior than their more competent peers, which also
follows from the findings of Havelick and Vane (1974). Similar
results attesting to the general importance of competency to the
model's repertoire come from studies by Shepherd-Look (1972).
who used graduate students and professional psychologists as
subjects, and by Schuh (1971), who noted that the effect of model
competency applied only to the females among her group of preschool
subjects.

Several investigative efforts have been directed at the basic
subject variables associated with a preference for a competent model.
Utilizing undergraduate subjects, Goldman and Olczak (1975) found a
negative relationship between one's overall level of "psychosocial
maturity" and one's fear of appearing incompetent. Similarly,
Melnick and Pierce (1971) found that undergraduates in counseling
relationships who had pervading feelings of weakness and helpless-
ness tended to overestimate their counselor's competence and
strength. Both of these studies, coupled with those of Strichart
(1974), Schuh (1971) and Shepherd-Look (1972), tend to support
White's contention that personality maturity is directly related to
one's feelings of competence (White, 1960).

44

Autonomy

A personality quality of equivalent importance as competence to
the concept of maturity is independence, perhaps more aptly terms
"autonomy." Indeed, there are those who would measure one's
maturity entirely in terms of one's ability to be self-reliant,
which is to say, autonomous (Wi jngaarden, 1968). Nevertheless, most
writers appear to be in agreement with Smitson (1974), who believes
that the ability to take charge of one's life and to arrive at a
relatively successful resolution of the developmental conflict be-
tween dependency and independence is at least a necessary, if not
sufficient, condition of maturity. Lending support to this position
is a study by Tewari and Tewari (1968). These investigators compared
thirteen "highly adjusted" college subjects with thirteen "highly
maladjusted" peers on a variety of personality measures, and found
that the well-adjusted group exhibited signs of a stronger superego,
higher ego strength and more autonomy relative to their poorly
adjusted peers-.

Not all writers view autonomy in such simplistic terms, however.
Rosen (1972) contends that neither dependency nor independence are
enviable goals in themselves, but instead represent two poles on a
continuum of interdependence, which is the most adaptive condition.
Indeed, this seems roughly equivalent to Wi jngaarden' s position,
for his definition of maturity is a state of spiritual self-reliance
within the unavoidable dependency in which one lives (Wi jngaarden,
1968). A logical developmental sequence could thus be hypothesized
that would begin with dependency in childhood, progress with a solid

45

effort at independence in late adolescence, and eventually settle
into an awareness of one's own strengths and a willingness to utilize
them when desirable and appropriate for preservation and enhancement
of the self.
Self-c onfide n_c_ e

A necessary ingredient to the development of autonomy which is
at least implicitly suggested by most articles reviewed is a
feeling of self-esteem or self-confidence. One such investigation is
that of Tippett and Silber (1966), who analyzed the methods used by
well-adjusted and poorly-adjusted undergraduates to handle informa-
tion discordant with their self-concept. The investigators found
that the healthier subjects responded much more selectively in
their assimilation of information contradictory with their self-
image, but yet were more open to such input within this selective
range, compared to the less healthy subjects. Despite being given
information potentially threatening to their self-concepts, the
healthier subjects were nonetheless able to maintain a high sense
of self-esteem, relative to their less healthy peers. It will be
recalled that Melnick and Pierce (1971) found that clients who
perceived themselves as weak and dependent, not surprisingly had
a low sense of self-esteem, and tended to idealize their therapist
in terms of these qualities they lacked. Similar findings for
nonclients were noted by Cox and Thoreson (1977).

The preceding discussion has attempted to delineate the essential
features of maturity, noting in the process three related yet distinct
characteristics. These have been termed competence, autonomy and

46

self-confidence. It seems apparent that despite the passive nature
of these qualities when compared to those of a "providing" therapist,
discussed above, the basic behavioral framework would appear to apply
to the personally-oriented "model" therapist as well. Specifically,
competence and autonomy rather easily fit under the heading of the
model therapist's "active" behavior, reflecting characteristic,
though passive, dispositions in his therapeutic, and probably his
everyday, behavior. That is, such a therapist, in order to be
considered mature by the present definition, would model competence
and autonomy in his interaction with the client.

The reader might recall that the second basic modality of an
interpersonal ly-oriented therapist's behavior was "affect."
Intuitively, one would expect a personally-oriented therapist also
to exhibit some consistency in his affective behavior, although it
would not be provided primarily for the client's benefit. In view
of the foregoing discussion, the mature model therapist's dominant
affect would be self-confidence, self-security or self-esteem.
All of these terms seem to share the same essential meaning, which
is a positive feeling about oneself. This feeling probably is
communicated via a calm, relaxed demeanor as well as in a variety
of other subtle ways; however the affect is communicated, the
message the client receives is that here is a person who feels about
himself the way that he (the client) would like to feel. As a
result of being exposed to such a therapist, the client is probably
inclined to become hopeful that he might eventually come to feel the
same way about himself.

47

As was the case with the "cognitive" modality of the interpersonal
therapist's behavior, there is a paucity of research attesting to
the importance of this specific form of behavior in the personal
therapist as well. Nevertheless, it is believed that implicit in
most formulations of maturity (e.g. Smitson, 1974; Tippett and
Silber, 1966) is the self-awareness factor, the knowledge of one's
strengths and weaknesses which help form the basis of the capability
and self-confidence projected by the mature individual. Likewise,
for the personally-oriented therapist this capacity for self-
understanding and self-evaluation could be viewed as essential to
his being perceived as mature and effective by the client.
Independent Variables: Client Maturi ty. Dependency and Sex

The discussion thus far has focused upon the basic forms which
the client's preferences for a therapist tend to assume, namely in
terms of active, affective and cognitive behavior. It is believed
that the major share of the evidence to date supports the hypothe-
sizing of several primary client variables which help to determine
these preferences, and these will now be discussed.
Maturity and dependency

The components of maturity discussed above for therapists
also apply to clients as well as nonclient subjects. The literature
already reviewed suggests that clients seem to have more difficulty
than most in dealing with their dependency needs, which may help
explain why they become clients in the first place (Alexander and
Abeles, 1969); and it seems evident that generally, difficulty in
dealing with dependency belies a more basic concern with one's own

competence as a person, and implies the existence of feelings of
inadequacy and low self-confidence (Tewari and Tewari, 1968;
Wijngaarden, 1968; Rosen, 1972; Smitson, 1974; White, 1960;
Saccuzzo, 1975; and Cox and Thoreson, 1977).

Helweg (1971) found evidence supporting the notion that a
client's desires to feel independent and his preferences for a
nondirective therapist are highly correlated. Helweg 's results
indicated that nonclient college students and psychiatric inpatients
preferring the nondirective approach tended to value independence as
a basis for relating to others. In accord with these findings are
those of Lorr (1965), who reported that his sample of VA patients
viewed their improvement in therapy as being positively related to
the therapist's behaving in an "independence-encouraging" manner,
and negatively related to his behaving authoritatively.

In general, the evidence suggests that clients like to feel
they are becoming independent, even if reality indicates otherwise
(Heller and Goldstein, 1961), and will react positively to a thera-
pist who promotes this feeling (Lorr, 1965). Nevertheless, they
also require a therapist who accepts their dependent behavior, at
least during the early phases of treatment. Support for this
generalization comes from Winder et al. (1962) who found that
clients engaged in therapy were more likely to return if the thera-
pist reinforced their expressions of dependency than if he did not.

It will be recalled that Hutcherson (1967) attempted to assess
the importance of feelings of responsibility and independence to
undergraduates. He hypothesized that for these subjects, the desire

49

for personal responsibility seems to be more important than
independence in determining therapist preferences. He concluded that
a subject prefers a therapist who makes him feel responsible for
finding and implementing solutions to his difficulties over one who
assumes that responsibility himself. However, llutcherson 's design
and findings were such that he is unable to rule out the possibility
that dependency needs determine one's therapist preferences.
Sex

Some rather consistent relationships between personality charac-
teristics and early termination from therapy have been noted within
sexes. Heilbrun (1961b) concluded from his study of 71 college
clients that the individual who conforms most closely to the expected
cultural sexual stereotype tends to terminate early. Thus, the male
who remains is likely to appear more feminine, and the continuing
female more masculine, than their nonstaying peers.

Heilbrun (1961a) also found that males who remained in counseling
for six sessions were more deferent and self-abasing, and lower on
autonomy and dominance, than were those who terminated. This
pattern suggested that staying males were more immature and inadequate,
and indicated a problem with dependency. Females who remained in
counseling also were more dependent than those who did not, but
only if their counselors were average or below average in dominance.
With highly dominant counselors, more independent females tended to
stay while more dependent ones did not. Heilbrun explained that
independent females warm to acting responsible for their treatment,
while dependent ones wait for their counselor to give them a "cure."

50

The manner in which the counselor initially responds to these client
expectations and dependency needs determines whether the female client
continues or terminates counseling. For males, the counselor's
response seems less important than is the strength of the client's
dependency needs, lie will remain in counseling if these needs make
leaving appear intolerable, and quit if they do not.

An explanation for this differential responsivity of males and
females to counselor behavior can be found in several other studies.
It will be recalled that Apfelbaum (1958) reported that the two
predominately male groups of clients in his investigation exhibited
more elevated MMPI profiles and generally poorer patterns of personal
adjustment than did the predominately female group. In addition,
both of the male dominated groups showed evidence of substantial
difficulty in handling their dependency needs. Those tending to
deal with the problem passively scored higher on measures of
stayingness (in treatment) than did those handling it counteractively.
Apfelbaum concluded that mildly troubled women may feel freer to
seek help than do men of the same level of maladjustment, which
accounts for the higher frequency of females in the cluster B
group of his study. It may also help explain why women tend to
outnumber men as outpatients, while men outnumber women as in-
patients,

Alexander and Abeles (1969) supported Apfelbaurn's contention
with their finding that male clients had more T scores above 70 on
the MMPI than their nonclient norm groups, and also scored higher
on the Mf scale, as Helibrun (1961b) would predict. Van Atta

51

(1968) may be correct in assuming that, rather than being less
defensive and more open as some have concluded (Reiter, 1966),
males who remain in therapy may be less strongly defended than
early terminators. Some evidence will be shed on this notion by
the present study.

Summary and Implications
Summary

The intent of this review was to begin on a broad scale and
progressively narrow down the discussion to consideration of specific
variables essential to predicting individual therapist preferences.
The first section focused upon background research relevant to the
origin of client preferences of therapist behavior. The treatment of
this topic included a discussion of several hypothetical frameworks
which have implications for the development of these preferences, as
well as a review of the empirical evidence which must serve as the
foundation for study of the prediction of these attitudes. It was
concluded that all four formulations assumed a relationship between
one's early experiences with adult authority figures (usually
parents) and one's later therapist preferences. However, the
scant research available relevant to this issue offered little solid
evidence to support the existence of such a relationship. Neverthe-
less, there were data to suggest that individuals differing on a
variety of characteristics still tended to share basic similarities
in their perceptions and preferences of therapists.

The discussion then turned to a more thorough consideration of
the general perspectives from which clients view therapists. A

52

basically dyadic framework was proposed that would seem to account
for the primary types of behavior clients tend to value in a thera-
pist. These two behavioral roles were categorized generally as
"providing" and "modeling," and were seen as reflecting an inter-
personal and a personal orientation respectively by the therapist.

These two behavioral roles were further explored, and each
was broken down into three hypothetical modes of behavior labeled
therapist activity, affect and cognition. It was observed that
only the third member of this triad lacked a wealth of empirical
evaluation, and that its heuristic promise merited attention in the
present investigation.

The next section of the review proceeded to the delineation
of the specific dimensions which research seemed to support as
being illustrative of the active, affective and cognitive modes of
therapist "providing" behavior. These dimensions were respectively,
directiveness vs. nondirectiveness, warmth vs. detachment, and
high awareness vs. low awareness. It was concluded that (a) the
degree of directiveness offered by a therapist typically evokes a
response from the client, the type and strength of which often
varies with several other factors, including sex and level of
maturity of the client; (b) male clients in particular tend to
prefer a therapist who exhibits some evidence of affective warmth or
positive regard toward them; however, some nonclient groups--
notably undergraduate males--would rather have the therapist be
fairly detached and even critical of them, a finding which again
suggests the importance of client maturity level in determining

53

such preferences; and (c) the cognitive mode of therapist behavior,
i.e. awareness or intellectual understanding, has received little
empirical attention.

The succeeding section was addressed to the analysis of maturity
as a therapeutic behavior, and it was concluded that the three pri-
mary modalities of a therapist's repertoire, i.e. activity, affect
and cognition, could be exemplified by four essential qualities:
competence and autonomy (activity), self-confidence (affect), and
Self-awareness (cognition). It is believed that these characteris-
tics comprise the principal therapist qualities desired by those
clients who are inclined to prefer a therapist to act as a model.
The present study will attempt to test the applicability of this
belief to nonclient college subjects.

Because the literature suggested that client preferences
regarding both di recti veness and warmth vary with the sex and
maturity of the individual, these factors were discussed as
essential to the determination of the client's preferences. It was
concluded that the sex of the client appears to operate primarily
in helping him/her decide whether to seek therapy, and thus be
compelled to accept his/her inability to cope with personal
difficulties independently. Presumably, the differential cultural
expectations of the sexes regarding dependency are responsible for
the hesitancy by males to seek such help unless or until their
problems seem nearly overwhelming, while females tend to be less
reticent to accept the role of client along with its dependent
overtones. Thus, the importance of the sex variable is viewed

54

Therapist

Basic

Behavioral

Orientations

Illustrative
Roles

Interpersonal

Provider

Dominant
Modalities

Aff

Illustrative
Characteris- |
tics Warm

Act

Coa

Direct Aware

Personal

Model

Self-Aware

Comp Auton

(Indepen)

Figure 3.1. Conceptual chart: Basic behavioral orientations and
illustrative roles, modalities and characterisi tcs of
therapists .

Legend: Aff = Affect; Act = Activity; Cog - Cognition; Warm =

Warmth; Direct = Directiveness; Aware = Awareness; Self-Con =

Self-Confidence; Self-Aware = Self-Awareness; Comp = Competence;

Auto = Autonomy; Indepen = Independence.

55

as relative to the basic issue of maturity, especially the de-
pendency component.
Implications

It will be recalled that in their study of the male under-
graduate's resistance to directive and nondirective therapist
techniques, Hagebak and Parker (1969) found that the nondirective
approach elicited more resistance, particularly from low dominance
subjects, than did the directive approach. If it is assumed that at
least some males high in dominance will defend against their depen-
dency needs in accordance with the cultural sexual mandate, and that
therefore they will not remain clients very long or even become
clients in the first place, then it is a simple matter to fit
these findings in with those of Helibrun (1961a, b) and Reiter
(1966). The resulting implication is that male client and non-
client subjects a 1 ike probably can be grouped into three categories,
determined by their level of maturity and the general way in which
they handle the dependent role. The first group includes those
rather inadequate-appearing individuals who respond passively to
such a role. These males would likely be low in both maturity and
autonomy, would remain in a counseling relationship for some time
once engaged, and would be expected to prefer a "providing" type
of therapist, who would act at least moderately nurturant
(Apfelbaum, 1958; Feifel and Eel Is , 1963). Finally, it is this
group of individuals who would be expected to hold similar attitudes
toward ideal parent and therapist.

56

The second cluster of males appears to cope with dependency
differently, in a manner to which Apfelbaum refers as "counter-
actively." In a sense, such males seem to rebel at being placed
in a dependent role, and will travel some lengths to avoid it
entirely. This group is likely to seem defensive and high in
autonomy, although the maturity level of these subjects would be
expected to be rather low. It is anticipated that these individuals
would prefer a "providing" therapist whose approach may be
directive and who conducts therapy in a business-like manner
(Apfelbaum, 1958); or they may wish him to be relatively non-
directive, and to emphasize their responsibility and autonomy
(Plummer, 1966). However, they probably would not desire him to
exude warmth, acceptance and nurturance, and may well prefer him
to be critical of them when it is at all appropriate (Apfelbaum,
1958; Plummer, 1966). If there is evidence of a similarity in
these individuals' attitudes toward ideal parent and therapist,
the gualities shared are likely to be largely negative.

The third group of males is likely to be fairly high in both
their level of maturity and autonomy. Probably few such individuals
would likely be found in therapy for any great length of time
because they already possess the basic skills to successfully handle
most problems of living. It is presumed that these persons would
prefer a "modeling" therapist with whom to compare themselves,
as described earlier. It is also hypothesized that there would only
be a moderate similarity in their attitudes toward the ideal
parent and therapist.

57

In general, nonclient undergraduates are assumed to be moderate-
ly well-adjusted and not to be extremely concerned with the therapist
characteristic of activity, that is, his level of directi veness .
More important to them would seem to be the issues of therapist
affect and cognition. The therapist's dominant affect must be
warmth, in that he must communicate that he at least cares what
happens to them. However, the evidence does not suggest that his
expression of warmth needs to be exorbitant for these subjects.

Although the data are sparse, the indications are that for most
individuals the therapist must communicate that he understands the
problems and feelings they bring to him, and that he has an idea
of how to handle them. Thus, he must exhibit an air of competence,
which for subjects high in maturity and autonomy at least, may be
sufficient to facilitate growth. As noted earlier, understanding
is a complex variable, and to denote true competence in a provider
therapist, it probably should be manifested in an intuitive awareness
of the client's verbal and nonverbal communications. Such awareness
would be expected to be possessed by the model therapist, although
his focus would largely be turned inward, as self-awareness. It
is the present investigator's belief that this cognitive quality
of "knowing," more than any variable related to activity or affect,
defines the therapist's competence in the eyes of the client, and
therefore will heavily influence the therapist's effectiveness
within the therapeutic domain.

Logically, this notion makes sense in terms of the stage of
development in which these individuals tend to fall. Becoming

58

heavily involved for the first time in roles requiring self-
sufficiency and independent efforts, it is not surprising that for
them, dependency is an issue; for they are struggling to various
degrees to feel competent in a number of roles as a means of feeling
more adequate in general. Thus, the basic issue can be inferred
as that of adequacy, or maturity, which entails the confident
feeling of being able to cope well. Thus, a therapist should be
respected and accepted as a positive model to the extent that he
exhibits this maturity (Lorr, 1965; Hutcherson, 1957; Strichart,
1974).

Hypotheses
Therapist Preferences

The logical first question about which predictions should be
made concerns the stated preferences of the subjects, and simply
asks, what are the important qualities that undergraduate males
admit to seeking in a therapist? It was noted that the literature
supports the thesis that client and nonclient subjects in general
tend to consider important at least two, and perhaps three basic
modalities of therapist behavior, which were termed activity, affect
and cognition. Thus, the three hypotheses related to the question
of the essential qualities valued by subjects will be framed in
this perspective, although in reverse order, and data testing
these hypotheses will derive from the ISORS ratings.
Hypothesis la (1) - cognition

In general, the "ideal therapist" will be described as being
high in the skills of both an interpersonal and a personal nature,
and thus, he will be seen as "intuitive" and "self-aware."

59

The issue implicit in this hypothesis is the believed importance
to the prospective client of the therapist's ability to thoroughly
understand the client's problems, which may obtain throuqh a solid
awareness of himself. Although these adjectives reflect the
therapist's understanding of the situation, and despite the fact
that the quality of understanding has some empirical support
(Boulware, 1969; Lorr, 1965), the term itself will not be offered
to the subjects, nor will it be used by the raters of the taped
therapy segments because of the semantic difficulties noted
earlier. In its place will be used the terms "intuitive" and "self-
aware" on the ISORS for the subjects and "awareness" in the instruc-
tions for the raters of the tapes.
Hypothesis la (2) - affect

In general, the "ideal therapist" will be described as being
moderate in interpersonal affect ("warm") and high in personal
affect ("self-confidence").

It is assumed that these nonclient subjects will neither
require the high degree of nurturance some clients prefer nor will
they completely reject any semblance of warmth on the part of a
therapist as do some client groups (Kumler, 1968; Greenberg, 1969;
Plummer, 1966; Apfelbaum, 1958). It is anticipated that nonclient
subjects on the whole will be more concerned with a positive
feeling derived from an internal rather than an external source.
Hypothesis la (3) - activity

In general, the "ideal therapist" will be described as moderate
in interpersonal activity and high in personal activity, thus

60

being seen as only somewhat "advising/guiding" but fairly
"independent."

The data on this topic are neither plentiful nor consistent
for nonclient undergraduates. Nevertheless, some evidence in its
favor can be obtained from the findings of Hagebak and Parker
(1969) and Helweg (1971). The assumption underlying this hypothesis
is that this population of subjects is relatively well-adjusted
compared to that of clients in therapy, and therefore, will value
independence (Helweg, 1971) and responsibility (Hutcherson, 1967),
thus tending to make the nondirective therapist most appealing to
them.

The second question about which predictions will be made is
the companion of the first, and concerns the subjects' satisfaction
ratings of the taped therapists, asking, What are the important
general qualities that nonclient undergraduates actually prefer
in a therapist? Because of a possibility of a discrepancy between
the qualities which subjects say they prefer and those to which
they respond positively on a more unobtrusive measure, it is
necessary to assess the subjects' preferences in more of an indirect
manner. Although it was not possible in the present design to
guarantee in the tapes equally high levels of the specific
characteristics listed on the ISORS, it is believed that the subjects
ratings of the general dimensions of awareness, warmth and directive-
ness can be inferred from those characteristics on the ISORS and
compared with the satisfaction ratings of the general dimensions
on the CRQ. The hypotheses to be evaluated are as follows:

61

Hypothesis lb (1)

The "interpersonally-oriented" therapists rated by judges as
offering high awareness will receive higher satisfaction ratings by
the subjects as a group than will those therapists offering high
warmth or high di recti veness .

This reasoning derives primarily from the findings of Lorr
(1965) and Boulware (1969), which suggested the importance of thera-
pist understanding to clients. However, in both studies "under-
standing" was ill -defined, and no attempt was made to distinguish
between the term's denoted intellectual and connoted affective
meanings, as explained earlier. Thus, in the present study "aware-
ness" refers to the therapist's capacity for intellectual and non-
intellectual understanding of the subject's communications and
feelings. Defined in this manner, it is anticipated that therapist
awareness will be the most important of the three qualities evaluated
in this hypothesis, as far as the subjects are concerned.
Hypothesis lb (2)

The "interpersonally-oriented" therapists offering high warmth
will receive higher satisfaction ratings by the subjects as a group
than will the therapists offering high directiveness.

A high level of therapist warmth, while anticipated to be less
universally important to subjects than therapist awareness, is
nonetheless expected to find more general acceptance among the
subjects than therapist directiveness.

62

Mediating Variables: Subject Anxiety and Dependency

The next step is to proceed from prediction of group preferences
t.o prediction of those of the individual. The literature suggests
that among males, prediction of an individual's preferences of
therapist characteristics is related to the subject's general level
of adjustment and his level of dependency. Again, the preferences
will be examined differentially, according to whether they are
made directly, i.e. stated specifically on the ISORS, or indirectly,
via the satisfaction ratings of the taped therapist from the CRQ.
The relevant hypotheses to the state preferences are:
Hypothesis I la (1)

There will be a positive relationship between subject maturity
(approximated by low anxiety and high independence) and the preference
for a personally-oriented "model" type of therapist, i.e. one high
on self-awareness, self-confidence and independence.

As previously indicated, the underlying assumption in this
hypothesis is that the more mature subjects will be apt to want
little more from the therapist than cognitive and intuitive under-
standing along with a behavioral example of maturity. Thus, this
group of subjects would be expected to prefer a therapist who is
high on the "personally-oriented" gualities: self-confident,
self-aware and independent.
Hypothesis Ha (2)

There will be a positive relationship between low subject
maturity (approximated by high anxiety and low independence) and

63

the preference for an interpersonal ly-oriented "provider" therapist,
i.e. one high in the qualities of intuitive, warmth and advising/
guiding.

The assumption underlying this hypothesis is that those indi-
viduals functioning at a diminished level of personal adjustment
prefer a therapist who is warm and assertive.

Subjects who score high on anxiety and on independence will
state a preference for a therapist whose dominant style is
"providing," but who is not nurturant, i.e. one who is high on
intuition and advising/guiding, but low on warmth.

This hypothesis is somewhat suggested by the data of Apfelbaum
(1958), Plummer (1966) and Heilbrun (1961b),

The following three hypotheses are companion to those above,
but are based upon the somewhat less obtrusive measure of therapist
preferences, the Client's Reaction Questionnaire (CRQ), where
responses gauge the subject's satisfaction with the taped therapists.
Hypothesis lib (1)

Subjects who exhibit a high level of maturity (i.e. score low
on anxiety and high on independence) will give the highest satisfac-
tion ratings to the "model" therapist, who is high in self-awareness,
self-confidence, and independence.

Studies by Apfelbaum (1958), Plummer (1966) and Heilbrun (1961b)
suggest this and the next hypothesis, with the exception of the
statements regarding the awareness variable.

64

Hypothesis lib (2)

Subjects who exhibit a low level of maturity (i.e. score high
on anxiety and low on autonomy) will give the highest satisfaction
ratings to the "provider" therapist, who is high in awareness,
warmth and di recti veness.

The similarity between the above two hypotheses and the three
previous ones which were based upon the ISORS data is apparent.
Thus, it is expected that for this nonclient sample of subjects,
there will be relatively little difference between the subjects'
therapist preferences which are directly solicited and those obtained
in an indirect manner.
Early Development of Therapist Preferences

As noted earlier, the post hoc exploration of the origin of
basic preferences of therapist behavior must always be viewed with
some suspicion, especially when its primary purpose is the
garnishment of evidence in support of a particular theory of per-
sonality development. Such is not the goal here. The purpose of
offering the following hypotheses is to evaluate the role of
subject maturity in the determination of one's preferences of
parental behavior, and to facilitate assessment of the validity
of the basic assumption made by Freud (1935), Apfelbaum (1958),
May (1958) and Schutz (1958), concerning a relationship between
one's perceptions of parent and therapist. It is acknowledged
that there is little research to warrant these hypotheses, and
that in general, they represent an extension of related data
regarding preferences of therapist behavior.

65

Hypothesis Ilia

Subjects who exhibit a high level of maturity (i.e. score low
on anxiety and high on autonomy) will state a preference for a
father who most nearly fits the type of configuration of the "model"
therapist, i.e. one who is high on qualities of "self-aware,"
"self-confident" and "independent."
Hypothesis 1 1 1 b

Subjects who score relatively low on measures of maturity (i.e.
score high on anxiety and low on autonomy) will state a preference
for a father who most nearly fits the type of configuration of a
"provider" therapist, i.e. one who is high on qualities of "intuitive,1
"warm" and "advising/guiding."

Just as one would expect the dependent subject to seek more
from a therapist than the independent one (Apfelbaum, 1958), the
same differential in preferences is expected to apply attitudes
of these individuals toward the same-sexed parent. The preferences
for an ideal mother are expected to fall in the same directions
as those for the ideal father, but not to fit into any particular
configuration.

Operational Definitions
Therapist Activity - the therapist's basic, observable behavior

during the treatment session.
Therapist Affect - the therapist's basic, predominant feeling

toward the client and/or toward himself.
Therapist Cognition - the therapist's intellectual experiencing

during the therapeutic session.

66

Therapist Pi recti veness - the extent to which the therapist
attempts to impose his own structure upon the course and
direction of the session.
Ih°/ilILJJLtL Wanntji - the therapist's emotional attitude toward the
client, which is based upon genuine concern, respect and
positive regard.
Therapist Awareness - the degree to which the therapist communicates
a genuine comprehension of the client's total condition
and of his thoughts and feelings regarding that condition.
Dependency - the experience of habitually seeking resources outside
of the self for satisfaction of certain basic psychological
needs and/or desires.
Maturity - that stage of personal development characterized by a
feeling of self-confidence, a facility for self-awareness,
as well as for competent and flexibly autonomous behavior.
Self-Confidence - the feeling which reflects self-esteem and one's

basic ability to cope well.
Competence - behavior which is appropriate and largely successful

in its function.
Flexible Autonomy - the ability to behave dependency or indepen-
dently, according to the reality of the situation.
Self-Awareness - the ability to examine and evaluate one's own

thoughts, feelings, and other behavior in a reasonably objec-
tive manner.
Provider Therapist - a therapist with an "interpersonal" style, who
generally seeks or feels obliged to give the client something

67

in therapy, and to assume the large share of responsibility for

the therapeutic process and progress.
Model Therapist - a therapist with a "personal" style, who is

largely concerned with behaving in a genuine manner with the

client, whom he allows to assume much of the responsibility

for the process and progress of therapy.
Interpersonal Orientation - a therapeutic style which emphasizes

the mutuality and social interchange aspects of therapy,

and which for the therapist, entails focusing upon the client's

thoughts, feelings and actions.
Personal Orientation - a therapeutic style which emphasizes contact

with the therapist's own experiencing of the therapeutic

process, and the reflection of this experiencing back to the

client.

CHAPTER III
METHOD

Sub j ec ts

A total of 103 male undergraduates from the subject pool of the
Psychology Department of the University of Florida participated in
the experimental procedure. However, the data from seven of those
were deleted immediately from computation due either to an obvious
misunderstanding of, or an inattention to, the experimental instruc-
tions. The data of eight additional subjects were deleted in order
to facilitate analysis by leaving an equal number of subjects in
each cell. These eight were chosen randomly within the remaining
conditions having more than eleven subjects. Therefore, data from
15 subjects were discarded prior to computation, leaving a total
of 88, or eleven per condition.

Instruments

The intention was to compare the therapist preferences of
individuals rated both within and between subjects. Two brief
questionnaires original to the present study were used. The first
was the Ideal-Self/Others Rating Scale (ISORS, Appendix B). This
scale assessed the subject's ratings of ideal parents, therapist
and self, in terms of six behavior characteristics related to
the active, affective and cognitive modes of behavior, of both the
personal and interpersonal styles. The importance of this
instrument is that it taps the stated preferences of therapist

69

qualities via the subject's description of the "ideal therapist."
It also allows for comparison of descriptions of ideal parents and
ideal therapist. Secondarily, the ratings for ideal self might have
proved useful as a comparison with the 16 PF data, but was not used
as a primary measure of maturity.

The second original instrument was the Client's Reaction
Questionnaire (CRQ, Appendix C), which represents a comparatively
unobtrusive measure of the subject's preferences of therapist behavior.
It was designed to be administered after a subject listened to a taped
segment of role-played therapy, and simply recorded his reactions to
the therapist's behavior in the segment.

The principal measure of the subject's level of maturity that was
utilized in this investigation was the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16 PF). It was used primarily to estimate the subject's
personality resources that were related to the complex issue of
maturity, particularly as it involved dependency. The 16 PF is a
self-administered inventory which is based upon sixteen basic
personality dimensions derived from factor analytic studies by Cattell
and his colleague (Cattell and Stice, 1950), This instrument was
selected for use in the present investigation for numerous reasons,
including the empirical manner in which it was developed, its
utility as a measure of autonomy and maturity, the existence of rele-
vant normative data, and its relative brevity in administration.

Although the full 16 PF was administered (Forms A and B), only
certain scales were used in testing the hypotheses of this study.

70

These scales v;ere those relating to autonomy (scales E, M, Q and Q2)
and to maturity (scales, C, 0 and Q4).* The direct validities of
these scales with the underlying second stratum traits are as follows:

Autonomy

Anxiety

E

(Dominance)

.71

C (Ego Strength)

M

(Autia)

.71

0 (Adequacy)

q,

(Conservatism)

.68

Q^ (Ergic Tension

77

.63

Q2 (Self-
sufficiency

The final questionnaire used was simply the Personal Data Sheet
(Appendix A), which secured demographic and historical information of
relevance to the topic under study. The historical information dealt
specifically with the subject's relationship with his parents.

Design

The basic experimental design was of the repeated measures type.
Each subject completed the Personal Data Sheet, the ISORS, and the 16 PF
(Form A) respectively. Then, following a brief period, each was
assigned to one of the "interpersonal" (I) conditions listed below,
and listened to one of eight audio-taped segments of role-played thera-
py sessions. Each student listened to a standard "personal" (P) style
tape as well. To eliminate a possible order effect, the order of the
two tapes was counterbalanced. The specific conditions used were as
f 0 1 1 ows :

rCa ttol 1 et al . termed these scales "independence" and "anxiety."

71

Condi t

ion

#

Subjec

ts

Thera
High A

pi st Qual
High W

i ties

1

11

High D

l2

11

Low A

High W

High D

l3

11

High A

Low W

High D

u

11

Low A

Low W

High D

V

11

High A

High W

Low D

!6

11

Low A

High W

Low D

7

11

High A

Low W

Low D

I«

11

Low A

Low W

Low D

High Aut High S.C. High S.A.

(Legend: A = Awareness, W = Warmth, D = Directiveness , Aut = Autonomy,
S.C. = Self-Confidence, S.A. = Self-Awareness.)

The simulated therapy tapes are the product of lengthy development
and frequent revision by the investigator, who also plays the role of
therapist on the tapes. Prior to their use in this study, the tapes
underwent a series of ratings by three colleagues of the investigator,
each of whom held at least a master's degree in one of the helping
professions, and who were carefully instructed as to the criteria being
rated. The tapes were considered reliable when the mean: of the judges'
ratings fell within the following limits of acceptability for each
characteristic being rated: low = 1-3.3, moderate = 3.4-7.3, and high =
7.4-10. In several instances (13%), where numerous revisions and
ratings failed to produce such an acceptable mean, the tape was con-
sidered reliable when two of the three judges produced ratings falling

72

within the limits of acceptability. In addition, the final question on
the CRQ was intended to tap the subjects' ratings of the validity of the
tapes. The purpose behind these various ratings, of course, was to help
ensure that all of the combinations did indeed reflect the levels of
therapist characteristics that were intended.

After listening to that "I" tape randomly assigned to them as well
as the standard "P" tape, the subjects were asked to briefly rate their
level of satisfaction with the therapist on the tapes by completing
the CRQ.

Procedures

The subjects were run through the experimental procedure in small
groups, and contributed approximately two hours of their time. Upon
each group's arrival, the experimenter introduced himself and stated
the purpose of the investigation as being to learn something about the
way college students view themselves and other significant people in
their lives. There were informed that the procedure was a benign one,
but that no further details about the nature of the study could be
given until the end of the session.

The subjects were then seated and asked to complete the Personal
Data Sheet, the ISORS and Form A of the 16 PF. A brief rest period was
then allowed, lasting five minutes, after which the subjects completed
Form B of the 16 PF. They then listened to the two tapes assigned to
them, and evaluated the therapist's performance after each one by com-
pleting the CRQ. In making their preferences via these evaluations,
they were instructed to listen carefully to the tapes, since afterwards
they would be asked to rate the therapist. The rationale given to the

73

subjects was that different people prefer different kinds of therapists,
and thus that no judgements are correct or incorrect. A debriefing
session was then allowed, when desired by the subjects.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS

The data analysis began by focusing upon the subject's stated
preferences on basic therapist characteristics, vis a vis the
variables of cognition, affect and activity. In order to check
the accuracy of Hypotheses la (l)-(3), chi-square tests were conducted
on all of the subjects' ratings of their ideal therapists, which were
derived from responses to the Ideal-Self/Others Rating Scale (ISORS).
The purpose of using the chi-square was to compare expected scores
with obtained scores (Smith, 1962). The results of this analysis
as they apply to Hypothesis la (1) are summarized in Table 4.1, and
indicate that subjects subscribe to five of the six therapist
characteristics at a statistically significant level. Only inde-
pendence failed to find strong support as a personal quality of
the ideal therapist.

Hypothesis lb (l)-(2) focused upon the three characteristics of
the interpersonal therapist orientation, namely, awareness, warmth and
directi veness. The hypotheses dealt with a comparison of these
qualities with each other, as gauged by satisfaction ratings of the
interpersonal ly-oriented therapists. The ratings were obtained from
the subjects' responses on the Client Reaction Questionnaire (CRQ),
after their exposure to the eight simulated therapy tapes. The
results of t-tests used in making these comparisons indicated that
the awareness variable played a significantly greater role in the

J A

Table 4.1. Summary of preferences for ideal therapist traits,
as rated by ISORS responses for all subjects (N = I

Ideal therapist Behavioral
characteristics modality

Advising/guiding

Intui tive

Self-confident

Self-aware

Warm

Independent

Activi ty

Cogni tion

Affect

Cognition

Affect

Activity

Chi-sguare

value

Signi

ficance (3df

355.86

.001

348.20

.001

176.32

.001

94.10

.001

48.65

.001

5.54

n.s.

76

determination of subjects' satisfaction ratings of the interpersonal ly-
oriented taped therapists than did warmth or directi veness (Table 4.2).

After these data had been collected, it became apparent that
hypotheses were lacking which would offer predictions regarding the
satisfaction of subjects with the behavior of the standard personally-
oriented therapist compared with that of the eight interpersonal ly-
oriented therapists. Therefore, such a comparison was made on a
post hoc basis .

The first step in this procedure was to conduct an analysis
of variance on the CRQ ratings of all 88 subjects for the standard
personal therapist tape. It will be recalled that this tape was
presented to each subject, along with whichever interpersonal
therapist taoe was assigned to him in his particular experimental
condition. Despite the fact that independent judges had rated the
personal therapist as meeting the necessary criteria specified
earlier, it was deemed important to determine the level of variability
in the satisfaction ratings of this tape across the eight different
conditions as a reliability check. The results of the ANOVA were
reassuringly nonsignificant (F = 1,97). Therefore, the model
therapist tape appears to have been viewed similarly by all eight
groups of subjects, and can be considered reliable as a standard
example of personally-oriented therapist behavior.

The next step in the post hoc analysis involved conducting an
ANOVA on the CRQ ratings of all subjects for the eight inter-
personally-oriented therapist tapes. This procedure was viewed as
necessary to provide certainty that subjects did in fact perceive

77

Table 4.2. Comparison of interpersonally-oriented therapist
qualities, as gauged by CRQ satisfaction ratings
of all subjects (N = 83).

Interpersonal therapist

_q_ua_l i ties t-value_ _ Significance

Awareness vs. warmth 8.13 .001

Awareness vs. directi veness 10.00 .001

Warmth vs. directi veness -0.56 n.s.

78

and react differently to each of these tapes. Again, the ANOVA
provided reassurance (F = 6.00, p< .01 ) . A graphical representation
of the CRQ ratings for both the standard model and the eight inter-
personal therapist tapes found in Figure 4.1.

The final step in the post hoc procedure was to conduct
individual comparisons of the CRQ ratings for the two tapes (one
personal, one interpersonal) heard by subjects in each condition.
These data would then provide a clearer idea of the relative
importance of both the general roles as well as the specific
behaviors of a therapist to the subjects as a group. This analysis
utilised individual t-tests, and the results are summarized in
Table 4.3.

Inspection of Figure 4.1 and Table 4.3 yields several pertinent
observations. First, it is apparent that the personally-oriented
therapist produced broader and more consistent satisfaction among
subjects than did the various interpersonally-oriented therapists.
Indeed, only one tape in the latter category (tape 5) was rated higher
than the personal therapist tape, although the difference was not
significant. Second, and of more potential importance, is the
pattern that emerges when the individual configuration of therapist
traits is examined across conditions. Of the three conditions for
which there were significant differences in subject satisfaction
scores (numbers 4, 6 and 8), all of the interpersonal therapists
involved were characterized by a low level of awareness. In the
fourth condition also characterized by low therapist awareness
(number 2), there was a nonsignificant trend in the same direction.

79

Figure 4.1. Comparison of subject CRQ satisfaction ratings of
personally-oriented and interpersonal ly-oriented
therapist tapes for all eight experimental conditions

(N = 88).

Total
subject
satisfac-
tion
ratinqs
(CRQ)

■Interpersonal ly-oriented tapes

Personally-oriented tape (standard across all
conditions)

3 4 5 6

Tape conditions

Mil

rr

C1J

s_

+J

C

o-

rr

0)

< >

jr

- —

4-

c

4-

o

o

+J

x:

u

o

TO

rO

o

4J

l/l

00

S~

Ci-

n

rri

( :

i-

p-

01

o

r*

o

4-'

t- C i—

in

ra CD

+-> -o

C

aj

c/1

i — *f—

1 1

i/i

ra

rr,

GJ

C *

4-J

C

O 0)

<D

or <_>

>

s- c:

rr)

■ i—

CD QJ

l_

+->

O.T3

O

O

S- •!—

81

Unlike conditions 4, 6 and 8, however, condition 2 involved high
levels of the other independent variables (warmth and directi veness) ,
In the remaining four conditions, which were all characterized by
high levels of therapist awareness (numbers 1, 3, 5 and 7), there
were no significant differences in subject satisfaction ratings of the
personal and interpersonal therapist tapes.

The second level of data analysis attempted to match preferences
of therapist characteristics with subjects' personality traits. The
findings are based upon subjects' self-ratings on the 16 PF and
their therapist preferences, as assessed by their responses on the
ISORS, The 88 subjects were first categorized according to their
respective scores on the 16 PF second-order scales of Anxiety and
Independence. Their relative scores above or below the group
means resulted in a 2X2 matrix, formed by high vs. low scores on
the two variables. Then, chi-sguare tests were employed to evaluate
the null hypothesis that the therapist preferences of various
sub-groups of the sample were normally distributed. The results
of these analyses (Tables 4.4 through 4.7) indicate little variability
in preferences between subject groups, and a strong preference
for a therapist high in certain personal gualities (self-confidence
and self-awareness) and interpersonal skills (guidance and
intui tion) .

In an attempt to evaluate the possibility of a main effect of
subject anxiety and independence upon therapist preferences via
ISORS ratings, a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted.
The results indicated no significant main or interaction effect

82

Table 4.4. Preferences of therapist characteristics, as rated by
ISORS responses of subjects scoring high on 16 PF
second-order factor of Independence and low on Anxiety
(N = 28).

Ideal therapist

Therapist

Chi -square

characteristics

orientation

value

S i g n i

ficance(df=3)

Advising/guiding

Interpersonal

100.75

.001

Intuitive

Interpersonal

91.35

.001

Sel f-confident

Personal

52.64

.001

Self-aware

Personal

31.05

.001

Warm

Interpersonal

5.36

n.s .

Independent

Personal

4,35

n.s .

8:3

Table 4. 5. Preferences of therapist characteristics, as rated by

ISORS responses of subjects scoring high on 16 PF second-
order factor of Anxiety and low on Independence (N = 30).

Ideal therapist

Therapist

Chi -square

characteristics

orientation

val ue

S i q m

ficance(df=3)

Intui ti ve

Interpersonal

133.52

.001

Advisi ng/guidi ng

Interpersonal

122.37

.001

Self-confident

Personal

66.00

.001

Self -aware

Personal

34.35

.001

Warm

Interpersonal

23.03

.001

Independent

Personal

3.54

n.s .

84

Table 4.6, Preferences of therapist characteristics, as rated by
ISORS responses of subjects scoring high on 16 PF
second-order factors of Anxiety and Independence (N = U

Ideal therapist

Therapist

Chi-square

characteristics

orientation

value

Siqni

ficance(df=3)

In tin ti ve

Interpersonal

93.72

.001

Advising/guiding

Interpersonal

70.79

.001

Self-confident

Personal

51.22

.001

Warm

Interpersonal

27.89

.001

Self-aware

Personal

20.82

.001

Independent

Personal

4.89

n.s .

85

Table 4.7. Preferences of therapist characteristics, as rated by

ISORS responses of subjects scoring low on 16 PF second-
order traits of Anxiety and Independence (N = 12).

Ideal therapist

Therapist

Chi -square

characteristics

orienta tion

value

Significance(df=3)

Advising/guiding

Interpersonal

63.80

.001

Intui ti ve

Interpersonal

32.02

.001

Sel f-confident

Personal

17.21

.001

Warm

Interpersonal

7.27

n.s.

Independent.

Personal

5.46

n.s.

Self-aware

Personal

5.16

n.s.

86

of these two personality variables, a finding consistent with, the
above data in indicating that these variables play no significant
role in the "public" selection of therapist, characteristics.

As a means of evaluating the possible role played by subject
anxiety and independence in the determination of satisfaction
ratings for the various taped therapists, several procedures were
conducted. First, it was necessary to determine whether or not
a "global" satisfaction score could be derived from the CRQ to
facilitate analysis. This was accomplished by obtaining product-
moment correlations for all 88 subjects' responses on the three
CRQ items gauging therapist satisfaction, as they pertained to
both the personally- and interpersonal ly-oriented therapists.
As indicated in Table 4.8, the resulting six correlations were
relatively high, and significant at well beyond the .001 level.
Thus, it seems fairly safe to conclude that there is significant
overlap among the three items for each set of data to justify
collapsing the two sets of three individual satisfaction item
scores into one global satisfaction score each.

The second step in this phase of the analysis involved the
categorization of the 88 subjects, according to their respective
scores on the 16 PF second-order scales of Anxiety and Independence.
Having located the subjects in their respective guadrants in the
manner described earlier, the global satisfaction scores for each
of the four subject groups were calculated (Table 4.10).

87

Table 4.8. Product-moment correlations of items 1 through 3 of
Client Reaction Questionnaire (CRQ) (N = 88).

Comparison
tapes

Comparison
items (CRQ)

r-value

t-val ue

p-value

Interpersonal
(tapes 1-8)

1-2
1-3

.85
.74

14.87
10.24

.001
.001

2-3

.82

13.33

.001

Personal
(tape 9)

1-2

1-3

.77
.71

11.15
9.27

.001
.001

2-3

.75

10.53

.001

+J

m

c

c

ti

CI I

CI)

■ i—

TJ

TJ

C"

S-

S~

0)

o

o

O-

i

c)

a)

>o

cj

■a

ro

l

rn

-n

J_

n;

-a

C)

c^.

s_

m

.1

en

S-

o

eu

!^

>!

Q.

CT

CD

4-

(/I

o

4->

X

o

C

00

CD

cr

l.<:

•r— |

t-

.i\i

4-

+J

3
oo

O

n:

in

i~

C

s~

+-1

o

U oo
ro +-> S-
4- oo CD

oo <u

TD

rn

-C

IZ

4-

4^

O--M

O

oo

(O

a:

U

• r-

• ,—

O "O

CD

4-J

a

CD

00

ro

rr

00 -M

00

s_

-M c

la-

CI

U CD

Cl,

c

T

CD -r-

CO

+J

•>-3 i-

UD

CD

-Q O

s:

3 1

rn

00 >>

C

1Z

1 —

o

O

+->

<D

+->

Q_

CD

Cl)

CD

CL

CD

CD

• r—

CI.

QJ

-a

X

CI)

X

XJ

X

c

C

xo

L_

C

C

cr

C"

<L

1—1

-=L

X"

_c

1—1

i

<

-:

en

en

^

o

o

o

•r-

•r-

o

89

Several observations are apparent from Table 4.9. First, the
personally-oriented (model) therapist is consistently rated higher
by all four subject groups than is the collective set of eight
interpersonal ly-oriented therapists. Three of the four differences
between the groups reach statistical significance. Second, the
highest satisfaction ratings of a therapist by any group were given
to the personally-oriented therapist by the subjects low in both
anxiety and independence. The lowest satisfaction ratings given
this therapist derived from the subjects with the opposite personality
configuration (high in anxiety and independence). However, an
analysis of variance revealed that the difference between these two
sets of ratings was nonsignificant.

It is noteworthy that the highest satisfaction ratings of the
interpersonal ly-oriented therapists also came from the subjects
high in anxiety and independence. This finding prompted closer
scrutiny of the CRQ data, which revealed that twelve (67%) of the
subjects in this group happened to fall into experimental conditions
that included exposure to interpersonal ly-oriented therapists who
were high in at least two of the three gualities of awareness,
warmth and directi veness . Conversely, nine (75%) of the subjects
in the former group (low in anxiety and independence) were exposed
to interpersonal therapists who were low in at least two of those
three basic qualities.

Finally, a multivariate analysis was conducted on the CRQ
satisfaction ratings of both the personally- and interpersonally-
oriented therapists, in order to evaluate the relative roles played

90

by the subjects' levels of anxiety and independence in the determina-
tion of these scores. The results indicated an absence of a main
effect for either anxiety or independence for the interpersonal
therapist ratings, but the presence of an interaction between the
two variables (r = .31, p<. 05) . There were no significant effects
for the personal therapist data.

The third level of analysis dealt with the issue of possible
relationships between the maturity of the subjects and their stated
preferences of therapists and fathers. Hypothesis Ilia predicted
that subjects scoring high on the 16 PF Independence scale and low
on Anxiety would express a preference for an ideal father figure
most nearly like the personally-oriented ("model") therapist,
i.e. one highly "self-aware," "self-confident" and "independent."
A chi -square analysis conducted on the ISORS data of the 28
subjects falling into this subgroup found that, indeed, those
three ISORS qualities were attributed to the ideal father at a
significant level (Table 4. ID). However, the qualities "advising/
guiding" and "intuitive" were also attributed to the ideal father
at a significant level, a pattern very similar to that noted
earlier for the ideal therapist.

Hypothesis 1 1 1 b was based upon data from those subjects
presumed to be lower in maturity, with low scores on Independence
and high scores on Anxiety. This hypothesis predicted that such
subjects would state a preference for an ideal father who most
nearly conformed to the configuration of the interpersonal ly-
oriented "provider" therapist, who exhibited a highly "advising/

91

Table 4.10. Preferences for ideal father characteristics, as rated by
ISORS responses of subjects scoring low on 16 PF second-
order factor of Anxiety and high on Independence (N = 28).

Ideal father

Behavioral

Chi-square

characteristics

modality

value

Significance(df=3)

Sel f-conf ident

A f f ec t

92.30

.001

Advising/guiding

Activity

90.93

.001

Self-aware

Cogni tion

44.05

.001

Intuitive

Cogni tion

43.74

.001

Warm

Affect

33.48

.001

Independent

Acti vi ty

6.55

.10(n.s.)

92

guiding," "intuitive" and "warm" behavioral style. As before,
a chi-square analysis was conducted, with the results being similar
to those for the subjects presumed to be of a higher maturity level
(Table 4.11). Once again, five of the six ISORS characteristics
were attributed to the ideal father, instead of only three as was
hypothesized.

After noting this similarity in choice of characteristics for
an ideal father figure, chi-square analyses were also conducted on
the preferences of the remaining two subject groups, i.e. those
characterized either by low or high levels of both anxiety and
independence. As seen in Tables 4.12 and 4.13, very similar patterns
emerged for these groups compared to the previous two, indicating the
lack of influence apparently held by subject anxiety and independence
in the selection of ideal father figures.

93

Table 4.11. Preferences for ideal father characteristics, as rated
by ISORS responses of subjects scoring high on 16 PF
second-order factor of Anxiety and low on Independence
(N = 30).

Ideal father

Behavioral

Chi-square

characteristics

modal i ty

value

Siqni

ficance(_df=3)

Advising/guiding

Activity

83.84

.001

Self-confident

Affect

74.67

.001

Self-aware

Cognition

61.37

.001

Harm

Affect

46.32

.001

Intuitive

Cogni tion

42.46

.001

Independent

Activi ty

6.89

.10(n.s.)

94

Table 4.12. Preferences for ideal father characteristics, as rated
by ISORS responses of subjects scoring low on 16 PF
second-order factors of Anxiety and Independence (N = 12]

Ideal father

Behavioral

Chi -square

characteristics

modal i ty
Activi ty

val ue

25.70

Significance

Advi si ng/guidi nq

.001

Self-confident

Affect

25.70

.001

Sel f-aware

Cognition

19.89

.001

Intui tive

Cogni tion

17.93

.001

Warm

Affect

13.29

.01

Independent

Activity

6.57

.10(n.s.)

95

Table 4.13. Preferences for ideal father characteristics, as rated
by ISORS responses of subjects scoring high on 16 PF
second-order factors of Anxiety and Independence (N = 18)

Ideal father

Behavioral

Chi-square

characteristics

modal i ty
Activity

val uc

Significance

Advising/guiding

81.82

.001

Self-confident

Affect

44,38

.001

Sel f-aware

Cogni tion

27.83

.001

Intui ti ve

Cognition

23.04

.001

Wa rm

Affect

21.99

.001

Independent

Activity

7.52

.10(n.s.)

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION

GeneraJ_ Therapist Preferences

The first level of data analysis involved a determination of
those therapist qualities generally preferred by the present sample
of subjects as a group. A distinction was made between those pre-
ferences which were made directly regarding specific therapist
characteristics (ISORS) and those made via satisfaction ratings of
therapist behavior on audiotape. Hypotheses la (l)-(3) were posited
pertaining to the former type of preferences, while Hypotheses lb
(l)-(2) covered the latter. The various results will be discussed in
relationship to the specific hypotheses to which they refer.

Hypothesis la (1) predicted that as a group, the subjects would
express a preference for a therapist who was high in both inter-
personal and personal cognitive skills, represented on the ISORS by
the qualities, "intuitive" and "self-aware," respectively. The
data in Table 4.1 support this hypothesis at the .001 level.

Hypothesis la (2) concerned itself with the affect modality of
therapist behavior, and predicted that subjects as a group would
choose their ideal therapist to be moderate in warmth, but high in
self-confidence. Inspection of Table 4.1 lends basic support to
this hypothesis.. The ideal therapist is clearly preferred to be
highly "self-confident" (p<.001). However, he is also expected
to be somewhat more than moderately "warm" in this therapeutic
behavior (p<.001) .

96

97

The activity modality of therapist behavior was the object of
interest of Hypothesis la (3), and was exemplified on the ISORS
by the interpersonal "advising/guiding" quality and the personal
characteristic, "independent." The hypothesis predicted the sub-
jects as a group would have their ideal therapist be moderately
"advising/guiding," but highly "independent." However, Table 4.1
suggests the opposite pattern: "advising/guiding" is the most
preferred therapist behavior of the six rated (p .001), while
"independent" is the least preferred, and the only one failing to
reach statistical significance.

It is apparent from these data that five of the six character-
istics were viewed positively by the subjects, with two of the
qualities--"advising/guiding" and "intui ti ve"--findihg near-
unanimous acceptance. The mandate of the subjects as a group seems
clear: a therapist should be someone who is very much aware of
their dilemma and its possible solutions, as well as someone who
will be quick to offer suggestions and guidance. In addition, he
is expected to exhibit substantial self-confidence and self-awareness,
perhaps as enabling characteristics in the accomplishment of his
mission. Finally, the subjects would prefer the therapist to display
at least a modicum of warmth in his relationship with them. Whether
or not he is an independent individual in his own right appears to
be optional as far as the subjects are concerned.

Hypotheses lb (l)-(2) were predicated on the more unobtrusive
measure of preferences of therapist qualities, the satisfaction
scores derived from the Client Reaction Questionnaire. Since the

98

first of these two hypotheses predicted that the subjects as a
group would be more satisfied with a therapist whose most salient
characteristic was a high level of awareness, rather than warmth or
directi veness , the results of Table 4.2. are most gratifying.
Awareness was easily the most influential quality of the three
measured in the determination of therapist satisfaction ratings, as
confirmed by the subjects' ratings of the therapists high in aware-
ness at a significantly higher level than those strong in warmth
(pc.001) or directiveness (p<.001).

On the other hand, Hypothesis lb (2), which predicted more
subject satisfaction with warm therapists than with directive ones,
was not supported by the data. Table 4.2 illustrates the fact
that there was no significant difference between the subjects'
satisfaction ratings of therapists high in warmth and those high
in directiveness.

Since one of the primary goals of the present study was to
focus attention upon, and evaluate the significance to subjects of
the cognitive component of therapist, behavior, the results noted
above with respect to the importance of the awareness variable are
welcome indeed. Logic and the findings of a few other investigators
(Boulware, 1969; Lorr, 1965) suggested that an intellectual under-
standing of the client's difficulties might be essential to the
development of a positive attitude toward a therapist. The findings
noted above are further substantiated by the results of the
§ posteriori analysis of the CRQ data found in Figure 4.1. 'In "that
graphical illustration of the relative satisfaction ratings for

99

therapists in the eight different conditions, the interpersonally-
oriented therapists offering a high level of awareness are easily
distinguishable from the others, for their ratings are represented
by the peaks noted for conditions 1, 3, 5 and 7. In light of this
wealth of data, there can be little doubt as to the essential role
which feeling understood holds in the minds of these subjects.

It may be recalled that although much empirical attention has
been focused upon the affective components of therapist behavior,
little of the applicable research has focused upon preferences of
a nonclient male population. The work of Wallach (1962) suggests that
this type of subject group would not necessarily prefer a thera-
pist to be high in interpersonal warmth due to the emphasis such
subjects would likely place upon their own autonomy and need for
feeling responsible. The data from Table 4.1, and especially from
Figure 4.1, suggest there may be validity to Wallach's hypothesis.
The implication of these findings is that while nonclient males may
indicate a preference for some warmth on the part of the therapist,
this preference is hardly universal and is not as strong as is the
preference for high therapist awareness. It is also a preference
which probably is dependent upon personality variables, as will be
discussed later.

As noted earlier, the available research presents an ambiguous
picture of the importance to the subject of the role played by the
activity modality of therapist behavior. Nonetheless, the work of
Reiter (1966) and Heilbrun (1961b), and Hagebak and Parker (1969)
suggests that nonclient males prefer a therapist who takes an

100

active interpersonal approach over one v/ho is passive and non-
directive. The ISORS data are clearly in agreement with those found
by the above investigators, as the "advising/guiding" quality is the
most preferred to the six characteristics rated. These findings
indicate that young males are likely to want a therapist who will
take charge of the treatment session, pointing them in the direction
he believes they need to travel. This wish does not necessarily
suggest that these subjects will passively accept all of the
recommendations offered by the therapist, of course; but it does
imply they desire a leader, someone who will fill the therapeutic
role more as an expert than a "fellow traveler," despite a Dreference
by many contemporary clinicians to play the latter role (e.g. Kopp,
1972).

Subject Variables Related to Maturity: Anx iety and Autonomy
Although the study of therapist preferences and satisfaction
ratings of subjects unselected for specific personality character-
istics is valuable from an impressionistic perspective, it is of
limited utility in understanding and predicting such choices on an
individual level. Hypotheses I la (l)-(3) and lib (l)-(2) were
included in the design as a means of exploring the mediating roles
which subject anxiety and autonomy were believed to play in those
therapist choices. As measures of the subjects' relative standing
with respect to these two variables, the 16 PF second-order factors
of Anxiety and Independence were used, respectively.

Hypothesis I la (1) predicted that a high level of subject
maturity (as gauged by low Anxiety and high Independence scores)

101

would be positively related to a preference for a model therapist,
who was characterized by the personally-oriented qualities of self-
awareness, self-confidence and independence. Table 4.4 makes it
apparent that there is relatively little support for this hypothesis.
While subjects exhibit fairly consistent preferences for an ideal
therapist who is both self-confident (p<. 001 ) and self-aware (p*,001)
the third personally-oriented quality of independence is not deemed
essential by these subjects. In addition, an assumption underlying
this hypothesis is that the interpersonal modality of therapist
behavior would not be preferred by these subjects. Table 4.4 makes
it evident that this is clearly not the case.

The prediction of Hypothesis 1 1 a ( 2) was the converse of that
of 1 1 a (1), i.e. that males functioning on a relatively low level
of maturity (approximated by high Anxiety and low Independence
scores) would state preferences for an interpersonally-oriented
therapist, rather than the personally-oriented model counterpart.
Like its predecessor, however, Hypothesis 1 1 a (2) receives only
partial support from the data (Table 4.5), in that qualities of
both the interpersonal and the personal therapist are preferred by
subjects in this group.

Hypothesis I la (3) also was based upon ISORS ratings, and
predicted that subjects of a questionable maturity level (high
scores on both Anxiety and Independence) would most prefer a
therapist high on "intuitive" and "advising/guiding" behaviors,
but low on warmth. Table 4.6' yields basic support for this

102

hypothesis, in that the most subject agreement was found in the
preference ratings for the "intuitive" and "advising/guiding"
characteristics. However, despite the fact that "warm" is fourth
in the preference rankings, it still was selected more often than
chance would predict (pc.001). In fact, the subjects in this sub-
group and that of the high Anxiety/low Independence subgroup chose
five of the six therapist characteristics at a statistically
significant level (pc.001), thus giving the appearance of being
rather demanding in their desires of an ideal therapist.

While the order of importance of therapist characteristics
does not seem to vary a great deal with a subject's general level
of maturity, there is one important source of variability in these
data. Further inspection of Tables 4.4 through 4.7 reveals a
difference in the rating of warmth by the four subject groups.
The two groups characterized by low levels of anxiety (Tables 4.4
and 4.7) exhibit the least preference for therapist warmth, while the
other two groups display a significant desire for that quality
(p<.001). Similarly, correlative analysis of the ISORS data indicate
that subject anxiety is positively related to the preference of
intuition as a trait of the ideal therapist (r = .29, p<.006).
These findings suggest that a relatively high level of anxiety
may serve to increase one's desire for an emotionally supportive
and accepting therapist, as well as one who the subject believes
will be understanding of his thoughts, feelings and actions.

Another implication of the data summarized in Tables 4.4 through
4,7 concerns the theoretical substructure of the therapist

103

characteristics concept, which is the therapist's orientation to his
work. The ISORS findings are not especially supportive of the theorized
distinction between therapist behavioral orientations. Qualities
of both the personal and interpersonal therapist orientations were
preferred at statistically siginficiant levels, and the orientations
as heretofore defined appear to bear no particular relationship to
the subjects' scores on the Anxiety and Independence scales. Rather,
the primary determinant in the selection of therapist character-
istics via the ISORS seems to be the nature of the individual charac-
teristics themselves, instead of the underlying behavioral orienta-
tion they reflect.

Hypothesis lib (1) and (2) also attempted to predict linkages
between subjects' basic personality traits and their therapist
preferences, although those preferences were inferred from subjects'
satisfaction ratings of therapist behavior during the taped analogue
therapy sessions. The data in Table 4.9 support the contention
of Hypothesis lib (1), which stated that subjects high in basic
maturity (group B) would be more satisfied with a personally-oriented
than an interpersonal ly-oriented therapist. However, the data also
indicate that the personal (model) therapist elicits more satis-
factory responses from two of the three groups of subjects scoring
lower in maturity as well, when that therapist's ratings are
compared with the combined ratings for the eight interpersonal
therapists..

Closer scrutiny of these data suggests that the anxiety level
of the subject may play a role in determining his preference of one

104

therapist over another. It can be seen from Table 4.9 that those
subjects giving the highest marks to the personally-oriented thera-
pist are those scoring lowest in anxiety (groups A and B). The
subjects higher in anxiety (group C) tend to be loss satisfied
with the personally-oriented therapist and more pleased with the
group of interpersonal ly-oriented therapists, although these
between-group differences in satisfaction scores are not statisti-
cal ly significant.

The validity of Hypotheses lib (1) and (2), therefore, appears
to be questionable. While there is support for lib (1), in that
subjects of a relatively high maturity level exhibit the most
satisfaction with the personally-oriented (model) therapist, it
also is apparent that this therapist holds some appeal for certain
subjects of a lower maturity level as well. However, it should
be remembered that Hypothesis lib (2) predicted that low maturity
subjects would be most satisfied with one specific type of inter-
personally-oriented therapist, i.e. the provider therapist high in
awareness, warmth and directi veness (condition 1). Since only
four subjects falling into the low independence/high anxiety group
were exposed to that particular taped therapist, a complete analysis
of their CRQ responses would be meaningless. Nevertheless, a com-
parison of those four subjects' mean CRQ ratings for this particular
provider therapist with their ratings of the standard model
therapist yielded identical mean scores (9.25 on a scale from 3
to 12).

105

Results of a post hoc analysis of the fourth subject group
(D) listed in Table 4.9 (subjects high in independence and anxiety)
are relevant at this point. Although no hypotheses were formulated
related to this group of males--which Apfelbaum (1958) probably
would term "counteract! ve"--the expected pattern of their preferences
was discussed earlier. While the ANOVA conducted on the CRQ ratings
of this group yielded no significant differences between the satis-
faction scores for the personally-oriented vs. the interpersonally-
oriented therapists, closer inspection of the data produced results
supportive of Hypothesis lib (2). The subjects of this personality
configuration that were in condition 2 tended to be more satisfied
with the behavior of the interpersonal (provider) therapist than
with that of the personal (model) therapist. The provider thera-
pist in condition 2 was characterized by high levels of both
awareness and warmth, and a low level of directiveness. Again,
however, the small size (N = 6) of this high independence/high
anxiety subsample exposed to condition 2 precludes any definitive
conclusions from the data.

Therefore, while he is inclined to state his strongest pre-
ferences for a guiding and intuitive thearpist, the typical subject in
th present investigation is apt to award the most consistenly satis-
factory ratings to the model therapist, who neither actively guides
the subject nor expressly offers more than a moderate amount of
awareness of the individual's problem. Instead, this therapist
exhibits a great deal of self-awareness and self-direction, and
leaves the subject to decide whether to take advantage of the

106

experience. Those males who tend to be at least equally satisfied
with an interpersonal ly aware, warm and directive therapist as with
a model of mature behavior are those who exhibit higher anxiety
levels than most, and who perhaps feel the need for a therapist
more actively involved in their experience than in his own.

The impression received from the data taken as a whole is
that the young male tends to be predisposed toward seeking certain
basic qualities in a therapist, and that this predisposition is at
least in part a function of his own need structure and other
personality factors. The present investigation chose to study two
characteristics of subjects which were believed important in their
selection of desired therapist figures. These characteristics
were anxiety and independence, which were believed to approxi-
mate combi natively the more general factor of maturity. For
purposes of investigation, the subjects were classified either as
high or low on each of the two maturity factors, based upon their
respective scores on the 16 PF subscales measuring these factors.
The resulting categories might best be described as follows:

a. Independent - individuals of a relatively high level
of maturity as characterized by the experiencing of
little chronic anxiety and a high degree of autono-
mous behavior.

b. Passive-dependent - individuals of a questionable
level of maturity, as characterized by the experi-
encing of little chronic anxiety and a low degree
of autonomous behavior.

107

c. Counter-dependent - individuals of a questionable
level of maturity, as characterized by the experi-
encing of high chronic anxiety and a high degree
of autonomous behavior.

d. Anxious -dependent - individuals of a low level of
maturity, as characterized by the experiencing of
high chronic anxiety and a low degree of autono-
mous behavior.

A summary of the findings for these groups is in order. The
data suggest that males falling within the "independent" category
are most likely to be satisfied with a therapist who models a
mature, self -confirming behavioral style. These relatively stable,
autonomous individuals seem likely to desire little more from a
therapist than a composite personification of their own goals for
personal development. The maturity to which they respond in a
therapist is illustrated by the cognitive quality of self-awareness,
the affective characteristic of self-confidence, and a behavioral
style indicative of independence and competence. These subjects
appear to neither require nor desire more than a moderate amount
of active involvement and emotional investment in their lives by
the therapist. By maintaining such an attitude, it is assumed that
these males are better able to maintain their own sense of compe-
tence, autonomy and self-esteem.

For individuals operating on a relatively low level of maturity,
the picture is somewhat different. Like their more stable and
independent peers, the individuals falling into the "anxious-

108

dependent" group also find the model therapist appealing, but perhaps
no more so than the intuitive, nurturant and guiding type of pro-
vider therapist, whom they also rate quite highly. All other types
of therapists pale by comparison to these two, although any provider
therapist offering a high level of awareness is preferred to those
high either in warmth or directiveness. It seems apparent that
this group of individuals holds the highest expectations of the
therapist. He must either exhibit a strong, interpersonally-oriented
style, and therefore offer substantial awareness, warmth and direc-
tion to the subject, or else he must be quite personally-oriented,
and thus model high levels of self-awareness, self-confidence and
competence/independence. No less will suffice in the eyes of
these individuals, giving them the appearance of being a yery
demanding group, compared to their less anxious, more autonomous
peers .

Because of the small sample size of the "counter-dependent"
group (N = 13), little can be concluded from the data with respect
to differential preferences for various therapists. However, an
interesting trend was found which deserves comment. It happened
that six of the subjects in this category (33%) were exposed to
that provider therapist who was high in awareness and warmth, but
low in directiveness, along with the model therapist. Their mean
satisfaction score for this provider therapist was 3.1, on a scale
of 1 to 4, while their rating of the model was only 2.5. It would
appear that, despite the tendency of these "counter-dependent"

109

subjects as a group to be as equally disposed toward the model
therapist as toward the group of eight provider therapists, one
specific provider therapist elicited substantial satisfaction
from these males: the nondi recti ve, but warm and intuitive thera-
pist.

While it is acknowledged that this sample of "counter-depen-
dent" subjects is too small to permit definitive conclusions from
the data, a speculative comment seems permissible. If it is
assumed that some individuals in essence deal with their need for
dependency by a compensatory defense mechanism, as intimated by
Apfelbaum (1958), then these findings are quite reasonable. Such
individuals typically would be expected to assume an autonomous
attitude, perhaps as a means of experiencing a sense of control
or mastery, rather than the helplessness of dependence. Because
of the presumed fear associated with this feeling of helplessness
for these males, their choice of therapist logically would be one
who is nondirective, thereby not threatening their tenuous sense of
self-control. Nevertheless, this therapist would be neither aloof
nor uninvolved in his attitude, but instead would be both intellec-
tually aware of, and emotionally responsive to, the individual's
needs .

The remaining subgroup of individuals is characterized as
"passive dependent," due to their low level of independence and
the acceptance of that dependent condition as implied by their
corresponding low anxiety level. Because of the very small size
of this subsample (N = 12), no inferences can be justified from
the data.

110

Comment should be made as to the relevance of these findings to
the client status of males. Because of the nonclient status of the
subjects in this investigation, they were assumed to be fairly typical
examples of their peer group, in terms of general maturity. Therefore,
it is not too surprising to find that as a group, these subjects find
the most satisfaction in the unobtrusive behavior of the personally-
oriented model therapist. However, it is interesting to note that
when this relatively mature group of males is categorized by dependency
and anxiety, a full third (N = 30) fall into the least mature anxious-
dependent subgroup, while not quite another third (N = 28) fall into
the most mature independent category. The remaining third of the
subjects place in the two questionable categories of maturity. This
pattern hardly seems illustrative of an exceptionally high level of
overall maturity of these subjects when compared to the configuration
one might expect to be exhibited by a sample of same-age males in
outpatient psychotherapy.

Even more noteworthy, however, are the patterns of the CRQ
responses of the subjects when grouped by anxiety and independence
scores. Taken as a whole, the data suggest that even in this pre-
sumably healthy nonclient sample, there are variabilities in levels
of personal functioning substantial enough to influence therapist
preferences. Highly anxious males appear to find more satisfaction
in a therapist oriented toward them than in one focused more upon
his own process. Males of low levels of anxiety find maximum satis-
faction with the less intruding model therapist. If it is assumed
that most young adult males who present themselves at the therapist's

Ill

office are fairly anxious and perhaps have some difficulties with the
issue of dependency, then it would seem reasonable to expect that they,
like the less mature 68% of the present sample of nonclients, might
find the most satisfaction with a provider therapist who is quite
intuitive, fairly warm, and either directive or nondi rective, depending
perhaps upon the client's level of involvement in the dependency
conflict. This assumption, while based partly upon extrapolation of
the present data, certainly seems to deserve more empirical attention.

112

_D evelopmental Origins of Therapist Preferences
It was hoped that by examining certain ISORS ratings of the
subjects with their relative scores on the basic maturity subscales
(Anxiety and Independence), some light might be shed upon the
means by which therapist preferences develop. Hypotheses Ilia and
Illb predicted a basic difference between the types of ideal father
figures chosen by subjects scoring high on maturity measures and
those scoring low. Tables 4.11 through 4.14 dispel any thought of
such a major discrepancy in the ratings of the ideal father by these
groups, as the comparisons speak for themselves: the general level
of subject maturity bears no relationship to the stated preferences
of basic personality characteristics of the ideal father. Males
of all four groups report a preference for a father who is a very
confident leader, and who is also high in his understanding and
acceptance of self and others.

In an effort to better understand these results, it may be
helpful to revisit the ISORS data with respect to the preferences
of the ideal therapist, As noted earlier, the ideal therapist
preferences of subjects of varying maturity levels are almost
identical. All four groups express a desire for a therapist who is
wery intuitive regarding the thoughts and feelings of others, and
who is quick to offer advice and guidance to the subject, Secondarily,
the ideal therapist is expected to portray self-confidence and self-
awareness.. In addition, less mature males appreciate their thera-
pist being warm in his attitude toward them, while this is not as

113

important to their more mature colleagues. Therefore, the ideal
therapist for the sample of subjects as a whole would be oriented
largely toward them, and toward the fulfillment of their needs for
understanding, direction and, in the case of lesser mature males,
warmth .

At this point, a comparison of the ISORS ratings of both ideal
father and therapist is obligatory. In their preferences for
these two ideal figures, subjects falling into both the higher and
lower maturity groups exhibit remarkable similarity. For an ideal
father, both groups of males would choose a man whose most salient
features would be self-confidence and di recti veness , i.e. a leader.
For an ideal therapist, they would like someone who primarily is
directive and intuitive; self-confidence, while important, is less
essential in the therapist than in the father. Warmth is viewed as
somewhat important in both father and therapist for the "anxious-
dependent" subjects, while for independent subjects it is only
of significance as a trait of the father. The overall impression
given by the pattern of the ISORS responses is that the ideal father
represents a model who would be able to express strength yet concern.
The ideal therapist might have less an aura of strength about him,
but would excel in his ability and willingness to understand the
subjects.

Curiously enough, both of these subject groups consistently
rate independence as the least, important quality both for the ideal
father and therapist. At first glance, this seems a strange finding,
in view of the fact that the struggle for a sense of autonomy is

114

the primary developmental milestone for males in the subjects' age
range. In addition, the findings clearly indicate a preference for
both a father and a therapist of fairly strong leadership potential,
of which independence would appear to be an integral component.
Prior to accepting this consistently low rating of independence at
full face value, it might be wise to note several other findings.

Various analyses yielded results which lend support to the key
role played by the issue of independence in the self-perceptions of
these young males. As a group, the subjects' ideal-self ratings
as independent are negatively related to the quality of the rela-
tionship they experienced with their own fathers (r = -.28, p<.009).
Also, the level of anxiety experienced by the subjects is negatively
related to the quality of the relationships they had with their
fathers (r = -.30. pc.005). In addition, self-sufficiency as a
trait of the subjects is negatively related to the guality of the
father-son relationship (r =-.28, p<.008). On the other hand,
the ideal-self ratings of the subjects as independent are positively
related to their ratings of independence for the ideal father
(r = .32, p<.002), and to a lesser extent, the ideal mother (r = .26,
p<.015). Finally, a chi-square analysis of the subjects' ideal-
self ratings indicates that the scores are highly skewed toward
independence (p<.001), regardless of the subjects' relative level
of maturi ty .

These findings are consistent and fairly lucid. A sense of
autonomy clearly is an essential element in the self-conceptualiza-
tion of the "normal" young male in our culture, a finding of no

11:5

surprise in view of basic personality theory (Rotter, 1964) and
other research (Heilbrun, 1961a; Heller and Goldstein, 1961; Wallach,
1962). Perhaps more important, however, is the support given by
these data for the apparent role played by the father-son relation-
ship in the development of this sense of independence in males,
as well as a sense of self-esteem and self-acceptance.

In view of these findings, the fact that the subjects are so
consistent in their low ratings of independence as a trait of both
the ideal father and therapist does not seem to be due to their
placing a low value on the quality. A more likely explanation would
lie in the definition of the ISORS term, "independent." It could
well have had a connotation of aloofness, which for some subjects
would have mitigated against its being rated highly, in view of
the consensus of the entire sample of subjects that both the ideal
father and therapist show at least some warmth and involvement
with them.

The implications of these data for the various hypotheses
discussed earlier concerning the transference of attitudes from
early authority figures to a psychotherapist are probably apparent.
This sample of nonclient, young males exhibits remarkable consistency
in its stated ratings of ideal father and therapist figures, which
support similar findings by Chance (1952) and Crisp (1964a, b).
Further, this consistency has little to do with the general maturity
level of the individuals involved, which is somewhat in contrast
to the data of Apfelbaum (1958). Of course, the possibility does

116

exist that subject maturity level might play a mediating role in
subject satisfaction with actual father figures, just as it does
with therapist figures on the CRQ ratings. However, evaluation of
that question is beyond the scope of the present study. The most
that can be concluded about this issue is that young undergraduate
males of varying levels of maturity seem to share very similar ideas
about the type of men they would choose their therapist and father
to be. The reasons underlying the development of this similarity
in preferences remain in question.

The findings of the present study are relevant to the issue of
premature termination by young males from a therapeutic relationship.
While the ISORS data portrayed fairly consistent preferences among
males for a therapist who would communicate high levels of awareness
and acceptance of the client and himself, and who would assume an
active guiding role in the treatment session, the CRQ data suggested
some differences in these preferences due to the maturity-related
factors, subject anxiety and independence. It would seem important
that the service-provider be aware of this differential in the
potential client's attitudes, so that key initial decisions might be
made which could easily affect both the quality and the duration of
therapy for that individual. Illustrative of such decisions would
be the assignment of the most appropriate therapist; or, if only
one clinician were available, he might choose to emphasize a certain
therapeutic style, in order to be more compatible with the client's
likely preferences. Knowledge of the type and frequency with which

117

males appear to hold such preferences at least would offer the service
provider an opportunity to avoid making blunders which might other-
wise lead to the client's premature termination.

Comment should he made regarding weaknesses in the present in-
vestigation. Perhaps the most crucial one was the lack of a sufficient
number of subjects to permit assignment by scores on the 16 PF
Anxiety and Independence scales to the various conditions. Although
approximately four times as many subjects would have been required
for such a design, more definitive results could have been obtained
regarding the relationship between those two personality factors and
therapist preferences.

Criticism probably can also be leveled at the "therapy" tapes
used in this study. Although they were developed over a period of
approximately four years and were subjected to numerous ratings and
revisions, it might be possible that they still are imperfect
representations of the various types of therapists explored.

The use of the 16 PF subscales of Anxiety and Independence as
representative of subject maturity might well be criticized. They
were utilized because they each were composites of several related
primary factors from the 16 PF, which had been demonstrated through
factor analytic study to be relevant to the issues of anxiety and
dependency. The idea to use them in the present investigation as
illustrative of maturity was the investigator's, not the result
of any claims made by Cattell or his colleagues.

118

It is recommended that further investigation be conducted along
several lines followed in this study. The modality of therapist
cognition, particularly as reflected in the interpersonal realm by
"intuition," or awareness of the client, clearly is deserving of
further empirical attention. It is believed also that if a large enough
sample of subjects were available, the present design could be altered
somewhat to permit closer scrutiny of the relationships between
basic maturity factors and actual therapist preferences, such as via
the CRO. Further such exploration appears to hold the promise not
only of substantially enhancing the general fund of knowledge re-
garding the client-therapist relationship, but also would signifi-
cantly increase the possibilities for improvement of the quality of
care received in psychotherapy by adult males, who clearly represent
an underserved population.

APPENDIX A
PERSONAL DATA SHEET

ID number _ Age Marital Status

Year in school 12 3 4 5 College Major

Father's occupation

Mother's occupation

Parents' Marital Status Duration of this status

If you were not raised by both of your natural parents, please take
a moment to explain who raised you and for how long.

How would you describe your relationship with your mother (or her
substitute) during your formative years (age 1 to 15)?

very good fairly good not very good poor none

How would you describe your relationship with your father (or his
substitute) during your formative years?

very good fairly good not very good poor none

In your estimation, what are the chances that you might seek help
from a counselor or psychotherapist sometime within the next five
years?

a) little chance (0 - 25%)

b) some chance (26 - 50%)

c) good chance (51 - 75%)

d) probably will (76 - 100%)

119

APPENDIX B
IDEAL-SELF/OTHER RATING SCALE

Instructions: Please use the following system tn describe the
qualities which you would prefer in the individuals listed below,
especially in their rel ationship with you. (For the Ideal-Self,
merely rate yourself as you would like to he.) Place in the box
under the person named, one of the following numbers:

1 - if the characteristic would not really apply to the person.

2 - if the characteristic would only slightly apply to the person.

3 - if the characteristic would substantial 1y apply to the person.

4 - if the characteristic woul_d very much apply to the person.

Please rate one person on a_lj_ characteristics before proceeding
to rating the next person.

S-

•— CD
03 -C
CD 4->

"O O

(ideal
Self

Ideal
Therapist

s.

r— CD
03 -C
CD +->
T3 03
■— , U_

Independent

Warm

Intuitive (of others thoughts, feelings)

-

Advising/guiding

Self-confident

Self-aware

120

APPENDIX C
CLIENT'S REACTION QUESTIONNAIRE

Instructions: Please circle the letter in front of the answer which
most nearly matches your feelinqs about the therapist you just heard
on the tape.

1) How satisfied were you with the therapist's behavior in general?

a) quite dissatisfied

b) fairly dissatisfied

c) fairly satisfied

d) quite satisfied

2) How much would your ideal therapist be like this one?

a) very much 1 ike him

b) somewhat like him

c) not very much like him

d) very different from him

3) If you were seeing this therapist for the first time for aid with
a personal problem, how likely would you be to return to him?

a) I probably would not return (0 - 25" likelihood)

b) I might return (26 - 50% likelihood)

c) I would be somewhat likely to return (51-75% likelihood)

d) I most probably would return (76 - 100% likelihood)

4) In your opinion, did the therapist

a) Seem very aware of the client's problems and feelings? (yes, no;

b) Seem to act very warm toward the client? (yes, no)

c) Seem to try to control the course of the session, or give
the client very much advice and direction? (yes, no)

d) Seem to be very aware of his own thoughts and feelings?
(yes, no)

e) Seem to feel very confident in himself and his ability?
(yes, no)

f) Seem to be more independent or dependent as a person?
1) independent 2) dependent

121

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alexander, J. F., and Abeles, N. Psychotherapy process: Sex
differences in dependency. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
1969, 16(3), 191-196.

Apfelbaum, B. Dimensions of Transference in Psychotherapy.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958.

Berrick, M. L. Patient pre-therapy expectancies of therapist
behavior as related to certain demographic, personality and
value variables. Doctoral dissertation, Penn State University,
1970.

Berzon, B. Residual parental threat and selective interaction
in group psychotherapy. International Journal of Group Psycho-
therapy, 1962, 12, 347-354.

Boulware, D. W. Preferences and expectancies regarding therapist
age and sex. Doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at
Austin, 1969.

Cattell, R. B. and Stice, G. The Sixteen Personality Factor

Questionnaire. Champaign, Illinois: Institute for Personality
and Ability Testing, 1949-1950. Manual, 1950.

Chance, E. A study of transference in group therapy. International
Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 1952, 2, 40-53.

Cox, J. G. and Thoreson, R. W. Client-counselor matching: A test
of the Holland model . Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1977,
24(2), 158-161.

Crisp, A. H. An attempt to measure an aspect of "transference."
British Journal of Medical Psychology, 1964, 37, 17-30. (a)

Crisp, A. H, Development and application of a measure of "trans-
ference." Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 1964, 8, 327-335. [b]

Feifel, H., and Eells, J. Patients and therapists assess the same
psychotherapy. Journal of Consul ti rig Psychology, 1963, 27(4),
310-318.

Freud, S. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, trans. Joan
Riviere. New York: Liverright, 1935.

122

Garfield, S. [_., and Wolpin, M. Expectations regarding psycho-
therapy. Journal of Nervous and_ Mental Diseases , 1963, 137,
353-362.

Goldman, J. A., and Olczak, P. V. Relationship between psychological
maturity and fear of appearing incompetent. Psychological Reports,
1975, 36(1), 21-22.

Grater, J. A., Kell, B. L., and Morse, J. The social service interest:
Roadblock and road to creativity. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 1961, 8, 9-12.

Greenberg, R. P. Effects of presession information on perception
of the therapist and receptivity to influence in a psychotherapy
analogue. Journal of Consul ting and CI inical Psychology, 1969,
33(4), 425-429.

Hagebak, R. W., and Parker, G. V. Therapist directiveness , client
dominance and therapy resistance. Journal of Consul ting and
Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33(5) 536-540.

Havelick, R. J., and Vane, J. R. Race, competence and level of
achievement: Relationship to modeling in elementary school
children. Journal of Psychology, 1974, 87(1), 53-58.

Heine, R. W., and Trosman, H. Initial expectations of the doctor-
patient interaction as a factor in continuance in psychotherapy.
Psychiatry, 1960, 23, 275-278.

Heller, K., and Goldstein, A. P. Client dependency and therapist
expectancy as relationship maintaining variables in psychotherapy.
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1961, 25(5), 371-375.

Helweg, G. C. The relationship between selected personality charac-
teristics and perceptions of directive and nondirective psycho-
therapeutic approaches. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Maryland, 1971.

Heilbrun, A. B. Client personality, counselor dominance and duration
of counseling. Psychological Reports, 1961, 9_, 15-25. (a)

Heilbrun, A. B. Male and female personal tiy correlates of early
termination in counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
8, 31-36. (b)

Hiler, E. W. An analysis of patient-therapist compatibility.
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1958, 22(5), 341-347.

Hutcherson, W. R., Jr. Responsibility and independence as factors
in preference of therapist. Doctoral dissertation. University of
California at Los Angeles, 1967.

123

Kelly, G. A. The Psychology of Personal Constructs. Vols. 1,
2. New York: Norton, 1955.

Klepac, R. K. An experimental analogue of psychotherapy involving
"client" behavior as a function of confirmation of expectations
of therapist di recti veness. Doctoral dissertation, Kent State
University, 1969.

Kopp, S. B. If You Meet the Buddha on the Road, Kill Him. Toronto:
Bantam, 1972.

Krech, D., Crutchfield, R. S., and Ballachey, E. L. Individual in
Society. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. "

Kumler, M. L. Client expectations of therapist role: Relationship
to initial commitment in a psychotherapy analogue. Doctoral
dissertation, Kent State University, 1968.

Lorr, M. Client perceptions of therapists: A study of the thera-
peutic relation. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1965, 29(2),
146-149.

May, R. Contributions of existential psychotherapy. In Existence:
A Ne_w Dimension in Psychiatry a_nd Psychology. New York: Basic
Books, 1958.

Melnick, B., and Pierce. R. M. Client evaluation of therapist
strength and positive-negative evaluation as related to client
dynamics, objective ratings of competency and outcome. Journal
of Clinical Psychology, 1971, 27(3), 408-410.

Meltzoff, J., and Kornreich, M. Research in Psychotherapy. New York:
Atherton Press, 1970.

Overall, B., and Aronson, H. Expectations of psychotherapy in
patients of lower socioeconomic class. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry. 1963, 33, 421-430.

Plummer, N. A. Patient-therapist need compatibility and expectation
of psychotherapeutic outcome. Doctoral dissertation, University
of Florida, 1966.

Poey, K. A study of the effects of patient-therapist expectations
regarding short-term therapy on therapeutic outcome. Doctoral
dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1971.

Reiter, M. Variables associated with the degree of preferred

directiveness in therapy. Doctoral dissertation, University of
Texas, 1966.

Rogers, C. The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic
personality change. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1957, 21,
95-103.

1 24

Rosen, A. Client preferences: An overview of the literature.
Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1967, 45, 785-789.

Rosen, I. M. Ego psychology of dependence. Journal of Religion and
Health, 1972, 11(4), 349-356.

Rotter, J. B. Clinical Psychology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1964.

Saccuzzo, D. P. Canonical correlation as a method of assessing the
correlates of successful and unsuccessful therapy hours. Psycho-
therapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 1974, 12(4), 3 5 3 - 356 .

Schofield, W. The psychotherapist as friend. Humanitas, 1970, 6(2),
211-223.

Schuh, J. V. The effect of adult model nurturance and competence on
preschool children's imitative behavior. Doctoral dissertation,
University of Nebraska, 1971.

Schutz, W. C. F1R0: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal
Behavior. New York: Holt,' Rinehart and Winston, 1958.

Sechrest, L. Stimulus equivalents of the psychotherapist. Journal
of Individual Psychology, 1962, 18, 172-176.

Shepherd-Look, D. L. Effects of observer competence on imitation in
a psychotherapy analogue situation: An analysis of frequency and
response quality. Doctoral dissertation, University of California
at Los Angeles, 1972.

Smith, G. M. A Simplified Guide to Statistics for Psychology and
Education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1962.

Smitson, W, S. The meaning of emotional maturity. Mental Hygiene,
1974, 58(1), 9-11. ~~ ~

Strichart, S. S. Effects of competence and nurturance on imitation
of nonretarded peers by retarded adolescents. American Journal of
Mental Deficiency, 1974, 78(6), 665-673.

Tewari, J. G., and Tewari, J. N. On extremes of personality adjust-
ment as measured by adjustment inventories. Journal of Psycho-
logical Research, 1968, 12j 2), 75-81,

Tippett, J. S., and Silber, E. Autonomy of self-esteem: An experimental
approach. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1966, 14(4), 372-385.

Truax, C. B., and Carkhuff, R. R. Toward Effective Counseling and
Psychotherapy. Chicago: Aldine, 1967.

125

Van Atta, R. E. Relationship of personal tiy characteristics to

persistence in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 1968, 32(6), 731-733.

Vogel , J. L. Authoritarianism in the therapeutic relationship.
Journal of Consul ti ncj Psych o_l_qgy , 1961, 25 , 102-108.

Wallach, M. S. Authoritarianism and therapist preference. Journal
of Clinical Psychology, 1962, 18(3), 325-327.

White, R. W. Competence and the psychosexual states of development.
In M. R. Jones (ed.) Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1960.

Wijngaarden, H. R. "What is psychological maturity?" Proceedings
of the Christian Association for Psychological Studies, 1968,
April, 45-50.

Winder, C. L., Ahmand, F. Z., Bandura, A., and Rea , L. C. Dependency
of patients, psychotherapists' responses, and aspects of psycho-
therapy. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1962, 2§_, 129-134.

126

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

David Reed Stone was born in Sabetha, Kansas, on March 5, 1947.
Two years after the death of his mother in 1949, he and his brother
joined their father, who was preparing to remarry in Hialeah,
Florida. David attended public schools in Hialeah until 1965, when
he was admitted to Florida Presbyterian College (now Eckerd College)
in St. Petersburg. He played on the school's basketball team for
four years, and worked part-time to help support his wife and infant
son. After receiving a B.A. in psychology in 1969, he was admitted
to the Department of Psychology of the University of Florida, in
Gainesville. He received an M.A. in psychology in 1971, completed a
pre-doctoral internship in 1973, and began working with the local
community mental health center in 1974, as the coordinator of a rural
alcoholism treatment program. He was promoted to Area Director of
the same rural mental health center in 1977, which is the position
he now holds.

David's professional interests center around mental health pro-
gram development and administration, as well as community consulta-
tion and education activities. He also enjoys various types of
athletic and other recreational activities, and being a father.

127

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Audrey Schumacher-, Chairman
Professor of Clinical Psychology

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Lapry Severy
-Associate Profe^s.s^r of Psychology

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Louis D. Cohen

Professor of Clinical Psychology

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Hugh DaPvis

Professor of Clinical Psychology

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion
it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and
is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

;

Marilyn Holly \J
Associate Professor of Philosophy
and Psychology

This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the College
of Health Related Professions and to the Graduate Council, and was
accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.

March, 1980

Dean, College of Health Related
Professions

Dean, Graduate School

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

3 1262 08552 9963