< CD < a LU THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY -^«* THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY EDITED BY RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.R.S., Etc. WITH PREFACE BY P. L. SCLATER, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Etc. SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ILLUSTRATED WITH Seventy -tiro Coloured Plates and Siocteen Hundred Engravi W. KUMERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. S.UIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMMER BOLTON, F.Z.S.; AND MANY OTHEKS VOL. III. ^ LOXDOX FREDERICK WAENE & CO. A XD X E W Y 0 E K 1894-0.-. [All Bights Reserved] 3 MORRISON AND C.IEB, PRINTERS, EDLVBURCH . CONTENTS MAMMALS CHAPTER XXIX. Cetaceans, Order Cetacea. General I lharai fcers— Distribution — Habits I tlassification — The Whalebone Whalea(Balcenidm) Right Whales (2?afo»rr)— (Jreenland Whale — Southern Whale — Fossil Species — Pigmy Whale (X'til>nltritii)—Ctivy Whale (/.'A -Humpback Whale (Megaptera) — Fin- Whales, or Rorquals (Balcenoptera) — Lesser Fin-Whale — Rudolphi's Fin- Whale —Common Fin-Whale— Sibbald's Fin- Whale— Fossil Fin-Whales, CHAPTER KXX.— Cetaceans,— continued. Toothed Whales (Odontoceti). — Distinction between Toothed and Whalebone Whales — Sperm-Whales and their Allies (Physeteridas) — The Sperm-Whale (Physeter) — Ex- tinct Sperm-Whales — Lesser Sperm-Whale (Cogia) — Bottlenose- Whale (HyperoSdon) — Cuvier's Whale (Ziphius) — Beaked Whales (Mesoplodon)— Sowerby's Whale — Layard's Whale — Arnux's Whale (Berardiw) — Ancestral Sperm-Whales (Physodontidae) — Fresh- water Dolphins (Platiiiiistidos) — Gangetic Dolphin (Platanista) — Amazonian Dolphin (Iiiin) — La Plata Dolphin (Stenodelphis) — Allied Extinct Dolphins — The Porpoises and Dolphins (Delphinidise — Porpoise - Hunting — Indian Porpoise — Heaviside's Dolphin (' 'ephahrhynchus)— Irawadi Dolphin (Orcella) — Killer, or Grampus (Orca) — Lesser Killer (Pseudorca) — ~E\a.ckf\sh(Globiocephalus) — Risso's Dolphin (Gran — Short-Beaked Dolphins (Lagenorhynchus) — White-Sided Dolphin— Pacific Dolphin — White-Beaked Dolphin — True Dolphins (Delphinus) — Common Dolphin — Allied Species — Bottle-Nosed Dolphins (Twrsiops) — Rough-Toothed Dolphins (Steno) — Long- Beaked River Dolphins (Sotalia) — Chinese Dolphin — Squalodonts and Zeuglodonts (Sqvalodontida and Zeughdontida )...... •22 vi CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXL— The Rodents,— Order Rodentia. PAGE General Characteristics of the Order— Teeth— Mouth— Distribution and Habits— African Flying Squirrels (Anomaluridte)— The Squirrel Family (Sciurida) — Groove-Toothed Squirrel (Rhithrosciurus) — Spiny Squirrels (Xer us) — True Squirrels(ScMtrus) — European Squirrels — Distribution — North American Squirrels — Oriental Squirrels — Ground- Squirrels, or Chipmunks (Tamias) — Susliks, or Gophers (Spermophilus) — Prairie- Mat mots (Oynomys) — True Marmots (Arctomys) — Distribution— Old World Species — American Species — Allied Extinct Rodents— Flying Squirrels— Lesser Flying Squirrels (Sciuropterus)— Distribution and Habits— Larger Flying Squirrels (Pteromys)— Woolly Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus) — Pigmy Squirrels (Nannosciurus) — The Sewellels (Eaplodontidx) — Common Sewellel (Haplodon)— Californian Sewellel — The Beavers (Castoridce) — European and American SJ r) — Distribution of the European Beaver — Range of the American Species— Habits — Uses and Trapping of Beavers — Extinct Beavers, .......... 65 CHAPTER XXXIL— Rodents,— contini The Mocse-Like Rodexts. — The Dormice (Myoxidce) — Common Dormouse (Mmcardinus) — Squirrel-Tailed and Garden Dormice (Myoxus) — Tree-Dormouse— Extinct Dormice — Jumping Mice and Jerboas (Dipodida) — The Jumping Mouse (Zapus) — The Five-Toed Jerboas — Kirghiz Jerboa (Ahu-taga) — Afghan Jerboa — Yarkand Jerboa (Ewchoretes) — Broad -Tailed Jerboas (PI <■<) — Three -Toed, or True Jerboas (Dipus) — Habits of Egyptian Jerboa — African Jumping Hare (Pedetes) — The Sminthus (Sminthus) — The Mouse Tribe (Muridrn) — Australian Water -Rat (Hydromys) — Queensland Rat (Xeromys) — Malabar Spiny Mouse (Platacanthomys)— The Gerbils (GerbUlvs) — Philippine Rat (Phlasomys) — Hamsters and White-Footed Mice (Oricetus) — Common Hamster and Its Habit — Species of White-Footed Mice — The Fish-Eating Rat (Ichthyomys) — Grooved-Toothed Mice (Bhtihtodontomys and Hhithrodon) — Wood-Rat- (Neotoma) — African Crested Rat (Lophiomys) — The Yoles (J/iVrafMs)— Water- Yole— Short-Tailed Field-Vole— Bank-Vole- Alpine Vole— Other Species — Lemmings (Myodes) — Banded Lemming (Ouniculus) — Musquash (Fiber) — Mole-Like Yoles (EUobius and Siphneus) — Rats and Mice (Mus) — Brown Rat — Black Rat — House-Mouse — Long-Tailed Field- Mouse — Harvi -t - Mouse — Other Species — Bandicoot Rats (Xisocia) — Bush-Rat (G da) — Spiny Mice (Acomys) — Jerboa-Rats (Hapalotis) — Lichtenstein's Rat (Mastacomys) — Mole-Rat dee) — Great Mole-Rat (SpaJax) — Bamboo-Rats (Eh i— Cape Mole-Rats (Bathyergus) — Naked Sand-Rats (Heterocephahis) — American Pouched Rats (Geomytdce) — Pocket - Gopher (Geomys) — Northern Pocket-Gopher (27 -Kangaroo -Rats (/ i — Pocket-Mice (Perognathus and Heteron ........ 104 CHAPTER XXX1IL— Rodexts.- The Porctpixe-Like Rodexts. — General Character^ of the Group — The Octodont Tube (Ododontidce) — The Gundi (Ctenodactylus) — The Degu (Octodon) — The Tucotucos (Ctenomys) — The Coypu (Myopotamus) — The Hutias (Capromys — Plagiodon — The Cane-Rat (Aulacodus) — Other Genera — The Porcupines (Hystricida) — Canadian Porcu- pine (Erethizon) — Tree-Porcupines (Synethcres)— Brazilian and Mexican Species — Thin- Spined Porcupine (Ch&tomys)— True Porcupines (Hystrix) — Brush-Tailed Porcupines (Atlu rwa)— Giinther's Porcupine (Trichys)— Chinchillas and Viscachas (Chinchillidce) — True Chinchillas (Chinchilla) — Common Species— Short-Tailed Species— Cuvier's Chinchilla (Lagidium) — The Viscacha (L^osfomiw)— Description of a Yiscachera — Agutis and Pacas (Dasyprodidce) — The Argutis (Dasyprocta) — Common Species — Aguchi — The Pacas (Ccelogenys) — Branick's Paea (Dinomys) — The Cavies (Caviidai) — True Cavies (Cavia) — Restless Cavy— Cutler's Cavy — Guinea-Pig — Bolivian Cavy — Rock- Cavy — Patagonian Cavy (Doliehotis) — Carpincho, or Capivara (Hydrochoerus), . .154 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER XXXIV.- Rodents,— concluded. The Hare-Like Rodexts. — Distinctive Features of the Group— The Picas (Lagomyidce)— Distribution unci Habits — Hares ami Rabbits (Leporidce) — Common Han- (Lepus) Mountain - Hare -North American Hares — Asiatic Hares— African Species The Rabbit It- Distribution and Acclimatisation — Domesticated Rabbits, . 189 CHAPTER XXXV.— The Edentates,— Order Edentata. Characteristic — Distribution— Mode of Life — Tin- Sloths ( Brady} odida i Three-Toed Sloths (Bradypws) Two- Toed Sloths (Cholcepus) — Extinct Ground-Sloths (Megatheriidce)— The Ant Eaters (Myrmecophagidm) Great Ant-Eater (Myrmecophaga) — The Taman- dua (Tamandua) — Two-Toed Ant-Eater (Oycloturus) — The Armadillos (Dasypodidm) — The Pichiciago (' %lamydophorus)— Six-Banded Armadillos | Dasypus) — Their Structure and Mode of Life — Broad-Banded Armadillo I i Giant Armadillo (Priodori) — Three-Banded Armadillo (Tolypeutes) Peba Armadillo (Tatuda) — Other Species The Extinct Glyptodonts (Glyptodontidte) — The Pangolin.- (Manidqe) — Asiatic Species African Pangolins -Aard-Varks (Orycteropodidte), ..... 202 CHAPTER XXXVI. -The Pouched .Mammals, oh Marsupials, — Order Marsupialia. Distinctive Characters Teeth — Mode of Suckling Young- Distribution — The Kangaroo.- and Their Allies (Macropodidtr) — Kangaroos and Wallabies (Macropus) — Rock-Wallabies (PetrogaU ) Spur-Tailed Wallabies (Onychogalt ) Hare- Wallabies (Lagorchestes) — Dorca Kangaroo I Dorcopsis) Tree-Kangaroos (Dendrolague)- Handed Wallaby (Lagostrophus) — Rat-Kangaroos— Common Rat I roo (Potorous) Brush-Tailed Rat-Kangaroo (Bettongia) Rufous Rat-Kangaroo (JEpyprymnus)- Fivi ["oed l.'at- Kangaroo (lln)isi prymmodon) Extinct Kangaroo-Like Marsupials The Phalanger Tribe (Phalangeridce) — Long Snouted Phalanger (Tarsipe$)—i luscuses (Phalang> r)- -True Phalangers( Tricko- surus) ('n scent- Toothed Phalanger {Pseudochirus) — Great Flying-Phalanger (Petaur- oides) — Striped Phalanger (Dactylopsila) True Fly ing-Phalangers (Petaurus) Lead- beater's Phalanger (Gymnobelideus) Dormouse-Phalangers (Dromicia) — Pigmy Flying- Phalanger (Acrobates) — Pen-Tailed Phalanger (Dislozchurus)- -Koala (Phascolarctus) — Great Extinct Phalanger (Thylacoleo)— The Wombats (Phascolomyidai) — The Bandicoots (PerameUdce) True Bandicoots (Peramel )- Rabbit Bandicoot (Peragale) — Pig-Footed Bandicoot (Chceropus) — The Dasyure Tribe (Dasywidai) — Thylacine (Thylacinus) — Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus) Dasyures (Dasyum I Phascologales (Phascologale) — Common Pouched Mouse (Sminthopsis) Jerboa Pouched Mouse (Antechinomys) — Banded Anteater (Myrmecobius) — The Pouched Mole (Notoryctidai) — The Opossums (Iiiili-ljihijidn-) — True Opossums (Didelphys) Water-* (possum (Chironectes) — Extinct Marsupials, .......... 235 CHAPTER XXXVII. — Egg-Laying Mammals, or Monotremes, — Order Monotremata. Distinctive Features — The Duckbill (Ornithorhynchidai) — Its Structure and Habits— The Echidnas (Echidnidce) — Allied Extinct Mammals, ..... 283 viii CONTENTS BIRDS CHAPTER I.— General Characteristics. PAOF Distinctive Characters of Birds— Skeleton— Skull— External Characters— Plumage— Change of Plumage— Eggs— Migration— Distribution— Classification, .... 289 CHAPTER II— Perchixg-Birds,— Order Passeres. Characters of the Order.— The Crow Tril ie (Conridce) — Bavens and Crows (Gorvus)— Book- Jackdaw— Nutcrackers (Nucifraga)— Magpies (Pico)— Azure-Winged Magpies (Gyano- pica)— Blue Magpies (Vrocissa)— Indian Tree-Pies (Dendrocitta)— Jays (Gam/las)— Siberian Jay (Perisoreus) — Long-Crested Jay (Gyanocitta)— Urraca Jay— (Gyanoco — Struthidea— Piping Crows (Gymnorhina)— Chougl (Grocuta) — Chough - Thrushes (Podoces)— Huia-Bird (Heteralocha)— Birds of Paradise (Paradiseidx) — Twelve- Wired Bird of Paradise (Seleucides) — Allied Genera — Gorget Bird of Paradise (Astray Wattled Bird of Paradise (ParadigaUa) — Typical Group (Paradisea) — King Paradise- Bird (Gincinnurus) — Wilson's Bird of Paradise (Ztiphyllodes) — Six- Plumed Bird of Paradise (Parotia) — Standard- Wing (Semioptera) — Superb Bird of Paradise (Lophorhina) — Bower-Birds (Ptilonorhynchida) — Satin Bower -Bird (Ptilonorhynchus) — Spotted Bower-Bird (Ghlamydodi ra) — Gardener Bower-Bird (Amblyornis) — Starlings (Sturnida) Typical Group (Sturrms) — Rose - Coloured Starling (Pastor) — Other Genera — Ox- Peckers (Buphaga) — Glossy Starlings and Grackles (Eulabetida) — African Glossy Starlings (Lamprotornis and LamprocoUus) — Grackles or Hill Mynas (Eulabes) — Asiatic Glossy Starlings (Calornis) — Drongos (l)imirida) — Orioles {Oriolida) — Cassiques and Hangnests (Icteridce) — Cassiques (Ostinops and Casskus) — True Hangnests (Icterus) — Rice-Birds (Dolichonyx) — Cow- Birds (Molothrm) — Red-Shouldered Starling (Agelmus) — Troupials (Quisealus) — Weaver-Birds (Ploceida:) — Ox-Birds (Testor)— White-Headed Weaver (Dim nu Uia) — Tine Weaver-Birds (Ploceus) — Masked Weaver (Hyphantomis) — Paradise Whydah Birds (Vidua) — Bishop-Birds (Piirwiii la im) — Sociable Weavers (Philosterus) — Cut- Throat Weaver- Finches (A madina) — Muniaa (Mv n id) — Blood Weaver-Finches (Estrilda) — Tanagers (Tanagridce) — Violet Tanager (Euphonia)— Scarltl Tanagers (Pyranga)- White-Capped Tanager (Stephanophorus) — Honey- Creeper (Cosrebid"'- ,.„.»/,/,■)— True Shrikes (Lanius)— Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Red-Backed, Woodchat, Masked and Hood.-d Shrikes— Minivets (Peri- crocotus)— Other Genera— The Waxwings (A mpelidm)— Cedar Bird, . . 417 CHAPTER V.— Perching-Bikds,— amtinued. The Thrushes and Warbler-- | Twrdidce}— True Thrushes (TuraiM}— Missel-Thrush— Song- Thrash— Redwing— Fieldfare -Blackbirds! .!/,,»/./ )— Rock-Tin ushes( .1/,, „/,,,/„)_ Blue- Birds(SiaKa) — Chatel 1 — Wheatear— Blackchat — Whinchat- Stonechal Fork- Tails (//, ■ ,1 I; Istarl (RutieUla) — Black Redstart Blue-Throated Warbler (Erythacus)- -Redbreast Rubythroat— Nightingales— New Zealand Robins (Miro)— Dhyal Birds 1 ■■)— Shamas (Oil Grej Warbler (Gerygone) — True Warblers (Sylvia)— Whitethroats— Subalpine, Spectacled, Sardinian, Orphean, and Garden Warblers— Blackcap— Barred, Dan turd, and Willow Warblers— Icterine Warbler (Hypolais)— Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus) ( Irasshopper Warbler (Locust,/!,:) —River-Warbler— Savi's Warbler— Pheasant-Tailed Warbler (Stiptiurusmalacurus)— Cetti's Warbler (Bradypterus) — Fan-Tailed Warblei (1 1 Accentors (J,,. „*,„•)_ Hedge-Sparrow— Goldcresl (ife/tt&w)- Firecrest — Rubycrest — The Wood Warblers (MniuH!tiil,r)—Thi- Dippers (C ncl das)— The Wrens (Troglodytida)— True Wrens (2Vo- glodytes)- Carina- Wrena (Campylorhynchus)- The Mocking - Birds (Mimidce) — The Babblers (' V"'. ropodida I —Typical Babblers (' IDS 180 507 PAGE PLATES MAMMALS Humpback Whales Disporting, ..... A Colony op Bobac Marmots, Beavers at Work, ...... Philippine Rats, ....... \ Si ene in South America with Hulas and Patagonian Cavies, A Herd of Carpinchos, ...... Cape Aard-Varks at Home, ...... Pagt 15 »» 85 11 97 . 121 ■ 183 )> 187 »J 232 BIRDS Group of Crows, Group of Finches, Group of Tits, .... Group of Thrushes, Great Black Woodpeckers Exploring, Pag, 307 376 44S 469 550 Xll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOXS TEXT ENGRAVINGS MAMMALS Sibbald's Fin-Whale, Skeleton of Greenland Whale, The Greenland Whale, Section of Skull of Greenland Whale Skeleton of Fin- Whale, The Lesser Fin- Whale, . The Common Fin-Whale, . Skeleton of Spenn-Whale, The Sperm-Whale, Skull of a Bottlenose- Whale, Bottlenose-Whale, . Skull of Sowerby's Whale, Skull of the Physodon, The t langetic Dolphin, The Amazonian Dolphin, . Skeleton of Dolphin, A School of Narwhals, The White Whale, The Common Porpoise, Porpoise Diving, . Heaviside's Dolphin, Teeth of tie- Killer, The Killer, The Blackish, Risso's Dolphin, The Pacific Short-Beaked Dolphin The Common Dolphin, Red-Bellied Dolphin, The Slender I irphin, Bottle-Nosed Dolphin, The Rough-Toothed Dolphin, The Pale River-Dolphin, . Skull of Prairie-Marmot, . Skeleton of Squirrel, The Fulgent Flying Squirrel, The Abyssinian Spiny Squirrel, The European Squirrel, . The Irawadi Squirrel, The Common Chipmunk, . The Common Suslik, The Prairie-Marmot, The Alpine Marmot. American Flying Squirrel, Skeleton and Jaws of Beaver, Skeleton and Molars of Dormouse, The Common Dormouse. . The Squirrel -Tailed and Garden -Dor mouse, Skeleton of Garden Dormouse. Skeleton of Jerboa, PAGE 1 2 4 8 i 18 19 21 24 26 30 32 34 36 38 40 41 4-2 44 46 47 49 51 52 54 56 57 59 60 60 61 62 63 66 69 69 71 73 76 78 80 82 88 91 96 104 105 107 109 110 The Kirghiz Jerboa, Egyptian Jerboa, . The African Jumping Hare, Skeleton of Jumping Hare. Skeleton and Molars of Brown Rat Jaw and Teeth of Gerbil, . Egj ptian Gerbil, . The Hamster, Teeth of Vole, The Water- Vole, . The Continental Field-Vole, The Alpine Vole, . Tin- Norwegian Lemming, The Musquash, The Brown Rat, The Black Rat, . Tin- Him-.' Mouse, The Barbarv Mouse, The Great Mole-Bat, The Common Pocket Gopher. The Common Kangaroo-Rat, Skeleton of the Cane-Bat, . The Degu, . The Magellanic Tueotuco, The Coypu, The Hutia-Couga, . The Cane-Bat, Skeleton of Porcupine, The Canadian Porcupine, . Brazilian Tree-Porcupine, . n Tree-Porcupine, . Common Porcupine, African Brush-Tailed Porcupine The Chinchilla. . The Short-Tailed Chinchilla, Cuvier's Chinchilla, The Viseacha, A Viscachera. Skeleton and Skull of Aguti, The Common Aguti, Skull of Paca, The Paca, . The Guinea- Pig, . Skeleton and Teeth of Hare, Siberian Pica, Hare in its Form, . ( lommon Hare, Mountain-Hare, Babbit, Lop-Eared Rabbit, LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xlll Half-Lop Rabbit, . The Great Ant-Eater, Skeleton of Three-Toed Sloth, The Common Three-Toed Sloth, Skull of Extinct Ground Sloth, Skeleton of Great Ant-Eater, The Great Ant-Eater, The Tamandua, Two-Toed Ant-Eater, Skeleton of Armadillo, The Pichiciago, The Weasel-Headed Armadillo, The Giant Armadillo, The Three-Banded Armadillo, Carapace and Skeleton of Glyptodon, Sheath of Tail of Glyptodont, Skeleton of Pangolin, The Indian Pangolin, The Short-Tailed Pangolin, White-Bellied Pangolin, . The Ethiopian Aard-Vark, Bennett's Wallaby, Jaws and Teeth of Rat-Kangaroo, Skeleton of Kangaroo, Skull of Lesueur's Rat-Kangaroo, The Great Grey Kangaroo, The Pandamelon Wallaby, Yellow- Footed Rock- Wallaby, The Common Hare- Wallaby, The Black Tree- Kangaroo, Common Rat-Kangaroo, . Brush-Tailed Rat-Kangaroo, Skull of Diprotodon, Skeleton of Phalanger, PAGE 201 202 204 206 209 210 211 213 214 216 218 220 223 22 I 22.". 226 227 228 22!) 230 233 235 237 238 239 240 242 245 246 248 250 251 253 254 The Long-Snouted Phalanger, PAGE 255 Spotted Cuscus, 257 Common Phalanger, 259 Squirrel Flying Phalanger 261 Pigmy Flying Phalanger, . 262 The Koala, 263 Skull of Extinct Phalanger, 264 Skeleton of Wombat, 265 Wombats, .... 266 Skull of Tasmanian Devil 268 Skeleton of Thylacine, 269 The Thylacine, 270 The Tasmanian Devil, 271 Common Dasyure, 272 Yellow-Footed Pouched- Mouse, . 273 Brush-Tailed Phascologale, 271 .In boa Pouched-Mouse, 275 The Banded Ant-Eater, 275 Pouched-Mole, 276 Feet of the Pouched-Mole, 276 Skull and Foot-Bones of Pouched-Mole, 277 i 'uiiiiiii.n ( (possum, 278 Philander Opossum, 279 Water-Opossum, 281 Lower Jaw of Triconodon, 282 Lower Jaw of Amphilestes, 282 Lower Jaw of American Jurassic Mammal 282 Echidna Walking, 283 Skeleton of Duckbill, 284 The Duckbill, 285 Skeleton of Echidna, 287 Under-Part of the Skull of a Soutl i African Secondary Mammal, 288 Lower Jaw of Plagiaulax, . 288 BIRDS A Rookery, Pelvis of Kiwi, Skeleton of Vulture, Skeleton of Parrot and Skull of Cockatoo. Skull of Teal, Vertebra of Moa, . Shoulder and Breast-Bone of Flightless Bird, .... Metacoracoid of Flying Bird, Humerus of Gull, . Leg-Bones of Moa, Tibia of Crane and Ostrich, Skulls of Capercaillie, Duck, and Raven Diagram of a Bird's Plumage, Thick-Billed Raven, White-Bellied Crow. PAGE 289 290 291 2:12 292 293 294 2:il 295 295 296 297 298 309 310 Rook, Nutcracker and Siberian Jay, Magpies, Azure- Winged Magpie, Red-Billed Blue Magpie, . Indian Tree-Pie, . Common Jay, Mexican Long-Crested Jay, Urraca Jay, Grey Struthidea, . Black-Backed Piping Crow, Red-Billed and Alpine Chough, Pander's Chough-Thrush, . Huia Birds, Twelve-Wired Bird of Paradise, Gorget Bird of Paradise, . PAGE 311 313 315 316 317 318 319 321 322 323 324 325 327 328 331 333 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Great Bird of Paradise, Red Bird of Paradise, Wilson's Bird of Paradise, Head of Six-Plumed Bird of Paradise, Satin Bower-Birds, Spotted Bower-Birds at Home. ( lommon Starling, . Common and Black Starling, Rose-Coloured Starling, Red-Billed Ox-Pecker, . Superb Glossy Starling, Southern I crackle, . Black Indian Drongo, Golden Oriole, Crested Cassique, . < lommon < low-Bird, Bed-Shouldered Starling, . Purple Troupial, . N'esl nf Sociable Weavers, . Common and White-Headed Ox-Birds, Abyssinian and Masked Weaver-Birds, Sociable Weaver-Bird, Java Sparrow, Violet Tanager, West Indiau Honey-Creeper, Red Cardinal and Ro I Brambling, Citril Finch, Snow-Finch, and Lesser Redpoll, .... Desert-Finch, Group of Sparrows, Serin and Red-Fronted Finches, . The Canary, Scarlet and Siberian Grosbeaks, . The Bullfinch, Lapland Bunting, . Ortolan and Black-Headed Buntings, Cirl Bunting and Meadow-Bunting, The Sparrow-Bunting, Yellow Hunting, . Skylark, Woodlark, and Crested Lark Finch-Lark and Desert-Lark. Black, White-Winged, and Short-Toed Larks, .... Calandra Lark, Horned Lark, The White Wagtail, Yellow-Headed and Blue-Headed Wag tails, and Meadow-Pipit, Group of Pipits, The Tree-Creeper, . The Wall-Creeper, Nuthatch, .... Honey-Eater or Parson Bird, PAGE 334 335 337 338 341 342 343 3 15 346 34R 350 35] 353 354 356 359 360 361 362 364 365 367 369 370 373 380 3S4 386 389 391 395 396 398 400 Ki7 410 413 415 416 418 ■122 423 424 426 429 431 434 430 437 439 442 Metallic Sun-Bird, Long-Tailed Tit. . Shrike-Tit, Great Grey and Red-Barked Shrikes, [j sser ( frey Shrike, Win iilih.tt. Masked, and Hooded Shrikes, Indian Scarlet Minivet, Bohemian Waxwing, A Flock of Waxwings, A Pair of Bock-Thrushes, . Song- Thrush and Ring-Ouzel, The Fieldfare, Blackbird and Sparrow-Hawk, R< i k-Thrush, Wh. atcar. Whim-hat, and Stonechat, Redbreast and Redstart, . Blue - Throated and Ruby - Throatei Warblers, The Redbreast, The Nightingale, . Malai ca I Ihyal Bird, Lesser and Common Whitethroat, Rufous and Orphean Warblers, Barred and Garden Warblers and Black cap, Icterine Warbler, Reed Warbler, shopper, River, and Savi's Warblers, Sedg , Cetti's, and Fan-Tail Warblers, i In asant-Tailed Warbler, . Hedge-Sparrow and Alpine Accentor. Yellow-Browed Warbler, Firecrest, and Goldi ... Black-Throated Green Warbler, . Wrens and their Nest, Mocking-Bird, Abyssinian Babbler, Gold-Fronted Green Bulbul and Red Billed Liothrix, . Palestine and White-Necked Bulbuls, Spotted and Pied Flycatchers, White-Collared and Red-Breasted Fly catcher-. .... ( Ihimnej -Swallow and House-Martin, Red-Rumped Swallow and Crag-Martin, Sand-Martin and Purple Martin, . King - Bird and Bienteveo Tyrant Fly catcher, . The Fire-Eye, Umbrella-Bird, Naked-Throated Bell-Bird, Banded Cotinga, . Common Manakin. Cock of the Rock, . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOXS, xv PAGE Javan Broadbill, .... 537 Indian Pitta, . . . .539 The Blur Pitta, . . . .340 Brown-Fronted Spine-Tail and Rod Oven- Bird, .... 541 Lyre Bird, . . . . .514 Great Black Woodpecker, . . . 545 ( treen Jacamar, . . . .547 Common Green Woodpecker, . . 555 Grey-Headed and White-Backed Wood- peckers, ..... 557 PAGE Red-Headed American Woodpecker, . 559 Spotted Woodpeckers, . . . 560 The Three-Toed Woodpecker, . . 563 Ivory-Billed Woodpecker, . . 564 The Brazilian Piculet, . . . 566 Wryneck, . . . . .568 White- Eared Honey-Guide, . . 569 Crimson-Breasted Barbet, . . . 571 Toco Toucan, .... 574 Black-Throated Aracari Toucan, . . 575 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, . . 576 ERRATA PAGE 343. Line 7 from foot, /or "five" read, "nine." 350. The superb glossy starling (/,»■■■ I, figured on this page, is a native of East Africa, and is easily recognisi d bj the white band across the chest ; the mantle being Bteely green, and the upper part of the head and nei k Mack. 351. Line 11 from foot, for "later on" read "p. 347"; line 4 from foot, for "J '! read "Euldbes." 363. Line 10 from foot, fw D " Dinemellia leucocepha 364. First line, after "the" add •■typical representative of a." 376. Transpose numbers I and 5 in Plate. THE ROYAL NATURAL HISTORY. MAMMALS. CHAPTER XXIX. Cetaceans, — Order Cetacea. Under the general title of Cetaceans may be included the whole of those mammals commonly known as whales, porpoises, and dolphins, which differ from all hitherto described in their assumption of a fish-like form, and their complete adaptation to a purely aquatic mode of life. Indeed, so like are Cetaceans in their general outward appearance to fishes, that they are commonly regarded as belonging to that class. In all essential features of their organisation they are, however, true mammals, breathing atmospheric air by means of lungs, having warm blood, a four-chambered heart, the skull articulating with the first joint of the backbone by means of two condyles, and the cavity of the body divided into two chambers by a midriff; while they produce living young, which are nourished by milk drawn from the bodies of their mothers. The assumption of a fish-like form by the Cetaceans is one of the best-marked examples of what are known as adaptive characters, which are merely produced in order to suit the animals in which they exist to their vol. in. — I Form. 2 CETACEANS. external .surroundings, and have no sort of connection with their affinities. The fish-like resemblances of the Cetaceans are. moreover, not so close as they may at first sight appear; since the tail-fin, instead of being vertical, is horizontal, while the structure of the skeleton of the fore-limb is totally different from that of any fish. The general fish-like form of the body is, however, that best adapted for progression through the water, which affords sufficient reason for its having been acquired in the present group of animals ; and we may likewise mention that Cetaceans generally resemble fish in having the upper-part of the body coloured dark, while the under-parts are light, such a coloration rendering the animals in which it occurs not easily seen, either from above or below, when in their native element. No connection That whales are not even directly descended from fishes is with Fishes, evident from the fact of their breathing atmospheric air, by means of lungs, for if they had so originated it would be quite clear that they would have SKELETON' OF GREENLAND WHALE. retained fish-like gills, and thus have avoided the necessity of coming periodically to the surface for the purpose of breathing. It is probably for this reason that Cetaceans have their tails with the expansion placed in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane, since the strokes of such a horizontally-expanded organ are the best calculated to bring an animal rapidly to the surface. The additional circumstance that Cetaceans retain traces of the hairy covering, which is so characteristic of mammals in general, affords evidence that they derive their origin from terrestrial mammals ; and, taken together with the absence of hind-limbs, is amply sufficient to disprove any notion that they themselves are in any sort of way connected with the ancestral stock from which the other members of the class have originated. Cetaceans may, therefore, be regarded as some of the most specialised of all mammals. With regard to the terrestrial mammals to which these animals are most closely related, there is still great uncertainty ami some difference of opinion among zoologists. Sir W. H. Flower is inclined to consider that they show more resemblances to Ungulates, and especially the Even-toed group ; but the teeth of the earliest forms are quite unlike those of any Ungulates, and approximate much more closely to those of Carnivores. It may. therefore, be suggested that the alliance between Cetaceans and Carnivores may prove to be closer than is often considered GENERAL CHARACTERS. 3 to be the case. It may be noted here that the few Cetaceans inhabiting fresh- water are somewhat less markedly different in structure from ordinary mammals than are the marine representatives of the order ; and this leads the writer last cited to conclude that Cetaceans were first modified for the assumption of a purely aquatic life from land mammals frequenting the banks of rivers, and that after having acquired natatorial powers in fresh water, their ancestors subsequently migrated to the sea, where they have attained their present remarkable develop- ment. Before making; anv further remarks on Cetaceans in general, it Ch&ncteristics ■will, however, be convenient to take into consideration the leading structural features by which they are distinguished from other mammals. As already mentioned, Cetaceans are characterised by their fish-like form, the head passing imperceptibly into the body without any distinct neck, and at the other extremity the trunk gradually tapering to the tail, which terminates in a forked, horizontal fin-like expansion, commonly known as the "flukes." The head is large in proportion to the bod\-, witli a wide mouth, often furnished with a few bristles, at least in the young state. The fore-limbs are represented by flippers, encased in a continuous skin, showing no outward indications of digits, and without the slightest trace of nails or claws, while of the hind-limbs there is not the least external trace. With the exception of the aforesaid sparse bristles in the neigh- bourhood of the mouth, the smooth and shining skin is entirely devoid of all traces of hair, neither has it any structure corresponding to the scales of fishes. Beneath, it is underlain by the thick layer of oily fat termed " blubber," the function of which is to prevent the absorption of the heat of the body by the water. The majority of the species have a fin on the hack, which is entirely composed of integument, and has no internal skeleton corresponding to the similarly situated fins of fishes. The eye is extremely small ; and, as in fishes, the ear has no external conch, and opens by an exceedingly small aperture behind the eye. The nostrils, which may have either a single or double opening, are situated on the very summit of the head, and thus reach the surface of the water before any other part when the animals rise horizontally. In the skeleton the bones are remarkable for their loose and spongy structure ; and in the living state are saturated with oil. The majority of the species have teeth, which ma}' be confined to the lower jaw, and these represented only by a single pair. In all cases these teeth are of a simply conical or compressed form ; and in many of the dolphins they are much more numerous than in any other mammals. In no instance is there any replace- ment of the teeth ; but Dr. Kukenthal has discovered that in some species there are rudimentary successional teeth which never come to maturit}', whence it is considered that the functional teeth correspond to the milk-series of those mammals in which there is a replacement. With regard to the great number of teeth present in some Cetaceans, the same investigator considers that this is due to the division of a number of trilobed teeth like those of certain seals (compare the figure in Vol. II. p. 142) into three parts, whereby three distinct teeth have been produced out of what was originally a single tooth. In the baleen, or whalebone-whales, the place of teeth is taken by the horny structure technically termed " baleen," but 4 CETACEANS. commonly known as " whalebone," the nature of which will be explained later on. Even in this group, however, there are rudiments of teeth deeply buried in the gums of the young ; and the structure of these rudiments is such as to indicate the origin of at least that group of Cetaceans from mammals furnished with teeth of a complex type. It is further inferred by Dr. Kiikenthal that these rudimentary teeth correspond with those of the permanent set in other mammals. In conformity with the absence of any external indications of a Neck. * neck, the vertebras in that region of the backbone of Cetaceans are abnormally shortened, so that even in the largest species this part of the column may not much exceed a foot in length. This shortening of the neck is, however, not accomplished by an}- reduction in the number of the vertebra? from the normal seven, but by the shortening of the body of each of these vertebra? until it assumes the form of a broad, thin plate. The necks of a giraffe and a whale present, therefore, the extremes in the modifications assumed by their constituent vertebra1 ; these joints undergoing the maximum degree of elongation in the one, and of abbreviation in the other. In many Cetaceans the whole or a certain number of the vertebra? of the neck are welded together into one solid mass. In the hinder portion of the backbone the region of the tail is only distinguished from that of the trunk by the vertebrae (as shown in our figure of the skeleton of the Greenland whale) carrying chevron-bones affixed to their under-surf aces ; there being no mass of united vertebra?, corresponding to the sacrum of other mammals. The skeleton of the fore-limbs exhibits all the segments Limbs. . . ° characterising those of terrestrial mammals, although some of these are much modified There are no collar-bones (clavicles) ; but the shoulder-blades, or scapula?, are very large, and are much elongated in the antero-posterior direction. The humerus, or bone of the upper arm. although much shorter than usual, has a free movement at its articulation with the shoulder-blade ; but its junction with the two bo :es of the fore-arm, like all the joints lower down in the limb, admits of scarcely any motion. Indeed, in all these joints the bones articulate by flattened surfaces closely applied to one another, and are bound together b}T fibrous tissue. The bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna) are elongated and flattened, and lie nearly parallel, one in front of the other. The number of digits in the flippers is usually Ave, although occasionally reduced to four; and in the second and third of these there are always more than the ordinary three joints below the metacarpus. The only rudiments of the hind-limbs are a few small bones beneath the sacral region of the backbone representing part of the pelvis, and occasionally part of the limb itself (/ and p. in the figure on p. 2). ^ In accordance with the position of the nostrils at its summit, the Skull . skull departs considerably from the ordinary type; It will suffice to state here that the supraoccipital bone extends forward to join the f rentals, and thus excludes the parietal bones from taking any share in the formation of the roof of the middle line of the skull : while in front of the opening for the nostrils there is a more or less prolonged rostrum. In regard to the soft parts, it may be mentioned that the stomach Soft Parts. . r is always complex : and that the female has two teats, placed far back on the abdomen. In order to enable these animals to swim with their mouths GENERAL CHARACTERS. 5 wide open, the upper part of the windpipe (larynx) is prolonged so as to reach the opening of the nostrils in the hinder portion of the mouth, and thus form a closed tube from the external nostrils to the lungs. As there is frequently some misconception as to the so-called " spouting " or " blowing " of Cetaceans, a few words are advisable on this point. When a whale comes to the surface of the water after a longer or shorter period of submergence, its first act is to discharge the air from the lungs previous to taking a fresh inspiration. The air is expelled from the lungs with great force, and thus rises a considerable height above the surface of the water, and as it is saturated with water-vapour at a high temperature the contact with the cold external air at once condenses this vapour, which forms a column of steam or spray. Frequently, however, a whale commences to " blow " before its nostrils are actually above the surface, and then a certain amount of sea-water is forced up with the column of air. Cetaceans include the largest animals now existing; on the f resistance and tenacity of life that distinguish them from all other Cetaceans. This species has of late years become very rare, and is now in considerable danger of extermination. The Humpback Whale. ' [enus Megaptera. The humpback whale (Megaptera hoops) belongs to the group characterised by the presence of a number of longitudinal flutings in the skin of the throat, and of a fin on the back It is distinguished from the tinners (described below), by the comparatively large size of the head, the short and deep body, the small size of the fin on the back, and the enormous length of the flippers. The flukes are relatively large, and the flippers are characterised by their scalloped margins. As in the grey w hale and tinners, the vertebrae of the neck are relatively longer than iu the right- whales, and remain perfectly separate from one another throughout life. The whale- bone, which is of a deep black colour, is short and broad, and of a coarse and but slightly elastic structure. In length the humpback varies from 45 to 50 feet : the flippers measuring from 10 to 1-i feet in length. The general colour of the body is black above, but often more or less marbled with white below, while the nippers may be either entirely white, or black above and speckled with white below. The skeleton of the flippers has four digits, with a great number of joints. The name humpback, according to Captain Scammon, is derived from the prominence on the back which carries the fin, but there appears to be considerable individual variation in regard to the degree of its development. Captain Scammon, from whose figures our plate is taken, makes this prominence at least as high as any other part of the back, while in the position assumed by the suckling female in the lower half of the plate it is the highest point of all. In a figure given by Sir W. H. Flower the whole back is made more arched, with the highest point only a short distance behind the base of the flippers; possibly, however, there may be individual differences in this respect. It maybe mentioned here that when a whale- leaps out of the water, as in the topmost figure of our plate, it is said to " breach " : when a fin is shown out of the water, as in the two right upper figures, the actiou is termed " finning " ; while, when the flukes alone are exposed, as on the left side of the plate, it is called "lob-tailing." Humpbacks are found in nearly all seas, and at present it appears impossible to distinguish more than a single species, although some writers maintain that the one inhabiting the Persian Gulf is distinct from the common form. Although they are said to be not uncommon off the eastern coast of Scotland during the summer, but few examples have been taken in the British Seas. One was, however, captured at Newcastle in 1839, a second at the mouth of the Dee in 1863, a third in Wick Bay. Caithness, in 1871, and a fourth in the Tay during the winter of 1883-84 = s > O WHALEBOXE WHALES. 17 As regards the habits of the humpback, Captain Scammon states H&bits that this whale generally prefers " to feed and perform its uncouth gambols near extensive coasts or about the shores of islands, in all latitudes between the Equator and the frozen oceans, both north and south. It is irregular in its movements, seldom going a straight course for any considerable distance; at one time moving about in large numbers, scattered over the sea as far as the eye can discern from the masthead, at other times singhy, seeming as much at home as if it were surrounded by hundreds of its kind, performing at will the varied actions of 'breaching,' 'rolling,' tinning,' 'lob-tailing,' or 'scooping,' or, on a calm sunny day, perhaps lying motionless on the molten-looking surface, as though life were extinct." On the coasts of Norway, although gen. rally found in small numbers, Mr. Collett states that it is occasionally very numerous — so much so that in one instance a steamer had to exercise great care in steering, in order to avoid coming into collision with these whales. They were met with in great profusion by Captain Gray in 1880 to the north of Ireland, accompanied by numbers of the lesser fin- whales. Two young are frequently produced at a birth. The amount of oil yielded by a humpback is very variable, a female with a large young one having scarcely any blubber. Captain Scammon states that he has known the amount of oil taken from some individuals not to exceed eight or ten barrels, while in others the yield has been as much as seventy-fivi Fix- Whales, or Rorquals. Genus Bala noptera. The remaining living representatives of the whalebone whales are known as fin- whales, or rorquals, or sometimes tin-backs or razor-backs, and include four well-defined species. These whales are distinguished from the humpback by their more elongated and slender form and proportionately smaller head, which measures from one-fifth to one-fourth the total length, and also by the comparative shortness of their flippers. The latter are narrow and pointed, and vary from one-seventh to one-eleventh of the total length. The small and recurved back-fin is placed about two-thirds of the distance from the head to the flukes, and the latter are smaller than in the humpback. The whalebone is short and coarse, and the lateral line of the mouth is consequently nearly straight, and does not rise above the level of the eye. Fin-whales are the most common and widely distributed of all the larger Cetaceans, and are far more active and speedy in their movements than right- whales ; and since their yield of blubber is relatively small, while the shortness and inferior quality of their whalebone renders it of much less value than that of the right-whales, they were formerly but little molested by whalers. The yearly increasing scarcity of the Greenland whale, and the enormous advance in the price of whalebone, coupled with the invention of harpoon -guns, which renders the capture of these animals far less difficult than in the old days, have, however, led to both humpbacks and tinners being regularly hunted. Fin-whales are found in nearly all seas except those of the Antarctic regions, and the four well-defined vol. in. — 2 i8 CETACEANS. species have an almost cosmopolitan distribution : but there is some evidence that the Indian seas possess two other species with a much more limited distribution. Most of the fin-whales feed mainly on fish, the larger species consuming an enormous quantity of cod. Lesser The smallest representative of the group is the lesser fin-whale, Fin-Whale. or rorqual (Bakenoptera rostrata), frequently known, from its pointed muzzle, as the pike-whale. It is represented in the accompanying figure. The average length of this species varies from 2o to 30 feet, and a length of 33 feet is but very seldom exceeded. The general colour of the upper-parts is greyish black, while the whole of the under surface, inclusive of the flukes, is white. The most distinctive characteristic of the species is. however, the broad band of white running across the upper part of the outer surface of the flippers, which forms a striking contrast to the black of the remainder. The flippers measure about one- eighth the entire length of the animal, and the number of pairs of ribs is eleven. The whalebone is nearly white. This whale is by no means rare on the British coast ; and an example was captured off the Scilly Islands so lately as 1887, while two were taken in the Firth SKELETON OF UN-WHALE. of Forth in the year following. It is more common on the shores of Norway, where it is frequently captured in the bays an I fjords ; the natives stretching a net across the mouth, after one or more whales have entered, and then despatching them with spears. Its habits in North American waters, where it is known as the sharp- nosed finner, are described by Captain Scammon. He writes that this whale '■frequently gambols about vessels when under way. darting from one side to another beneath their bottoms. When coming to the surface, it makes a quick, faint spout, such as would be made by a suckling of one of the larger ( letaceans, which plainly accounts for whalemen taking it to be the young of more bulky species. At sea the sharp-headed finners are seldom seen in pairs, but wander solitarily along, frequently changing their course in the depths below, and meander- ing along the whole continental coast of the North Pacific, occasionally visiting the large estuaries about the shore. They pass through Behring Sea and Strait into the Arctic Ocean where they appear to be as much at home as their superiors in size." The writer then goes on to say that, like the Pacific grey whale, " they thread the icy floes, and frequently emerge through the narrow fissures bolt upright, with their heads above the broken ice, to blow. When roaming about the inland waters of lower latitudes, they often shoot along the shallow waters of the bays in search of the myriads of small fry on which they mainly sustain themselves." Eden's fin-whale (B. edeni), from the Indian seas, is only known by skeletons, and appears to be closely allied to the present species, but attains somewhat WHALEBONE WHALES. '9 back- larger dimensions, and is believed to have a few more vertebrae in the bone. KudoipM's Fin- The next species in point of size is Rudolphi's fin-whale (B. wnaie. borealis), which attains a length of from 40 to 45, or occasionally as much as 52 feet. In colour it is bluish-black above, with oblong white spots, while the under-parts are more or less white : the under-surface of the flukes, as well as both sides of the flippers are, however, coloured like the back. The back-fin is smaller ami placed further hack than in the lesser tinner : while the THE LESSER FIX-WHALE (r1; licit. Size;. flippers are very small, equalling only one-fourteenth of the total length. There are thirteen pairs of ribs ; and the whalebone is black. This species is much rarer than the other rorquals, and does not appear to have been recorded from the Pacific. It ranges as far south as Biarritz, and migrates northward in summer as far as the North Cape ; and either this or a closely-allied species occurs in the seas around Java. Of specimens recorded from the British Islands, the first was stranded on the shores of the Firth of Forth in 1S72 : the second was caught in the river Crouch, in Essex, in 1883, a third in LSS4 in the Humber, a fourth in the Thames at Tilbury in 1887, and a fifth in the Medway in 1888. On the coasts of Finmark the numbers of this whale are very variable, and while it is a constant summer visitor on the Western seas, it only occasionally zo CETACEANS. resorts to these on the East. In 1885 the coasts of that country were Wsited by enormous numbers of this species, while the larger tinners and humpbacks which usually resort there did not appear at all ; and during that summer no less than 771 specimens were killed. Rudolphi's whale, according to the observations of Mr. Collett. differs from the other tinners in feeding entirely on minute crustaceans, never touching tish; and, in accordance with this difference in its diet, the edges of its whalebone are more frayed out and curling than in the other species. On the Finmark coast these whales appear sometimes singly, but more generally in schools of varying size, which may occasionally include some fifty individuals. When migrating, or not engaged in feeding, they swim rapidly, and do not require to breathe so frequently as the other species. When they come up to blow, they make but one or two respirations, while the others take rive or six. When swimming under water, their course can be traced by the bubbles of air continually rising to the surface; and when gorging on the swarms of crustaceans found in the northern seas these whales swim quite slowly, with the muzzle and half the back above water. Rudolphi's whale never appears to utter any sound : and is timid and inoffensive in disposition. The occasional accidents that happen to boats engaged in the pursuit of this whale appear to be caused unintentionally during the death-throes of the animals. As a rule, but a single young is burn at a time, but Mr. Collett records one instance of twins. The whalers of Finmark believe that this whale, like the two larger species of the genus, can remain under water when resting for upwards of eight or twelve hours : such periods of repose often occurring at particular hours of the day. Mr. Collett states that the yield of oil varies from fifteen to thirty barrels, and that the value of one of these whales ranges from £27 to £33, or about half that of the common fin-whale. Common Fin- The common fin-whale, or rorqual (J5. mucvlus) averages from Wfcaie. ti'' to 65 feet in length, and rarely exceeds 70 feet. It is very elongated in form, with moderately long jaws : the nippers measuring one-ninth of the total length. The colour of the upper-parts and the left side of the lower jaw is slaty grey : while the right Bide of the lower jaw and the under-parts, including the inferior surface of the flukes and flippers, are white. The whalebone is slate coloured ai: the ends, with the first two or three rows white. The common rorcpial is found rarely in the Mediterranean, but abundantly throughout the more northern seas of Europe, ranging as far as the 70th or 75th parallels of latitude. It is likewise widely distributed in American waters, where it is commonly known as the fin-back : and it appears that the so-called southern fin-whale of Xew Zealand is not specifically separable. It is not uncommon off the British coasts, two dead specimens having been found floating in the Channel in 1885, while another was stranded at Skegness in 1887. The common fin-whale swims with great rapidity and strength, being second in this respect only to the next species: and is consequently taken with difficulty, except when explosive harpoons are used. Its habits appear to be generally very similar to those of the lesser fin-whale ; and it is described as playing around vessels under way in the same manner. These whales are frequently found alone, but occasionally assemble in schools of from ten to fifteen or twenty individuals. WHALEBONE WHALES. 21 When these animals come up to breathe, they inhale the air so rapidly as to produce a sharp sound which may be heard at a considerable distance, and is said to be perfectly distinguishable from that produced by any other species. When about to descend, Captain Scammon says that this finner " assumes a variety of positions, sometimes rolling over nearly on its side, at other times rounding, or perhaps heaving, its flukes out, and assuming nearly a perpendicular attitude. Frequently it remains on the surface, making a regular course and several uniform ' blows.' " THE COMMON KIN-WHALE, FROM 1EN (^jiiat. size). The food of the species is mainly fish ; and the quantity of cod it consumes is enormous, sibbaids Fin- The gigantic Sibbald's fin-whale (B. sibbaldi)— the 'sulphur- Whale, bottom ' of the American whalers — enjoys the distinction of being the largest of living animals. It is a somewhat stouter-built species than the last, and commonly attains a length of from 70 to 80 feet, and occasionally reaches 85 feet, or perhaps more. The general colour is dark bluish grey, with some white spots on the chest, the lower edges and under surface of the flippers being white. In American specimens at least, there is, however, a more or less marked yellowish tinge on the under surface of the body, which has given origin to the popular name. The flippers are longer than in either of the other species, measuring one- seventh of the entire length ; and the jaws are also of more than usual proportionate size. The back -fin is small, and situated comparatively near the tail. The whale- 22 CETACEAXS. bone is black ; and there are usually sixteen pairs of ribs, against fifteen in the preceding species. This tinner has a wide distribution, and in the northern hemisphere, after passing the winters in the open sea, migrates northwards in the spring towards the coasts for the purpose of breeding. In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea, Sibbald's whale is represented by a closely-allied species or variety {B. indica), which attains a length of upwards of 00 feet, and is said to have a somewhat more slender lower jaw than the European form. Whether this whale be a distinct species, or, as is more probable, a local race, it differs somewhat in habits, as it has been observed in the warm Indian seas during the summer months when the true Sibbald's whale is visiting the cool shores of Norway. In the Pacific this species is to be found at all seasons on the coasts of California, thus tending to show that the Indian tinner is not specifically distinct. Examples of Sibbald's whale have been taken in the Firth of Forth. During the period of their sojourn on the Norwegian coasts, these whales subsist exclusively on crustaceans, and when in pursuit of these small creatures they may frequently be seen swimming on their sides. At other times, however, they feed largely on sardines, sprats, and other fish. When near the shore, the}- may sometimes be seen playing around vessels at anchor, but as a rule they do not exhibit the same boldness as the common rorqual, although they will occasionally follow in a ship's wake for lone distances. In one instance it is recorded that a whale of this species, in spite of having been repeatedly tired upon, pursued a vessel for upwards of twenty-four days. Sibbald's whale i~- considered to be the fastest of all the larger Cetaceans; it but seldom "breaches," yet when it does so, it exhibits its splendid proportions and its marvellous activity to the fullest degree. Captain Scammon writes that, "in contemplating this, the greatest whale of the ocean, one can but admire its prominent characteristics, which are its enormous, yet symmetrical proportions, and the muscular development which enables it to excel in velocity all its congeners, while its whole bearing indicates its superiority to all the other Cetaceans. It glides over the surface of the ocean, occasionally display- ing its entire length. When it respires, the volume of its vaporous breath ascends to a height which reveals at once to the observer the presence of that leviathan of the deep, whose capture baffles the practical skill of the most experienced whalers. When ' rounding ' to descend to the depths below, it throws its ponderous flukes high above the waves, with a swoop that is well in keeping with its matchless strength and vigour." The invention of explosive harpoons propelled from power- ful guns has now rendered the capture of Sibbald's whale a comparatively easy task, and it is regularly hunted from the factory at Hammerfest. A specimen measuring 85 feet in length yielded ninety barrels of oil. Fossil The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and the eastern coast of Fin-Whales. England yield remains of several kinds of tin-whales, and likewise of a humpback, all of which appear to be more or less closely related to the various living species. Other whales from the Pliocene deposits of Europe constitute an extinct genus — Getotheriv/m — which, while evidently nearly allied to the rorquals, exhibits certain peculiar features in the structure of the skull whereby it departs less widely from the ordinary mammalian type. CHAPTER XXX. Cet ace an s, — contimu d. The Toothed Whales, or Odoxtocetes. The whole of the remainder of the existing Cetaceans form a group dis- tinguished from the preceding one by the absence of whalebone, and the presence of permanent teeth in at least the lower jaw. This group, comprising existing families, is known as the 0doii1<»-i-ti, or Toothed Cetaceans, in contradistinction to the Mystacoceti, or Whalebone Whales. In addition to the presence of teeth, the group is also characterised by the following distinctive features. The two nostrils unite before they reach the surface. and thus open by a single aperture, which usually takes the form of a crescentic valvular slit placed transversely to the long axis of the head. In the skull the bones of the upper surface are arranged unsymmetrically on the sides; the nasal bones in existing forms being reduced to nodules, taking no share in roofing over the cavity of the nostrils. The two branches of the lower jaw are nearly straight, and of great vertical extent behind, while in front they come in contact with one another by flattened surfaces of larger or smaller extent, as is ordinarily the case among mammals. The ribs are more firmly joined to the rest of the skeleton than in the whalebone whales, several of the anterior pairs articulating with the bodies as well as with the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebras, while below they are joined to the breast-bone by the intervention of so-called chest-ribs ; the breast-bone itself usually consisting of several distinct portions, placed one behind the other. In all cases the flippers have five digits. Spekm-Whai.es and their Allies. Family Physeterid.e. The well-known gigantic sperm-whale is the typical representative of a family characterised by the total absence of any functional teeth in the upper jaw: those of the lower jaw being either numerous or reduced to a single pair. These characters are sufficient to distinguish the members of this family from those of the two others now existing, but it may be added that the skull is much elevated in the hinder region, so as to form a high prominence or crest behind the aperture of the nostrils. The members of this family include the largest of the toothed Cetaceans, and the whole of them are exclusively oceanic in their habits; their food consisting mainly or solely of squids and cuttles. 24 CETACEANS. The Sperm-Whale. Genus Pkys< U r. The sperm-whale, or, as it is frequently called from its French title, cachalot (Physeter macrocepkalua), is one of the largest of the Cetaceans, fully rivalling in size the Greenland whale. As with many other species, its dimensions have, how- ever, been consideral >ly exaggerated ; although, on the other hand, it is i [uite probable that when the species was more abundant than at present, some individuals attained a size which is now never reached. Be this as it may, the male sperm-whale is definitely known to attain a length of from 55 to 60 feet: but females are said not to reach much more than half these dimensions, while their form is proportionately more slender. The essential generic characteristics of the sperm-whale are to be found in the great proportionate size of the head, which ecpials about one-fourth of SKELETON OF srERM-WHALE. the total length of the animal, and in the number of the teeth being from twenty to twenty-five on each side of the lower jaw. In appearance the sperm-whale is ungainly and ugly in the extreme, this being chiefly due to the great height and abrupt trunca- tion of the enori"ous muzzle, upon the summit of which is situated the S-shaped aperture of the nostrils, somewhat to the left of the middle line. The mouth, which is of great length and capacity, opens below, and at some distance behind the extremity of the muzzle. On the upper surface of the skull, as seen in our figure of the skeleton, is a huge cavity, bounded behind by a tall vertical wall of bone ; this cavity being filled in the living animal with the substance known as spermaceti, of which more anon. In front of this hollow protrudes the long rostrum of the upper jaw; the gum of which contains rudimentary teeth. The lower jaw is very long and slender ; its two branches being united in the middle line for about half their total length. The teeth are implanted in the lower jaw in a long groove, partially divided into sockets by incomplete bony partitions. These teeth are of large size, and, when unworn, are pointed and recurved at their tips. They are composed solely of ivory, and the pulp-cavity at their base remains open for a long period, although generally more or less completely closed in adult life, when the whole base of the tooth becomes much flattened from side to side. The tongue and interior of the mouth are of a glistening white colour: and the diameter of the throat is very large. The eye is placed somewhat above the angle of the mouth, and a short distance behind it is the minute aperture of the ear, which is said not to exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter. TOOTHED WHALES. 25 At the junction of the head with the body there is a distinct prominence in the middle line of the back ; while half-way between this and the tail, is a larger projection, followed by a number of smaller ones, and technically known as the "hump." There is no back-fin. The flippers are placed a little behind and below the eyes, and seldom exceed in girth, with a weight of 3 lbs. ; and there is another nearly equally large tooth in the British .Museum which formerly belonged to the writer, and not improbably came from the same whale. As no sperm-whales killed at the present day have teeth of these dimensions, it seems not improbable that the old statements as to specimens of 80 feet in length, may not have been so far from the truth : and it is possible that the one killed by the crew of the Adam may have been the largest individual of which there is any record. Sperm-whales are gregarious animals, and assemble in " schools," which in former days might comprise from fifteen to twenty to several hundred individuals. Although for a part of the year some of the largest and oldest males live by themselves, the ,; schools" generally comprise individuals of both sexes and all ages, and are led by two or three old males. The females display much solicitude for the safety of one another and likewise for that of their offspring: and when one female out of a party is killed, it is generally easy to capture several others. The young males, which are found associated together in herds at certain times of the year, are however, according to Captain Scammon, far less chivalrous in disposition, and will at once leave a wounded companion to its fate. The sperm-whale, as recorded by Beale in 1838, is distinguished from all other 26 CETACEAXS. Cetaceans by the regularity with which it comes to the surface to breathe, although there is some variation in this respect according to age. " When emerging to the surface," writes Captain Scammon, " the first portion of the animal seen is the region of the hump, then it raises its head and respires slowly for the space of about three seconds, sending forth diagonally a volume of whitish vapour, like an /%- S\S-^\S-VvV the sperm-whale (rh nat size}. escape of steam ; this may be seen from the masthead at a distance of three to five miles. In respiring at its leisure, the animal sometimes makes no headway through the water : at other times it moves quietly along at the rate of two or three miles an hour, or, ' if making a passage ' from one feeding-ground to another, it may accelerate its velocity. When in progressive motion, hardly an instant is required for inspiration : when the animal dips its head a little and momentarily disappears, then it rises again to blow as before, each respiration being made with TOOTHED WHALES. 27 great regularity. The number of its spoutings, when in a state of quietude, depends on the size of the animal. The same may be said as to the time it remains upon or beneath the surface of the ocean. With the largest bulls the time occupied in performing one expiration and one inspiration is from ten to twelve seconds, and the animal will generally blow from sixty to seventy-five times at a rising, remaining upon the surface of the sea about twelve minutes. As soon as ' his spoutings are out ' he pitches head-foremost downward, then, ' rounding out,' turns his flukes high in the air, and, when gaining a nearly perpendicular altitude, descends to a great depth, and there remains from fifty minutes to an hour and a quarter.'' During the spouting there is no sound heard. When swimming in the ordinary manner, with the hump just showing above the surface, Beale believes that sperm-whale can attain a sp 1 of about seven miles an hour, but when swimming with the head alternately in and out of the water he estimates the speed at from ten to twelve miles in the hour. When at the surface, sperm-whales frequently indulge in what appear to be mere sportive gambols. At one time they will violently beat the water into foam with their flukes, this action being known to whalers as "lob-tailing," while at others they will leap completely out of the water. Beale states that the way in which the sperm-whale performs this action of "breaching" "appears to be by descending to a certain depth below the surface, and then making some powerful strokes with his tail, which are frequently and rapidly repeated, and thus convey a certain degree of velocity to his body before it reaches the surface, when he darts completely out. When just emerged and at its greatest elevation, his body forms with the surface of the water an angle of about forty-five degrees, the flukes lying parallel with the surface: in falling, the animal rolls his body slightly, so that he always falls on his side. He seldom ' breaches more than twice or thrice at a time or in quick succession." It is added that the " breaching" of a sperm-whale is discernible at a distance of six miles from the masthead on a clear day. It is believed by some authorities that these actions of the sperm-whale are not gambols, but are undertaken to rid its body of certain parasites. If frightened, the animal can sink suddenly to the bottom, even when lying horizontally. The female cachalot, according to Beale, breeds at all seasons of the year, and there is generally but a single young one produced at a birth, although twins are not unknown. At birth the length of the young sperm-whale is said to vary from 11 to 1 \ feet. The chief food of the sperm-whale consists of squids and cuttles, but considerable quantities of fish — comprising rock -cod, albicore, and bonito— are likewise consumed. All these different kinds of food are procured at a considerable depth below the surface of the water, but the mode of capture is at present unknown. It has indeed been suggested that, when below the surface, the whale remains stationary and drops its lower jaw nearly perpendicularly, thus revealing the glistening white interior of the capacious mouth. This, it is alleged, serves to attract the various animals upon which the creature feeds, and when a sufficient number have entered the trap, the lower jaw is suddenly closed. Although the suggestion is ingenious, it is one that scarcely admits either of proof or disproof. 28 CETACEAXS. Products and The sperm-oil yielded by the thick layer of blubber investing the Hunting. body, and the spermaceti contained in the cavity of the head, are the two products for which the sperm-whale is hunted : and since the former fetches a far higher price than ordinary whale-oil, this animal is one of the most valuable of all the Cetaceans. The spermaceti exists in the form of oil in the living animal, and is ladled out in buckets from the skull when the carcase is cut up. The spermaceti of commerce is produced by a process of refining. The use of this enormous mass of oil in the skull does not appear to be ascertained. In addition to sperm-oil and spermaceti, the substance known as ambergris is also a product of the sperm-whale. It is not, however, usually taken from the animal, but is found floating in the sea, and has been ascertained to be formed in the intestines. This substance always contains a number of the l>eaks of the squids and cuttles upon which the whale has fed. Although formerly employed in medicine, it is now used exclusively in perfumery. In the old clays of sperm-whale-hunting (of which alone we shall speak) the vessels engaged in the trade were from three hundred to four hundred tons burden, and were equipped for a three years' voyage; their usual destination being the South Seas. They each had a crew of from twenty-eight to thirty-three officers and men, and carried six whale-boats. These boats were about twenty-seven feet in length, with a beam of four feet, and were built sharp at both ends. Four boats took part in the chase, each being furnished with a pair of two hundred fathom harpoon-lines, ami carrying a crew of six men. The crew comprised a hoat-steerer in the bow, four hands, and the headsman in the. stern. It was the business of the boat-steerer to harpoon the whale, and when this was accomplished lie changed places with the headsman, whose duty it was to kill the animal with the lances. When a whale was harpooned, immediately after its first struggles, and when it was lying exhausted from its endeavours to escape, the boat was pulled close alongside, and tfie headsman began the work of destruction bv thrusting his lance into the vital parts behind the flipper. As soon as the whale was lanced, the boat was backed with all possible speed. When first struck the whale frequently "sounded," or descended to immense depths, sometimes taking out nearly the whole of the eight hundred fathoms of line carried by the four boats. Subse- quently, however, when weakened by loss of blood, it kept on or near the surface, towing after it one or more of the boats. By hauling in the line, the boat or boats were once more pulled up alongside, and the monster finally destroyed either by darting or thrusting the lances. Whaling, as thus carried out, was full of danger, and there are hundreds of accounts of hairbreadth escapes from death, and of feats of daring. In the southern seas Maories were not unfrequenth" shipped b}' British whalers as harpooners, and the following narrative of the daring of one of these men is related by Dr. A. S. Thomson in his History of Nt w Zealand. "One morning," writes the narrator, " a lone whale was seen on the placid Pacific : the boat was pulled up to it, and the New Zealander, balancing himself on the gunwale, darted the harpoon at the creature and missed. After several hours' chase, under a tropical sun, the whale was approached a second time, and the New Zealander darted two harpoons at him, but again missed. Then the bitterest disappointment TOOTHED WHALES. 29 arose among the tired boat's crew, which they expressed in curses deep and loud. These taunts maddened the Maori : and no sooner was the boat again pulled up to the whale than he bounded on the animal's back, and for one dizzy second was seen there. The next, all was foam and fury, and both were out of sight. The linn in the boat shoved off, flung over a line as fast as they could, while ahead nothing was seen but a red whirlpool of bloo escape; and being very active in their motions, give the most trouble to despatch Tin- larger whales, yielding eighty or more barrels of oil, being less active animals, are in most cases killed more easily. This is however, by no means always so ; and there are many instances on record where large sperm-whales have turned with the utmost fury upon their pursuers, and destroyed every object that came in their way, either by blows from the enormous flukes, or by attacking with the head ami lower jaw. There are, moreover, well- authenticated instances, not only of sperm-whales demolishing the boats of a whaling-ship, but actually attacking and sinking the vessel itself; and Captain Scammon thinks it probable that many ships which have perished without leaving any clue as to their fate, have been wrecked by these whales. In 1820 the Essex was destroyed in the South Pacific by an Infuriated cachalot, which made two deliberate charges at the vessel, the first of which produced a considerable leak, while the second stove in the bows. Again, in ls.",l. the .1 «u Alexander was sunk in a similar manner off the Peruvian coast. Whether the ship Union, which was wrecked iii 1S07 by striking a sperm-whale in the night, was actually attacked by the animal, or whether this was a case of accidental collision, can never be ascertained. As an instance of the ferocity of these whales, it may be mentioned that in 1851, when the ship Citizen was whaling in the Atlantic, a wounded cachalot, after attacking and demolishing one boat, made for a second, from which it was only diverted by its attention being transferred to a third. This third boat only escaped with difficulty, and the whale thereupon headed straight for the vessel itself, which was then approaching under full sail. By putting the head before the wind, the rush of the whale was. however, avoided; and before the animal could gather itself for a second charge, it was seized with its death-throes and expired. In another case a sperm-whale, not content with having smashed a whale-boat, actually seized the timbers in its jaws and chewed them into match- wood. Extinct Sperm-whales, belonging mostly to extinct genera, were abundant Sperm-wnaies. m t]le Pliocene period, their remains occurring in the crag deposits of England and Belgium, and likewise in Australia. Some of these forms (Eucetus) were of large size, ami appear to have been allied to the living species; but others (SccUdicetus) were distinguished by having the summits of the teeth surmounted with a cap of grooved enamel. A third type is considered to be closely allied to the whale described below. 3° CETACEAXS. Lesser Sperm-Whale. Genus Cog la. The lesser sperm-whale (Cogia bn viceps) is a little-known species, differing widely both in size and form ■from the sperm-whale : and more resembling a porpoise in both these respects. It agrees, however, with the sperm-whale in having no functional teeth in the upper jaw and a full series in the lower. The rudimentary upper teeth are reduced to a single pair, or may be wanting : and there are only from nine to twelve pairs of teeth in the lower jaw. These teeth, which are rather long and slender, with curved summits, differ from those of the sperm- whale in having a coat- ing of enamel : and the two branches of the lower jaw are united for less than half their length. The upper sur- face of the hinder part of the skull is hollowed, with a thick elevated rim behind and at the and the rostral portion of the skull is shorter and more rapidly tapering than in the larger species) This whale attains a length of about 10 feet; and. as already said, is not unlike a porpoise in general appearance The head is about one-sixth the total length, and has a bluntly-pointed muzzle, with the small mouth opening on the under surface, far behind the extremity. The back carries a large tin. The colour of this species is glistening black above, becoming paler beneath. The lesser sperm-whale is known only from a comparatively small number of individuals obtained from such widely-separated areas as the Indian and Australian seas, the Cape of Good Hope, and the North Pacific : and we may accordingly assume that it has probably an almost cosmopolitan distribution. Nothing has at present been ascertained in regard to its habits. THE WATER-WORN SKULL, WTTHOCT THE LOWER JAW, OF A WHALE ALLIED TO THE EOTTLE.X"~F. (From Sir W. H. Flower, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1882.) The Bottlexose-Whale. Genus Hyperoodon. The bottlenose-whale (Hyperoodon rostratus), which is one of the most common Cetaceans stranded on the British shores, is the first representative of a group of four allied genera distinguished from the sperm-whales by the functional teeth being reduced to a single pair, or in one case two pairs ; these TOOTHED WHALES. 31 teeth, more especially in the males, sometimes attaining very large dimensions. The muzzle is produced into a longer or shorter beak or rostrum, behind which there is a marked and sudden elevation caused by the presence of a fatty cushion on the top of the head in front of the blowhole : the latter having a crescent-like form, and being situated in the middle line. With the exception of one species, the whales of this group are characterised by the (premaxillary) bones situated in the skull behind the opening of the nostrils being raised into a pair of crests over- hanging the latter ; these two crests, as shown in the accompanying figure, being unsymmetrieally disposed, and one larger than the other. All the members of the group agree in having a cursed back-fin, placed considerably behind the middle of the body; and they also display the common feature of possessing flutings in the skin of the throat, which are close toe-ether in front and diverge as they pass backwards. Like the sperm-whales, the members of this group are inhabitants of the open sea, and feed almost entirely upon squids and cuttles. Except the bottlenose, most of them are known mainly by stranded specimens ; and when any of these whales approach the shore, they seem to have no idea of saving themselves, but are almost invariably stranded. In this respect they resemble the sperm-whales; and it would thus seem that whales accustomed to live in the open seas and to seek their food at considerable depths, become confused and help- less when they reach the neighbourhood of a coast. Most of them go about in pairs or alone; but the bottlenose frequently associates in schools of considerable size Characters of The bottlenose derives its name from the elevation ol the upper Bottlenose. surface of the head above the rather short beak and in front of the blowhole into a rounded abrupt prominence. The lower jaw has merely a pair of small conical teeth at the extremity, which in the living state are totally concealed by the gum. In the skull the crests behind the aperture of the nostrils are greatly developed : and in addition to these there are a pair of longitudinal bony crests lying on either side of the base of the beak, which in old males becomes of great size, with their front surfaces broad and Hat. This excessive development of the crests in the adult males produces a great difference in the appearance of the two sexes when adult ; the females (like the young) having the beak distinctly projecting, whereas in the males it is almost buried beneath the elevated and flattened surface of the upper part of the head, which has a disc-like form when seen from in front. The flukes are not notched. In length the male bottlenose may reach as much as 30 feet, but the female does not exceed 24 feet. The young individuals are black above, but with advancing age they gradually pass to a light brown tint ; the under-parts being greyish white. Very old individuals turn almost yellow, with a white band round the neck, and the front of the head and beak also white. Distribution and The bottlenose is a migratory species, confined to the North Habits. Atlantic. During the summer it ranges as far northwards as Spitz- bergen, but how far southward it travels in winter is not yet ascertained. In the early autumn some specimens are usually stranded on the coasts of Britain, and the countries bordering the British Channel and North Sea ; but none are recorded from the shores of Spain, Western France, or the Mediterranean countries. The 32 CETACEANS. majority of such specimens, according to Sir W. H. Flower, are solitary and gener- ally young individuals, although occasionally an adult female with her offspring is taken. The best account of the habits of the bottlenose is given by Captain D. Gray, of which the following is a summary. In the early spring these whales are to be met with occasionally after leaving the Shetland Islands, and thence northward to the borders of the polar ice, where they are more numerous. They also frequent the seas around Iceland, Greenland as far north as latitude 77°, Western Spitzbergen, and Davis Strait, and it is highly probable that they may range as far as Novaia Zemlia. Although they do not venture in among the ice itself, they frequent the open bays along its margin for the shelter thus afforded from the open sea. They BOTTLE.NOSE-'.YHALE. are generally to be found in herds comprising from four to ten individuals; but many different herds may be in sight at the same time. The adult males are frequently solitary : but sometimes one of them may be seen leading a herd. These whales exhibit little fear of ships, swimming around them, and beneath the boats, till their curiosity is satisfied. The herd remain around a wounded com- panion till its death, upon which they immediately desert. If, however, a second individual lie harpooned before the death of the one first struck, and this process continued, a whole herd may be killed at once. They exhibit great endurance of wounds and tenacity of life, old males taking out from three hundred to four hundred, and occasionally as much as seven hundred, fathoms of line. Captain Gray describes their activity as very great, stating that they are able to leap out of the water many feet high in the air, and while so doing have time to turn their heads TOOTHED WHALES. 33 to look about them. When descending, they re-enter the water head first, instead of falling helplessly on their sides like the larger whales. Their ordinary food, according to the same observer, consists of a bluish white cuttle-fish, 6 inches lono- and 3 inches in circumference, and pointed towards the tail. The stomachs of those whales that were examined contained nothing but remains of these cuttles. In their search after food it appears that the bottlenose-whales descend to great depths, as they remain under water for a long period, and blow very heavily upon reaching the surface. When wounded, they will sometimes remain below for as much as two hours at a time, after which they will come up apparently untired Products ^'le ,;iottlenose yields spermaceti, and an oil very similar to sperm-oil and capable of being used for the same purposes. An adult male will produce about two hundred weight of spermaceti and two tons of oil. The protuberance on the front of the head of the female contains a small quantity of colourless oil which is twice the density of that obtained from the blubber; while in the male the same region is composed of solid fat. A fossil bottlenose-whale, apparently closely allied to the living species, has left its remains in the Pliocene crag deposits of the eastern coast of England. Cuvier's Whale ^e rare Cetacean, known as ( Juvier's whale (Zipli IU8 CCt virostris), differs from the bottlenose in having a pair of well-developed conical teeth at the extremity of the lower jaw, which are directed forwards and upwards. In the skull there are but slight indications of the longitudinal bony crests of the bottlenose ; while the beak is longer and much more solid in structure, owing to the ossification of certain cartilages and their fusion with the adjacent bones. When viewed from above, their beak is triangular in form, gradually tapering from its broad base to its narrow extremity. A further point of difference from the bottlenose is to be found in the circumstance that only the first three, instead of the whole seven, of the vertebne of the neck are united together. The colour is believed to be black above and white below. This whale appears to be known only from stranded specimens, which have been obtained from regions as remote from one another as the Shetland Islands, the Cape of Good Hope, Eastern South America, and New Zealand. Sir W. Turner appears, therefore, to be fully justified in his opinion that its distribution is as extensive as that of the sperm-whale. The Beaked Whales. Genus Mesoplodon. The beaked whales derive their English name from the great development of the rostral portion of the skull, which is long and narrow, and formed of extremely solid and ivory-like bone ; while they take their scientific title from the presence of a pair of teeth generally situated near the middle of each side of the lower jaw. Each of these two teeth is pointed and much flattened, sometimes being elongated into a strap-like form, so as to overhang the beak of the skull ; their position is variable, but generally some distance behind the extremity of the jaw. The skull has the same curving crests over the aperture of the nostrils as in the bottlenose, vol. in. — 3 34 CETACEANS. but has no sign of the longitudinal crests. Usually only the first two or three of the vertebrae are united together. The massive rostrum of the skull is not imfrequently picked up on the shores of regions -where these whales are common ; and similar rostra are among the commonest of Cetacean remains found in the Pliocene crag deposits of the Sussex and Essex coasts, thus indicating that beaked whales formerly abounded in the English seas. These rostra are, perhaps, the most solid bones found among the Vertebrates, their material being as dense as ivory. In some cases a row of minute functionless teeth are present in the upper jaw, and thus serve to show that the whales of this group are descended from ancestors possessing a full set of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws. In the Crag period seven species are recognisable ; in these days the beaked whales are represented by at least two species ; and they range over most seas, although they appear more common in the Southern than in the Northern Hemisphere. Nothing is known as to their habits. The best-known species of the genus is Sowerby's whale (Mes- oplodon bideas), of which, according to Sir W. Turner, eighteen SKXIX OF SOWERBYS WHALE. specimens have been taken between the years 1800 and 1889 in the North Atlantic and its inlets, all but two of which occurred on the coasts of Europe. Seven of these were captured between 1880 and 1888: the one taken in 1885 having been stranded at the mouth of the Humber, and being the only known English example. The first specimen known to science was captured oft' the coast of Elgin in 1800. By its describer, after whom it is now named, it was then called the two- toothed cachalot, on account of the feature so well shown in our illustration. This whale usually attains a length of about 15 feet, and its teeth are of comparatively small size, and sometimes only project slightly from the sides of the mouth when the jaws are closed. Above the nearly straight beak the head rises gently into a marked prominence in front of the blowhole, behind which is another prominence, with the level of its summit continued backwards into the line of the back. The opening of the ear is so small as to admit only of the passage of a fine bristle. In a specimen stranded in 1888 on the shores of the Firth of Forth the colour of the upper-parts was bluish slate, while that of the TOOTHED WHALES. 35 under-parts was a light slate. The body was also marked with a number of whitish spots, which were most numerous on the sides; these spots being in some places connected by narrow streaks. Other individuals are described as being nearly black above, while in others the tint becomes more decidedly blue. A specimen captured at New Jersey in 1889 measured 12i feet in length. Whether Sowexby's whale ranges into the seas of the Southern Hemisphere U cot definitely ascertained, although, as already mentioned, the genus is more abundantly represented there than to the north of the equator; and it is still a question whether many of the southern forms, to which separate names have been received, are entitled to rank as distinct species, or whether they should be regarded as merely varieties of the European one. Layard's whale Layar.ls whale (.1/. layardi), from the Cape of Good Hope and 'the seas of the other parts of the Southern Hemisphere, is, however undoubtedly a very well-marked species, characterised by the enormous develop- ment of the strapdike teeth, to which allusion has already been made. The late Prof. Moseley, in describing a skull of this species obtained at the Cape during the voyage of the Challenger, observes that "these two teeth in the adult animal become lengthened by continuous growth of the fangs into long curved tusks. These arch over the upper jaw or beak, and crossing one another above it at their tips form a ring round it, and lock the lower jaw, so that the animal can only open its mouth for a very short distance indeed. The tusks are seen always to be worn away in front by the grating of the confined upper jaw against them. How the animal manages to feed itself under these conditions is a mystery. It is remarkable that the main mass of each tusk is made up of what appears to be an abnormal growth of the fang. The actual conical tooth, that is the original small cap of dentine [ivory] of the tooth of the young animal, which corresponds to the part of the teeth showing above the gum in other whales, does not increase at all in size, but is carried up by the growth of the fangs, and remains at the tips of the tusks as a sort of wart-like rudimentary excrescence." That these enormous teeth can be of no possible advantage to their owner appears perfectly clear ; and they must probably be regarded as a Hording an instance of semi-monstrous development analogous to the one displayed by the tusks of the babirusa. A specimen stranded at the Cape was said to be black above and white beneath, with the division between the two tints sharply defined. One measuring something over 16 feet in length yielded eighty gallons of oil of a superior quality. The species appears excessively rare; and the known examples have been stranded. .^ , ._ The last representative of this group is Arnux's whale (Berardius arnuxi), from the New Zealand seas, which attains a length of about 30 feet. It differs from all the other forms in having two pairs of teeth near the front of the jaw; the first pair being placed close to the tip of the jaw and larger than the second pair. They are of moderate size, flattened from side to side, pointed at the tips, and inclined directly forwards. The skull lacks the high crests above the opening of. the nostrils characteristic of the three preceding genera ; and the long and narrow beak is less solidly ossified than in the beaked whales. 36 CETACEAXS. Ancestral Sperm Whales. Family PETSODOXTID^E. Teeth of a whale from the Pliocene deposits of Europe, described under the name of Physodon, have been long known; but it is only recently that a specimen SKCXL OF THE PHTSODOX. from Patagonia has shown that teeth were present in both jaws. These whales seem, therefore, to represent a distinct family group, from which the existing forms have probably taken origin. The Fresh-Water Dolphins. Family PLATASISTIDJE. Three species of Cetaceans, two of which are entirely confined to fresh-water, while the third is estuarine, differ so niarketuy from all other living members of the order as to constitute a family by themselves. They are all of relatively small size, and agree with the true dolphins in having a numerous series of small teeth in both jaws. They differ from them in that the two branches of the lower jaw are united by more than half their length ; while the head is marked off from the body by a slightly constricted neck. They are also characterised by the ribs articulating with the vertebra in a manner very similar to that we have seen in ordinary mammals ; and the whole of the vertebrae of the neck remain separate from one another. In some respects these Cetaceans are less specialised than the other living representatives of the order, and are. therefore, probably more nearly allied to the ancestral stock. This leads Sir W. H. Flower to suggest that Cetaceans originated in fresh-water from land animals ; but Mr. Blanford considers it more probable that FRESH-WATER DOLPHINS. 37 the existing fresh-water dolphins may have been derived from a family which was originally widely distributed and marine, and that they have managed to survive solety by having taken to a fresh-water life. The isolated distribution of the three living species is somewhat in favour of the latter view TheGangetic The Gangetic dolphin, or susu (Platanista gangetica) is the Dolphin. typical representative of the family, and inhabits the Indus, Ganges, and Bramaputra Rivers, with their larger tributaries, from the regions where they leave the mountains to the sea. It is characterised by its long and compressed beak, which is slightly enlarged at the extremity: by tin/ back-fin being rudi- mentary and replaced by a low ridge; by the flippers being triangular and fan- shaped; by the eye being very minute and rudimentary; and by the blowhole forming a longitudinal slit. The conical and cylindrical teeth are rather large; and while they are sharply pointed in the young, in the adult they become much worn down by use. Towards the extremities of the jaws they are so closely placed as to bs almost in contact with one another. The skull is characterised by the development of enormous crests at tie- root of the beak, which almost meet in the middle line above the latter. In the males the beak is much shorter than in the females; and there are generally about thirty teeth on each side of the jaws. The colour of the animal is blackish throughout. Females are larger than males ; the usual length of adults varies from 7 to 8 feet, but a specimen from the Jumna is said to measure upwards of 12 feet, The Gangetic dolphin is perfectly Mind; and, indeed, as Mr. Blanford observes, sight would he perfectly useless to it in the turbid waters of the Indus at all seasons, and in the Ganges and Bramaputra at most periods of the year. It is never seen out at sea; but appears to be to a certain extent migratory in the rivers, since none are observed in the Hughli at Calcutta during the hot season from March to June, although they are commonly visible in the cold months from October to March. That they also remain in the tidal waters of the river during the rainy season from June to October is proved by the circum- stance that they are then frequently caught in fishing-nets, although the animals rarely show themselves above water. " This fact," writes Dr. Anderson, to whom we are indebted for a full account of the habits of this interesting Cetacean, " may be accounted for on the supposition that the strength of the current is so great when the Hughli is full that the dolphin is prevented from rising to the surface in the marked manner it does during the cold weather, when the current has slackened and there are comparatively quiet reaches in which it can disport. The disturbed state of the river when it is swollen doubtless renders the presence of the dolphin very difficult of detection, for at such times it will simply expose its blowhole — too restricted a surface to be noticed on the troubled waters. In the cold weather its presence can easily be detected, without its being seen, by the blowing sound it makes when it rises to breathe ; but, during the rains, the rush of water effectually drowns this means of becoming aware of its existence." This dolphin has been ob- tained one thousand miles above Calcutta ; and its upward range appears to be only checked by the presence of rocky barriers and the diminishing depth of the water of the river, aided perhaps by the increasing lowness of the temperature of the latter. Although this Cetacean does not collect in herds, several individuals may often 3S CETACEANS. be observed within a small area in the more placid reaches of the Indian rivers. Dr. Anderson writes that " it is difficult to say whether the Gangetic dolphin confines itself to limited areas when there is no disturbing cause at work, such as the rains, leading it to disperse itself over other channels and branches of the river, which are not accessible to it in the dry weather. In rising to breathe, the platanista may either simply expose the upper surface of its head, sufficiently to bring its blowhole above water, or, what is more common, plunge out of the water upwards, forwards, and downwards, first exhibiting its long snout, followed by two-thirds of its back. At such times it emits a short, blowing sound, which doubtless has given rise to the term [susu] generally applied to it along the Ganges and Bramaputra. During the cold months, in the quiet reaches, it even becomes THE CASUETIC DOLPHIN. at times extravagant in its movements, and will leap altogether out of the water with the tail curved downwards. As a rule, however, its respiratory visits to the surface are leisurely executed. I have had the rare opportunity of narrowly observing the respiratory movements of this dolphin from having had one alive for ten days in captivity. In its place of confinement this individual rose slowly to the surface, exposing the blowhole and a portion of its back. The blowhole opened whenever it reached the surface of the water, the characteristic expiratory sound was produced, and so rapid was inspiration that the blowhole seemed to close immediately after the expiratory act, and then the animal slowly subsided. The respirations were tolerably frequent, occurring at intervals of about one-half or three-quarters of a minute, and the whole act did not take more than a few seconds for its fulfilment." The food of the Gangetic dolphin consists principally of fish and prawns ; many x>f the fish consumed by it being mud-haunting species Food. FRESH-WATER DOLPHINS. 39 belonging to the cat-fish group (Silwridce). These are doubtless captured by the dolphin probing for them in the mud with its long snout. The captive specimen above mentioned fed on the fish with which it was supplied only during the night, but careful observations made on these dolphins in their native state prove that they feed by day as well as by night. Sometimes they may be seen among the shipping in the Hughli at Calcutta, in search of their favourite prawns during the daytime. The grain which is sometimes found in the stomachs of these animals appears to be swallowed unintentionally. The young are born from April to July, and it is but very rarely that there is more than one at a birth. The period of gestation is believed to be from eight to nine months. It is said that the young will hold on by its mouth to the base of one of the flippers of its parent ; but such a remarkable habit requires confirmation. The Amazonian The fresh-water dolphin of the Amazons (Inia geoffroyensis) Dolphin. more resembles a porpoise in general appearance than the last species. The long cylindrical beak, which carries from twenty-six to thirty-three teeth on each side of the jaws, is peculiar in being furnished with a number of sparsely distributed bristle-like hairs. The teeth are characterised by having a distinct tubercle on the inner side of the base of their crowns; and the back-fin is repre- sented merely by a low ridge. The males attain a length of about 7 feet, while the females are little more than half the size. In general, the upper-parts are blackish, and the under-parts reddish ; but individuals are found which are either entirely blackish or wholly reddish. The eye is well developed; and the flippers have not the fan-like shape characterising those of the (Jangetic dolphin. In the skeleton, the breast-bone is short and broad, and composed only of a single piece; while the horizontal transverse processes of the vertebra of the hinder portion of the trunk are remarkable for their great width. Distribution. The inia, or bouto, as the animal is called in various parts of and Habits. South America, is entirely fluviatile, and inhabits the upper portions of the Amazons and its affluents; ranging over the area of country included between the 10th and 1 7th parallels of south latitude. In addition to the bouto, there are the other species of dolphins, belonging to the family Delphlnidce, found in certain parts of the Amazons. One of these, called the tucuxi (a species of the genus Sotalia), when it comes to the surface to breathe rises, according to Bates, horizontally, showing first its long, low back-fin. It then draws an inspiration, and finally dives gently, head-foremost, down. On the other hand, when the bouto rises, " the top of the head is the part first seen ; it then blows, and immediately afterwards dips head downwards, its back curving over, exposing successively the whole dorsal ridge. It thus seems to pitch heels-over-head, but does not show the tail-fin. Besides this peculiar motion [which seems to be very similar to that of the Gangetic dolphin], it is distinguished from the tucuxi by its habit of generally going in pairs. Both species are exceedingly numerous throughout the Amazon and its larger tributaries, but they are nowhere more plentiful than in the shoaly water at the mouth of the Tocantins, especially in the dry season. In the upper Amazon, a third pale flesh-coloured species is also abundant.1 In the broader 1 Sotalia pallida, p. 62. 4° CETACEANS. parts of the Amazon, from its mouth to a distance of fifteen hundred miles in the interior, one or other of the three kinds here mentioned are always heard rolling, blowing, and snorting, especially at night, and these impressions contribute much to the impression of sea- wide vastness and desolation which haunts the traveller." As the native inhabitants of Amazonia have a great objection to kill the fresh-water dolphins, specimens are only procured with difficulty. THE AMAZONIAN DOLPHIN (A nat. size). TheLaPiata The small La Plata dolphin (Stenodelpkia blainviUei), from the Dolphin. estuary of the Rio de la Plata, differs from the preceding forms in the presence of a well-marked back-fin and the extreme elongation of the jaws, which cany from fifty to sixty teeth on each side. The blowhole, instead of forming a longitudinal slit, is crescent-shaped and placed transversely. In the skeleton the breastbone is long and composed of two distinct pieces. This species does not attain a greater length than 5 feet, and in some respects serves to connect the other members of the family with those of the one following. Allied Extinct The remains of a number of extinct dolphins have been discovered Doipnins. jn t]ie Tertiary deposits of various parts of the world, which appear more or less closely related to the existing members of this family. Among these, two species from Aigentina, respectively named Pontistes and Sav/roddpkis, approach the living St&nodeLphis ; while a third (Arijirniilelphi*) from Patagonia is noteworthy from having the nasal bones well developed and roofing over the hinder part of the nasal cavity in the manner characteristic of whalebone whales. PORPOISES AXD DOLPHIXS. 4i More remarkable, however, is the occurrence of another nearly-allied form (Iibiopgis) in the Tertiary of the Caucasus, which serves to confirm the view that the Platanistidce were a very ancient and widely-distributed family. Numerous other extinct dolphins, some of which approach those of the next family, have been described from North America and Europe, and referred to the present group. The Porpoises and Dolphins. Family l>ELrinxil>.E. The whole of the remaining members of the existing Cetacea, including those commonly known as narwhals, porpoises, grampuses, and dolphins, are referred to a single family, which contains a Ear greater number of species than any of the others. AH the members of this family are of small or medium size, and, witli the exception of the narwhal and Risso's dolphin, are Furnished with a numerous series of teeth in both the upper and lower jaws, the jaws themselves being either SKELETON- OF DOLPHIN. elongated or short. They are distinguished from the preceding family by the union between the two branches of the lower jaw being always considerably less than half the entile length of the jaw itself, and likewise by the manner in which the ribs are articulated to the backbone, as well as by certain features in the base of the skull. The vertebrae of the neck are generally characterised by the first two, three, or four being united together. The blowhole is always in the form of a transverselj'-placed crescent, with its two horns directed forwards. The majority of the dolphins (as it is convenient to term Habits. . collectively the whole of the members of the family) are of marine habits, but many of them frequent estuaries and ascend tidal rivers, while a few are more or less exclusively fresh-water. They have been divided into a considerable number of genera, but many of these are very closely allied, and mainly distinguished by differences in the skeleton. The Narwhal. Genus Mono/Jim. The strange-looking animal commonly known as the narwhal (3Ionodon monoceros) differs from all other members of the family by the enormous spirally- twisted tusk projecting from one side of the upper jaw of the male. This tusk is nearly always that of the left side, its fellow on the opposite side being only a few inches in length, and lying entirely concealed within the bone of the jaw, while in 42 CETACEANS the. females both tusks remain in a similar rudimentary condition. The developed tusk of the male is composed solely of ivory, and its spiral twist always runs from left to right. In form it is cylindrical, and tapers more or less markedly from root, to tip. Not unfrequently the tusk attains a length of from 7 to 8 feet, or more than half that of the entire animal. Very rarely narwhals are met with in which the right tusk is developed as well as the left, but there appears to be no known instance of the right tusk being developed while the left remains rudimentary ; and it is noteworthy that when the light tusk is developed it has the same left-to-right A SCHOOL OP NARWHALS (Vn uat. size). twist as its fellow. A fine narwhal's skull with two tusks is preserved in the Cambridge Museum. Apart from a few small rudimentary ones, which are irregular in their occurrence, the male narwhal has no teeth except the tusk, while the female — save for similar rudiments — is toothless. Although the presence of the tusk in the male narwhal, and the practically toothless condition of the female, are alone sufficient to distinguish the genus from all other dolphins, it is necessary to say something further regarding the form and structure of this singular animal. In the first place, the narwhal belongs to a group of dolphins characterised by their blunt and rounded heads, in which the muzzle shows no sign of being produced into a beak. A special character of the animal is to be found in the absence of a back-fin, which is represented merely by a low and PORPOISES AXD DOLPHINS. 43 ill-defined ridge. The flippers are short, wide, and rounded. In colour the narwhal is dark grey or dusky above and white beneath, the back and sides being irregularly mottled with various shades of grey. The entire length may vary from 12 to about 1G feet. A tusk measuring 8 feet in length had a basal girth of 7k inches. „. . ._ „ The narwhal resembles the Greenland whale in being an inhabit- Distnbution. " ant ot the icy polar seas, and like that species is circumpolar in its distribution ; it is, however, apparently local in its range, being, according to Captain Scammon, but rarely found in the seas accessible to the whalers who pass through the Behring Strait, Although seldom occurring to the south of the 65th parallel of north latitude, there are three instances (one in 1648, a second in 1800, and a third eight years later) of narwhals visiting the British coasts. From the extreme rarity of such occurrences, there is, however, no doubt that the individuals in question had been carried by currents out of their proper Libitat. From constant persecution, the numbers of the narwhal have been greatly reduced in the more accessible portions of its habitat : and according to Baron Noidenskibld, it is now never seen on the coasts of Novaia Zemlia. It is, however, more common at Hope Island, and large herds are reported from the seas between Spitsbergen and Novaia Zemlia. It is noteworthy that fossil remains of the narwhal have been found in the so-called forest-bed of the Norfolk coast, — a deposit laid down before the great cold of the glacial period, but when the temperature may have been steadily lowering, whereby Arctic animals were enabled to leave their more northerly haunts. Of the habits of narwhals, unfortunately very little is known. They are generally found in small schools, comprising from fifteen to twenty individuals; and were described long ago by Scoresby as being extremely playful in their disposition. Much has been written as to the use of the characteristic tusk, but nothing very definite has yet been ascertained with regard to it. That it is not employed for the purpose of procuring food, is perfectly evident from the fact of its absence in the female. A more probable suggestion is that it is used by the males in combats among themselves for the possession of the females ; in which case it should be regarded as a sexual appendage, analogous to the antlers of the deer. The food of the animal is stated to be mainly composed of cuttles and various crustaceans, together with small fishes. As a rule, but a single young is produced at a birth, but an instance of twins is on record. The narwhal is valued both for its ivory and its oil ; the latter Products. . . J being of superior quality to ordinary whale-oil. The ivory of the tusk is very dense in structure, and of a pure creamy-white colour : but since the tusk is hollow throughout the greater part of its length, its value is much less than it would be otherwise. The price of narwhal tusks, although very variable is, however, considerable. The White Whale. Genus Delphinapterus. Nearly allied to the narwhal is the white whale, or beluga (Bdphinapterus leucas), which is likewise an Arctic species. It resembles the narwhal in having 44 CETACEANS. the back-fin represented merely by a low ridge : and it also agrees with that animal, and thereby differs from the other members of the family, in having all the vertebrae of the neck separate. The flippers are short, very broad across the middle, and bluntly pointed ; and the short and rounded head is separated from the body by a slight constriction indicating the neck. The teeth are usually nine or ten in number on each side of the jaws: but vary in size, and are often irreg- ularly and obliquely implanted. The white whale attains a length of 16 or 16£ feet. In colour the young are light greyish brown ; but the skin of the adult is a Distribution. THE white whale (A nat. size). pure glistening white. Baron Nordenskiold says that the adult animal is singularly beautiful, the glistening white hide scarcely even showing a spot, scratch, or wrinkle. The white whale ranges as far northward as latitude 81° 35', while it occasionally straggles as far southward as Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, and the Scottish coasts. It occurs in large herds on the coasts of Spitsbergen and Novaia Zemlia, and especially frequents the neighbourhood of the mouths of rivers, up which it will ascend for considerable distances. Five instances of the occurrence of this species on the coasts of Scotland have been recorded ; the last of these being in the summer of 1879, when a specimen wras found near Dunrobin, Sutherlandshire, at ebb-tide, with its flukes caught between two short PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 45 posts, to which a net was fastened. Near by lay a salmon, which the white whale was supposed to have been pursuing when it was caught in this manner. In regard to its habits. Captain Scammon writes that, like most Habits of the other members of the family, the white whale " is fond of gathering in troops, yet we have observed that it generally advances in lines of seldom more than two or three abreast, or more frequently in single file ; spouting irregularly, and showing little of its form above water. When undulating along in this manner, it often makes a noise at the moment of coming to the surface to respire, which may be likened to the faint lowing of an ox, but the strain is not so prolonged. Sometimes these animals will gambol about vessels as porpoises do; but at the slightest noise upon the water, or at the discharge of firearms, they instantly disappear." This sp scies is fairly rapid in its motions, more especially in pursuit of the fish which constitute its chief food. When pursuing fish like halibut and flounders, the beluga frequently enters shoal-water, in which it can scarcely float ; but in such situations it is said to exhibit no alarm, and to make hut slight efforts to reach deeper waters. In addition to fish, the white whale also consumes cuttles and various crustaceans. In captivity the beluga is easily tamed, and exhibits considerable docility. A specimen was shown alive at the Westminster Aquarium in 1877, and another in 1878; but neither live 1 long. The white whale is killed for its blubber, flesh, and hide; a specimen measuring 16| feet in length, yielded one hundred gallons of oil. To give some idea of the commercial importance of this animal, it may be mentioned that in 1871 the Tromsoe whalers captured no less than 21 Ci 7 individuals, each of which was worth about £3; the catch that year appeals, however, to have been considerably above the average. The Greenlanders dry the flesh for winter use, and in parts of Siberia the Eskimo does are mainly fed on this meat. The fat is considered a luxurious dish in winter. In Russia, white whale skin is used for reins and traces : and it is now imported in some quantities into England under the name of porpoise-hide. In some of the Siberian rivers, white whale are harpooned and lanced in the ordinary manner ; but in other districts they are taken in nets from June to September. Porpoises. Genus Phoccena. The common porpoise (Phoccena communis), of the European seas, is the best- known representative of a genus readily distinguished from all the others by the characters of the teeth. These are from sixteen to twenty-six in number on each side of the jaws, and are very small, with flattened spade-like crowns separated from the roots by a distinct neck ; sometimes the upper border of the crown is entire, but in other cases it is divided into two or three distinct lobes. In size, porpoises are small; and the head has a rounded muzzle, without a beak. There is generally a fin on the back, although this is wanting in one species. The skull has a very broad palate, and the union between the two branches of the lower jaw is very short. There are 46 CETACEAXS. frequently one or more rows of horny tubercles on the front edge of the back-tin, or of the ridge which takes its place. Common The common porpoise is bj' far the best-known of all the Cetaceans Porpoise. frequenting the British coasts, generally keeping near the shores, and often ascending the larger rivers to considerable distances. It is characterised by having twenty-five to twenty-six teeth on each side of the jaws, by the sloping head, the equality in the length of the upper and lower jaws, and by the length of the mouth exceeding half that of the flipper. There is a large fin on the back, which is triangular in shape, and situated somewhat in advance of the middle of the total the common pORroisE (A nat. size). length of the animal. In length, the common porpoise measures about 5 feet, or rather more. The colour of the upper-parts is dark slate, or blackish, while the sides become gradually lighter till the colour fades into the pure white of the under- pays. In some cases there is a yellowish or pinkish tinge on the flukes. The distribution of this species is extensive, comprising the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, and the coasts of Europe. In Davis Strait it extends as far northwards as latitude 67° or 69°, and it also occurs on the Alaskan coasts ; while southwards it extends in America to the shores of New Jersey and Mexico. In the Mediterranean it is comparatively rare. Porpoises associate in shoals or herds of considerable size ; and their sportive gambols are probably familiar to most of our readers. Distribution. Haljits. PORPOISES AXD DOLPHIXS. 47 Few sights are, indeed, more interesting than to watch a shoal of these animals diving and sporting round a vessel, whether it be making rapid headway, or lying at anchor. At one moment will be seen the roll of the arched back, surmounted by the fin, as the porpoise swims along in a series of gentle curves : while at another the white belly will ilash in the sunlight as the creature turns on its side, or leaps completely out of the water. In the ordinary undulating mode of swimming, the porpoise just 1 irings its blowhole to the surface, breathes without checking its course, ponroisE diving. and then dips downwards, to expose the back-fin in the manner represented in our second illustration; this elegant motion being continued without intermission. Throughout its course, the flukes are the propelling instrument : the flippers being laid close against the sides during the onward movement, and only spread out to check its speed when the animal desires to stop. The food of the porpoise appar- ently consists exclusively of fish; mackerel, pilchards, and herrings, being its especial favourites, although it also consumes salmon. On the British coasts porpoises may frequently be seen in pursuit of shoals of mackerel and herrings, and when thus engaged are often caught in the nets set for the latter. The pairing- season is said to be in the summer, and it is believed that the single offspring is 48 CETACEANS. produced after a period of six months' gestation. Three porpoises which were enclosed by a fence in the Wareham River in Dorsetshire, many years ago, are reported to have incessantly uttered the most distressing cries, which were continued by night as well as by day. Porpoise- Formerly porpoises were esteemed in England for their flesh, Hunting-. but they are now taken mainly for their oil, although the skin is also sometimes used. The leather commonly known as porpoise-hide is, however, as we have already had occasion to mention, generally made from the skin of the white whale. On parts of the coast of North America, porpoise-shooting is regularly practised by the Indians ; and tliis pursuit affords to the Passamaquody tribe their chief means of support. The average yield of oil will be about three gallons, and in a good season an Indian may kill from one hundred to one hundred and fifty porpoises. " To make a successful porpoise-hunter," writes Mr. C. C. Ward, " requires five or six years of constant practice. Boys, ten or twelve years of age, are taken out in the canoes by the men, and thus early trained in the pursuit of that which is to form their main support in after years. Porpoise-shooting is followed at all seasons and in all kinds of weather — in the summer sea, in the boisterous autumn gales, and in the dreadful icy seas of mid-winter. In a calm summer day, the porpoise can be heard blowing for a long distance. The Indians, guided by the sound long before they can see the game, paddle rapidly in the direction from which the sound comes, and rarely fail to secure the porpoise. They use long smooth-bored guns, loaded with a handful of powder, and a heavy charge of double-B shot. As soon as the porpoise is shot, they paddle rapidly up to him and kill him with a spear, to prevent his flopping about and upsetting the canoe after they have taken him aboard. The manner of taking a porpoise on board is to insert two fingers of the right hand into the blowhole, take hold of the pectoral fin with the left hand, and lift the creature up until at least one half of his length is above the gunwale of the canoe, and then drag him aboard. This is comparatively easy to accomplish in smooth water, but when the feat is performed in a heavy sea, one can hardly realise the skill and daring required. In rough weather, with a high sea running, the Indian is compelled to stand up in his canoe when he fires, otherwise he could not see his game. In such work as this, one would suppose that upsets would be unavoidable ; but, strange to say, they seldom happen, and only under circumstances where the Indian's skill or foresight is unavailing." Although Mr. True believes that there are two other species of Indian Porpoise. . , .,..,. , . .. .,, , porpoise with back-fins inhabiting American waters, it will be unnecessary to allude further to them here ; and we accordingly pass on to the Indian porpoise (P. phoccenoides). This species is readily distinguished by the absence of the back-fin, and the reduced number of the teeth, of which there are about eighteen on each side of the jaws. Of small size, it is less than 4 feet in length, and is of a uniform black colour. It inhabits the shores of the Indian Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan ; and has been taken in many of the tidal rivers of India, and in the Yang-tse-Kiang, at a distance of nearly one thousand miles from its mouth. The following account of the habits of this species is given by Mr. F. W. Sinclair, who states that it " frequents the tidal creeks, PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 49 not ascending very far, and the sounds among the reefs and islands. It feeds chiefly on prawns, also on small cephalopods and fish. It does not appear to herd in schools, more than four or five, being rarely, if ever, seen together. Usually it is solitary ; the pairs seem to consist of female and calf, more often than male and female. The young (one in number) are born, apparently, about October. The roll of this porpoise is like that of P. communis. It does not jump or turn somer- saults, and is, on the whole, a sluggish little porpoise." It appears to be found only in shallow water. Heaviside's Dolphin. Genus Cephalorhynchus. Heaviside's dolphin (Cephalorhynchus heavisidei), from the Cape of Good Hope, is the typical representative of a genus which, according to Mr. True, includes four species, all inhabiting the warmer seas of the Southern Hemisphere. These dolpliins are of small size, and remarkable for their peculiar coloration. heaviside's dolphin. (From True, Bulletin of the L'.S. National Miiseum, 1889.) The head is conical, without any distinct beak ; and the teeth are small and sharp, varying in number from twenty-five to thirty-one on each side of the jaws. The back-fin is triangular or ovate ; and, except in one species, the flippers have a characteristic elliptical form. The coloration is black above and white below ; the white of the under-parts terminating posteriorly in a trident-shaped form, with the lateral prongs of the trident extending obliquely upwards on the sides. The total length of Heaviside's dolphin is about 4 feet; the number of teeth being from twenty -five to thirty. The white-fronted dolphin (C. albifrons), from New Zealand, is a rather larger species, with thirty-one teeth on each side. Nothing seems to be recorded as to the habits of these species. The Irawadi Dolphix. Genus Orcella. The upper waters of the Irawadi River are tenanted by a rather large dolphin or porpoise (Orcella fluminalis), which, together with a closely allied species, or variety (0. brevirostris), from the Bay of Bengal and its estuaries, as well as Singapore and Borneo, constitutes a distinct genus. These dolphins are characterised by their globe-like head, without beak, and their comparatively few and small teeth, which occupy nearly the whole length of the jaws, and number from thirteen vol. in. — 4 5o CETACEAXS. to seventeen in the upper, and from twelve to fifteen in the lower jaw. In form the teeth are conical and pointed, and they are set close together ; those in the front of the jaws of old animals being directed outwards. The back-tin is small and hook-like, while the flippers are of moderate size, broad at the base, and subovate in form. These dolphins attain a length of from 7 to 7h feet, and are of a slaty or blackish colour. In the Irawadi dolphin the colour is pale slaty above and whitish below, with numerous irregular streaks on the sides; but in the one inhabiting the Bay of Bengal the colour is uniformly blackish without any streaks. The latter form, whether it be specifically distinct from the dolphin of the Irawadi. or merely a variety, appears never to ascend the rivers beyond the distance influenced by the tides, while the Irawadi dolphin never descends to the estuaries. The following account of the habits of the Irawadi dolphin is taken from Dr. J. Anderson, who writes that it " has much the character of its marine fellows, being generally seen in small schools, which frequently accompany the river steamers, careering in front and alongside of them, as is the custom of the dolphins of the sea. Occasionally, however, a solitary individual may be observed, but this is the exception, as two or three are usually associated together, hence this may be considered as a gregarious form. In the defile below Bhamo, where the river runs for ten miles over a deep bed forty to sixty fathoms in depth, and from two hundred to five hundred yards in width, and defined by high, wooded hills on either side, numerous troops of dolphins may be observed passing up and down, rising every minute or two to the surface to emit the short blowing sound, which ends in the more feeble one of inspiration, and all night through this sound may be heard They never leave the deep water : and when they rise to breathe (which they do in periods varying from sixty to one hundred and seventy seconds, although occasionally exceeded) the blowhole is first seen, then at the end of the inspiration the head disappears and the back comes into view, and is gradually exposed as far as the dorsal fin, but the tail- flippers are rarely visible. The act of breathing is rapid, so much so indeed that it requires a very expert marksman to take aim and fire before the animal disappears. I have observed some of them disporting themselves in a way that has never yet been recorded of Cetacea, as far as I am aware. They swam with a rolling motion near the surface, with their heads half out of the water, and every now and then fully exposed, when they ejected great volumes of water out of their mouths, generally straight before them, but sometimes nearly vertically . . . On one occasion I noticed an individual standing upright in the water, so much so that one-half of its pectoral fins was exposed, producing the appearance against the background as if the animal was supported on its flippers. It suddenly disappeared, and again, a little in advance of its former position, it bobbed up in the same attitude, and this it frequently repeated The Shan boatmen who were with me seemed to connect these curious movements with the season. — spring — in which the dolphins breed." The food of this dolphin apparently consists exclusively of fish. Dr. Anderson adds that " the fishermen believe that the dolphin purposely draws fish to their nets, and each fishing-village has its particular guardian dolphin, which receives a name common to all fellows of his school ; and it is this superstition which makes it so difficult to obtain specimens of this Cetacean." PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 51 The Killer, or Grampus. Genus Orca. One of the largest, and at the same time the most ferocious, of all the dolphin family is the killer, or killer whale, frequently also known as the grampus (Orca gladiator). It is characterised as a genus by its large size, and the conical and depressed head, devoid of a beak. The back-tin is of great length, especially in the males; and the nippers are large and broadly ovate. The teeth (as shown in our figure) are comparatively few in number, varying from ten to thirteen on each Bide of the jaws. and are much larger than in any dolphins yet noticed, being often an inch or more in diameter, and having an oval-section. The coloration is striking, the upper-parts and tins being black, THE KIRST SIX UPPEH TEETH 0F THE ^ while the lower jaw, chest, ami under-parts are (From Sir W. H. Flower.) whitish. The white area of the under-parts doe.-, not, however, extend to the flukes, but ends posteriorly in a trident, of which the lateral and shorter prongs extend obliquely upwards on the flanks. There is a large white streak above and behind the eye: and frequently at least a purple crescentic area extends across the back behind the tin. The killer attains a length of at least 20 feet In spite of many nominal species having been recognised, there Distribution. l J l .... can be little doubt that the killer has a cosmopolitan distribution : ranging from Greenland in the north to the coasts of Australia in the south. Although chiefly keeping to the open sea, killers occasionally ascend tidal rivers; and three specimens were observed in the Thames in the spring of 1890. These individuals entered the river during the night, and on the following morning were seen swimming up and down the reach between Battersea and Chelsea Bridges. After continuing there for several hours, they at length headed for the sea, which they probably reached, as there is no record of their having been attacked. When at sea, killers may always be recognised by their tall and nearly vertical back-fin. They generally associate in small parties : and subsist not only on fish, but likewise on the flesh of other members of their own order, as well as on that of seals. Captain Scammon writes that " the killers exhibit a boldness and cunning peculiar to their carnivorous propensities. At times they are seen in schools, undulating over the waves, — two, three, six, or eight abreast, — and, with the long, pointed fins above their arched backs, together with their varied marks and colours, they present a pleasing and somewhat military aspect. But generally they go in small squads, — less than a dozen, — alternately showing themselves above the surface of the water, or gliding just below, when nothing will be visible but their projecting dorsals ; or they disport themselves by rolling, tumbling, and leaping nearly out of the water, or cutting various antics with their flukes. At such times, they usually move rapidly over the surface of the sea, and soon disappear in the distance." It appears that at times both the 52 CETACEAXS. long-finned males and the shorter-finned females may be found in the same school, while at other times the two sexes keep apart. The swiftness of the killer is very- great, as it is able to overtake the smaller dolphins, which it swallows alive. Its voracity is apparently insatiable : Eschricht stating that one of these animals was known to swallow four porpoises in succession, while from the stomach of another individual, whose length did not exceed 16 feet, were taken fourteen seals. whales attacked Like the other larger members of the order, the Greenland whale by Killers. js sometimes attacked by a party of killers. Writing on the subject of these attacks Captain Scammon says that " three or four of these voracious animals do not hesitate to grapple with the largest baleen-whale ; and it is surprising to see those leviathans of the deep so completely paral\-sed by the presence of their natural, although diminutive enemies. Frequently the terrified animal — comparatively of enormous size and superior strength — evinces no effort to escape, but lies in a helpless condition, or makes but little resistance to the assaults of its merciless destroyers. The attack of these wolves of the ocean upon their THE KILLER. Prom True, Bulletin of the V.S. /rational Museum, 1889.) gigantic prey may be likened in some respects to a pack of hounds holding a stricken deer at bay. They cluster about the animal's head, some of their number breaching over it, while others seize it by the lips and draw the bleeding monster under water: and when captured, should the mouth be open, they eat out its tongue. We once saw an attack made by three killers upon a cow whale and her calf, in a lagoon on the coast of California in the spring of 1858. The whale was of the California grey species, and her young was grown to three times the bulk of the largest killers engaged in the contest, which lasted for an hour or more. They made alternate assaults upon the old whale and her offspring, finally killing the latter, which sank to the bottom, when' the water w;is five fathoms deep. During the struggle the mother became nearly exhausted, having received several deep wounds about the mouth and lips. As soon as their prize had settled to the bottom, the three killers descended, bringing up large pieces of flesh in their mouths, which they devoured after coming to the surface. While gorging themselves in this wise, the old whale made her escape, leaving a track of gory water behind." On the 9th of September 180:1 when off the coast of Minas Geraes, Brazil, at no great distance from the islands of Los Abrolhos. in long. 39° W., lat. 18° S., the attention of the present writer was attracted by the appearance of a whale and some other creatures at a distance of apparently something less than a quarter of PORPOISES AND DOLPHIXS. 53 a mile from the ship. The whale was a fhmer, or humpback, of no very great size, and was seen spouting, and again descending. Immediately after its first descent there appeared above the surface of the sea what seemed to be the tail-fin of some animal unknown. This supposed fin was raised in a vertical position, where it remained vibrating for some seconds and then suddenly disappeared. In colour it was a pure glistening white : while in form it appeared to be laterally com- pressed, with sharp edges ami an acute termination. It gave the impression of belonging to some animal which was engaged in attacking the whale beneath the surface ; and I should estimate its height above the water approximately at 5 or (> feet. Soon after the disappearance of this strange white object, the broad black head of what I presume to have been a killer was seen above the water ; anil in a few seconds the whale itself again rose to spout. That these black animals, which appeared to be harrassing and attacking the whale, were killers, I have no reason- able doubt ; but the question arises as to the nature of the animal to which the strange white tail-like object seen standing above the water could have belonged. My impression at the time was that it must be the upper lobe of the tail of some enormous shark allied to the threshers (Alopecias) ; and this impression has been confirmed by a subsequent examination of the stuffed specimens of that genus in the British Museum. The thresher is, however, a black shark: while the minute size of its teeth seems to discredit the common accounts of its attacking whales. Unless, however, it could have been the flipper of a humpback, I am at a loss to imagine to what other animal the aforesaid white tail-like object could have belonged, save to some gigantic shark allied to the thresher, but of a white colour, and probably armed with much larger teeth. The Lesser Killer. ' fenus Pseudorca. An adventitious interest attaches to the Cetacean known as the lesser killer (Pseudorca crassidt as) owing to its having been originally described on tin- evidence of a skull dug up in the Lincolnshire fens, which was for a long time regarded as pertaining to an extinct species. This animal is distinguished from the killer by its smaller back-fin, the pointed flippers, and the cylindrical roots of the teeth, as well as by certain features in the structure of the skull. In colour the lesser killer is entirely black ; and it attains the length of about 14 feet. There are generally eight teeth in the upper jaw on each side, and ten in the lower jaw This species appears to be cosmopolitan, having been met with in small herds on the coast of Denmark, and also in Tasmania. Its habits are probably somewhat similar to those of the killer. The Blackfish. ( !enus Glohiocepltiil us. The blackfish (Globiocephalus melas) derives its English name from its nearly uniform black coloration, while its generic title refers to the characteristic globular 54 CETACEANS. form of the head. In size this species is one of the largest representatives of the family, attaining a length of about 20 feet. In addition to its beakless globular head, the blackfish is characterised by the long, low, and thick back-fin, the long and narrow flippers, and the small size and number of the teeth, which are confined to the front of the jaws. The usual number of the teeth is from eight to twelve on each side of the jaws, but in a distinct variety or species from the Bay of Bengal they are rather fewer. The skull is very broad and much depressed : and the union between the two branches of the the blackfish (& nat. size). lower jaw very short. In the typical form there is a large spear-shaped white area on the chest, extending from the comers of the mouth to the flippers. This white area is, however, absent in certain forms, which have been regarded as indicating distinct species. The ordinary blackfish has a wide distribution, having been obtained from the coasts of Europe, the Atlantic coast of North America, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Mr. True considers, however, that the blackfish of the North Pacific (G. scammoni), and also the one found on the Atlantic coast to the south of New Jersey, are distinct species : and there is also some evidence of the existence of a fourth in the Bay of Bengal. In Europe Distribution. PORPOISES AND DOLPHINS. 55 the blacktish or, as it is often called, the pilot-whale, or ca'ing whale, is a frequent although irregular visitant to the British coasts; and it occasionally extends as far north as Greenland. In the Mediterranean it appears to be rare. The blacktish is the most gregarious of all the Cetaceans Habits . assembling in herds which frequently comprise from two hundred to three hundred individuals, and occasionally include as many as one thousand or even two thousand. The members of a herd always blindly follow a leader, after the manner of a flock of sheep, and from this strange habit the species derives its names of pilot-whale and ca'ing ( = driving) whale. Curiously enough, if the leader of a herd happen to run into shoal-water and become stranded, the other members follow suit: and in this way large numbers are often captured by the inhabitants of Iceland and the Faroe, Orkney, and Shetland Islands. In disposition this species is mild and gentle, and thus offers a marked contrast to the killer. Its chief and favourite food is cuttle-fish, but it is said also to eat fish. The young, of which there is generally but one at a birth, are said to be born in the late summer, and suckled throughout the winter. Regarding their capture in the islands of the North Sea and ap ure. Atlantic, t}le late Prof. Bell writes that, on the appearance of a herd, "the whole fishing squadron of the neighbourhood is put into requisition, each boat being provided with a. quantity of stones. The first object is to get to seaward of the victims, then the boats are formed into a large semicircle, and the whole herd is driven into some bay or creek. The stones are thrown to splash and frighten the whales if they try to break back ; and in Faroe ropes are stretched from boat to boat, with wisps of straw hung at intervals. Should one whale break through the line all is lost, as the rest will follow it in spite of every exertion of the fishermen. But if they are forced into shallow water, they plunge wildly on till they strand them- selves, and then the whole population rush upon them, armed with harpoons, spears, hatchets, picks, spades, — any weapon that comes to hand, — and the cries and dying struggles of the poor animals, the shouts of the men, the clash of the weapons, and the bloody and troubled sea combine to form an extremely exciting, if somewhat revolting scene." It is stated that in this manner no less than 1110 blacktish were captured in Iceland in the winter of 1809-10, while upwards of 2080 were taken in Faroe within a period of six weeks during the year 1845. Risso's Dolphin. Genus Grampus. Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) is a rare and rather large species, which appears to be the only representative of its genus, and is easily recognised by the peculiar striped character of the skin ; the arrangement of the stripes and the general coloration presenting a large amount of individual variation. It is dis- tinguished from all other dolphins, except the female narwhal, by the total absence of teeth in the upper jaw ; while in the lower jaw there are only from three to seven small teeth on each side, and these confined to the anterior region of the jaw. In general external characteristics Risso's dolphin approaches very closely to the 56 CETACEANS. blackfish, but the front of the head is less completely globe-like, and the length of the nippers somewhat less. The mouth is obliquely placed, and the lower jaw shorter than the upper ; while the back-fin is high and pointed. The flukes are very narrow. The general colour is slaty grey, mottled, and very irregularly streaked. As a rule, the back, with its fin, and the flukes are dark grey or blackish, more or less tinged with purple ; while the flippers are blackish, mottled with grey. The head and fore-half of the body are light grey, of vaiying tint, and more or less tinged with yellow ; the under-parts are greyish white ; and the whole body is marked with a number of irregular and unsymmetrically arranged light stria?. In the young the colour is dark grey above, and greyish white below, with the head yellowish white: and the flukes marked with five or more narrow and nearly vertical lines, placed at almost equal distances from one another. In length the animal measures about 13 feet when full grown. Risso's dolphin appears to have an almost world-wide distribution, although not occurring in the polar seas. It has been recorded from RISSO'S DOLPHFX. (From True. Bulletin of tht U.S. National Museum, 1889.) the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans, the North Sea, the Mediterranean, the Cape of Good Hope, and Japan. Several examples have been taken on the British coasts. One of these was killed at Puckaster, Isle of Wight, in 1843 : while a second was captured in a mackerel-net near the Eddystone Lighthouse in 1870. A third specimen sold in Billingsgate market in the latter year was probably taken in the Channel ; and a fourth, also caught in the Channel, near Chichester, was kept alive for a day in the Brighton Aquarium in 1875. The fifth example was caught in 1886 in the same manner, and near the same locality as the second. In the autumn of 1889 a shoal of nine of ten or these Cetaceans were observed off Hillswick, Shetland, of which six were captured by fishermen ; and in 1892 a single specimen was taken in the Solway. Beyond the fact that its chief food consists of cuttle-fish, nothing definite appears to be known as to the habits of this species. The Short-Beaked Dolphins. Genus Lagenorhynclt us. Under the general title of short-beaked dolphins may be included a group of several small species, serving to connect the beakless forms with those furnished PORPOISES AXD DOLPHIXS. 57 with distinct beaks, ani 1 remarkable for their stn rogly-contrasting coloration. They are generally characterised by the head having a short and not very well-defined ploughshare-like beak, although in one species the head is pointed and beakless. The fin and flippers are of moderate size; and the tail has very prominent ridges. The teeth are variable in size and number ; the beak of the skull is flat, and not longer than the hinder part of the same ; and the onion between the two branches of the lower jaw is short. The coloration takes the form of two light-coloured areas of variable size on the sides, separated from one another by irregular, oblique dark band-. Representath es of this genus are found in most of the temperate and tropical seas, and two species have been taken oti'the British coasts. white-Sided Of the two British species, the white-sided dolphin (Lageno- Doiphin. rhynchua acutus), is blackish grey above, and white beneath, with a broad band of yellowish brown between the two, in the middle of which is a large white patch: while a narrow black band extends from the flukes nearly to the line of the back-fin. and another runs from the base of the flipper to a point THE PACIFIC SHORT-BEAKED DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) between the eye and the mouth ; the eye being surrounded by a black ring. The length varies from G to 8 feet. This species inhabits the North Atlantic and the North Sea. It is very rare on the British coasts, although said to be not unfre- quently seen oft' the Orkneys. Pacific snort- The species figured to represent this genus (L. crucigeru) is one Beaked Dolphin. fnim the Pacific, which is selected on account of the marked contrasts of black and white. It has a short beak, only slightly marked oft" from the skull. In colour, the muzzle, the forehead, the back, and the fin, flippers, and flukes are black ; while a broad black band runs from the eye and the base of the flipper along each side to the flukes ; the other parts of the body being a more or less pure white. White-Beaked The second species of this genus which has been met with on Dolphin. the British coasts is the white-beaked dolphin (L. albirostris) ; this species resembling the white-sided dolphin in general form, but having a more swollen head, a narrower and more sloping back-fin, and longer flippers. It takes its distinctive name from the fact of the muzzle, including the extremities of both jaws, being white, more or less tinged with grey. The upper-parts are black, the sides greyish, and the under-parts white, frequently of a creamy hue ; while there are three more or less distinctlv defined whitish areas on the flanks, placed one 5S CETACEANS. behind the other, and more or less mottled with darker tints. There is also a similar light area behind the blowhole on the back, and another near the root of the flukes. There is, however, considerable individual variation in regard to the coloration. When freshly-stranded specimens come under observation, the black of the back is often seen to be shot with a rich purplish tint, and the whole coloration is then exceedingly beautiful. There are usually about twenty-six teeth on each side of the jaws ; and the length attained by adults is from 8 to 9 feet. The white-beaked dolphin inhabits the North Atlantic, the North Sea, and the Baltic, ranging as far northward as Greenland and Davis Strait. Between the years 1834 and 1885, a total of nineteen specimens of the dolphin had been taken in British waters; and since the latter date a specimen was taken on the Irish coast in 1887, and a third in the river < Joint in 1889. The Teue Dolphins. Genus Ddphinus. The true dolphins bring us to the first genus of the second great group of the family, which includes all the forms with distinct beaks, except the short-beaked dolphins just described. The beak is generally distinctly marked oft" from the forehead by a V-shaped groove: and in the skull the beak considerably exceeds the brain-cavity in length. In the skeleton the first two vertebra of the neck are united, but the other five remain separate. All the members of the group are of comparatively small size, most of them not exceeding 10 feet in length Dolphins associate in shoals, and feed mostly on fish, although some of them at least also consume crustaceans and molluscs. The common dolphin (Ddphinus ddphis), which apparently Common Dolphin. .. . ., . frequents all temperate and tropical sea--, is the typical representative of the genus Delphinus, which presents the following characteristics. The beak is long, and the back-fin and flippers are elongated and falcate. In the skull the bony beak is long and narrow, and generally about twice the length of the region of the brain-case. The jaws are furnished with a numerous series of teeth, varying from about forty to sixty-five on each side, which are sharply pointed, with their bases oval in section. The bony union between the two branches of the lower jaw is short. The common dolphin has a slender body and small head ; the beak being long and narrow, and the flippers about three times as long as broad, with their extremities pointed. There is considerable individual variation in colour, but usually the back is dark grey, the under-parts white or whitish, and the flanks marked by varying bands of grey or fulvous. The length of the animal is about 7i feet, and there are from forty-one to fifty teeth in the upper, and from forty- five to fifty-one in the lower jaw. There seems no doubt that this species is the dolphin of the Habits. . , . . r n ■ , ancients, although the pictorial representations on old coins, and the descriptions of the habits of the animal which have come down to us from the writers of antiquity, are alike untitle to nature. The species is occasionally met PORPOISES AXD DOLPHLXS. 59 with around the coasts of Britain, but it is much rarer off Scotland than in the south. It is not uncommonly captured in fishing-nets, and examples have from time to time been exposed for sale in Billingsgate market. Like the other dolphins, this species associate in shoals. "The excessive activity and playfulness of its gambols," writes Bell, " and the evident predilection which it exhibits for society, are recorded by every mariner. Large herds of these animals will surround a ship in full sail with the most eager delight, throwing themselves into every ^s,t^y»^p THE COMMON DOLI'MIN i'= n it. sizi). possible attitude, and tossing and leaping about with elegant and powerful agility, for no apparent purpose save mere pastime." In the British seas the chief food of this species is formed by herrings and pilchards. The dolphin is said to utter a low murmuring sound. A single offspring is produced at a birth, and is tended by the female parent with assiduous care. Formerly the flesh of the dolphin was eaten in England and other European countries. There are several other species more or less closely allied to the species. conimon dolphin, although some of them are still very imperfectly known. Such are Dussumier's dolphin (D. dussumieri), from the Malabar coast of India, and the Cape dolphin (D. capensis), from the Cape of Good Hope. The red-bellied dolphin (D. roseiventris), from the Moluccas and Torres Straits, is a 6o CETACEAXS. small species, not exceeding 4 feet in length, with forty-eight teeth on each side of the jaws, which has a skull intermediate between that of the common dolphin and the next species. The slender dolphin (D. atteniMtus) may be taken as an RED-BELLIED DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) example of a group of several species, distinguished from the common dolphin and its allies by the palate being nearly flat, instead of deeply hollowed on each side in its posterior portion. Most of them are further distinguished by the skin THE SLENDER DOLPHIN. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. Xational Museum, 1889.) being either spotted, or marked with longitudinal bands. The slender dolphin is a spotted species from the Atlantic and the Cape of Good Hope ; while the Malayan dolphin (D. malayanus), from the Indian Ocean, which attains a length of Q\ feet, is uniform ashy grey. The Bottle-Nosed Dolphins. Genus Twrsiops. The bottie-nosed dolphin, or, as it is often incorrectly called, porpoise (Tarsiops twrsio), is the best known of three or four species constituting a genus distinct from Delph in us. The general fonn of these dolphins is stout, with the beak shorter and more tapering than in the true dolphins, and the number of teeth considerably less — not exceeding from twenty-two to twenty-six on each side of the jaws. The bottle-nosed dolphin attains a length of from 9 J feet to 12 feet. In colour it is usually purplish grey above, passing gradually into pure white on the under- parts ; but some specimens are black above and pale grey below, while others are grey all over. PORPOISES AND DOLPHIXS. 61 This species appears to range over all temperate and tropical seas, being occasionally met with, on the British coasts. An example was taken at Holyhead in the autumn of 1868 ; a second was stranded in 1888 on the coast of Kirkcudbrightshire ; while two entered the river Humber in 1889. Till recently very little was known as to the habits of this species, H'ibits but the establishment of a fishery for its capture at Hatteras, in North Carolina, has enabled Mr. F. W. True to gather some information on this subject. It appears that these dolphins are abundant off the coasts of Hatteras, and associate in schools of considerable size. On the 19th of May fourteen of these animals were secured at one haul of the nets in the morning, while in the afternoon of the same day no less than sixty-six were taken. In the spring the schools generally comprise a nearly equal number of individuals of each sex, and include animals of all ages ; but later on in the season they are more uniform as regards sex and age, some herds consisting only of old males. It is believed that these dolphins migrate northward in the spring, and southward in the autumn, although a few remain at BOTTLE-NOSED DOLPHIN". (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) Hatteras throughout the year. The breeding-season commences in the spring, but in the more northerly districts appears to be continued on into the summer. When the old ones were captured in the nets, the young would remain close alongside. The largest specimen caught at Hatteras measured 12 feet in length and yielded twenty-four gallons of oil ; but the average product during the winter is only about eight gallons. Some idea of the number of these dolphins frequenting the Carolina seas may be gathered from the fact that between 15th November 1884 and the middle of the following May, no less than twelve hundred and sixty-eight of them were caught at Hatteras. The Rough-Toothed Dolphins. Genus Steno. The rough-toothed dolphin (Steno frontatus), from the Indian and Atlantic oceans, is the representative of a genus comprising several more or less nearly allied species, mostly confined to the warmer seas. They are distinguished by the great length of the beak, which is distinctly marked off from the head, and in the dried skull is very narrow and compressed ; and also by the length of the bony 62 CETACEANS. union between the two branches of the lower jaw, which exceeds one-quarter the total length of the jaw. The teeth vary in number from twenty to twenty-five on each side of the jaws ; and are of rather large size, with the crowns often marked by vertical groovings. The colour is variable. The rough-toothed dolphin attains a length of 8| feet; and takes its name from its coarsely-fluted teeth. The colour of the upper-parts is purplish black, the sides being marked with rather large star-shaped spots, and the snout and under- parts white, tinged with purple and rose-colour, and ornamented with purple spots. The plumbeous dolphin (8. plwmbeus) of the Indian Ocean, has an extremely long THE KOUGH-TOOTHED DOLPHIN. (From True. Bulletin 0/ the L'.S. National Museum, 1S89.) beak, and is of a uniform leaden-grey colour, with the exception of the extremity and under surface of the lower jaw, which are white. A third species from the Indian seas is the speckled dolphin (S. lentiginosus), which above is of a leaden- grey colour, with numerous long, drop-shaped spots, most of which are pure white, but others slaty or black ; while below it is white, more or less mottled with grey. Loxg-Beaked Riyer-Dolphixs. Genus Sotalia. Under the above title may be included several species of dolphins closely allied to those of the preceding genus, but distinguished by their fluviatile or estuarine habits, and the smaller number of joints in the backbone. Their teeth are always smooth ; and the flippers very broad at the base. They must not be confounded with the fresh-water dolphins of the family Platanistidce. Amazonian Dolphins of this group are abundant in the upper portions of the Dolphins. Amazon, but there is still great uncertainty as to whether these belong to one or to three species, or whether all or any of these are distinct from the Brazilian dolphin (Sotalia bra*ilien$is) of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. There is also a closely allied form (S. guianensis) from Cayenne. Of the Amazonian dolphins one is commonly known as the tucuxi (8. facaxi), a second as the pale river-dolphin (S. pallida), and a third as (S. fiuviatilis), which differ chiefly in coloration, the relative length of the fins, and the number of teeth. The pale dolphin, which is figured in the accompanying illustration, has the upper-parts and flukes yellowish white, and the under-parts and flippers white. A notice of some of the habits of the tucuxi has been given above on p. 39. SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS. 6 o cuinese white Another representative of this group is the Chinese white dolphin Dolphin. (g sinensis), from Quemoy Island, in the harbour of Amoy, and the Foochow and Canton rivers. It is said to be characterised by its general milk- white colour, pinkish fins, and black eyes. Camerun The most interesting member of this group is, however, the Dolphin. recently described Camerun dolphin (S. teuzsi) from the estuaries and THE PALE HIVKK-DOLPHIX. (From True, Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum, 1889.) rivers of the Camerun district of Western Africa, which is reported to be of herbivorous habit. If this alleged habit should be confirmed, this dolphin will differ not only from all the other members of the family to which it belongs, but likewise from all other living Cetaceans. Squalodonts and Zeuglodonts. Families SQUALODOXTID.-E and ZEUGLODONTID.E. In addition to numerous extinct representatives of the existing Cetacean families, to some of which reference has been made above, there are two extinct groups which cannot be included in either of the existing families ; one of these differing very much indeed from all modern Cetaceans. The name of squalodonts (genus Squalodon) is applied to the members of the first of these two groups on account of the somewhat shark-like structure of their cheek-teeth. In the general characters of their skulls these Cetaceans approximate to the modern dolphins, from which they are, however, at once distinguished by the teeth being of different characters in different parts of the jaws, as in ordinary mammals. They have a total of fifteen teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws. Of these the first four are of simple structure, and correspond to the incisors and canines of other mammals ; the next four, which are also comparatively simple, appear to represent the premolars ; while the last seven have two roots, and laterally-compressed triangular crowns, with sharp cutting edges, upon which there are a number of cusps arranged in a saw- like manner. The squalodonts, which are found in Miocene and Pliocene forma- tions, both in the Old and New World, clearly form one step between modern Cetaceans and ordinary mammals. And, so far as the structure of their teeth can be relied upon, they appear to suggest a kinship between Cetaceans and Carnivores. 64 CETACEAXS. Zeuglodonts. Very different from the above are the still earlier forms known as zeuglodonts (genus Zeuglodon), wliich appear to be mainly or entirely confined to the Eocene Tertiary, and have been obtained from regions as far asunder as North America, Western Europe, the Caucasus, and Australia and New Zealand. So different, indeed, were these animals from all existing Cetaceans, that it has even been doubted whether they can be included within the limits of the same order. Some of them rivalled the larger whales in point of size, while the Caucasian species was not larger than an ordinary dolphin. The zeuglodonts had teeth of the same general type as those of the squalodonts, but those of the cheek-series were fewer in number, the premolars and molars together being apparently only five on each side. The skull differs from that of ordinary Cetaceans in having elongated nasal bones, and the cavity of the nose placed more forwardly, as well as in certain other features ; all these points of difference being in the direction of ordinary mammals. Unfortunately, we know but very little of the structure of the limbs. The humerus, or bone of the upper arm, is, however, proportionately much longer than in modern Cetaceans, although it has flattened articular surfaces at its lower end, showing that the bones of the fore-arm had scarcely any free motion, and thus indicating that the fore- limbs were modified into flippers. So far as they can be determined, the general characters of these zeuglodmit^ are such as we should expect to find in an ancestral group of Cetaceans : but it is remarkable that the body appears to have been protected by an armour of bony plates. CHAPTER XXXI. The Rodents, — Order Rodextia. Squirrels, Marmots, and Beavers. UNDER the common title of Gnawing or Rodent Mammals are grouped that exti osive assemblage of small or medium-sized species which, like rats, porcupines, beavers, squirrels, and hares, are characterised by their habit of gnawing. At the present day these creatures are more numerously represented than in any other .Mammalian order, both as regards individuals and species; the number of the latter being probably fully one thousand, while the swarms of individuals by which some species arc represented are too well known to need more than passing mention. Nearly all the Rodents are inhabitants of the dry land, and a large proportion of them seek protection from enemies by living in subterranean burrows which they construct for themselves, and wherein they generally associate in larger or smaller colonies. Some, however, like the water-vole and the beaver, are aquatic ; while others, like the squirrels and tree-porcupines, lead an arboreal life. A few, again, have acquired the power of spurious flight through the development of folds of skin along the sides of the body and limbs, by the aid of which they are enabled to take long flying leans. The Rodents are some of the most easily defined of all mammals, and are best characterised by the number and nature of their teeth — especially those in the front of the jaws. They are distinguished by the presence in each jaw of a pair of large chisel-like front or incisor teeth, which grow continuously throughout the life of their owners. As a rule, no other incisor teeth, save these two pairs, are developed, but in the hares and rabbits and their allies a second smaller pair occur behind those of the upper jaw. There are no tusks or canine teeth in either jaw, and in the cheek-series the number of premolars is always reduced below the normal four, very generally only one of these teeth being present, while in some cases even this may be wanting. In consequence of the reduced number of incisor teeth, coupled with the absence of canines and the reduction in the premolars, the skull of a Rodent is always distinguished by the presence of a long gap between the front and the cheek-teeth. Indeed, the presence in all Rodents of only a single pair of chisel-shaped and permanently -growing lower incisors, opposed to a corresponding pair in the upper jaw, the total absence of canines, the long gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, and the reduction in the number of the premolars, are of themselves sufficient to distinguish the Rodent order from all other mammals, with the exception of the aye-aye among the lemurs. Among other distinctive characteristics of the group, the following may be vol. in. — 5 66 RODENTS. mentioned The feet are usually furnished with five toes, which generally terminate in sharp claws, although they sometimes have broad nails. In walking, either the whole or the greater part of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground, so that these animals may be described as entirely or partially plantigrade. Rodents are nearly always furnished with collar-bones (clavicles), although these may be more or less imperfectly developed, and are thereby broadly distinguished from all living Ungulates. Their skulls are characterised by the condyle of the lower jaw being elongated from front to 1 lack, instead of from side to side, and thus permitting of that backwards-and- forwards motion of the lower upon the upper jaw. which is so noticeable when we watch a rabbit feeding ; this cbar- SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE FRAIRIE-MARMOT. UCti T Serving tO distinguish RoddltS alike from Ungulates and from Carni- vores. Another point in connection with the skull is that the cavity for the eye is not separated behind by a bar of bone from the temporal fossa; this feature serving to distinguish the Rodents from the aye-aye, in which the eye-socket is surrounded by a bony ring. The teeth being so important in the definition of the Rodents Teeth. . ... require somewhat fuller consideration. With regard to the incisors, it may be observed that these teeth are of great length, and curved nearly in the arc of a circle ; their inserted portion extending far backwards in the jaws, so that in the upper jaw it comes nearly in contact with the base of the first of the cheek- teeth, while in the lower jaw it runs beneath the whole of the cheek-series. The lower incisors form ! small segment of a very large circle (roughly speaking), while the upper ones constitute a much greater segment of a far smaller circle. In the great majority of Rodents the enamel on the incisor teeth is confined almost exclusively to their front surface, and is generally thicker on one side than on the other; but in the hares and rabbits it also extends somewhat on to the lateral surfaces. In cross-section these teeth are somewhat triangular : the front enamel- covered surface being broad and flattened, and the two lateral surfaces gradually converging to a rounded posterior edge. Whereas, however, the inner surface, which comes in contact with the tooth on the opposite side of the jaw, is nearly flat, the outer surface is convex. As a natural result of the front surface of these teeth being composed of the hard enamel (which is very frecmently of an orange or reddish colour), whereas the remaining portion consists of much softer ivory, it follows that the effect of wear is to produce a sharp chisel-edge at their summits. Indeed, the structure of an incisor tooth of a Rodent is precisely analogous to a chisel : the hard enamel corresponding to the steel with which the latter is faced, and which forms the cutting edge, while the ivory represents the soft iron forming the support to the thin plate of steel. As these incisor teeth are continually grow- ing, they always present the same chisel-like edges, which are worn away by use at a rate commensurate with that of the growth. It follows from this that if one GENERAL CHARACTERS. 67 of these teeth be broken away during life, the corresponding tooth in the opposite jaw, having nothing to check its growth by wear, will continue to grow on un- interruptedly till it forms nearly a circle, when its point will enter the jaw of its unfortunate owner, and probably lead to a lingering death. Most museums possess specimens of the skulls of Rodents with such abnormalh'-developed teeth. The cheek-teeth of Rodents may be either provided with distinct roots, or may grow throughout life and never develop such roots. In the cases of those with distinct roots, the crowns may carry mere simple tubercles; but in other instances they may have their summits or sides penetrated by infoldings of the enamel, thus producing a more or less complicated pattern when worn. On the other hand, the permanently -growing rootless molars always have complex crowns, which are sometimes interpenetrated by lateral infoldings of the enamel, and at others are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates. There is, indeed, a precise parallelism in this respect between the molar teeth of the Rodents and those of the mastodons and elephants; the molar tooth of a mouse, which has distinct roots, and a low crown with simple cusps, being exactly comparable to that of a mastodon, whereas the high-crowned, laminated, and rootless molar of a guinea-pig corresponds as closely with that of a modern elephant. Rodents are always furnished with milk-teeth, which, however, in some instances are shed before birth. The Rodents present a peculiarity in the structure of the mouth, Mouth. J- , T ... which is quite unknown 111 any other mammals. In examining the mouth of any one of these animals — say a rabbit — it will be found that behind the upper front teeth the outer hairy skin of the face is continued inwards into the sides of the mouth, which by this means is divided into two distinct chambers, communicating with one another through a comparatively narrow orifice ; the first chamber containing only the front teeth, while the cheek-teeth are included in the second chamber. It appears that this arrangement is designed to prevent the entrance of extraneous substances into the true cavity of the mouth when the creatures are engaged in their characteristic operation of gnawing. In addition to this peculiarity, the whole of the inside of the cheeks in the hares and rabbits is covered with hair: while the pouched rats and hamsters have large pouches inside the cheeks, which are also lined with hairy skin. On the other hand, the gophers have pouches in the cheeks which open externally instead of internally. Distribution and The Rodents have a wider distribution than any other group of Habits. terrestrial mammals, being found in all parts of the globe except the extreme polar regions. With the exception of the bats, they include the only representatives of the placental mammals which are undoubtedly indigenous to Australia, They are, however, but poorly represented in that country, and likewise in the great island of Madagascar. On the other hand, the order attains an extraordinary development in South America, where its largest representatives occur, and which may be looked upon as its headquarters. In time, the Rodents certainly date from the upper portion of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period ; but the whole of the extinct forms hitherto discovered present all the essential peculiarities of the existing representatives of the group, and we are, therefore, at present almost completely in the dark as to their relationship to other orders, 68 RODENTS. although it has been suggested that they are derived directly from the Marsupials. The number of genera of Rodents is great, that in a work like the present it is only possible to notice some of the leading and more generally interesting types. The whole of the Rodents are almost entirely herbivorous in their habits ; and they all of them obtain their food by gnawing. "We have already noticed that while the majority are terrestrial and burrowing, some are arboreal, others aquatic, and a few endowed with the power of spurious flight ; and it may be added that of the terrestrial forms the hares are among the fleetest runners of all mammals, while the jerboas and chinchillas are distinguished by their leaping powers. They are mostly harmless and inoffensive creatures, fleeing with the greatest terror and precipitancy from the smallest of foes; but a few, like the common rat, when driven to bay, will defend themselves desperately, and will then inflict comparatively severe bites with their powerful front-teeth. Many Rodents yield furs which are very largely used in commerce, although of less intrinsic value than those of many other mammals. The flesh of bans and rabbits is largely consumed in Europe, while that of other members of the order is also eaten in various parts of the world : but the strong odour which characterises many Rodents renders their flesh more or less un- palatable. As a whole, Rodents are characterised bv their dull and frequently Coloration. . uniform coloration, although there are many exceptions to this. Indeed, many of the squirrels from the warmer regions of the globe, as well as one of the species of marmot, are among the most brilliantly coloured of all animals. In the brighter-coloured forms it does not appear that any rule can be laid down as to the plan of coloration. Thus while in many of the squirrels the brilliant colours take the form of distinct patches, distributed over various parts of the body, in the palm-squirreTg and ground-squirrels there are light longitudinal stripes on a dark ground, and in the pacas there are light-coloured spots. It appears, however, that no Rodent exhibits transverse bars of different colours on the body, and in none is the tail ornamented with alternate light and dark rings. The tail is very variable; being totally wanting in the guinea- pig, while in the jerboas it attains an enormous relative length. Taa The Africax Flying Squirrels. Family ANOilALURID-E. The true flying-squirrels are confined to Asia, Europe, and North America, but Africa possesses a group of somewhat similar animals, which differ so decidedly in structure that they are assigned to a distinct family. Before considering these animals in detail, a few words are necessary as to the leading characteristics common to all the Rodents treated of in the present chapter, which are collectively spoken of as the squirrel-like Rodents, or, technically, as the Sciuromorpha. Together with the mouse-like Rodents described in the following chapter, all these animals are characterised by the angular process of the lower SQUIRRELS. 69 SKELETON OF SQUIRREL. jaw1 taking its origin from the root of the sheath of the incisor tooth. The squirrel-like Rodents are especially distinguished by having the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula ). as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton of the squirrel, quite distinct from one another. They are further characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull being slender, and mainly formed by thejugaleorcheek-lxini' itself.2 Tin — ' distinctive characters, which are some- what difficult for those not versed in anatomy to understand, may appear trivial and unimportant : but the fact is that all Rodents are so alike in general structure, that it is only by such slighl points of difference that the various groups can be satisfactorily distin- guished from one another. The African Hying squirrels (Anomalurus) are distinguished from the true flying squirrels by the parachute-like membrane running along the sides of the body being supported in front by a rod of bony cartilage arising from the elbow-joint (instead of from the wrist): and also by the presence of a row of overlapping horny scales on the under surface of the root .of the long and thickly-haired tail. Their skulls also differ from those of the true squirrels by the absence of a bony projection from the frontal bones defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye. They have, moreover, but a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Most of these flying squirrels are confined to Western Africa, but one species (A. pusillus) occurs in Equatoria, while another is found on the east coast near Zanzibar. The fulgent flying-squirrel (A. fulgens), from the Gabun is one of the largest species, measuring 21 inches in total length, of 1 This is the projecting process seen at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw in the skull figured on p. 60. 2 In the same figure the zygomatic arch is the bar of bone beneath the socket of the eye, of which the front portion is formed by thejugale or cheek-bone. ^ THE FULGENT AFRICAN FLTIXG SljURREL. 7o RODENTS. which a third is occupied by the tail : its colour is bright tawny orange, with a white spot between the ears, and another on each side of the muzzle. On the other hand, in the pigmy African flying squirrel — the mboma of the natives — the length of the head and body is only 11 inches, and that of the tail 5 \ inches; the colour of the upper-parts being dark grizzled grey, while beneath it is yellowish white, with the tail uniform pale brown. The habits of these animals appear to be very similar to those of their Asiatic allies. In climbing tree-stems, preparatory to taking their flying leaps, it is said that they use the scales at the root of the tail to aid in obtaining a hold on the bark. -■& The Squirrel Family Family ScilTJD.Z. The Squirrel family, which includes the true flying squirrels, ordinary squirrels, marmots, and susliks, is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the tail, and the presence of distinct bony ( postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the upper half of the socket of the eye. Moreover, when a parachute- like membrane is present, it is supported by a rod of cartilage arising from the wrist. The palate is broad : and there are generally two pairs of premolar teeth in the upper, and one in the lower jaw ; but the first upper premolar is small, and may be shed or wanting. The molars have roots, and in the young state at least have their crowns surmounted by tubercles, but in the adult they often have deep wavy enamel-folds, forming transverse plates extending partially across the crown. Till quite recently the members of the family were divided into two groups, or subfamilies, according as to whether they are arboreal or terrestrial in their habits; the first group including the true squirrels and flying squirrels, and the second comprising the susliks and marmots. From a careful study of their dentition, Dr. Forsyth-Major has, however, come to the conclusion that this arrangement is an artificial one : he accordingly classes them under three groups, of which the first includes the true squirrels, susliks, and marmots, the second the flying squirrels, and the third the Oriental pigmy squirrels. The Groove -Toothed Squirrel. Genus Rh ith roacvu rus. According to the above-mentioned scheme, the first representative of the family is the Bornean groove-toothed squirrel (EhithroscvurvA macrotis), which is the sole member of a genus easily characterised by the presence of a number of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth. Much larger than the common squirrel, this species has an enormous bushy tail, long tufted ears, and black and wliite bands along the flanks. The molar teeth are of a simpler type than in any other member of this family. SQUIRRELS. 7i The Spiny Squirrels. Genus Xerus. In addition to being; the home of a considerable number of true squirrels, Africa is the sole habitat of a group of squirrels constituting a distinct genus of the family. The typical representatives of these Ethiopian spiny squirrels are characterised by their coarse and spiny hair, the small size or total absence of the external conchs of the ears, and the comparative straightness of the long claws. According to the new classification, certain other Ethiopian species, formerly included among the true squirrels, may however find a place in this genus, which will be best characterised by the skull and molar teeth. As regards the skull, this is distinguished by its THE ABYSSINIAN' SPINY SQUIRREL (J nat. size). elongate form, which is especially shown in the frontal bones, and the extreme shortness of the (postorbital) processes forming the hinder border of the upper part of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth, in place of the low-crowned, basin- shaped form characterising those of the true squirrels, have somewhat taller crowns, with more or less well-marked transverse plates : thus approximating to the corre- sponding teeth of the porcupines, and evidently indicating a specialised type. Distribution and The genus now includes a very large number of species, ranging Habits. from Abyssinia to the Cape ; its typical representatives differing from the true squirrels in being entirely terrestrial, taking refuge either in clefts and holes among rocks, or in the burrows excavated by themselves. The Abyssinian spiny squirrel (Xerus rutilus), which is the species represented in our illustration, is of a uniform yellowish red colour, with distinct conchs to the ears ; its size being comparable to that of the English squirrel, but rather larger. Mr. Blanford states that these animals may be commonly seen in the neighbourhood of Annesley Bay in rocky places, associating in parties of five or six individuals. The striped Abyssinian 72 RODENTS. spiny squirrel (A', leucoumbrinus) agrees with the last in having external ear- conchs, but differs in its longitudinally-striped both': in the latter respect it re- sembles the Cape spiny squirrel (A'. srto*vx), of South Africa, in which, however, the conchs of the ears are wanting. The small spiny squirrel (A', getulus), which is also striped, is the most diminutive member of the group, and in size and appear- ance much resembles the Indian palm-squirrel. A fossil species of this genus occurs in the Miocene deposits of France. The True Squirrels. Genus Sdv/rua. The common squirrel is the sole representative in Western Europe of an ex- ceedingly Large and widely-distributed genus, of which the following are the leading characteristics. The tail is very long and bushy; the ears are in most cases of considerable size, and may be surmounted with tufts of long hair; and in the fore- limbs there are only four functional toes, owing to the rudimental condition of the one corresponding to the human thumb. The claws are long, curved, and sharp; while the female may have either Four or six teats. From that of the spiny squirrels the skull differs by its shortened form and the elongation of the backwarclly- directed (postorbital ) processes defining the hinder border of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth are low-crowned and of a simple type those of the lower jaw having the grinding surface basin-shaped, with a longitudinal wall on the inner and outer side, and no transverse plates formed by infoldings of the enamel: and the first upper premolar, if present, is small, and may be shed at an early age. While the common squirrel is of a uniform brownish red colour on the upper- parts, many of the tropical species are most brilliantly tinted with orange and other bright colours, while others, like the little Indian palm-squirrel, have their bodies ornamented with longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground. One of the Malayan species, which is ordinarily grey, assumes a brilliant orange-coloured dress (luring the breeding-season; and some of the North American species also undergo a seasonal change of coloration, one of them having a dark stripe along the sides of the body in summer, which completely disappears in winter. There is great differ- ence in the size of the various species, the large Malayan squirrel (Sciv/rus tricolor) from India and the Malay region, measuring about 40 inches or more in total length, while the Indian palm-squirrel does not exceed a weasel in size. The true squirrels inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of Distribution. . . the whole globe, with the exception of Madagascar and the Australasian region. The number of species probably does not fall far short of fifty or sixty, and these are most numerous in the Malayan region, which may be regarded as the headquarters of the group. There is, however, great difficulty in deciding as to the real number of species, since a large number of squirrels, especially those from Xorth America and Africa, exhibit extraordinary local variation in coloration, so that it is almost impossible to say where varieties end and species begin. European The common squirrel (>S'. vulgaris), as being the best known squirrel. representative of the genus, may be selected for special notice, as the SQUIRRELS. 73 habits of all the species appear to be very similar. Belonging to a group in which the first upper premolar is present, this little animal is so well known by appearance to all, that but few words need be devoted to its description. The general colour of the head and body is brownish red above, and white beneath; the whole tail being of the same hue as the back. In summer, the edges of the ears are smooth, but in winter they are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. In winter the squirrel in England is greyer than in summer; and in the more northern and eastern parts of its habitat, the grey tint, especially in winter, becomes much more marked, while in Japan the colour is marly black. Drab-coloured squirrels occur in Siberia : and white or pied specimens are occasionally met with. In some parts of England the tail is not uni'requently cream-coloured in autumn. The total length of the animal, THE ECROPEAX SQUIRREL (\ nat. size). exclusive of the hairs at the end of the tail, is about 15| inches, of which 7 inches are taken up by the tail. The geographical range of the European squirrel is very exten- Distribution. give^ compriging almost the whoie of Europe. Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia north of the Himalaya, as far eastward as Japan. Indeed, Ireland and Japan respectively mark the western and eastern boundaries of its range : while its extreme northern and southern limits are indicated by Lapland and the north of Italy. In the south of the latter country, and likewise in the Caucasus and the Crimea, the squirrel is, however, quite unknown. Like other members of the genus, this species of squirrel is mainly Habit5' diurnal and arboreal in its habits, but seldom descending to the ground, and when aloft leaping from bough to bough with surprising agility. The extent of these flying leaps shows that the "flight" of the flying squirrels is but an ultra development of this mode of progression. Its chief food consists of nuts, 74 RODENTS. beech-mast, bark, buds, and young shoots of trees ; but there is evidence that it is also not averse to a diet of birds' eggs, and perhaps insects. In feeding, all squirrels sit up on their hind-quarters, and hold their food to their mouths with the fore- paws. The shells of nuts are pierced by the sharp front teeth, and every fragment removed before the kernel is consumed. Stores of food are laid up by the common squirrel for winter use, but instead of being deposited in a single place they are hidden in several repositories. In England and the whole of its more northerly habit, the squirrel partialh' hibernates during the winter, but it wakes up at intervals to feed when the weather is mild, and again retires to slumber. Probably in more southern regions it is active throughout the year, as are the species inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. Squirrels associate in pairs, apparently for life, and generally frequent the same tree or clump of trees from year to year. The nest, or " drey," in which the young are produced, is built either in the fork of a branch, or in some hole of the stem of a tree, and is composed of leaves, moss, and fibres, carefully intertwined. When placed in a fork, it so closely resembles the boughs in colour that its detection from below is difficult. In England the blind and naked young; are born in June, and are usuallv three or four in number. They remain with their parents till the following spring; and if captured at a sufficiently early age form docile and affectionate pets. The squirrel can swim well ; and its flesh is said to be good eating. Squirrel-fur is extensively used for boas, linings, and trimmings. The quantity formerly imported into England was very great, the total number of skins in 1839 reaching 2,730,826 : but of late years the imports have declined, the chief seat of the industry in this fur being now in Germany. The darker bluish grey skins are the most valued, most of these being obtained from Okhotsk by the Alaska Company ; the number imported by that company into London being, according to Mr. Poland, 43,235 in 1891, but it is sometimes double as many. North American In North America the place of the European species is taken by Squirrels. ^he red squirrel, ur chickari (S. hudsonianus), and the grey squirrel (8. can 'Inn-it. sis) ; the former frequenting forests of all kinds, while the latter is chiefly restricted to those composed of deciduous trees. Dr. Hart Merriam, describing the habits of the red squirrel in the Adirondack Mountains, near New York, says that this species exhibits but little fear of man, and is the least wary of all its tribe. It is on the alert from dawn to sunset, and sometimes, especially when there is a moon, continues its rambles throughout the night : while whenever abroad it enlivens the solitudes of the forests with its continual chatterings. " Though an expert climber, delighting in long leaps from bough to bough, which he executes with grace and precision, he spends far more time on the ground than the other arboreal squirrels, sometimes even making his home in holes in the earth. Old logs, stumps, wood-piles, and brush-heaps, are favourite places of resort, and, by excavating burrows beneath, he converts them into the securest of retreats . . . As might be inferred from the boreal distribution of this animal, he is the hardiest of our squirrels. Not only does he inhabit regions where the rigours of Arctic winter are keenly felt, but refusing to hibernate, he remains active throughout the continuance of excessive cold : when running upon the snow he often plunges down out of sight, tunnels a little distance, and, reappearing, shakes the snow from SQUIRRELS. 75 his head and body, whisks his tail, and skips along as lightly and with as much apparent pleasure as if returning from a bath in some rippling brook during the heat of a summer's afternoon." This squirrel is fond of a variety of fruits, and also sucks the eggs and kills the young of the smaller birds. The young are generally born early in April, and usually include from four to six in a litter. This species is of small size, with a relatively short tail, and short tufts to the ears in winter; its usual colour being greyish, more or less mixed with yellowish or reddish above, and generally white below. It shows dusky markings on the back, and sometimes also on the under-parts. Its geographical range includes the northern half of North America. The grey squirrel is a more southerly species, extending from the south of Canada to Mexico and Guatemala. In size it is superior to the last, and its tail is proportionately longer, while there are no ear-tufts. Its usual colour is whitish grey above, varied with fulvous, and white below ; the flanks being marked with a pale fulvous line. There are, however, numerous varieties, one of which is dark olive-brown above, and grey beneath. In habits this species seems to be more like the common squirrel, being extremely wary and alert, and partially hibernating during the winter. It buries its stores of food just beneath the surface of the ground in various parts of the woods. In confinement these squirrels form charming little pets. There are at least seven other well-defined representatives of the genus in North and Central America, and several others in the southern half of the same continent. Oriental As already mentioned, squirrels attain their maximum develop- Squirrels. ment of size and species, as well as their most brilliant coloration, in the Oriental region, and especially in its .Malayan portion. In India and Burma Mr. Blanford recognises no less than twenty species of squirrels, three of which are of large size, measuring not less than a foot from the nose to the root of the tail, while eleven vary from 10 to 7 inches in length, and all the remainder are small striped species, averaging from 5 to 7 inches in length. The medium and smaller species retain the first premolar tooth of the upper jaw, which is usually lost in those of the largest groups. Among the two first groups some of the better known are the large Indian squirrel (S. indicus), with tufted ears, which is not known to the east of the Bay of Bengal, the large Malayan squirrel (S. bicolor), ranging from the eastern Himalaya to Borneo, the golden- backed squirrel (S. caniceps), already alluded to as the one which assumes a special breeding-dress, although this is confined to one variety of the species, and the nearly allied Irawadi squirrel (S. pygerythrus), in which the length of the head and body is about 9 inches, and the ears have no tufts. Of the smaller striped species, the best known is the Indian palm-squirrel (S. piiiiitarti ,)/), so commonly distributed in open districts throughout India and Ceylon, but unknown to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal, and never found in forests. The length of the head and body of this species is from 5i to 6 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The general colour of the upper-parts is some shade of brown, with three narrow whitish or slightly rufescent longitudinal stripes on the back ; the under-parts varying from white to grey This pretty little squirrel is one of the most familiar of Indian mammals, exhibiting scarcely any fear 76 RODEXTS. of man, and uttering its bird-like chirp in every Indian garden. It is commonly found in groves and on the rows of trees bordering the roads in most Indian stations : but, according to Mr. Blanford, exhibits no especial predilection for palms. It generally feeds on the ground in the neighbourhood of trees, and when alarmed seeks refuge in their boughs by darting up the stems with lightning-like rapidity. Dogs newly imported into India invariably take to hunting palm - squirrels, but usually give up the pursuit in a short time as being utterly hopeless. These squirrels fre- quently take up their abode in the roofs of houses, and will freely enter the rooms. In addition to the usual food of its kindred, this species will also consume white ants and other insects. The young — two to four in a litter — are produced in a 1 mlky nest of grass or wool, usually placed either in a tree or among the rafters of a house. Extinct The European Squirrels. squirrel dates from the deposition of the Norfolk " forest-bed," belonging to the earliest seiies of the Pleistocene period ; but extinct species of the genus are found in formations of Tertiary age down to the upper division of the Eocene. the irawadi squirrel.— After Anderson. The Ground-Squirrels, or Chipmunks. The ground-squirrel of Siberia, portions of Eastern Europe, and North America, together with several other closely-allied North American species com- monly known as chipmunks, constitute a group serving to connect the two squirrels with tlie susliks. Having molar teeth of the same type, the chipmunks are indeed so closely allied to the true squirrels that Dr. Forsyth-Major proposes to include them in the same genus. They differ, however, from both the spiny-squirrels and the true squirrels in the possession of pouches inside the cheeks : on which account they may, for the present at least, be allowed to stand under the generic title by which they are commonly known. They are further characterised by the sides, or the back and sides together, being marked by longitudinal white or greyish white stripes bordered by black bands. The ears are of medium size or small, and are never tufted with long hair; while the tail is shorter than the head and bodv, SQUIRRELS. 77 flattened, and rather wide. The skull is generally like that of the true squirrels, but rather narrower and more slender ; and the first premolar tooth in the upper jaw is cither absent or very minute. The common American chipmunk (Tamias striatus), together with its numerous varieties, is distinguished by having two white stripes, each bordered with black, and a simple black stripe running down the middle of the back ; and has also two white stripes, separated by a black one, above and below the eye. It is about the size of the European squirrel, with which it also agrees approximately in the general ground-colour of the fur. There is, however, great local variation in this respect, specimens from the southern portions of the chipmunks' range being lighter in colour than those from the north. The distribution of this species extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and Western Missouri. The long- eared chipmunk (T. macrotus), from California, differs from it in the much greater length (if its ears. On the other hand, tin- Siberian chipmunk (T. asiaticus), which, as we have sii.I, is common to tlic Old and the New World, together with some other North American species, differs by having four light-coloured and five black stripes on tin- body. The tail is also relatively longer. Jn the Old World this Bpecies ranges from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk westward over the whole of Northern Asia, extending in Russia as far as the river Dwina, and along the whole course of the Amur. Including under the specific name a large number of varieties, which some writers are disposed to regard as distinct species, the Siberian chipmunk ranges in North America from Lake Superior and the neighbourhood of the Barren Grounds to New Mexico and Arizona, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard. Chipmunks are among the commonest of North American Rodents, and their habits are consequently thoroughly well known. As those of all of the species are probably nearly similar, the excellent account given by Dr. Hart Merriam of the habits of the common chipmunk will suffice for all. These animals are migratory, and may be very abundant in a certain district in one year, while in the next comparatively few will be seen ; their relative abundance being dependent upon the supply of food. Chipmunks feed not only on nuts and beech-mast, but likewise on various kinds of corn and roots; and they are also partial to the larva? of insects. When beech-mast is abundant in the Adirondack Mountains, it may be safely predicted that swarms of chipmunks will make their appearance in the autumn. In such seasons the forerunners arrive in Sept ei nlier, while by October the w Is are alive with these creatures. " Finding an abundance of food," writes Dr. Merriam, " they immediately establish themselves for the winter, and begin at once to hoard up large stores. They are the least hardy of our squirrels, commonly going into winter-quarters before the middle of November, and rarely appearing again in any numbers till the warm sun, in March or April, has caused plots of bare ground to appear between the snow-banks. Early thaws sometimes bring them out in February; and after having once emerged they often make little excursions over the snow during pleasant days, though the temperature may be several degrees below freezing. In running from tree to tree, even when not pursued, the length of their bound varies from twenty- five to thirty-four inches — a long leap for so small an animal.'' They commonly 78 RODENTS. leave the Adirondack region in July, since it is but seldom that there is a good crop of beech-nuts in two successive years. The young are born in the spring, and leave the nest by June. Chipmunks collect an astonishing quantity of food for the winter, which is carried to its place of deposit in their capacious cheek-pouches. In addition to regular storehouses, these animals lay up a portion of their winter supply here and there beneath the leaves of the forest. In a hole tenanted by four chipmunks, Audubon and Bachman relate that in the nest itself they found about a gill of corn, and in the communicating galleries upwards of about a quart of nuts, a peck of acorns, about two quarts of buckwheat, and a small quantity of Indian com and grass seeds. Generally the chipmunk keeps to the ground, although it will often run some few feet up the trunk of a tree, and when pursued, if its hole be not THE COMMON CH1P1IUXK (* Hat. -U<- . accessible, will take refuge among the branches. Instances are, however, on record where these animals have been observed regularly ascending tall trees in search of food ; and they seemed perfectly at home among the boughs, although they never leapt from branch to branch after the manner of the true squirrels. In regard to its general mode of life, Dr. Merriam observes that " the chip- munk establishes his headquarters in some log or stump, or in a hole excavated by himself in the earth, generally among the roots of a tree. He is partial to brush- heaps, wood piles, stone walls, rail fences, accumulations of old rubbish, and other places that afford him a pretty certain escape, and at the same time enable him to see what is transpiring outside. For, though by no means wary, he delights in these loosely sheltered hiding-places, where he can whisk in and out at will, peep unobserved at passers-by, ami dart back when prudence demands. If suddenly surprised, he utters a sharp eh ip-per, r, r, r, and makes a sudden quick dash for his retreat, which is no sooner reached than, simultaneously with the disappearance of SVSL/A'S. 79 his tail, out pops his head, his keen dark eyes gazing intently at the source of alarm. If not pursued farther, he is very apt to advance towards the supposed enemy, betraying his excitement bj^ a series of nervous starts and precipitous retreats, till finally, making a bold rush, he dashes by the object of his dread, and in another instant is peering out from a hole beneath the roots of a neighbouring tree." The chipmunk does not appear to make an agreeable pet, as it is apt to be sulky and morose, and disposed to bite the fingers of any one who offers it food. The Susliks, or Gophers. Genus Sj»'Sinx tapping the stem. With regard to the flying leaps of the American flying squirrel, Dr. Merriam observes that " the ease, grace, and rapidity with which it glides from tree to tree inspires the merest passer-by with wonder and admiration. Its ordinary mode of progression is by a series of alternate climbs and leaps. Upon reaching a tree, the first act is to ascend, for, being unable to sail horizontally, it must attain a considerable elevation before venturing to leap to the next Instead of moving otf in this way when disturbed, it some- times runs up into the topmost branches of the nearest tree, and, curling itself into a surprisingly small compass, remains motionless until the intruder has taken his departure." The earlier writers, Audubon and Bachman also describe very graphically the fim \4& AMERICAN FLYING SQUIHKEL (J liat. size). movements of a colony of these animals they once encountered. " At times, they write, " one would be seen darting from the topmost branches of a tall oak, and with wide extended membranes and outspread tail gliding diagonally through the air. till it reached the foot of a tree about fifty yards off, -when at the moment we expected to see it strike the earth, it suddenly turned upwards and alighted on the body of the tree. It would then run to the top and once more precipitate itself from the upper branches and sail back again to the tree it had just left. Crowds of these little creatures joined in these sportive gambols: there could not have been less than two hundred. Scores of them would leave each tree at the same moment, seeming to have no other object in view than to indulge a playful propensity." In America the flying squirrels breed early in April. The American flying squirrel, if taken sufficiently young, can be readily and speedily tamed, and forms a most charming pet. Indeed, it is said that they become tame and thoroughly confiding much sooner than any other kind of wild 92 RODENTS. creature. When going to sleep, a specimen kept by Prof. F. H. King was in the habit of first placing its nose upon the table, or other surface upon which it happened to be standing, and then walking forwards and at the same time rolling itself up, until the nose almost protruded from between the hind-legs. The tail was then curved in a horizontal coil around the feet, so that the whole animal appeared to form a complete ball of soft fur. One of the smallest representatives of these animals is the pigmy flying squirrel (S. sp,t the root of the ear. The painted dormouse (M. pictus), of Eastern Persia, is a brighter coloured form closely allied to the above. The Garden The garden dormouse (.1/. nitela), which is represented on the Dormouse, right hand of the illustration on p. 107, is the European repre- sentative of a group of several species ; distinguished from the preceding by the thinner and tufted tail, the larger and more pointed ears, and the characters of the cheek-teeth. These teeth are relatively small, and have their grinding surfaces concave, with the foldings of enamel very faintly marked. The group is represented in Africa as well as in Southern Europe. The garden dormouse was known to the ancient Romans as the nitela, and on the Continent at the present day is termed in France the lerot, and in Germany the gartenschlafer. It is smaller than the squirrel-tailed dormouse, although larger than the common species, the length of the head and body being at the most 5i inches, while the tail measures about 3j inches. The head and upper-parts are greyish brown, with a more less marked rufous tinge, and the under-parts pure white. A black ring encircles the eye, and thence extends backwards as a streak beneath the ear to the neck ; while there are dark and light spots behind and in front of the ears. The tail is greyish brown at the base, but at the end black above and white below. JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 109 SKELETON OF GARDEN DORMOUSE. The garden dormouse takes its name from being commonly found in the gardens and orchards of the warmer parts of the Continent, where it does much damage to the choicer kinds of fruit. It is found in Central and Western Europe, including France, Belgium. Switzerland, Italy, Germany. Hungary, Galicia, and the Baltic provinces of Russia : and is stated to be specially common in the Hartz Mountains. There is nothing calling for par- ticular remark in the habits of this species, except that it is stated to be more carnivorous in its tastes than any of its European kindred. The young may be produced in a deserted thrush's nest, or in some hole in a tree, or in a freely suspended nest : and it is characteristic of this species that whenever it builds a nest this is always placed between small boughs and never concealed. Omitting mention of the other species allied to the garden dormouse, it may be observed tli.it there is a third group of tin- genus confined to Africa, the members of which are characterised by the hair being arranged uniformly on the tail, instead of in two longitudinal rows : the whole tail being relatively shorter than in the other groups, with a well-marked tuft at the tip. These African dormice are further characterised by the very small size of their cheek-teeth, in which the foldings of enamel are nearly obsolete. Remains of dormice are found not uncommonly in the Tertiary strata of Europe, as far down as the upper portion of the Eocene period; most of the species agreeing approximately in size with some of the living forms. The extinct giant dormouse from the rock fissures and cavern deposits of Malta was, however, far larger than any existing species, and more nearly resembled a guinea-pig; this association of giant dormice with pigmy elephants in Malta being not a little remarkable. Other Species. Extinct Dormice. Jumping Mice, Jerboas, etc. Family DlPODID.-E. The Rodents included in this family are all purely terrestrial, and for the most part characterised by the great length of their hind-limbs as compared with the front pair, and their long and generally hairy tails ; their general appearance and mode of progression thus being markedly kangaroo-like. They have very frequently four upper cheek-teeth ; and in all cases the incisor teeth are narrow, and the molars marked by transverse enamel-folds. The skull, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton of the jerboa, is characterised by the shortness of the brain-case, and the very large size of the apertures in front of the eye- sockets for the passage of the nerves supplying the face. There are also other RODENTS. distinctive features in the skull, more especially in the large size of the hinder part of the auditory bulla, into which it would be out of place to enter here. The jerboas and their allies are mainly Asiatic and African forms, although there is one outlying species in North America, and a few range into Southern Europe. Most of the jumping kinds are inhabitants of open and dry districts, such as grassy steppes or sandy deserts; and approximate in colora- tion very closely to that of the ground on which thej' dwell. They form burrows in clayey or sandy soil, which are generally situated in the open plains, but sometimes among thicker or thinner bush-jungle. In habits they are mostly nocturnal, lying concealed in their burrows by day, and issuing forth to feed at night. Their nutriment consists of roots, berries, seeds, fruits, leaves, grass, and other herbage : but a few will also eat insects, small birds, and carrion. In feeding they sit in a half-erect posture upon their hind-quarters and tail, and convey the food to their mouth with the aid of their paws. Their move- ments are peculiar: the body being supported on the hind-limbs alone, perhaps aided, however, at times by the tail. In walking, the legs are moved alternately in the ordinary manner ; in which respect these animals differ from kangaroos, which always hop. Progression at a more rapid rate is, however, always effected by a series of leaps from the hind-legs: the length of such lea] is being generally very great in proportion to the size of the animal. Like all desert-haunting animals, the jerboas are extremely quick of hearing and long- sighted. Although generally silent, many of these animals have a kind of whining cry, which has been compared to that of a kitten. In the colder districts of their habitat, the species hibernate more or less completely; but they never lay up a store of provisions for winter use. The family may be divided into four main groups or subfamilies. SKELETON of jehboa. The Jumping Mouse. Genus Zap vs. The so-called jumping mouse of North America (Zapus hiulsonianus) is the typical representative of the first group of the family. It is characterised by the presence of four pairs of rooted cheek-teeth in each jaw, by the vertebrae of the neck being entirely separate from each other, and by the long hind-limbs being furnished with five complete toes, of which the metatarsal bones are JUMPING MICE AXD JERBOAS. 1 1 1 separate. In the fore-limbs the first toe is rudimental, and furnished with a flat nail. Well-developed cheek-pouches are present. In general appearance this animal resembles a mouse with elongated hind- limbs and a very long tail: the degree of elongation of the hind-legs not being so great as in some other members of the family. The length of the head and body is a little more than 3 inches, and that of the tail about •") inches, although there is a considerable amount of individual variation in the relative proportions of the latter. In the summer-coat the fur is brown above, yellowish on the Hanks, and white below: but in the winter it is uniformly brown. The moderate-sized ears are black with light-coloured edges, and the long and nearly naked tail is tipped with a pencil of hairs. Distribution and The geographical range of the jumping mouse i^ very large, Habits. extending from the cold regions of the (neat Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay to Arizona and Mexico ; although in the latter districts it appears to be restricted to the mountains. In British North America and the northern Uniteil States it ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. This species differs from most of its allies in not being strictly nocturnal, generally venturing forth early in the evening, and not unfrei[ucntly being abroad during the da\-. It likewise frequents more wooded and damper situations. The following excellent accounts of its habits was communicated to Dr. Hart Herriam by Mr. E. Slade, who observes that, "the long-tailed jumping mouse inhabits high land or low land, forest or pasture, cultivated field or swamp, and appears to be equally at home in either, and not numerous in any situation. It possesses a momentary agility second to no other rodent, and a muscular strength of enormous power for so small a creature. When suddenly disturbed, it often moves away in a direct line, the first three or four leaps being 8 or 10 feet in length, but these distances rapidly decline to about 4 feet. This is not always the case, however, for it frequently takes an irregular course and jumps at divers angles for several successive leaps, keeping the same general direction, or changing at will. It can double, and quickly too, if pursued, and by its manoeuvres and instantaneous Bquattings can elude a hawk or an owl, and its spontaneous irregu- larities enable it to escape being brained by a weasel, or swallowed whole by the common black snake. It feeds upon the buds, leaves, and twigs of many kinds of plants; upon seeds, grain, wild berries, chestnuts, acorns, grass, and to some extent upon the bark of shrubs. As a rule, three litters are produced in a season, each consisting of from two to four young." In leaping, the successive springs are made with such rapidity that the feet 'of the animal seem scarcely to touch the ground. The nest is placed in a variety of situations, sometimes in the hollow stump of a tree, more frequently under logs of timber, often in clefts of rocks, and occasionally a short distance from below the surface of the ground in an open field. The jumping mouse hibernates during the winter in a hole deep down in the ground; but the length of the sleep appears to depend upon the latitude of the locality and the temperature of the season. In mild winters the hibernation is often interrupted for longer or shorter periods. The underground nest is carefully made of grass, in which the little animal lies tightly curled up, with ii2 RODENTS. the nose closely pressed to the bellj . and the long tail curled round the body, which assumes an almost ball-like form. So deep are the slumbers of these animals, that they rnay be handled for a long time without evincing the slightest signs of life. The young of the various litters are to be met with from May till August. Fossil remains of the jumping mouse occur in the Pleistocene deposits of the United States. The Five-Toed Jerboas. Genus Alactaga, etc. The jerboas, of which there arc several genera, may be divided into two groups, according to the presence of rive or three toes on the hind-feet, and constitute the second subfamily. The whole subfamily is characterised by the cheek-teeth, of which there may be either three or four pairs, having distinct roots ; by the vertebrae of the neck being more or less completely united together; and by the long metatarsal bones of the hind-limbs being joined together so as to form a cannon-bone, as shown in the figure on p. 110. In all cases only the three middle toes of the hind-feet are of any functional importance; the lateral digits, when present, being small and not reaching the ground. The Kirghiz The kirghiz jerboa, or alagdaga (Alactaga decwmana), is the Jerboa. \„.^ known representative of the genus to which it belongs, and is one of the most characteristic mammals of the steppes of Central Asia. The genus Alactaga, in addition to the presence of five toes on the hind-feet, is characterised by its long and tufted tail and huge ears ; there are a pair of premolar teeth in the upper, but none in the lower jaw. and the incisor teeth are not grooved. The alagdaga (as the animal is designated by the Mongols) is one of the largest members of the group, the length of the head and body being about 7 inches, and that of the tail considerably more. The general colour of the fur is reddish yellow, with a tinge of grey on the upper-parts : while below, as well as on the inner sides and lower parts of the hind-legs, it is white; a white patch also occurrinji on the outer sides of the thighs. The tail is brown, with a black-and- white tip. The range of this jerboa includes the whole of the steppe Range. . J . districts of Central Asia, and also extends into Persia as far as Bushire. and into South-Eastern Europe as far as the Crimea and the region of the Don. During the Pleistocene period this jerboa inhabited parts of Germany. The alagdaga is a social animal, dwelling in small companies, and also selecting such portions of the steppes as possess a clayey soil tor the construction of its large burrows. It is strictly nocturnal in its habits, issuing from its burrow at the commencement of darkness, but, according to Radde, not remaining abroad the whole night. Its speed is said to be considerably greater than that of the true jerboa, and the length of its leaps are enormous : indeed, it is stated that even when mounted on a swift horse it is impossible to overtake these creatures. The burrows constructed by the Kirghiz jerboa are very complicated, having several branches radiating from a central chamber; one of these branches, it is said, always stops a short distance below the surface of the ground, and is only JUMPING MICE AND JERBOAS. 113 used as an exit in time of danger, when the animal removes the barrier and escapes in an unsuspected direction. Usually two or three pairs occupy the same burrow. In addition to the usual vegetable diet, the alagdaga also eats insects, and the eggs and young of the steppe-lark, if not the old birds themselves. The young are born in summer, in a nest placed deep down in the burrow, and are usually from five t< > six in number, although occasionally there may be as many as eight in a litter. How long the young remain with their parents is unknown, but it is quite probable that they do not depart till the spring following their birth. In cold weather these animals do not leave theimests ; and the winter sleep is a long one, enduring, according to Radde, from the beginning of September till the latter part of April. The flesh of the alagdaga is eaten by the Kirghiz and other dwellers on the steppes; the capture being ■ THE KIRGHIZ JERBOA (\ Iiat. sizi"). Afghan Jerboa. effected by surrounding the burrows with a fence and pouring water down the open holes, when the animals seek to escape by breaking through the closed entrance. The Afghan jerboa (A. indica) is a smaller species of the same genus, with proportionately longer ears and tail; the length of the head and body being about 3i inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the tuft at end, upwards of 7-i inches. This species inhabits Afghanistan, the south-east of Persia, and Northern Baluchistan ; and is found commonly on the plains of Quetta at an elevation of about six thousand feet. In habits, this jerboa seems to be very similar to the larger species : its period of hibernation lasting from October till April. Central Asia is also the home of other species of the same genus. The recently discovered Yarkand jerboa (Euchoretes naso) is the sole representative of a distinct genus characterised by certain features in the skull, the great length of the nose, and the enormous size of the ears, which are longer than the head. The fur is sandy -coloured above and white below ; the vol. in. — 8 Yarkand Jerboa. U4 RODENTS. tufted tail being black near the end, but white at the extreme tip. The length of the head and body is 3| inches, and that of the tail 61 inches. Broad-Tailed Certain species of jerboas inhabiting the desert regions of Central Jerboas. ancl Northern Asia and Nubia are distinguished from those of the two preceding genera by their flattened and lancet-shaped tails, in consequence of which they have received the name of Plcrtyeercomys. They are further dis- tinguished by the absence of premolar teeth in both jaws. There is nothing worthy of special notice in the habits of these species. The Three-Toed, or True Jerboas. Genus Dipu--. The true jerboas, as typically represented by the common Egyptian species {Dipus jaculus), are the most specialised representatives of the subfamily, having completely lost the two small lateral toes on the hind-limbs. They are further ' V'v-v; i / " ■' ill EGTPTIAS JERBOA. distinguished by the presence of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth ; while they have a pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. They resemble the alagdaga in the great length of the hind-limbs and tail, and the comparatively large size of the ears ; the tuft of hair at the tip of the tail is, however, smaller. Usually the premolar teeth are wanting. In size, the Egyptian jerboa is rather inferior to the alagdaga, the length of the head and body being about (i:l inches, while the tail, exclusive of the hairs at the end, measures a little over 8 inches. The general colour of the upper-parts is a sandy grey; the under surface of the body being white, and a broad white stripe extending down the hind-limbs. The tail is yellowish brown above and whitish beneath, with the usual black-and-white tip. The range of the Egyptian jerboa extends from the north of Arabia westwards JUMPING MICE AXD JERBOAS. Habits. through Lower Egypt to Oran in Algeria. There are, however, numerous other species of the genus, some of which inhabit Eastern Persia and Central Asia. The name of two-legged mouse was applied to the Egyptian jer- boa on account of the fore-legs being applied so closely to the chest when the animal is jumping that it has an almost bird-like appearance. The home of this species is arid and desert districts, where the ground consists solely of sand and pebbles, and the vegetation is so scant that it is a marvel that even such a tiny creature can find, the wherewithal to live. Here it lives in companies, frequently of considerable size, in association with sand-grouse, the small desert-lark, the cream- coloured courser, and various lizards. Ho exactly does the colour of the jerboa harmonise with its surroundings, that when at a short distance it is scarcely possible to recognise the presence of a living creature. Although very abundant, it is, from its extreme shyness, but seldom seen. Like its kindred, this jerboa - THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE (J nat. size). is essentially a nocturnal animal ; but it generally comes out to feed before sun- down, while it not unfrequently sits at the mouth of its hole, or a short distance off, even in the full sunshine. It digs a burrow in the hard gravelly soil with its fore-feet, aided sometimes by its incisor teeth ; these burrows generally having four entrances. According to Arab reports, the whole colony take part in the construc- tion of the burrows: and at the slightest sound the animals immediately take refuge in their retreats. In walking gently the jerboa moves one foot after the other, but directly the pace is quickened, it progresses by means of leaps ; and so rapid are then its movements, that travellers liken them to the flight of a bird. When leaping, the tail is carried stuck out nearly straight behind. The jerboa is very impatient of rain and damp ; and when such conditions are prevalent it relapses into a kind of torpid condition, analogous to the hibernation of species inhabiting more northern regions. n6 RODENTS. According to Brehm, very little is definitely known regarding the breeding of this species. The Arabs state that it forms a nest from its own fur within the labyrinths of its burrow, where from two to four young are produced at a birth. The Arabs capture these tiny creatures by stopping up all the entrances to a burrow except one, where they place a net, and then digging down into the central chamber, when the jerboas are either caught in the nets or by the hands of their pursuers. Man}' are thus taken alive, while the flesh of those killed is eaten. The chief foes of the jerboa, next to men, are fennecs, caracals, and owls, by all of which large numbers are destroyed. This jerboa, like its allies of Central Asia, is easily tamed; and from its beautiful form and delicate build, as well as its engaging manners, is always highly esteemed as a pet by its owners. In its wild state the jerboa eats not only leaves, fruits, and seeds, but likewise insects and carrion. The African Jumping Hare. Genus Pedetes. By far the largest representative of the long-limbed members of the family is the South African species, designated by the Cape colonists, inappropriately, the jumping hare — the springhaas of the Boers. This animal {Pedetes coffer) constitutes not only a distinct gi his. but also a separate subfamily: being distinguished from the jerboas by the following characters. In the neck the whole of the seven vertebra' are separate; the hind- feet have four toes, and their comparatively short meta- tarsal bones are not united together; while the cheek- teeth, of which there are four on each side of the jaws, do not develop roots. In size the jumping hare may be compared with the common hare, to which it also approximates in general coloration ; the length of the head and body being about 24 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The head is relatively large, with long pointed ears; the fore-limbs are proportionately longer than in the jerboas: and the long tail is thickly haired throughout its extent. There are five toes, provided with long, sharp claws on the fore- feet, while in the hind-feet the claws are wider and blunter, and approximate somewhat to nails ; the middle hind-toe being much larger than either of the others. The long and soft hair of the upper-parts is reddish brown, more or less mingled with white : while beneath the colour is pure white. Distribution The range of the jumping hare extends from the Cape to and Habits. Angola on the west, and Mozambique on the east coast. Its habits approximate very closely to those of the jerboas. Thus it inhabits more or less desert districts, where it constructs complex burrows, in which several families SKELETON OP AFRICAN JUMPING HARE. THE MOUSE TRIBE. 117 dwell together; and is thoroughly nocturnal. At the Cape it is found in consider- able numbers, and frequents both the mountains and the open plains. When feeding, the jumping hare goes on all fours: but when at speed progresses with the leaps characteristic of the family. Ordinarily the length of each spring is from six to nine feet; but it is said that the hap may occasionally- cover a space of as much as twenty or even thirty feet. The young are born during the African summer, and are usually from three to four in number; and during the rainy season young and old alike seldom stir from their burrows. The food appears to be entirely of a vegetable nature. The flesh is largely eaten by the Hottentots, who catch almost as many of the creatures as they please by the simple expedient of pouring water down their holes, upon which the owners immediately bolt. The Smintih & Genus Sminthus. Three rat-like Rodents — the one {Sminthus svbtilis) from Eastern and Northern Europe and Central Asia, the other (S. concolor) from North -Western China, and the third (S. leathami) from Kashmir — are interesting in showing that the long hind-limbs are not an essential attribute of the members of the present family. Indeed the former of these Rodents — for which there is unfortunately no English name — is so rat-like in appearance that it was long referred to the next family. It differs, however, from all the members of the latter by the presence of .:* pair of premolar teeth in the upper jaw (although there are none in the lower), while its skull agrees in essentia] features with that of the jerboas. The common sminthus has rather long and pointed ears, and a tail of nearly the same length as the body, and clothed with short hairs. The premolar and last upper molar teeth are very small; and the whole of the cheek-teeth have a complex pattern on their crowns. The Mouse Tribe. Family Mrr.ii'.i:. The Mouse family, which includes mice. rats, hamsters, voles, lemmings, etc., is by far the most extensive group in the whole Rodent order, having a cosmopolitan distribution, and being the only family represented in Australia. The majority of the mice — as we may conveniently term all the members of the group — are of terrestrial habits, and have naked and scaly tails of varying length ; while in most cases there is no great disproportion between the length of the fore and hind-limbs. The incisor teeth are narrow ; and, owing to the invariable absence of premolars, there are never more than three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. In structure these teeth exhibit great variation in the different groups, being- either furnished with roots, or rootless, while in some cases their crowns are surmounted with simple cusps, and in others with folds of enamel arranged in a series of angles. In all cases the first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental. The skull is the most characteristic part of their entire organisation, although it is difficult n8 RODENTS. in a popular -work like the present to point out its distinctive peculiarities without the aid of a series of figures. It may be mentioned, however, that the frontal region between the eye-sockets is much narrowed; and that in the zygomatic, or cheek-arch, the cheek (jugal) bone is usually reduced to a mere splint occupying the middle of the arch. Again, the lower sur- face of the process arising from the upper jawbone to form the front half of the cheek-arch is more or less flattened out into a nearly perpendicular plate: while the vacuity in the front of the eye for the passage of the nerves of the face is generally of considerable height, and wider above than below. The number of genera and species belonging to this family is so great that it is impossible to notice more than a small moiety in this work. Accordingly, only representatives of the various subfamilies into which these Rodents are divided, and such forms as are of general interest, are selected for description. SKELETON AND MOLARS OF BROWN RAT. The Australian" Rats. Genus Hydromys. The Australian rats, of which there is one aquatic species, together with an allied terrestrial fori., from the same region, constitute a subfamily distinguished from all the other mice by having only two pairs of molar teeth in each jaw : these teeth being rooted, and having their crowns divided into distinct lobes. The Australian water-rat (Hydromys chrysogaster) is a rat-like aquatic Rodent, with broad and partially-webbed feet, the webs and claws being larger in the hinder than in the front-limbs. The fur of the back is black with an admixture of golden-coloured hairs ; the under-parts being of a dark golden hue, save for a narrow stripe of flaxen running from the lower part of the neck to the middle of the belly. Except for its terminal fifth, which is flaxen-coloured, the tail is black. The tip of the muzzle is thickly covered with hairs, by means of which the nostrils can be closed. The length of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail half as much. The skull differs in the form of the front portion of the cheek- arch from the ordinary murine type. This species is confined to Australia and Tasmania, where it is known to the colonists as the beaver-rat. It is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, and is not uncommon on the banks of the rivers : while it is at times seen on the seashore. It is an inhabitant of Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, The Queensland rat (Xerom/ys myoides) is a terrestrial species of about double THE MOUSE TRIBE. n9 the size of an ordinary mouse, which, while possessing teeth like those of the Australian water-rat, has unwebbed toes and the external form and skull of a mouse. It is, therefore, of interest as serving to connect its aquatic cousin with the more typical members of the family. The Malabar Spiny-Mouse. Genus Plataca nthomys. The pretty little murine known as the Malabar spiny-mouse {PlatacaTtthomys lashv/nus), from elevations of about two thousand feet in the hills of Southern India, is interesting as being one of the few members of the family which assume a dormouse-like appearance and have arboreal habits. It represents a subfamily by itself, characterised by the crowns of the molar teeth when worn showing oblique and nearly parallel bands of enamel, and by the long tail being thickly haired. This little mouse has long pointed ears ; and a number of broad flat spines mingled with the hair of the upper-parts. In colour it is reddish brown above, and white beneath: the length of the head and body being 4i inches, and that of the tail, with the hair at the' end, half an inch inure. This mouse lives in large trees, in which it hollows out small cavities that it tills with leaves and moss. It is stated to feed on jack-fruit and the pods of the pepper-tree The Gerisils. Genus Gt rbiMus. The elegant little Rodents commonly kn<>\\ 11 as gerbils constitute the typical representatives of a third subfamily, and are easily recognised by their elongated hind-limbs, long and hairy tails, and their general jerboa-like appearance and habits. Indeed, they might be mistaken at first sight for members of the latter group : but a close examination will show that they differ externally by their longer muzzles, smaller i and the presence of five functional toes to the hind-feet. They are further distinguished by their molar teeth being divided into transverse laminae, of which there are three in the first, two in the second, and one in the third tooth of each side. The upper incisor teeth are narrow and grooved ; and the bulla? of the h0V,ER0l^E^L auditory region of the skull are generally very large. The true gerbils, of which there are more than half a hundred species, inhabit Asia and Africa ; but there are some allied genera confined to the latter continent. One of the best known species is the Indian gerbil (Gerbillus indicus), which is about tlie size of a rat, with moderate-sized rounded ears, and the fur light brownish rufous above, and white beneath. With its large, bright eyes, and long tufted tail, this gerbil (like its cousins) is one of the most graceful of the smaller Rodents. In common with the other species, it inhabits open sandy plains, where it lives in companies, constructing extensive burrows approached by numerous i2o XODEXTS. chambers, and containing large central chambers containing dried grass. The Indian gerbil is a thoroughly nocturnal animal, seldom leaving its burrow during the daytime. It is frequently found near cultivated grounds, where it does much damage to the corn crops, sometimes appearing in such numbers as to constitute a veritable plague. Away from cultivated districts, its food consists mainly of grass and roots. It has been stated that gerbils lay up stores of food in their burrows, but it does not appear that this is really the case. Gerbils resemble jerboas in progressing by a series of leaps from their long hinddegs ; the length of the leaps EGVPTIAX GERBU.. in the Indian species being from twelve to fifteen feet. So active are these animals, that they are generally able to elude such dogs as may pursue them, sometimes even jumping upon their backs. The Indian gerbil is one of the most prolific of Rodents, frequently producing from twelve to fifteen young at a birth, and occasionally, it is said, even more. The Philippine Eat. Genus Phlccomys. The Philippine Islands are the habitat of a peculiar species of rat (Phlccomys cumingi), which differs so markedly from all others that it must be regarded as constituting a subfamily by itself. While having the ordinary murine form, these rats resemble the gerbils in having their molar teeth divided into transverse lamina?, THE MOUSE TRIBE. 123 of which there are three in the first tooth of the series, and two in each of the others. The incisor teeth are very broad, with smooth front surfaces. The muzzle is unusually short, the profile convex, and the ears rather small ; while the feet are characterised by their great breadth, and the large size of their claws. The tail is shorter than the head and body, and sparsely -haired. The hair is rather long and coarse, and darker on the muzzle, the sides of the face, the back of the head, the shoulders, and the fore-part of the back than elsewhere. The Hamsters and White-Footed Mice. ( !mus Cricetus. The well-known hamsters of the Old World, together with the American white-footed mice, constitute an extensive genua of murine Rodents, which, with others, represents a distinct subfamily. These Cricetines, as all the members of *l§MP?mc\ THE HAMSTElt (f, liat. size). the subfamily may be called, are characterised by the crowns of their molar teeth carrying a number of distinct tubercles or cusps, which in the upper jaw are arranged in two longitudinal rows separated by a median groove ; these teeth being always implanted in the jaw by distinct roots. The whole of the Old World Cricetines are characterised bv the shortness of their tails : but in some of the 1 24 RODENTS. American forms these appendages are considerably longer. The Cricetines are distributed nearlj' all over the world, with the exception of Australia, and include the only representatives of the Rodent order found in Madagascar. In structure they appear to be the most generalise'! group of the entire murine family, and it is accordingly believed that they represent the ancestral stock from which came the more specialised rats and mice constituting the murine subfamily. Tins hypothesis is supported by the circumstance that the hamsters are some of the oldest types of the family with which we are acquainted, their remains being comparatively common in the Miocene strata both of Europe and North America. common The common hamster (Cricetus frwmenta/rius), of Europe and Hamster. Northern Asia, is the typical representative of the genus under consideration ; the leading characters of the genus being that the incisor teeth are not marked by grooves, while the first upper molar tooth generally has six tubercles on its crown. Cheek-pouches, which may be of large size, are frequently present ; and the tail is often very short. The hamster itself is a decidedly handsomely-coloured Rodent, and is by far the largest member of the group, measuring about a foot in length, of which some 2 inches are taken up by the tapering hairy tail. It is stoutly built, with a thick neck, a rather pointed muzzle, medium-sized membranous ears, large and brilliant eyes, short legs, and small claws. The thick glossy coat is composed of hair and a woolly under-fur. The general colour of the upper-parts is usually light brownish-yellow, but the upper surface of the snout and the region of the eyes, as well as a band round the throat, are reddish brown. There is a yellow patch on the back, the mouth is whitish; and the under-parts, the greater portion of the legs, and a stripe on the forehead are deep black, but the feet are white. There is. however, great individual variation with regard to colour, many examples being entirely black, while others are pied, and others, again, wholly white. The hamster inhabits suitable localities from the Rhine in Germany to the Obi in Siberia : but its distribution is somewhat partial. In Germany it is wanting in the south and south-westem districts, and also in East and West Prussia, but it is abundant in Thuringia and Saxony. Its favourite haunts are in soft dry soils, but it avoids those of a sandy nature as being unsuitable for its burrows, although it will sometimes select gravelly ground. The hamster has always attracted a considerable amount of interest, from the elaborate structure of its burrows, and the provident nature of its habits. The burrow always comprises a large dwelling-chamber, situated at a depth of from one to two yards below the surface of the ground, with a nearly perpendicular entrance- passage and an oblique exit. There is also a store-chamber or granary communi- cating with the dwelling-chamber by means of a gallery : and it appears that the young, the females, and the males generally occupy distinct burrows, which may be distinguished by the size of their entrance-passages, those of the males being the largest. When a burrow is tenanted, the passages are kept scrupulously clean, ami the presence of any litter in them would at once proclaim that the habitation was deserted : chaff and straw may, however, be generally seen near the entrance of a burrow. Although the entrance-passage goes nearly straight down into the earth, it also has a turn before opening into the dwelling-chamber ; and in old burrows THE MOUSE TRIBE. 125 the entrance and exit passages are polished smooth by the constant friction of the coats of their occupants. Of the chambers, the dwelling-place is the smaller, and has smooth walls and the floor strewn with fine straw ; it has three apertures — two communicating with the exterior, and the third with the granary. Young hamsters have but a single granary in their burrows, but the old males, which spend the whole summer collecting, frequently have from three to five such chambers. These are completely filled with corn, the passage communicating with the dwelling-chamber being frequently stopped up with earth. All kinds of corn are equally acceptable to these industrious little animals; and it will often be found that, while one part of the store-chamber is filled with grain of a particular kind, the other portion may contain a different sort. In addition to corn, which forms their main winter nutriment, hamsters in summer eat peas, beans, roots, fruits, grass, and other green herbage ; and in captivity these animals will eat almost any kind of food that is put before them. Burrows of the nature described above are constructed solely for winter use ; and when the weather becomes cold in October the hamsters retire to their inner- most recesses for their hibernation; the entrance and exit of each burrow being then closed witli earth. In February or March the animals awake from their slumbers, although they do not for some time open their burrows, where they remain feeding upon the stores of corn. About the middle of March the adult males make their first appearance abroad : and these are followed early in April by the females. At this time they devour ravenously almost anything that comes before them, not refusing an occasional vounjz bird, a mouse, or a beetle. Soon afterwards they set about constructing their summer-burrows; on the completion of which the sexes pair. These summer-burrows are of simpler construction than the winter habitations, being seldom more than one or two feet in depth. Usually these burrows contain but a single chamber of about a foot in diameter. In the case of the females the nest-chamber has one exit passage, but from two to eighl entrances ; although until the young go afield but one. of the latter is used ; the advantage of these numerous entrances when there is a large number of young being sufficiently obvious. The nest-chamber is furnished with a bed of soft hay. Towards the end of April the males visit the burrows of the females ; and if two individuals of them should happen to meet in the same domicile, a fierce en- counter ensues, the hamster, for its size, being an extremely ferocious and quarrel- some animal. In from four to five weeks after the pairing-time the first litter of young is produced, the number in each litter vai'ying from six to eighteen ; and as a second equally numerous brood comes into the world in July, the rate of increase of these animals is exceedingly rapid. When born, the young, although furnished with teeth, are naked and blind. The hair, however, quickly grows, and by the eighth or ninth clay the eyes are opened ; while within a fortnight the young are able to burrow, and are soon after driven away by their parents to shift for them- selves. Although hamsters do not attain their full growth for a twelvemonth, it appears certain that a female born in May is capable of producing offspring in the ensuing autumn. With these marvellously rapid powers of reproduction it is no wonder that hamsters frequently appear in countless swarms, when they inflict incalculable 1-6 RODENTS. harm upon the harvest. Fortunately, however, they have a host of enemies, and buzzards, owls, ravens, and other predacious birds thin their ranks by hundreds ; while among four-legged foes, polecats and stoats follow the track of the advancing legions, and kill them where and when they can. The polecat and stoat are, moreover, able to follow the hamsters into the recesses of their burrows, where they probably destroy them by hundreds. Man, too, joins the ranks of the destroyers of these mischievous rodents ; and in some cases organises regular hunts for their destruction. Government rewards are sometimes offered to aid in ridding the country of these pests ; and Brehm relates that in the year 1888 no less than 97,519 hamsters were destroyed in the single district of Aschersleben, for which a reward of 1950 marks was paid. In digging out the hamsters, the stores of corn winch they laid up for winter use form not the least important part of the enter- prise ; the grain being carefully dried and used for human consumption. In many districts the flesh of the hamster is eaten, and is said to be not unlike that of the squirrel. The fur too, although not of high value, is extensively used for linings, some thousands of skins being annually imported into England. In Eastern Europe there are smaller species of hamster in which the black of the under-parts only occupies a small area on the chest; and from these a transition is easy to the small uniform giw hamsters of Central Asia, one of which ranges as far south as Gilgit, while another occurs in Persia. white Footed The New World possesses not a single indigenous representative Mice- of the true rata and mice of the Old World, all the American members of the family belonging either to the Cricetine or to the closely allied Microtine subfamily. The great majority of the species belong to a group which maybe conveniently designated white-footed mice, from the general prevalence of white on their feet and under-parts. These American mice, which have representa- tives from one end of the continent to the other, are frequently regarded as constituting a number of distinct genera : but as they all possess molar teeth of essentially the same structure, it is simpler to include the whole ot them in the genus Oi"icetu8. They exhibit, however, great variation in regard to bodily form and the relative length of the tail. Thus there are some species with long tails and a general dormouse-like appearance, other long-tailed forms are mouse-like, others again have short hamster-like tails ami vole-like bodies, while one species has spines mingled with the fur. The best known representative of the group is the common white-footed mouse (C. leueopus) of North America, which may be regarded as taking the place filled in Europe by the house-mouse. It is, however, far more attractive in appearance than the latter, although of approximately the same size and general configuration. In addition to its long tail, large ears, and bead-like eyes, this mouse is characterised by Inning the fur of the upper-parts of the body of a rich fawn colour, which forms a striking contrast with the snowy-white of the under-parts and feet. Indeed, when we add to this the natural grace and agility of its move- ments, we have in this animal, as Dr. Hart Merriam observes, one of the most beautiful and interesting inhabitants of the forests of North America. The white-footed mouse is an inhabitant either of forests or open fields ; and in the wild state feeds chiefly upon beech-nuts, of which it accumulates large ■- THE MOUSE TRIBE. 127 stores for winter use. These stores are generally accumulated in hollow trees or logs, and sometimes may contain two or three quarts of beech-nuts or clover-seed. This mouse, unlike the hamster, remains, however, active throughout the winter; and may be seen running about on the snow, where its long tail leaves a character- istic track. It is an agile climber, running up tree-stems with the activity of a squirrel, and frequently disappearing in some hole at a great distance above the ground. In addition to nuts and seeds, the white-footed mouse will readily eat the flesh of such animals as come in its way, and it is possible that it may occasion- ally kill small birds for itself. From three to six young are produced at a birth, and there appear to be several litters during the year. The first coat of the young is of a uniform dull grey colour. In the northern portions of the range of this mouse, the nest is generally built either in the hollow of a tree or a log, or in a burrow: but more to the south these animals construct an "outside nest" of moss, grass, leaves, or bark, which is generally more or less cocoanut-shaped, and may be as much as a foot in diameter. It is usually suspended from a horizontal branch at some' distance from the ground, and has its entrance on the under surface. The group to which this particular species of white-footed mice belongs is distinguished by having only five tubercles on the first molar tooth in the upper jaw. The rice- tield mouse ((.'. falustris), which attains the size of a small rat. does much damage to the rice crops in the Southern States. The Fish-Eating Rat. ( ienus Ichtkyomys. A remarkable species ( /. Miilinm n ni) inhabiting the mountain -streams of central Peru is allied to the preceding group, but distinguished by its aquatic and probably fish-eating habits, as well as by its webbed and fringed hind feet. In size it comes near the brown rat, but has the head much flattened, larger whiskers, and very small ears and eyes: while in colour it is dark above and whitish beneath, with a black-and-white tail. The Gkooved-Toothed Mice. Genera Rhithrodontomys and Rkithrodon. Two groups of American Cricetines are distinguished by their upper incisor teeth being marked by parallel grooves. Of these, the American harvest-mouse [Rkitkrodontomys hv/mUis) resembles the rice-field mouse in external appearance, and is found in the southern United States as far north as Iowa ; the two other species of the genus being also North American. The Rhithrodonts, on the other hand, are exclusively South American, and are characterised by their rabbit-like appearance, the head being very short, with a highly convex profile, very large eyes, and rather large rounded ears. The rabbit-like rhithrodon (Rkithrodon cuniculoides), from Patagonia, is one of the best known species. The length of the head and body is Gi inches, and that of 128 EODEXTS. the tail about half as much again. Its general colour is yellowish grey mixed with black, with the under-parts pale yellow, and the rump, feet, and lower surface of the tail white. The Wood-Eats. Genus Neotoma. The Florida rat {Scotoma floridana) is the best known representative of a small genus of North American Cric lines, distinguished by their large size and the circumstance that the cusps on their molars show some approximation to the type of structure obtaining in the voles. The Florida rat, which inhabits the southern United States and the north of Mexico, is about the size of an ordinary rat, to which it also approximates in general coloration, although the under-pai'ts and feet are entirely white. This species has a thin scaly tail, but in the bushy- tailed wood-rat (X. ciru rea) from the north- western and western districts of North America, this appendage resembles that of a dormouse. The wood-rats are active, climbing animals, sometimes found in forests, but in other cases inhabiting rocky districts. In woods or near streams they frequently make heaps of twigs, straw, etc., in which to form their nests. The young, of which there are from three to six in a litter, cling to the sides ami back of the female parent when she is walking about, somewhat after the manner of certain opossums, and two litters are generally produced in the year. In addition to vegetable food, the Florida rat will also eat crayfish and frogs. There are several other genera belonging to the Cricetine sub- other Cricetines. . e . T family which cannot be mentioned here. It may be observed. however, that Hypogeomys, together with four other genera, are confined to Madagascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodents. The African Crested Rat. Genus Lopkiomys. A rare and remarkable Rodent from Xorth-East Africa differs from the preceding Cricetines in certain features, which have been regarded as entitling it to rank as the representative of a distinct family, but there can be little doubt that it is merely a highly-specialised member of the present group. The African crested rat (Lopkiomys imha/usi) derives its name from the great crest of long erectile hairs running down the back and tail, some of which are as much as 3V inches in length, and at their bases have a peculiar spongy structure. The tail is long and bushy, the limbs short, and the ears small. In the hind-foot the small front toe can be opposed to the others. The general colour is blackish brown, but there is a large triangular white spot on the front of the head, and a white streak beneath each eye, while the tip of the tail is also of the same hue. Moreover, the long hairs of the body have only the middle portion dark-coloured, their two extremities being white. Internally the crested rat differs from all other members of the family by its rudimentary collar-bones, and also by the circumstance that THE MOUSE TRIBE. 129 the sides of the hinder part of the skull are completely roofed over with bone, as in a turtle. This Rodent inhabits the district of Shoa, and is doubtless arboreal, although nothing definite is known of its habits in a wild state. The Voles. Genus Microtus? The voles, together with their near allies the lemmings and the musquash, constitute a group closely allied to the Cricetines, but distinguished by the peculiar character of their molar teeth. Indeed, the voles and their allies are evidently nothing more than a specialised modification of the Cricetine type, and it is more as a matter of convenience than from any well-founded distinctive characters that they are placed by themselves in a distinct subfamily. The whole group is characterised by the molar teeth being usually rootless or with imperfect roots, and composed of two longitudinal rows of alternately-arranged triangular prisms. These prisms, as shown in the accompanying cg^»^ figure, decrease in number from the first to the third -^^ tooth in each jaw, but are variable in number in the different species, and thus form a valuable aid in their discrimination. The tail of the voles is either short or of moderate length; and these Rodents are distinguished from the true rats and mice not only by this character, crown-subfacb op the upper but likewise by their more corpulent form, their smaller **D L0WEK M0IAR TEKT" , . . , . 0F THE CHINESE VOLE. eyes and ears, their more obtuse muzzles, and proportion- (From Thomas.) ately shorter limbs. The subfamily has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, but is quite unknown in Asia south of the Himalaya, in the Malayan region, and in Africa and South America. It is connected with the Cricetine subfamily by a North American genus known as Phenacomys, in which the molar teeth are furnished with roots. The water-vole, or, as it is commonly termed, the water-rat {Microtus amphibius), may be taken as a typical example of the widely-distributed group of voles, of which there are about half a hundred species, ranging from Britain through Europe to China, and thence eastwards to North America. The genus is sufficiently characterised by the molars being rootless and the soles of the feet naked. From its diurnal habits and wide distribution the water-vole is one of the best known of the indigenous British mammals. In size it agrees approximately with the brown rat, the length of the head and body being about 8^ inches, and that of the tail slightly more than half as much again. The fur is dense and shining, and of a full reddish brown colour mingled with grey above and yellowish grey below. The feet are not webbed, and the tail is hairy. The number of the prisms Water-Vole. 1 The name Arvicola has been commonly applied to the vole has had to give place to Microtus. VOL. III. — 9 but by the rules of zoological nomenclature it i3° RODENTS. in the molar teeth are different from those in the smaller British voles, but since the species is sufficiently distinguished by its superior size, it will be unnecessary to enter into the consideration of this point. A black variety of the water-vole is sometimes met with. The water-vole has a wide distribution, extending from England in the west to China in the east, and occurring throughout continental Europe. Curiously enough, however, it is unknown in Ireland, where the other two species of British vole are likewise wanting. Every English brook and river is tenanted by the water-vole, whose long burrows in the banks are sometimes a source of considerable inconvenience to the agriculturist. The burrows are, however, by no means confined to the banks of rivers, being not unfrequent in water-meadows, and occasionally in ploughed fields THE WATER-VOLE (§ uat. size). at a considerable distance from the water. Although the water-vole has been accused of carnivorous propensities, it is very doubtful if the charge can be substantiated. Its favourite food in summer appears to be the sweet inner pith of certain kinds of water-flags, but it will also eat many other aquatic plants, such as duckweed and horse-tails. In winter, when hard pressed for food, the water-vole turns its attention to the bark of trees and shrubs, and at this season frequently inflicts very serious damage on osier plantations. In cultivated districts it will also then readily eat mangold, turnips, potatoes, etc. When feeding upon duckweed, Bell says that " the creature sits, like a squirrel, on its haunches, near the water's edge, and, taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking mass in its fore-paws, eats a small part onlj-, and, letting the remainder fall, takes up some more, which is similarly treated and rejected." In May or June, and occasionally as early as April, the female gives birth to five or six young in the depths of its burrow : and it is probable that when the THE MOUSE TRIBE. 131 litter is produced early in the spring, a second one follows during the summer. When their holes are rendered inaccessible by frost, water- voles are found to take shelter on shore, sometimes frequenting the cover afforded by an osier-bed, and on other occasions taking refuge in pollard willows. In spite of its feet not being webbed, the water-vole is an expert swimmer and diver ; and its coat is of such a nature as to throw off the water as readily as dues tin' plumage of a duck. Fossil remains of the water-vole are found in the cavern -deposits of England, and also in the "forest-bed" of the Norfolk coast; while those of extinct species of the genus to which it belongs, occur in the Pliocene crag-deposits of Suffolk and Essex. Short-Tailed In addition to the water-vole, the British Islands (exclusive of Field voles. Ireland) possess two other species of the same genus, the commonest of which is the short-tailed field-vole, or field-mouse (.V. agrestis). This species is - - i THE CONTINENTAL FIELD-VOLE ( Dat size). .vV^VWO about the size of an ordinary mouse, and is greyish brown in colour above, and greyish white beneath, with dusky feet : the tail being about one-third the length of the body, while the under surfaces of the hind-feet have six naked pads. It is specially characterised by the circumstance that the second molar tooth in the upper jaw has five prisms. This character, unimportant as it may seem, serves to distinguish this species from the continental field-vole (M. arvalis) — represented in the accompanying illustration — in which, in common with the other continental short-tailed members of the genus, the corresponding tooth has but four such prisms. The common short-tailed field-vole is found all over England and Scotland, as well as the greater part of the Continent ; its range extending from the north of Italy to Finland, and from Spain and France to Russia ; but in the southern portion of its habitat it is less numerous than the continental field-vole. The English species is commonly found in meadows — especially those where the ground is moist, and makes extensive runs beneath the grass, in which it roams both by 132 RODENTS. night and day, although it is more active during the dark hours. In addition to these runs, the field-vole also constructs burrows of considerable size. The food of this species consists of seeds, roots, and herbage of all kinds. In gardens it displays an especial taste for the bulbs of crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans, among which it frequently does great damage. In winter, when other food is scarce, the field-vole will not unfrequently ascend trees to feed upon their bark. It is also by no means averse to a diet of insects and flesh. The field-vole is an unusually prolific animal, producing from three to four litters in a year, and each litter containing from four to six young. The nest in which these are born is composed of moss and leaves, and is usually placed beneath a tussock of grass in some slight hollow in the ground. The most remarkable peculiarity in connection with this field-vole is the swarms in which it occasionally makes its appearance in various parts of the country. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, one such " mice-plague " appeared in 1580 in Essex, a second visited Hampshire and Gloucestershire during 1813-14, while a third was recorded in Wensleydale which lasted from 1874 to 1876. In the second of these visitations, upwards of thirty thousand voles were destroyed in the Forest of Dean, and eleven thousand five hundred in the New Forest. Quite recently (1892), another such plague has made its appearance in the south of Scot- land, especially in parts of Dumfriesshire and Roxburgh ; the area over which the voles extended being estimated at from eighty thousand to ninety thousand acres. The mildness of the winter of 1890-91, coupled with the scarcity of owls, kestrels, and weasels (due to the over-zeal of gamekeepers), are supposed to have been the inducing cause of this last visitation. It is reported, however, that, as on similar occasions, numbers of owls arrived in the affected districts for the purpose of prey- ing on the voles, which by the end of 1893 had well-nigh disappeared. The habits of the continental field-vole are similar to those of the English species. It is stated, however, to be even a more prolific animal, the number of young varying from four to eight, while as many as six different litters may be produced in a single season. Moreover, it is probable that the young produced in the spring will themselves be parents in the following autumn. On the Continent the plagues of voles are even more serious than in England. Thus, according to Brehm, during a visitation of these animals which took place in Germany in the year 1822, upwards of 1,570,000 were taken in one district, 590,327 in another, and 271,941 in a third. Again, in the summer of 1861, a total of 409,523 voles were taken in a single district of Rhine-Hessen. The third species of the genus in Britain is the bank-vole (M. gla/reolus), winch may be distinguished externally from the field- vole by the colour of the back inclining more or less markedly to rufous, and also by its larger ears, and proportionately longer tail, which is equal to half the length of the head and body. The molar teeth differ from those of the field-vole not only by the circumstance that in the second one of the upper jaw there are but four prisms, but also in that in the adult state these teeth form imperfect roots. The whole proportions of the bank-vole are more elegant than those of the field- vole, while its fur is more smooth and glossy, its coloration more brilliant, and the eye larger. It is found locally over England and parts of Scotland, as far north as THE MOUSE TRIBE. 133 Morayshire, while abroad it ranges from France across Asia to China. Its general habits are the same as those of the field-vole, but it is said to be more generally found in sheltered situations, and is especially fond of visiting gardens. There is, however, a great probability that both the bank-vole and the red- backed vole (J/, gctppt ri) of North America, are merely local varieties of the Arctic vole (M. rul Hi's), which inhabits the circumpolar regions of both hemispheres; their differences in coloration being merely such as might well be due to the varying climatic conditions of the countries they severally inhabit. The Alpine vole (J/. tiivaMs), which is the last species to which we refer at any length, is interesting on account of the elevated regions forming its habitat. It is a small species with a relatively long tail: the Alpine Vole. the alpine vcji.k ,-; nat. size). total length being about 7 inches, of which slightly more than half is taken up by the tail. The cars are large : and the number of prisms in the first upper molar tooth is the same as in the water-vole. The colour varies from brownish grey above and greyish white beneath to pure white. This species has an exceedingly limited distribution, being confined to the Alps and Pyrenees, where it ranges from an elevation of about four thousand feet to the limits of perpetual snow. It is, indeed, most abundant near the snow line, above which it also sometimes wanders in search of the scanty vegetation which exists at such altitudes. Not only is the Alpine vole found in these dreary regions during the short season when the ground is more or less free from snow, but it likewise remains there from year's end to year's end. Accordingly, for upwards of nine or ten months of the year, it lives beneath a deep pall of snow. Here it makes regular runs, along which it travels in search of food when the supply hoarded for winter use becomes exhausted. No other known mammal leads a similar existence. i34 JtODEXTS. The list of species of voles being almost endless, space only per- mits of passing references to a few of the more interesting. In North America the commonest species is the meadow-vole (21. ripa/rius), which in the northern regions during the winter abandons its frozen burrows and forms nests on the surface of the ground, which soon become buried in the snow. The heat of the little animal inside melts and cakes the surrounding snow, which thus forms a con- tinually increasing dome -shaped mass around the nest. The root- vole (M. ceconomus) of Siberia and Kamschatka, is interesting on account of the large stores of food it accumulates in its burrows, and likewise on account of its migratory habits, which resemble those of the lemming. Numerous voles occur in the Himalaya, Tibet, and Central Asia ; the earliest described Himalayan species being Royle's vole (M. roylci). The Lemmings. Genus Myoon which the creature feeds. The tunnels are of great extent and complexity, some of the passages being as much as thirty or forty yards in length, and are generally about eighteen inches below the surface. In certain spots the borings descend, however, to a depth of some four feet, and here some of them terminate in chambers packed full of bulbs, while others open out into sleeping apartments, from which secondary passages again radiate. Dr. Anderson states that " the tunnels are perfectly smooth and cylindrical, and in digging through the soil above them numerous bulbs of the same kind as those found in the storehouse were observed/' When taken from its burrow, the first instinct of the animal is to dig headlong into the soil : and when underground it is able to move with equal facility either backwards or forwards. In Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, and the Malayan region, as well as in Abyssinia, the family is represented by a group of species, commonly known as bamboo-rats ( Rhizomys), which differ from the preceding by Bamboo -Rats. THE GREAT MOLE-HAT (A Dat. size). the minute eyes not being covered with skin, as well as by the presence of small external naked ears, and of a short tail partially covered with hair. The bay bamboo-rat (R. bach us), ranging from the Eastern Himalaya to Siam, is one of the best known representatives of this genus, and attains a length of from 7 to 9 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about 2i more. This species generally makes its burrows among tall rank grass, but sometimes at the roots of trees, and in their construction uses its teeth as well as its claws. There is some doubt whether these animals drive tunnels in search of roots, as they are known to issue forth at night in order to feed on the young shoots of grass, ami probably bamboo, but it is generally believed that they also eat roots. When above ground, they move slowly, and they are said to be so fearless, or stupid, as to allow themselves MOLE-RATS. 149 to be caught -without resistance, although when taken they bite savagely and severely. From three to four young are produced at a birth. The hill-tribes of Burma are in the habit of eating the flesh of these animals. The Sumatran bamboo- rat (R. xuhiatrensis), ranging from Tenasserim to Siam, is a much larger species, measuring from 15 to 19 inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Remains of an extinct bamboo-rat occur in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya. Africa, south of the Sahara, is the habitat of several tvpes of mole- Cape Mole-Rats. ... . . rats differing from these above mentioned in the formation of the lower jaw, and also by the general presence of premolar teeth. At the Cape there are two species, one of which (Bathyergvs ma/ritirrius) is nearly a foot in length, with the upper incisor teeth grooved, no external ears, and extremely powerful claws ; the silky hair being of a light greyish brown colour. This second species (Georychus capenais) is about half the size of the former, with smooth upper incisors, and weaker claws. The late Prof. Moseley states that the strand-mole (Bothy ergus), which is always found on the flats near the shore, constructs numbers of tunnels and hillocks, the former of which are large enough to easily admit the hand and arm. On the other hand, the runs of the smaller species are generally constructed on higher ground, although sometimes with those of the so-called strand-mole. The hillocks constructed by the latter are generally about a foot in height; those freshly made being of a dark colour. Prof. Moseley writes that "one has not long to watch, standing a few yards off, before the fresh heap is seen to heave up, three or four times in succession, as the strand-mole forces freshly scooped-out earth up into it from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it was thus heaving, in the hope of getting the mole, but never w ith any success. In order to shoot the worker, the earth should be quickly thrown hack from the fresh heap, and the hole laid open to the air. One then only has to retire about ten paces and wait patiently. The strand-mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course of five minutes or so comes back to fill up the hole, but usually puts its head out for a moment first to find what's up, though it certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, which are not bigger than the heads of carpet-pins, the whole eyeball when extracted being not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter." When trapped, the animal bites the air fiercely with its enormous front teeth, at the same time uttering a half- snarling, half-growling noise. Although there is but a single species of Bathyergus, there are several of Georychus in different parts of Africa. In addition to these there is an allied form, known as Myoscalops, characterised by having usually three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, in addition to the three molars. Naked Sand Rata ^le san(ty deserts of Somaliland and Shoa are inhabited by two members of the present family, which are some of the most extra- ordinary-looking little creatures in existence. In size the naked sand-rats (Hetero- cephalus) may be compared to a common mouse, but in appearance they are likened by Mr. O. Thomas, on account of their nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar physiognomy, to tiny hairless puppies. They have small heads, with projecting incisor teeth, and no external ears, while the limbs and tail are of moderate length. The eyes are almost functionless ; and, although the feet are fringed with hairs, 150 RODENTS. the yellowish skin is almost naked, save for a few sparsely scattered hairs. One of the two species has three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, while in the other there are but two. These sand-rats are entirely subterranean in their habits. Mr. Lort Phillips states they throw up "groups of miniature craters, which exactly represent volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at work I used frequently to watch them, and found that the loose earth from their excavations was brought to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of rapid jerks, but they themselves never venture forth from the shelter of their burrows." The American Pouched Rats. Family GSOMTIDJE. The possession of large cheek-pouches lined with hair, which open externally to the mouth at the lower edges of the cheeks, forms the distinctive peculiarity of a family of rat-like Rodents confined to the New World. The forms included in the family vary considerably in external appearance and habits; its larger and burrowing representatives being known as pocket -gophers, while the smaller terrestrial types are respectively termed kangaroo-rats and pocket-mice. In addition to three pairs of molar teeth with transverse plates ,,!' enamel on their crowns, and which may or may not be rooted, all these Rodents have a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Their skulls are characterised by the great twisting of each branch of the lower jaw, and likewise by the forward extension of the cheek-bone. Pocket-Gophers. Genera Geomys and Thomomys. The pocket-gophers include large rat-like species, with burrowing habits, and are characterised by their small eyes, rudimental external ears, and the equality in length of their comparatively short limbs. The whole of them are confined to North and Central America. Common Pocket- The common pocket-gopher (Geom ys bursarius) is selected for Gopher. illustration as the best known representative of the group, and as being the type of the genus Geomys, characterised by the presence of a deep groove on each of the broad upper incisor teeth. This species attains a length of from 7 to 8 inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail ; while the hairy tail itself varies from 2 to 3 inches. The fur is of a soft and mole-like texture; and of a beautiful reddish brown colour above, becoming greyish beneath, while on the feet, and generally also on the tail, it is white. This pocket-gopher is an inhabitant of the extensive plains of the valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries, extending somewhat beyond these limits to the northwards. Here it lives a mole-like life, constructing subterranean tunnels and throwing up at intervals conical heaps of earth, after the fashion of the " little gentleman in black velvet." The tunnels generally run at a distance of about a AMERICAN POUCHED RATS. i5' fool below the surface: but sometimes, as when passing beneath a garden path, they descend deeper. They are driven for the purpose of obtaining access to the roots of plants un which these animals chiefly subsist. The tunnels generally com- municate with one another by cross-passages: and in a certain spot — generally beneath the roots of some large tree — the animal sinks a deep shaft, at the termina- tion of which is constructed a dwelling-chamber. This chamber is generally as much as from four to Ave feet below the surface, and is entered by a tortuous passage. It is of large size, and generally lined with soft grass, upon which the owner reposes. The nest of the female is constructed in a similar chamber, which thk euMMc. ai t. size). is, however, encircled by a horizontal gallery, after the manner of the residential chamber of the mole. Here in the latter part of March or beginning of April are produce. 1 from five to seven young : their nest consisting partly of soft fur from the body of the mother. Generally a passage proceeds from one side of the nest- chamber to a store-chamber, which is filled with roots, nuts, and seeds — in cultivated district- potatoes often forming a large proportion of its contents. The food is said to be carried to this storehouse in the capacious cheek-pouches of the animal. Usually the pocket-gopher works at its tunnels or domicile from about four to ten o'clock in the morning, during which time it excavates from twelve to twenty feet of tunnelling, and will throw up from two to five hillocks. Other species of pocket- gophers belonging to this genus are found in the Southern United States. Mexico, and Central America. J52 RODENTS. Northern Pocket- The northern pocket-gopher (Thomomys talpoides) is the best Gopher. known representative of a second genus, containing at least two species, and distinguished by the absence of grooves in the upper incisor teeth. This species measures from 6 to 8 inches in length, and the tail some 3 inches more : while its general colour is very similar to that of the brown rat. The animals of this genus are distributed over the whole of Canada ami North America west of the Rocky Mountains. In habits they precisely resemble the preceding genus. The Kaxgaroo-Rats. Genus Dipodomys. The kangaroo-rats and their smaller allies the pocket-mice are utterly unlike the pocket-gophers in external appearance, having elongated hind-limbs and tails, THE COMSIOX KAXGAKOO-RAT (\ Wit. dze). large eyes, and well-developed ears, while their habits resemble those of the jerboas. They agree, however, with the former in the possession of large external cheek-pouches, and their general internal structure, although their upper incisor teetli are proportionately much narrower, and there are certain peculiarities in the conformation of the skull. common The kangaroo-rats are characterised by the molar teeth being Kangaroo-Rats, rootless, and their best known representative is the common species (Dipodomys phUlipsi) depicted in our illustration, which inhabits the desert regions to the eastward of the Rocky Mountains, and is characterised by the possession of four toes on the hind-feet. The head and body of this animal measure a little over 4 inches in length ; while the tail is very long and tufted at the end, and the general build of the creature light and elegant. The colour of POCKET-MICE. 1 53 the upper-parts is mouse-brown, becoming tawny on the flanks, while the under- parts, the tip of the tail, ami a spot above each eye are white or yellowish. In the Rocky Mountains the place of this species is taken by Orel's kangaroo-rat (B. ordi ). which is a rather larger and more stoutly built animal, with a relatively shorter tail, and having five toes on each hind foot. The habits of the kangaroo-rats are very similar to those of the jerboas, these Rodents frecpaenting the most arid districts they can find, and living in burrows made beneath rocks or stones. In such districts there is no water, and but little vegetation save gigantic cactuses; and it appears that the food of the kangaroo-rats is Formed by tin- roots, blades, and seeds of the scanty grass that manages to struggle into existence. Probably the only water that these creatures drink is that derived from clew collected on the cactuses. Little or nothing seems to be known of their breeding-habits. The Pocket-Mice. Genera Perognathvjz and Heteromys. The tiny little Rodents known in the United States as pocket-mice are dis- tinguished from the kangaroo-rats by tin1 presence of roots totheir molar teeth, and also by their inferior size — the whole length of the head and body seldom exceeding 2 inches. The genus Perognathus, as represented by the banded pocket-mouse (P. ,/i '>("'/">•), of North America, is characterised by the hair being coarse and bristly; whereas in the genus Heteromys, of which representatives extend as far southwards as Trinidad, the fur is mingled with a number oi flattened spines. Most of these animals are brownish above and white beneath, with a tawny stripe on the flanks dividing the dark from the light area. CHAPTER XXXIII. Rodents, — continued. The Porcupixe-Like Rodexts. Families OCTODOXTW^E, Hl'STFJClD^E, etc. The Rodents described in the present chapter, which include the whole of the remaining members of the order, with the exception of the hares, rabbits, and picas, are distinguished from all those described above by the conformation of the lower jaw. In both the squirrel-like and mouse-like groups, the angular, or lower posterior process of the lower jaw, it will be remembered, takes its origin from the inferior edge of the socket of the lower incisor teeth. In the present group, on SKELETON' OF THE CAXE-KAT. the other hand, this process originates from a prominent ridge on the outer side of the jaw; the position of this ridge being shown in the figure of the skeleton of the cane-rat. All the members of the group are further characterised by the stoutness of the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull ; and also by the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) being perfectly distinct from one another. The porcupine-like Rodents are very characteristic of America, and more especially of the southern half of that continent. Thus the whole six families into which the group is divided occur in America, while only two of them have any Old World representatives. Of the latter, the porcupine family is almost cosmopolitan; while the Octodontida are represented in the Old World only in Africa, south of the Sahara. With the exception of one species, these Rodents have one pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. THE OCTODO.XT TRIBE. 155 The Octodont Tribe. Family OcTODOXTIDJE. As there is no collective English name for the various members of this extensive family, we are compelled to adopt a modification of its Latin title. These Rodents are more or less rat-like animals, characterised by having complete collar-bones, and their molars marked by enamel-folds on both sides. In the skull the jugal portion of the cheek-arch nearly always has an angle on its lower edge. The feet, which are armed with long curved claws, generally have five toes. The teats are placed high up on the sides of the body; the ears are short and but thinly haired ; while the tail, which varies greatly in length, may he either clothed with short hair, or scaly. With the exception of a few African forms, and others from the West Indies, this family is characteristic of South America. Tin: Gundi. ( ienus < '/< nodactylus. One of the most remarkable of the African representatives of the family is the gundi (Ctenodactylus gv/ndi) from the regions bordering the Sahara, character- ised by the two inner toes of the hind-feel being furnished with a, horny comb and bristles, which are employed in cleaning the I'm-. In size this animal may be compared to a water-vole, with relatively long hind-legs. It has no premolar teeth, the feet have only four toes each, the ears are small, and tin- tail is reduced to a mere stump. The gundi inhabits rocky districts, and is diurnal: its mode of life being very similar to that of tin' jerboas. In Soinaliland the gundi is replaced by a closelv allied species, Pcctins-tor known as Pectinatcr spehei, distinguished by its moderately long and bushy tail, and the presence of a small premolar tooth in each jaw. The Degtj. Genus Octodon. The degu (0. degus), which is the typical representative of the family, is a species inhabiting Chili and Peru, and distinguished from the last group by the feet having five toes, without any comb-like appendages, in tin1 hind-limb. The molar teeth are alike in both jaws, and are simply indented on both sides by the folds of enamel. In general form the degu is like a rat, and it is slightly inferior in size to the water- vole; the length of the head and body varying from 7i to 8 inches, while the tail, exclusive of the tuft at the end, measures about 4 inches. The fur is remarkable for its softness, the ears are of moderate size, and the nearly naked tail terminates in a distinct tuft. The general colour of the fur on the upper-parts is brownish yellow, mottled with black, while the under-parts are yellowish, and the feet white; the tail is dusky above and whitish below, with the hair at the tip blackish. i56 RODENTS. Habits. The degus are some of the commonest Rodents in Chili, and associate in large companies. They are generally found in hedges or bushes, and in the neighbourhood of towns may frequently be observed running across the high-roads, while they often resort to gardens and orchards, where they commit considerable damage. Their burrows are constructed in hedge-banks or under bushes, and those of the whole colony communicate more or less freely with one another. When disturbed, they scamper off at once to seek refuge in their burrows, with their tails raised over their backs. In many respects they resemble squirrels in their habits, climbing trees with facility, and laying up stores of food for winter use, although, owing to the mildness of the climate of the regions they inhabit, they do not hibernate. Their food usually consists of the various the degu (j nat. size). Habrocoma. plants growing round their burrows, supplemented in winter by bark. It is believed that two litters are produced annually, each containing five or six young. There are other species of Octodon inhabiting Chili and Bolivia ; and in addition to these the latter country possesses two representa- tives of the allied genus Habrocoma, so named from the extreme softness of the fur, which approaches that of the chinchilla. The habrocomas are about the size of an ordinary rat, and distinguished bv their larger ears, the absence of a tuft to the tail, and by the lower molar teeth being more complex than the upper ones. Another allied Rodent from the Southern Andes, known as Aconcemys, is distinguished by the enamel-folds of the molars meeting in the middle line. The regions where these animals are found are buried in snow for several months of the year. THE OCTODOXT TRIBE. 157 The Tucotucos. Genus Ctenomys. The tucotucos, of which there are several South American species, are characterised by their adaptation for a subterranean life. They have small and almost rudimental ears, small eyes, and short tails. Their incisor teeth are extremely broad; and their molars are rootless, wit h kidney-shaped crowns. On the fore-feet the curved claws are longer than the toes ; while the hind-toes are furnished with a number of bristles. The species of tucotuco vary in length from 8 to 12 inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about one-fourth as long again; and the general colour of the soft fur is greyish, while the incisor teeth are red. THE MAGELLANIC TUCOTUCO (1 liat. Size). Distribution. There are four species of these animals, ranging from Brazil and and Habits. Bolivia to the Straits of Magellan; our figured example being the Magellanic species ( ' fanomys magella n ica). The name tucotuco is derived from the peculiar cry of these animals, which, from their subterranean habits, are also termed oculto. In many districts, especially where the soil is sandy, these Rodents are found in large numbers ; whole tracts being frequently undermined by their long and shallow burrows, of which the course is indicated by lines of hillocks. Thej- are nocturnal in their habits, feeding mainly upon the roots of plants, of which they are saved to lay up a store. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that on the Argentine pampas wherever there is a stretch of sandy soil, or a range of sandhills, the tucotuco is to be found ; " not seen, but heard : for all day long and all night sounds its voice, resonant and loud, like a succession of blows from a hammer; as 158 RODEXTS. if a company of gnomes were toiling- far down underfoot, beating on their anvils, first with strung measured strokes, then with lighter and faster, and with a swing and rhythm as if the little men were beating in time to some rude chant unheard above the surface." The tucotucos seem to be somewhat gregarious in their habits, as several may be often taken from a single burrow. Chili is the home of two species of Rodents known as cururo (Spalacopua), nearly allied to the last, but distinguished by their rudimental ears. Somewhat curiously, another nearly related form (Petromys typicus) is found in South Africa, which differs from its American cousins by the harshness of its fur, the shortness of the thumb, the rather bushy tail, and the partially rooted molar teeth. The Coypu. Cururo. Genus Myopotam us. Widely different in its habits from the tucotuco is the coypu {Myopoiamus coypu) of South America, which is one of the largest members of the order, THE COYPC (i uat. >IZcl. attaining a length of from 20 inches to 2 feet, exclusive of the tail. It belongs to a group of several genera distinguished from the preceding American examples by the very harsh nature of the fur, and depth of the folds of enamel in the half-rooted or rootless molars. The coypu itself is characterised by the very large size of its incisor teeth : and by the upper molars having two folds of enamel on each side, while in those of the lower jaw there are one external and three internal folds. The molars are partially rooted, and the last one is larger than either of the others. The ears are of moderate size: and the tail, which is scaly, with a thin coating of short hairs, is about two-thirds the length of the head and body. Each of the feet THE OCTODONT TRIBE. iS9 has rive toes, which in the hind-limb are connected by webs. The fur of the coypu is long, but beneath there is a dense and soft under-fur. The colour of the upper-parts is a mixture of dusky and brownish yellow, the sides and under-parts being pure brownish yellow, the tip of the muzzle and chin white, the feet dusky brown, and a patch below each ear yellow. The coypu is found in the rivers and lakes of South America, on Distribution. .. . both sides of the Andes, from Chili and Peru to about the 48th parallel of south latitude. In the Chonos Archipelago, according to Darwin, coypu are found exclusivel}T in the channels and bays separating the various small islands. In general appearance and habits the coypu is not unlike a beaver, being thoroughly aquatic, and making its burrow in the banks of the rivers and lakes it frequents. When, however, the banks are not sufficiently high to allow of this, a platform-like nest is constructed aim mg the reeds. The burrow is generally three or four feet in depth, and expands at the end into a chamber of some two feet in diameter. They are generally found in pairs, but in Argentina the writer has seen them coming out in large parties in the evenings to swim and sport in the water. Here they utter peculiarly mournful cries; the females, at the proper season, being each accompanied by some eight or nine offspring, which endeavour to obtain a seat on their parent's back, those that are unable to attain this position of security swimming behind. Although a first-rate swimmer, the coypu is said not to be an adept at diving: and its movements on land are always awkward and ungainly. These animals usually select tor their haunts the stillest parts of the rivers, lakes, or ponds ; and their food consists of the foliage, seeds, and roots of the water-plants growing hard by. In the Chonos Archipelago, where they make their burrows in the forest at some distance from the shore, they are said, however, to subsist partly on molluscs. In Argentina Mr. Hudson states that at one time the coypu became very scarce owing to the numbers killed for their fur. An enactment was then passed forbid- ding the killing of these animals ; the result being that they " increased and multi- plied exceedingly, and, abandoning their aquatic habits, they became terrestrial and migratory, and swarmed everywhei'e in search of food. Suddenly a mysterious malady fell on them, from which they quickly perished and became almost extinct." The under-fur of the coypu is an important article of commerce, the average number of skins annually collected varying from three hundred thousand to five hundred thousand. In Argentina the coypu is universally known as the nutria, which is properly the Spanish name for the otter ; the same term being applied in commerce to the fur. The Hutias. Genus < 'apromya. The large Eodent known as the hutia-couga (C. pilorides), is one of a group of four or five species confined to the West Indian Islands, where they appear to be the only indigenous members of the order. They are all allied to the coypu, from which they are distinguished by their arboreal habits and more ratdike appearance, i6o RODENTS. as well as by certain structural peculiarities. Thus the incisor teeth are narrower than in the latter, while the upper molars are characterised by one fold of enamel on the inner side, and two on the outer side. The ear is relatively small, and the tail generally of considerable length, thick, ami sparsely haired. The hutia-couga, which is the species represented in our figure, is confined to Cuba, and is somewhat smaller than the coypu, the length of the head and body being about 22 inches. The fur is very long and coarse, its general colour being a mixture of yellowish grey and brown, becoming reddish brown on the back and loins, while beneath it is dusky brownish grey, with a more or less marked yellow tinge. The paws are black, the the hutia-cocga (J uat. size). ears dark, and the chest and a streak down the middle of the belly grey. Internally this species is remarkable in that the liver is split up into a number of small lobules. Another Cuban species is the hutia-carabali (C. prehensUis), distinguished, among other characters, by the tip of the tail being prehensile. In Jamaica there is the short-tailed hutia (C. brackyv/rus), while in the Bahamas the genus is represented by Ingraham's hutia (C. ingrahami). The hutia-couga inhabits dense forests, and is an expert climber, ascending trees both to avoid pursuit and in search of food. It sub- sists mainly on fruits, leaves, and bark ; but it also eats the flesh of small animals, particularly that of a kind of lizard. This species can be easily tamed ; and its flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives of Cuba, who either hunt the creature with dogs, or capture it by means of snares. The smaller hutia-carabali is said to confine itself to the most remote districts of the forests, and to frequent the top- Habits. THE OCTODONT TRIBE. 161 most branches of the trees. It is more shy and less easily tamed than the first species; and, like the latter, fights fiercely hi self-defence when attacked. In one of the species, at least, there are but four teats in the female, from which it may be inferred that the number of young in a litter is small. The nipples, as in the coypu, are situated high up on the sides of the bod}' ; and this seems to disprove the suggestion that in the latter animal they are thus situated in order that the young may be able to suckle while the parent is in the water. In Hayti and Jamaica the hutias are also represented by a nearly allied rodent known as Plagiodon cediwm, distinguished by the extreme complexity of the enamel-folds of the molar teeth, which in the upper jaw form a kind of zigzag pattern. Africa possesses a single representative of this group of the family, known as the cane-rat (AvZacodua surindi rianus), which is a large species of burrowing habits, easily recognised by three deep grooves on each of Cane Rat. the cane-rat (^ nat. size). its broad red upper incisor teeth ; these grooves giving the name to the genus of which this animal is the only representative. The molar teeth resemble those of the hutias. The cane-rat attains a length of about 21 inches to the root of the tail ; the tail measuring from 5 A to 8 J inches. Its general appearance is rat-like, with the fur very coarse, and the tail but sparsely haired. In the fore-feet the thumb is rudimentary and the fifth toe small ; while in the hind-foot the first toe is entirely wanting. The general colour of the fur is brown, richer in tint on the back than on the flanks ; the chin and upper lip being whitish, while the throat is a dirty yellow, and the under-parts pale brownish yellow. The feet are pencilled with black and yellow. A full-grown male will weigh as much as 9 or 10 lbs. VOL. III. — II 162 noDEyrs. The cane-rat has an extensive distribution in Africa, ranging from the Upper Nile (where it is represented by a variety with partially-webbed hind-feet) through Eastern and Central Africa to the Cape : while on the western side it ranges as far north as Guinea. In Guinea it is known to the natives as the yumba, while in South- Eastern Africa it is termed the ivondue. In Sierra Leone it is said to feed chiefly upon ground-nuts and roots, in search of which it digs in the soil, while it also forms burrows for its residence. In South-Eastern Africa the habits of these rodents appear to be somewhat different. For instance, Mr. W. H. Drummond states that cane-rats " do not form burrows of their own : but when forced out of the thick tangle of overgrown grass or reeds in which they lie, a task by no means eas}r of accomplishment, they take refuge in any hole or crevice among rocks or stones, or in the deserted burrows of the ant-eater or porcupine. They are not only destructive to a degree among sugar-cane, gnawing down stem after stem, but most difficult to extirpate. In spots such as these, they live in what fields happen to be lying fallow, which, being covered with an impene- trable thicket of grass and weeds, offer them a secure retreat from which they can nightly issue forth into the canes." The cane-rat is largely hunted by the natives, and in some cases by Europeans, for the sake of its flesh. Schweinfurth remarks that it- flesh "is excellent when roasted: it is rich, ami without being sweet and insipid like that of the hyrax. it is free from any unpleasant flavour. In quality it is about equal to poultry, whilst in tast.- it may be described as being intermediate between pork and veal/' There are numerous other South American representatives of the Other Genera. . Octodonts. These are mostly smaller rat-like forms than the preceding, with long cylindrical tails : many of them being remarkable for the intermixture of flattened lance-like spines with the fur. Some of the best known genera are LonchA res ami Echinomys, and these are mostly characterised by the possession of the above- mentioned spines. The majority of the species of these two genera inhabit Guiana and Brazil, but one speaies i if Ech inoTnys ranges into Central America. Most of them are brown above and white beneath, but in some cases the white extends on to the flanks, shoulders, and head, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of long- tailed guinea-pigs. A third genus, Cmii nxJon, of which there is but one Brazilian species, is distinguished by a longitudinal groove on each upper incisor. The Porcupines. Family HysTrj* id.e. The well-known porcupines, which have the widest geographical distribution of any family of this section of the order, are distinguished from their allies by the presence of a number of large quill-like spines in the skin. Their build is stout and massive : and the fore and hind-limbs are of subequal length. In the skull, the region of the face is comparatively short and broad : while the cheek or jugal bone in the zygomatic arch is devoid of the angle on its lower edge, distinctive of most of the members of the preceding family. The molar teeth are partly or completely rooted with folds of enamel on each side. Porcupines derive their PORCUPINES. 163 name from the French porc-epvn (spiny-pig), probably in allusion to their grunting pig-like cries. They are common to both the Old anil New Worlds; although the representatives of the group found in the two hemispheres constitute two distinct subfamilies. Canadian The common Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsat us) belongs to Porcupine. a group confined to America, all the members of which are arboreal in their habits, while most of them have prehensile tails. They are all characterised by the absence of a cleft in the upper lip, by the naked soles of the feet heing covered by a number of tubercles, by the want of the first toe in the fore-foot, and the presence of only three teats in the female. Their molar teeth have complete roots; ami the collar-bones are fully developed E. dorsatvts differs from its allies in having a short and nonprehensile tail; and also in the presence of live toes in the hind-feet. It is a heavy and clumsily-built animal, with long brown hair, almost or completely concealing the short spines, which are white with brown- ish tips. The length of the creature is about 2 feet, and its weight from 15 to 20 lbs. The limbs, neck, ears, and muzzle are short ; the ears being almost con- cealed by the long bristly hair at the sides of the head. The claws are very long and powerful : and the tail massive and almost four-sided in shape. The stout spines vary in length from less than one inch to more than four inches in different parts of the body: they cling loosely to the skin, and are thus easily detached, and as they are slightly barbed at the points they make their way completely through the flesh of any animal in which they may become fixed. As in other members of the family, the quills, when the animal is in repose, lie smoothly and are directed backwards; but under the influ- ence of excitement they can be erected by the aid of a sheet of muscle underlying the skin. The Canadian porcupine extends in the country from which it takes its name as far northwards as the limit of trees, while in the United States it extends on the eastern side as far south as Virginia, and on the western coast from Alaska to Arizona and New Mexico. Despite its heavy form and nonprehensile tail, it is an adept at climbing, and spends the greater part of its time among the branches of trees. Dr. Hart Merriam states that although largely nocturnal, these animals may at times be seen abroad during daylight. Their lair is usually made among the clefts of rocks, but sometimes in a hollow tree or heap of bushes. Even in the cold climate of the Adirondacks, this porcupine, although less active in winter, never hibernates. Dr. Merriam writes that when one of these animals " has selected and settled himself in a tree to his liking, he may not leave it, day or night, until he has denuded it of the whole of its foliage. I have seen many hemlocks thus completely stripped, not a green twig remaining, even on the smallest bough. It seems incredible that so large and clumsy an animal SKELETON OF PORCITIXE. 164 RODEXTS. should be able to climb out far enough on the branches of trees to reach the terminal leaves ; but he distributes his weight by bringing several branches together, and then, with his powerful paws, bends back their ends and passes them through his mouth. When high in the tree-tops he is often passed unnoticed, mistaken, if seen at all, for the nest of a crow or a hawk." The food of this animal consists not only of the leaves of various trees — especially the hemlock-spruce — but likewise of their twigs and bark : while beech- mast is also a favourite article of its diet. The pods of water-lilies are also eaten : while a partiality for salt is very marked The nest is constructed in the same situations as the sleeping lair. The young in the Adirondack region are born early in May, and are usually one or two in number. At birth, according to Dr. THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE (J nat. size;. Merriam, they are very large for the size of the animal, being actually larger, and proportionately more than thirty times the size of the cubs of the black bear. This porcupine uses its tail as a weapon of offence, inflicting severe blows by its lateral action. Few animals care to attack the porcupine, although, as previously mentioned, both the puma and fisher-marten make these animals their prey, and are frequently found with their flesh bristling with quills. The tree-porcupines are distinguished from the Canadian porcu- Tree-Poroupmes. .,,.,..,. pine by their long prehensile tails, and the presence of only four toes on the hind-feet. They are also of lighter build : and their spines are short, closely set, and parti-coloured, sometimes almost concealed by long hairs. In the absence of the first toe. the inner side of each hind-foot is furnished with a large flesh}* lobe which can be bent inwards to a certain degree, and forms an efficient aid in climbing ; more especial!}- as the whole foot is set so obliquely on the leg that the rough sole is directed somewhat outwardly. The tail is thick at the PORCUPINES. 165 base, but slender at the end, where its upper surface is devoid of hair. It is this upper surface which is applied to the branch, and the tail is, therefore, coiled in the reverse direction to that of the spider-monkeys, as shown in our illustration. The muzzle is thick, and oblicpiely truncated, so that the upper lip somewhat overhangs the lower portion, with large nostrils; the whole being clothed with hue velvety hair. Both the ears and eyes are small. The quills have numerous exceedingly minute spines at their extremities, with their points directed back- wards, so as to act as barbs. Brazilian Tree- The Brazilian tree - porcupine (S. prehensilis), which is the Porcupine, species commonly seen in menageries, is found in Brazil, Guiana, and part of Bolivia, and has the spines projecting freely above the fur. In length the head and body measure from 16 to 18 inches; the tail being about an inch shorter. BRAZILIAN TREE-PORCUPINE (£ nat. size). '.V; These animals, like the other species of the genus, are usually solitary, passing the greater part of the day in slumber, and feeding in the morning and evening. Their food consists of the leaves, young shoots, and bark of the trees on which they dwell. In climbing it is said that they ascend the trunks of trees by the feet alone, the tail being employed onl}' when among the smaller branches, which these animals but seldom leave. When sleeping, they generally rest in the fork of a branch. Comparatively little is known of their habits in a wild state ; but in captivity they are harmless, stupid creatures. Their flesh is eaten by the natives of Brazil, by whom they are known by the name of cuandu. Mexican Tree- The Mexican tree-porcupine (Si/netheres novcehispanice), belongs Porcupine. £0 a group which has the hair so long as almost to conceal the spines. It is distinguished by the nearly uniform black colour of the fur, and also by the presence of numerous spiny bristles mingled with the hair of the lower parts of the body. These bristles arise in small clusters from tubercles, and being white for i66 RODEXTS the greater part of their length form star-like spots among the dark fur. These bristles and the spines on the back are black at the tips. This species inhabits the forests on the eastern coasts of Mexico. Nothing special is recorded of its habits ; but it may lie mentioned that from observations made on captive individuals of other species, it is probable that none of the tree- porcupines ever drink. It is stated that in those long-haired species in which the fur is of a greyish tint, the general appearance of the animal when reposing on the arm of a tree closely simulates a gnarled and lichen-clad knot. MEXICAN TREE-PORCUPINE (,l nat. size). Thtn-Spined A peculiar porcupine (Chcetomys mbspiTtosus), from Central and Porcupine. Northern Brazil, differs from all the members of the preceding genus by the shape of its skull and the more complicated structure of its molar teeth, as well as by the slenderness of its spines, which may be described as half-way between those of the other groups and mere bristles. It is a large species, of a dull brown colour, with the under-parts inclining to rufous, and the feet and tail brownish black. The tail, although long, is not prehensile : and the habits of the animal are less completely arboreal than those of the preceding group. Remains of a species of Ereth izorn occur in the superficial deposits of Pennsylvania, and those of Synetheres in the caverns of Brazil. „ . With the true porcupines, as typically represented by the True Porcupines. out-' • ,_" . ' . . common bouth European species (Hystrut cristata), we come to the second subfamily, all the members of which are confined to the Old World, and differ from their Transatlantic cousins by the following characteristics. Externally the soles of the feet are perfectly smooth, the fore -feet have a small thumb, and the female is provided with six teats. In the skeleton, the collar- bones are incomplete : and the molar teeth have imperfect roots. In habits all PORCCJ'IXES. 167 S PORCUPINE. these porcupines are purely nocturnal and terrestrial : consequently, the tail is never prehensile. common The common porcupine, of which a group is represented in our Porcupine, coloured Plate, and a single individual in the accompanying woodcut, is the best known member of the first of these genera. As is the case with the other species of the genus, it is characterised by its massive form, its large size, the great length of the quills on the body, and by the short spiny tail terminating in a cluster of short slender-stalked quills, which are hollow and open at their extremities , these tail- quills making the peculiar rattling noise noticeable when a porcupine is in motion. The genus is further characterised by the great eleva- tion ami convexity of the skull, in which the chamber of the no-,' is frequently more capacious than tin- brain-case. Next to tin' beaver, the porcu- pines arc tin' largest of the Old World Rodents, the common species measuring from 26 to 28 inches in Length, exclusive of tii • tail. The prevailing colour of this species is brownish black, with a white hand crossing the front of tin' neck, and about half-way up the sides, when it becomes gradually narrow. The neck is furnished with a crest of Ion-- bristles, which are mostly brown at tin' base and white above. Th • quills on the body are of two kinds — tin' one distin- guished by their great length, slenderness and flexibility, while the others are shorter and stouter, and are mostly concealed by the longer ones. These quills are mostly marked with broad rings of black and white; both extremities being of the latter hue. Those on the rump are. however, chiefly black: while the open quills at the end of the tail, as well as most of those clothing the rest of that appendage, are entirely white. This porcupine inhabits Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa. In India the common species is replaced by the closely allied hairy-nosed porcupine (H. leucura), distinguished by the muzzle being densely clad with hairs, as well as by the quills at the base of the tail, and sometimes a row in the middle of the hinder part of the back, being mostly white. The skull, moreover, is less convex, with smaller nasal hones. This species is found from Ceylon to Kashmir, and appears to extend westwards as far as the Black Sea. Two other species inhabit India; of which the Bengal porcupine (H. bengalensis) has a much shorter crest on the neck, while in Hodgson's porcupine this crest is totally wanting. The latter occurs in the Eastern Himalaya, and is represented by .allied forms in Borneo and the Malayan region. The South African porcupine (H. afrcB-avstralis) is a third representative of the crested group. Fossil porcupines occur in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India, and also in the upper and middle Tertiaries of Europe. Other Species. 1 68 RODEA'TS. Habits. As the habits of all the true porcupines appear to be very similar, they may be treated collectively. Iu the first place, it should be mentioned that the old idea of porcupines being able to eject their quills at an enemy is a pure fable. Although a belated individual may occasionally be seen making its way homeward in the early morning, porcupines remain concealed during the day- light hours, either in caves or clefts of rocks, or in burrows excavated by themselves. They generally prefer rocky hills, and although in Europe they are usually found either solitary or in pairs, in India they are frequently gregarious. Their food is entirely vegetable, and consists mainly of roots, although in cultivated districts they do much damage to crops, garden vegetables, and such fruit as they can reach. In Europe the pairing-season takes place early in the year: and in the spring or commencement of the summer the female produces from two to four young, in a nest gfeC* AFRICAN BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE (J nat. size). formed of leaves, grass, and root-fibres. The young ai-e bom in an advanced state, having their eyes open, and their bodies covered with soft flexible spines, which soon harden by exposure to the air. When frightened or irritated, porcupines erect their quills, with a peculiar rattling of the hollow ones at the tip of the tail, at the same time stamping with their hind-feet. If attacked by dogs or other four- footed foes, they rush backwards and inflict severe wounds with the long quills on their hind-quarters, which are sometimes driven deeply into the flesh of their antagonists. Dogs, according to Dr. Jerdon, readily follow the scent of porcupines, and thus track them to their lairs. Leopards are said to despatch them easily by a single well-directed blow on the head. From the large size of their teeth and jaws, porcupines have great gnawing powers ; and the writer has seen in India tusks of elephants which have been half-eaten by these animals as they lay in the jungles. The flesh of porcupines is excellent eating, and is said to resemble something between pork and veal in flavour. o m CO □ "TJ o XI o c CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 169 Brush-Tailed The brush-tailed porcupines, of which one specie (Atherwra Porcupines, africa/na) inhabits Western and Central Africa, and the other (A. macrura) Burma and the Malayan region, are much smaller and more rat-like animals than the true porcupines, from which they are distinguished at a glance by their long and scaly tails terminating in a tuft of bristles. The body is covered with flattened and grooved spines, which are not much longer on the hind-quarters than on the back and shoulders. In the Indian species the length of the head and body may reach as, much as 22 inches ; that of the tail being about 10 inches. In colour this species is dark brown, with the tips of the spines sometimes paler. The longer spines on the hind-quarters are mostly white; the under-parts, and the bristles at the end of the tail, are whitish. Gunther's A rare porcupine from Borneo (Trickys guentheri) 'lifters so Porcupine, markedly from the preceding in the characters of its skull, that it is regarded as indicating a third genus of the subfamily. It is distinguished exter- nally from the brush-tailed porcupines by its shorter spines, and the narrow parallel-sided bristles of the tail. Chinchillas and Viscachas. Family Chlyc/iillih. /■:. The remaining porcupine-like Rodents are confined to South and Central America and the West Indies. Those included in the present family are few in number, and are characterised by their terrestrial habits, elongated hind-limbs, long bushy tails, and extremely soft fur. Internally they have complete clavicles; their molar teeth are divided into a series of parallel transverse plates by the extension of the folds of enamel completely across their crowns; ami the incisors are remarkable for their shortness. In the skull the palate is very narrow in front, while behind it remains unossified for a considerable distance in advance of the last molar teeth. „ The chinchillas are characterised by having four toes on the hind- ChinchUlas. J a feet, and five on the fore-feet, by the length of the bushy tail, and also by the enormous size of the bulla of the internal ear on the base of the skull, which are so much enlarged as to appear on the sides of its upper surface. common The common chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) is a squirrel-like Chinchiua. Rodent, with very large ears, and a tail about half the length of the head and body; the latter measuring 10 inches. The fur, which is about an inch in length, is of extreme softness, and of a delicate pearly grey, mottled with black above, and yellowish white beneath : while the tail is mostly black, with lighter bands on the sides. The front surfaces of the incisor teeth are of a bright orange. This species inhabits the higher Andes, from the south of Chili to the north of Bolivia ; and in certain districts is very abundant. Chinchillas live in burrows, where they associate in large companies, and may frequently be seen abroad during the daytime, keeping, however, to the shade thrown by the rocks. On the ground they run much after the fashion of mice, but when feeding they sit up on their hind-quarters in a squirrel-like manner, and grasp their food between the fore-paws. iyo RODEXTS. The regions which these animals inhabit are lonely and barren, with but very small amount of vegetation. In such places there are numerous perpendicular faces of rock, up and down which these tiny creatures dart with such lightning- like rapidity as to render it almost impossible for the eye to follow them. Although by no means shy, the report of a gun is sufficient to send them at once to their holes : and a spot which at one moment may be seen covered with hundreds of these creatures, will be left deserted in an instant. The natives hunt them with the aid of a species of weasel, which enters their burrows. From its peculiar softness and delicacy, the fur has long been highly appreciated in Europe, where large quantities are annually import THE CHINCHILLA (; nat. size). Short-Tailed The short-tailed chinchilla (C. brevicavdata), from Peru, is an Chinchilla, animal very little known to naturalists, some of whom have even doubted its right to rank as a distinct species. It is, however, decidedly larger than the common chinchilla, with relatively shorter ears and tail. The general colour of the fur of the upper-parts is a very pale bluish grey, mottled with slaty black: the under-surface of the body, as well as the feet, being white. The tail gradually Incomes bushy towards the tip : its fur being a mixture of greyish white and greyish black, becoming darker towards the tip on the upper-surface. cuvier's This (Lagidium cuvieri) is considerably larger than either of Chinchilla. t}le preceding, the length of the head and body varying from about 1G to 20 inches, and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair at the tip, CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. 171 from 11 to 12 inches; ami since it differs by having only four toes on each foot, it is considered to represent a distinct genus. The ears, moreover, are longer and more pointed; while in the skull the bulla3 of the internal ear arc relatively smaller. The general hue of the long and soft fur is ashy grey, tinged with yellow and pencilled with black ; while on the under-parts it is pale yellow, gradually becoming deeper in hue on the flanks. The feet arc grey ; while the tail is black below, with very long hairs above, some of which arc also of the same jetty tint. One of the most remarkable features about the animal is the length of the black whiskers, in which some of the hairs may measure seven inches. This species is also an inhabitant of tin- higher Amies of Chili, THE SHOUT-TAILED CHINCHILLA {\ lut. size). Peru, and Bolivia, ranging to elevations of some sixteen thousand feet above the sea-level. In habits these animals seem to be almost identical with the true chinchillas, dwelling in barren rocky districts, and exhibiting the same marvellous activity. Their food is composed of grass, roots, and moss, to procure which they have frequently to travel long distances from their homes. Their principal enemies are the condor, and the dogs of the shepherds. They are captured by the Indians in snares for the sake of their fur, which is, however, far less valuable than that of the chinchilla. The third generic modification of the present family, which is represented only by the viscacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus), differs from its cousins in being an inhabitant of the open pampas, ranging from the Rio Negro to the Uruguay River, instead of the heights of the Andes. These animals f]2 RODENTS. are primarily distinguished from the last by the toes of the hind-feet being reduced to three in number ; while the claws on these feet, and to a less degree those of the fore-feet also, are relatively longer. The cheek-teeth, with the excep- tion of the last in the upper jaw, are also distinguished by having only two transverse plates of enamel, and their squarer form. In its stoutly-built body and sturdy limbs the viscacha, as remarked by the late Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, presents a contrast to the delicately-formed chinchillas exactly similar to that existing between the squirrels and the marmots ; this cuvier"s chkchilla (J nat. size). difference in form being accompanied by a precisely similar difference in habits, the viscachas being purely burrowing rodents. In the viscacha the length of the head and bodj* varies from some 19 to 23 inches : that of the tail being about a third as much again. The ears are rather small, and distinctly notched behind, the tail is bushy throughout the greater part of its length, and the fur is rather short. The colouring of the fur is somewhat striking. Above, the general hue is grey, with some dusky mottlings and black markings; while the whole of the under-parts are white or yellowish white. From the muzzle a blackish band extends across each cheek; above which is a broad white stripe terminating in front of the eyes, while a third narrower dusky band crosses the lower part of the forehead. The tail is blackish brown. CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS. !73 Habits. The viseacha is by far the most common rodent on the Argentine pampas: and an excellent account of its habits is given by Mr. AY. H. Hudson, from which the following summary is compiled. These animals live in societies usually numbering from twenty to thirty individuals; they form warrens known as viscaclu ra, each of which may contain from twelve to fifteen burrows, some of them being double or triple. Such a viscachera will cover from one to two hundred square feet of ground. The burrows vary much in extent; some opening out into wide chambers, from which other tunnels radiate; while others communicate with their neighbours. The whole viscachera forms a raised mound of earth which has been brought up from the burrows. It is always formed on the open plains ; and the entrances to some of the compound burrows THE VISCACHA fj Iiat. siZL';. are sometimes as much as a yard in diameter. Usually the burrow takes the form of the letter Y. A passerine bird (Geositta.) belonging to the wood-hewer family, makes its breeding-holes in the sides of the viscacha-burrows ; while when deserted by their rightful owners they are occupied by a kind of swallow (Atticora). Moreover, on the mound of the viscachera may frecmently be observed a pair of burrowing owls (Speotito), which generally excavate a domicile for themselves, but sometimes occupy one of the burrows on the flanks of the mound. The whole of the ground in the neighbourhood of the burrows is carefully cleaned from all vegetation, the refuse of which is heaped up near the entrance ; and it is this habit which renders these animals so obnoxious to the farmer. Their usual food is grass and seeds, but they sometimes also eat roots ; while in the dry season they are reduced to withered grass and thistles. When the herbage is green the viscachas require no water: but the first shower in the dry season brings them at once out of their holes to imbibe the much-needed fluid '74 RODEXTS. Viscachaa are essentially nocturnal. Mr. Hudson states that in winter they " seldom leave their burrows till dark, but in summer come out before sunset ; and the viscachera is then a truly interesting spectacle. Usually one of the old males first appears, and sits on some prominent place on the mound, apparently in no haste to begin his evening meal. When approached from the front he stirs not, but eyes the intruder with a bold indifferent stare. If the person passes to one side, he deigns not to turn his head. Other viscachas soon begin to appear, each one quietl}- taking up his station at his burrow's mouth, the females, known by their greatly inferior size and lighter grey colour, sitting upright on their haunches, as if to command a better view, and indicat- ing bv divers sounds and gestures that fear and curi- osity struggle in them for t he mastery. With eyes A VISCACHERA. fixed on the intruder, at intervals they dodge the head, emitting at the same time an internal note with great vehemence ; and suddenly, as the danger comes nearer, they plunge simultaneously, with a startled cry. into their burrows." When driven to the recesses of their burrows they utter a peculiar kind of growling sound. The viscacha is a far from prolific animal, the female producing in September a single litter, which usually contains two, but occasionally three young. As the animal takes about two years in reaching maturity, the vast numbers in which it existed on the pampas, previous to a war of extermination waged against it by the agriculturists, is not a little remarkable. The habit of accumulating the remains of its food around the entrance of its AGUTIS AXD PA CAS. o burrow has been already mentioned ; but, in addition, the viscacha collects every hard object with which it meets. Darwin writes that "'around each group of holes many bones of cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, etc., are collected into a heap, which frequently amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. I was credibly informed that a gentleman, when riding one dark night] dropped his watch; he returned in the morning, and by searching in the neighbourhood of every viscacha-hole on the line of road, as he expected, soon found it. „ .,„ Remains belonging to the same genus as the viscacha are met Fossil Forms. , & <=> o with m the superficial deposits of South America; while in the older formations there occur those of allied extinct genera. One of these extinct rodents {Megamys) was the largest member of the order: its size approaching that of an ox. The \<.! us axi) Pacas. SKELETON- AND SKUI.L OK AGUTI. Family DasTPX0CT1Dj&. The South American Rodents, respectively known by the names of aguti and paca, constitute a small family with the following characteristics. The limbs are of marly equal lengths, and furnished with hoof -like claws; the tail is short or wanting; the molar teeth have imperfect roots, and enamel-folds on both sides of the crowns; and the incisor teeth are lone-. In the skeleton the collar-bones are rudimentary, the palate is broad, and the lower jaw- lacks the distinct ridge on the outer side characteristic of the preceding families. The agutis are elegantly-formed Rodents, with a superficial resemblance to the chevrotains among the Ungulates ; and are char- acterised by their long and slender limbs, and the presence of only three toes on tin- hind-feet ; the fore-feet, however, having the full number of digits. The hair is coarse, more especially on the hind-quarters, where it becomes longer than elsewhere. The crowns of the molar teeth are rounded; and when worn exhibit a sine'le lateral fold of enamel, with several islands of the same on their summits. There are several species of aguti inhabiting the greater part of Central and .South America as far as Paraguay; and there is one species in the West Indies. The common aguti (Dasyprocta aguti) may be taken as the chief example of the genus, all the members of which are very similar to one another in form and habits. This species, which occurs abundantly in the dense forests of Guiana, Brazil, and Northern Peru, attains a length of from 18 to 20 inches, and is of general olive-brown colour. The middle line of the under surface of the body is, however, yellow or whitish ; while the long hairs of the hind- quarters are mostly of a bright orange tint. The feet are pencilled with black and Agutis. 176 RODENTS. yellow, and the toes dusky. The large ears are pinkish, except on their margins; and the small fleshy tail is naked, and of a dusky hue. Although essentially forest-dwelling animals, agutis are sometimes seen in the early morning or evening on the open spaces. They are mainly nocturnal, remaining concealed during the day in hollow trees or in cavities or burrows among their roots ; such burrows, according to Bates, being in some cases two or three feet in depth. Their movements are extremely active and graceful When going slowly they advance at a kind of trot ; but when running their pace takes the form of a series of rapid springs, which succeed each other so quickly as to give the appearance of a gallop. Cutias, as these animals are called on the Amazons, can swim well, but are unable to dive. Their food consists of the the comjiox aguti (J nat. size). foliage and roots of ferns and other plants, as well as fallen fruits; their sharp incisor teeth enabling them to perforate the shells of the hardest nuts. In culti- vated districts they do much harm to plantations of sugar-cane and plantains. Of their reproduction in a wild state but comparatively little is known. They breed, however, at least twice in the year, — generally once in May, before the commencement of the period of drought, and again in October, at the setting in of the rainy season. In captivity, where these animals not unfrequently breed, there are usually only one or two at a birth ; but in a wild state it is quite probable that the number may be greater. For a considerable portion of the year the two sexes remain apart; but at the pairing-season each male selects a female, which he follows with squeaks and grunts, and with whom he remains until after the birth of their offspring. The female brings forth her young in a lair or nest carefully formed of leaves, roots, and hair ; and attends them sedulously for some weeks, preventing the male from having any access to them AGUTIS AND PACAS. i77 until some days after birth. When first born the young closely resemble their parents. If captured at a sufficiently early age, agutis can be readily tamed ; and it is not uncommon in South American houses to find one or more of these animals roaming at large. The nocturnal foes of the aguti are the ocelot and other species of cats, and also the Brazilian wolf. They are much hunted by the natives for the sake of their flesh. Bates writes that on the Amazons they are hunted with dogs; the method being for one hunter to proceed in the early morning to beat the forest in the neighbourhood of a river, while his companion takes his station in a boat. On being hard pressed by the dogs, the agutis at once make for the water, where they are shot by the man in waiting. The only other member of the genus to which we shall allude is Agucni. . . the aguchi (1>. cristata), which inhabits Northern Brazil and Guiana as well as parts of the West Indies. This species is distinguished from the others by its smaller size, and its longer and more slender tail, which is clothed with silver-white hairs. Its general colour is rich chestnut-brown, with a characteristic bright golden yellow, or rust-coloured patch behind each ear. It may be added that fossilised remains of agutis are met with abundantly in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in BraziL The Rodent known in South America 1>\- the title of paca (Ccelogenys paca) is readuy distinguished externally from all its allies by the longitudinal rows of light spots ornamenting its fur; while internally it is remarkable for the extraordinary structure of its skull. Its hind-feet are distinguished from those of the agutis by having five distinct toes ; and the limbs are much shorter and the whole build far more massive than in the latter. In the skull, as shown in the accompanying figure, the zygomatic or cheek-arches are great I \ expanded from above downwards, so as to form huge bony capsules on the sides of the face, each of which encloses a large cavity communicating by a narrow aperture with the mouth. Externally the paca is stout-bodied, measuring about 2 feet in length, with rather short limbs, and a broad head, terminating in a blunted muzzle covered with tine hair. The ears are rather small, and but scantily clothed with hair : the feet are naked below ; and the tail is reduced to a fleshy tubercle. The fur is coarse, and closely applied to the body. Its general colour varies from fawn to blackish; and the number of longitudinal rows of spots is likewise variable, being in some instances only three, while in others there may be five such rows. The female has two pairs of teats, placed at a considerable distance apart. The common paca has a very extensive range, being found throughout the greater part of South America as far as Paraguay. In Brazil it is fairly common, but it is much scarcer in Paraguay, while in Peru it is rare. It occurs in Tobago and Trinidad, but is unknown to the westward of the Andes. In the highlands of Ecuador, at elevations of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, it is represented by Taczanowski's paca (0. tacza non-ski i), distinguished by its inferior size, and the difference in the form of the skull, as well as in coloration. vol. in. — 12 i78 RODENTS. Habits. The habits of the common paca appear to be very similar to those of agutis ; these animals going about either singly or in pairs, and being strictly nocturnal. Their resting-place during the day is either some cavity among the roots of a forest-tree, or a burrow excavated by their own exertions, and reaching to a depth of from four to five feet. Their food is precisely similar to that eaten by the agutis. In disposition they are shy and timid ; and when pursued they invariably make for the water, in which they swim well and with considerable rapidity. During the summer the female produces a single ^V^v^o THE paca (} nat. size). (occasionally two) offspring, which is believed by the natives to remain in the burrow during the period of suckling — several months in duration. The Ecuador paca is said to be not uncommon in the forests on both sides of the Andes. It makes a bui-row with two entrances, in which a male and female take up their residence. The natives, who hunt these animals for the sake of their flesh, pursue them in the forests with dogs, and then drive them out from their burrows by lighting a fire at one of the entrances. A tame individual of the common species noticed by Rengger was at first very shy and suspicious, biting fiercely at the hands of any person approaching it. During the day it endeavoured to conceal itself as much as possible, but at night it C A VIES. 179 would wander about the house, uttering a grunting noise, and consuming such food as was placed for it. In the course of a few months its shyness and ferocity gradu- ally disappeared, and it learned to distinguish between its master and strangers, although it never exhibited friendliness to anyone. It would eat almost any kind of human food, except flesh ; and was remarkably cleanly in its habits, frequently dressing its fur with its claws. Bright sunlight seemed to blind the creature ; while in the dark its large eyes gleamed like those of a cat. The skin of the paca is so thin, and its hair so coarse and harsh, that its pelage is of no commercial value. Its flesh is, however, white and well-flavoured ; and on this account the animal is much sought after by the natives of the countries it inhabits. During the months of February and March pacas become most extraordinarily fat, and it is at this season that their flesh is most esteemed. In the woods of Brazil pacas and agutis, together with certain edentates, are the only mammals whose flesh is eatable; and they are accordingly most accept- able to the traveller, who is often compelled for long periods to subsist on a vegetable diet. This animal is interesting as apparently forming a connecting Bromide's PcLch. ■*■■*■ •* link between the true pacas and the other families of the present group, and on these grounds it has been made the type of a family by itself. In size and general form of the head and body, as well as in coloration, this animal closely resembles the paca; from which it is distinguished externally by its rather long and thickly-haired tail, by each foot having four toes, and by the vertical cleft on the upper-lip. Internally it differs by the complete clavicles, and by the molar teeth being divided into transverse plates of enamel, as in the chinchillas and cavies. The only known example (Dinomys brardchi) was discovered one morning at daybreak, rather more that twenty years ago, wandering about the courtyard of a building in Peru ; and from that day to this nothing more has ever been heard of the species. The Cavies. Family CA VIID^-E. The cavies, familiar to us all from childhood in the form of the domestic guinea-pig, form a well-marked family distinguished by the following characters. The limbs are generally similar to those of the agutis, and are furnished with four toes in front and three behind. The collar-bones are imperfect; and the molar teeth are divided by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates. As indicated by the well-known proverb concerning the guinea-pig, the tail is small or rudimentary. The incisor teeth are short; and the lower jaw differs from that of the agutis in having a strongly -marked ridge on each external surface. The majority of the members of the family are terrestrial, but one genus is aquatic. The true cavies, as represented by the guinea-pig, are comparatively small Rodents, characterised by their stout build, short and subequal limbs, small ears, and the total absence of a tail. All the wild species are uniformly coloured, and their range comprises the whole of South America. 180 RODENTS. One of the best known of the many species is the restless caw Rsstlsss CcLW * (Cavia porcellus) of Uruguay and Brazil, which measures rather more than 10 inches in length, and attains a weight of about a pound. The colour of the rather long and coarse fur is greyish brown ; and the incisor teeth are white. This species is common in certain districts in the neighbourhood of the Rio de la Plata, where it is known by the name of aperea. According to Darwin, it is occasionally found on the sandhills or the hedges of aloes and cactuses ; but its more usual and favourite haunts are marshy spots covered with aquatic plants. In the latter situations it lives among the shelter of the vegetation, but in sandy districts it excavates burrows. It usuallj* conies forth to feed in the evenings and mornings; but in cloudy weather may sometimes be seen abroad at all hours. In Paraguay Dr. Rengger states that it is invariably found in moist situations on the borders of the forest, where it lives in societies comprising from six to tifteen individuals, among the dense masses of bromelia. Here it makes regular beaten paths, and never wanders far afield. It breeds but once a year, producing only one or two young. Cutler's cavy (C. ci'flrri), from Peru, is a rather smaller Bpecies, distinguished by tin- general black hue of the fur, although the Hanks and more especially the under- parts tend to brown. Much discussion has arisen as to the origin of the domestic Guinea-Pig. t c guinea-pig. It was long considered to have been derived from the restless cavy ; although several writers pointed out that from its aversion to wet and cold such an origin was improbable. From the researches of Dr. Xehring of Berlin, it appears, however, that the real ancestor of the domestic breed is the above-mentioned Cutler's cavy. It has been ascertained that the latter species was domesticated by the Incas of Peru, from whence it was carried to Colombia and Ecuador; while, on the other hand, no cavy was ever domesticated in Brazil. The domesticated cavies of the Incas were either uniformly white or reddish brown. or a mixture of those two colours. In Europe guinea-pigs are generally either white or white marked with yellow and black. Occasionally, however, they may be white marked with pale yellow, and in such cases they invariably have pink eyes. Sometimes, again, they may be marked with brownish black, mouse-colour. or yellowish grey: while in certain cases the black may be replaced by ashy grey, when the eyes are pink. Of late years a breed has been formed with exceedingly long coarse hair, and of larger size than ordinary. Guinea-pies were introduced into Europe by the Dutch during the 16th century, shortly after the discovery of America; the name being probably a corruption of Guiana-pig. From their pretty appearance and ways, as well as the ease with which they are kept and the rapidity with which they multiply, guinea-pigs have always been favourite pets with children: although it must be confessed that from their stupidity and want of affection they cannot be regarded as very interesting creatures. When, however, a number of these rodents are kept together, they certainly form a pretty sight : and the manner in which they follow one another round and round their place of confinement in unbroken order is very remarkable. In some respects they resemble rabbits in their habits, while in others they are more like mice. Their pace is by no means swift and consists CA VIES. jSi partly of a series of short springs : while the peculiar manner in which the body is elongated when creeping is familiar to all. Their food consists of routs, corn, and various vegetables ; and it is essential to the well-being of these animals that the place where they are kept should be dry and warm. If supplied with abundance of fresh vegetables, guinea-pigs do not require water; and when they do drink they take but little, and this with a lapping action. When pleased, guinea-pigs utter a soft murmuring cry: when alarmed, this changes to a squeak; while a series of short grunts (from which they probably derive their name) appear to be their mode of expressing their wants and desires. The two sexes live in company, S lg^$V^ the GOLNEA-PIG \\ nat. size). but each male selects a partner from the herd ; and during such selection conflicts not unfreijuently take place between rival males. Few animals exceed the guinea-pig in fertility, and this is the more remark- able, since, as we have seen, the wild cavies increase but slowly. In Europe the female will produce from two to three litters in a year, each of which will contain from two to five young ; while in warmer regions the number produced at a birth may be as many as six or seven. The young are brought forth in a highly advanced state of development, with their eyes full}' opened, and, curiously enough, their milk- teeth already shed. In a few hours they are able to run by the side of the mother ; while by the second day they are able to nibble not only soft plants, but even corn. They are suckled for a fortnight, during which period they are carefully tended by the dam ; but after this the parental affection rapidly wanes, and in three weeks (by which time the parents have again paired) the young are left to shift by them- i82 RODENTS. selves. In from five to six months the young guinea-pig is able to reproduce its kind, although it does not attain full maturity till eight or nine weeks. With care, these animals will live for six or eight years. Although guinea-pigs seem too stupid to display the slightest affection for their owners, they have the great advantage of never making any attempts to bite, and may therefore be handled by children with impunity. The Bolivian cavy (C. boliviensis), which is of rather smaller Bolivian Cavy. . . size than the restless eavy, is interesting from its habitat. It lives among the higher regions of the Bolivian Andes at elevations of from ten to twelve thousand feet; dwelling in large societies, and forming burrows which completely undermine the whole ground in certain districts. In colour this species has the fur of the upper-parts grey, with a yellowish tinge, while the throat and under-parts are white, and the feet whitish. The incisor teeth are orange in front. The last species of the genus that we shall notice is the rock- Rock Cavy. ... cavy (C. rv/pestns), i littering from those mentioned above by the extreme shortness of its claws, which scarcely project beyond the toes. It has the fur greyish above, and whitish beneath. This species inhabits rocky districts in certain parts of Brazil, dwelling in cracks and crevices, and not constructing burrows. It is much hunted by the Indians, and it is known to them as the hoki. The Patagonian cavy, or mara (Dolichotis pitmhim tea), is readily distinguished from the true cavies by its longer limbs and ears, and the presence of a short tail, which is always turned to one side. Its skull is characterised by the extreme narrowness of the front portion of the palate ; this being carried to such an extent that the premolar teeth of opposite sides are actually in contact at their front edges. In length it is from 30 to 34 inches, and it stands about 13 inches at the shoulder. Its fur is thick and crisp, and of a greyish colour on the upper-parts, while on the flanks it becomes rusty yellow, and beneath white. The lump is black, with a broad transverse band of white running from the hocks to just above the tail : and the limbs are rusty yellow, but greyish in front. The hair of the throat is elongated into a fringe. Both in habits and general appearance the mara has a superficial resemblance to the hare, but the legs are longer and the ears shorter and wider. It inhabits not only the barren country from which it derives its name, but likewise extends northwards into the grassy pampas of Argentina, where it ranges as far as Mendoza, in lat. 33° 30'. On the Atlantic coast, however, where the climate is moister, it only ranges as far north as 37" 30' ; while its extreme southern limit is about the 48th parallel. Absolutelv dry ami more or less desert-like districts are Hibits essential to the well-being of the mara ; and it is probable that its original home was the Patagonian wastes. In Patagonia the mara is so common as to form almost a characteristic feature in the landscape, Darwin observing that it is usual "to see in the distance two or three of these cavies hopping one after the other in a straight line over the gravelly plains, thinly clothed by a few thorny bushes, and a withered herbage." Generally these rodents are found either in pairs or in parties of from four to eight individuals, but occasionally in large flocks of thirty or forty. They live in burrows, generally excavated by themselves ; and CARPI XC HO. 185 differ from the other eavies in being diurnal. To protect its eyes from the glare of the midday sun. the mara has well-developed eyelashes, which are wanting in its nocturnal allies. In disposition these eavies are extremely shy and timid, taking to flight at the least alarm, and generally trusting to their legs, rather than to the shelter of their burrows, for safety. Their food consists chiefly of grass and the roots and stems of such other plants as grow near their burrows. Of their repro- duction, it is only known that the female produces twice in the year from two to five young, winch are horn and nurtured in the burrow. They have been introduced by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horsham, having bred there several times. Maras are among the few mammals that habitually enjoy basking in the full sunshine. When thus reposing it usually lies stretched out on its side or flat on its belly ; ami in the latter posture, as shown in the central figure of our engraving, bend the fore-foot backward in a manner unlike any other rodent. When disturbed, they at once assume a sitting position, resting on their fore-feet and heels, and raising their heads as high as possible in order to Bee whence the danger comes. After taking to flight, they generally stop when they have run fifty or a hundred paces, and turn to look round; repeating this process after having again run a short distance. When caught young, they can be tamed without much difficulty, although they require to be tethered. By the natives mara are hunted for their flesh; but this, although white when cooked, is described as being dry and tasteless. Fossilised remains of three species d' these animals have been obtained from the caves of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil; one of these being probably inseparable from the existing form. The carpincho or eapivara (Hyd/rocha rus capivara), which takes its second name from a Spanish modification of the native term capugua, is the largest of living Rodents, reaching a length of about 4 feet, ami weighing 98 lbs. From this large size, coupled with its bristly hair and grunting cry, the animal is often designated the water-hog. It is a rodent of bulky build, with moderately long legs, small ears, cleft upper lip, no tail, and short web* between the short-nailed toes. The neck is short: the headlong, broad, and much flattened above; the eyes large and widely separated; and the ears with a notch in their hinder border. The hind-legs are considerably longer than the front pair. The skin is clothed somewhat sparsely with long and coarse hair, of a reddish brown colour above, and brownish yellow beneath : the bristles around the mouth being black. The upper incisor teeth are marked with a broad and shallow groove in front; while the molars are characterised by the great complexity of the last tooth of the series. Thus in the upper jaw the last molar comprises some twelve trans- verse plates, and exceeds the united length of the three teeth in front of it; while in the lower jaw the corresponding tooth is somewhat less complex, although still much larger than either of the others. This complexity of the last molar, which is quite unparalleled elsewhere among the rodents, presents a condition analogous to that existing in the wart-hogs. The carpincho is distributed over the whole of Eastern South Distribution. America, as far south as the Rio de la Plata : and also extends west- wards into the lowlands of Bolivia and Peru. The existing species occurs in the 1 86 RODENTS. caverns of Brazil ; while in the Tertiary deposits of Argentina fossil remains indicate an extinct species of 5 feet in length, and another considerably larger. Tliis gigantic cavy is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, frequenting Y\ Pi ul lS. the margins of lakes and rivers, and swimming and diving with great speed. Darwin, for instance, writes that these rodents " occasionally frequent the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but are more abundant on the borders of fresh-water lakes and rivers. Near Maldonado three or four generally live together. In the daytime they either lie among the aquatic plants, or openly feed on the turf plain. When viewed at a distance, from their manner of walking, as well as from the colour, they resemble pigs; but when seated on their haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, they resume the appearance of their congeners the cavies. These animals were very tame; by cautiously walking, I approached within three yards of four old ones. This tameness may probably be accounted for by the jaguar having been banished for some years, and by the gaucho not thinking it worth his while to hunt them. As I approached nearer and nearer, they frequently made their peculiar noise, which is a low, abrupt grunt, not having much actual sound, but rather arising from the sudden expulsion of the air ; the only noise I know at all like it is the first hoarse bark of a larjre doe. Having watched the four, from almost within arm's length for several minutes, they rushed into the water at full gallop, with the greatest impetuosity, and emitted at the same time their bark. After diving a short distance, they came again to the surface, but onlj- just showed the upper parts of their heads." In other places the carpincho occurs in larger herds, which may comprise twenty or more individuals. The usual pace of the animal is a long trot, of no gnat swiftness; but when pressed it will advance in a series of leaps. It has no regular lair, although the herd generally returns to the same part of the river- bank. The general food consists of water-plants and the bark of young trees; but in the neighbourhood of cultivated lands carpinchos will consume large quantities of water-melons, maize, rice, and sugar-cane. In disposition these animals are quiet and peaceful, not to say stupid ; and they never appear to indulge in sportive gambols. They occupy their time either in feeding, or in reposing in a listless manner on the banks of the rivers or lakes they frequent. When thus reposing, one individual will from time to time raise its head to see if any foe be approaching: and if an alarm arise they soon plunge headlong into the water. In the settled portions of Uruguay they are but seldom seen, although their footprints, as the writer can testify, arc very numerous on the sandy banks of the rivers. The female produces from five to eight young ones in the year; but it is not yet ascertained whether a i-egular lair is prepared for their reception. The young follow their parents closely, although not exhibiting any marked signs of affection towards her. Azara states that each male appropriates two or three females. When captured young, carpinchos are capable of being completely tamed, and may be suffered to run about a house like a dog. j..,ii fiijini 2 CHAPTER XXXIV. Rodents, — conclvdi d. The Hare-Like Rodents. Families LAGOMYID^ and LEPOEWJS. The whole of the Rodents described in the preceding chapters are characterised by having but a single pair of incisor teeth in 1 1 1 • - upper (as in the lower) jaw ; and they are hence collectively spoken of as the single-toothed Undents, or Rodentia Simplicidentata. On the other hand, the hares and rabbits, together with their cousins the picas, have a second smaller pair of incisors placed behind the large front pair in the upper jaw, as shown in the accompanying cut. These Rodents arc accordingly regarded as con- stituting a group of equal value with the one containing all the other families, for which the term f double-toothed Rodents, or Rodentia Duplicidenta, is adopted. In the young of this group three pairs of incisors are present in the upper jaw, but the hindmost pair soon disappear, and are not succeeded by permanent teeth. In addition to these extra incisor teeth, these Rodents are characterised by the enamel extending all round the large incisors, instead of being confined to their front surfaces. In the skull the palate is distinguished by the shortness of its bony portion, in which there are very large vacuities in front; while its hinder border is situated between, instead of behind, the molar teeth. In all cases the latter teeth have tall crowns without roots, and are divided into parallel transverse plates surrounded by enamel. In the hind- limb the hones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united together. The upper lip is invariably cleft. These Rodents, which are divided into two families, are all strictly terrestrial in their habits, and have a wide geographical distribution, although more abundant in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere. SKELETON AXD TEETH OF HARE. 190 RODENTS. The Picas. Family Lago.myw.-e. Most travellers in the Himalaya are familiar with the pretty little Rodents, known as picas, tailless hares, or mouse-hares, which may be seen in the higher regions, cautiously poking their noses out from between broken rocks, and again disappearing with the rapidity of lightning directly they catch a glimpse of the intruder. These creatures constitute a family of the present group, of which there is but the single genus Lagomys, and present the following characteristics. All the species are of comparatively small size, being considerably inferior in SIBERIAN PICA (J nat. size). this respect to a rabbit ; and are easily recognised by their small ears, and the absence of any external traces of a tail. The fore and hind-limbs are short and of nearly equal length. In the skeleton the collar bones are complete ; and the skull has no descending (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye. In the living species there are two pairs of premolar teeth, in addition to three molars, in each jaw. The picas have the soles of the feet well covered with hair ; and the fur of the body is generally thick and soft. Picas, of which there are a considerable number of species, may be considered as especially characteristic of Northern and Central Asia, one species alone ranging into Eastern Europe, while another inhabits North America. In Asia the genus extends into Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, the Himalaya, and Tibet. The best known species is the Siberian pica {Lagomys tdpinux), inhabiting the steppes of Eastern Europe, Siberia, and Kamschatka. This animal may be compared in size to a guinea-pig, its length being from 9 to Distribution. PICAS AND HARES. i9I 9i inches. The general colour of the long and soft fur is greyish brown on the upper-parts, although the individual hairs are of a deep grej^ near the skin : while beneath it is grey tinged with yellow. The feet are pale, suffused with brownish yellow ; and the ears have white margins. The common Himalayan pica (L. roylei), which ranges to elevations of from eleven thousand to fourteen thousand feet, or more, is a much smaller species, measuring only 6 h inches in length, with fur of a dark brown or bay colour. Other species from the inner Himalaya, such as the Ladak pica (L. ladacensis), are, however, larger; the one named measuring !) inches in length, and inhabiting regions situated at an elevation of from fifteen thousand to nineteen thousand feet above the sea-level. During the Pliocene and Miocene divisions of the Tertiary period picas were common in Central and Southern Europe, while in Sardinia they lived on into the Pleistocene. Some of these Tertiary picas differed from the living forms in having only one pair of premolar teeth in the lower jaw ; while in others there were but a single pair of these teeth in both jaws. Picas inhabit onlv cold and desert regions, and, therefore, in the Habits. . " ° greater part of their range, are found at great elevations, although in Siberia they can exist at much lower levels. They either form burrows among rocks, or live in the crevices between the rocks themselves; in the Eastern Himalaya Lagomys roylei is, however, found in the pine-forests. Although mainly nocturnal in their habits, picas will often venture abroad in the daytime, especially if the sky be overcast ; and the writer has several times seen them in the Himalaya darting about in the full glare of the sun. Their movements ar~e so quick, that they are exceedingly difficult to shoot. Their food consists of various plants, more especially grasses ; and of these a large store is accumulated for winter use. In Siberia this provender is jailed up into heaps like small haystacks, which gradually disappear during the winter; unless they are plundered by the sable-hunters as fodder for their horses. None of the picas appear to hibernate, although in most of their haunts they must be buried deep beneath the snow for several months in the year. Although often found in the Himalaya in pairs or small parties, picas are generally more or less gregarious, sometimes associating in very large numbers. In Northern and South-Eastern Mongolia, where they are exceedingly abundant, their burrows consist of a vast number of separate holes, which may be counted by hundreds, or even thousands. From the peculiar loud chirping or whistling cries uttered by many of the species whilst feeding, picas are often termed piping-hares ; but this habit does not appear to have been observed in the Himalayan forms. All the picas drink but little. In summer some amount of rain falls in many of the districts they inhabit, while in winter the snow supplies them with as much liquid as they require ; but in spring and autumn there is scarcely even dew in the Mongolian steppes, so that at such seasons they must exist entirely without water. According to Pallas, the females give birth at the commencement of the summer to about six naked young, to which she attends with the greatest care. In Central Asia picas have many foes, among which the most prominent are the manul cat, the wolf, the corsac fox, and many eagles and falcons ; while in winter they are harried by the great snowy owl. The fur-hunters of Siberia do not, however, consider these creatures worth the trouble of killing. 192 RODENTS. Hares and Eabbits. Family LEPOEID^. The hares and rabbits, all of which are included in the single genus Lepus, constitute a family distinguished from the picas by their elongated hind-limbs, short recurved tail, long ears, and imperfect collar-bones. The skull is distinguished by the extremely narrow frontal region, and the presence of large wingdike (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the eye-sockets; while there are three pairs of premolars in the upper, and two in the lower jaw. the total HARE IX ITS FORM. number of cheek-teeth thus being £ on each side of the jaws. The eyes are large and full, and devoid of eyelids. In all the species the fore-limbs are furnished with five, and the hinder pair with four toes each; the soles of tin- feet being as densely clothed with hair as are the legs. The inner sides of the cheeks are also lined with hair. The females have teats both on the breast and on the belly. With the exception of one remarkable Indian species, noticed in the sequel, all the members of the family are very much alike in appearance and coloration ; the usual tint of the fur on the upper-parts being a mixture of grey and reddish brown, although in some cases the red, ami in others the grey tends to predominate This coloration harmonises well with the general tint of the open country on which most of the species dwell. A noteworthy feature (which, however, is absent in the above-mentioned Indian species), is the pure white of the under-surface of the up- turned tail. This, in the case of the rabbit at least, is considered by Mr. Wallace as serving the purpose of a guiding signal to other individuals in the presence of danger, so that when the leader of a flock is in full retreat towards its hole, the remainder at once see in which direction to follow. PICAS AND HARES. 193 Hares, as all the members of the family save the rabbit are Distribution. , .... called, have an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although none are indigenous to Australasia. Of some thirty known species, by far the greater majority are, however, confined to the Northern Hemisphere : the whole of South America having only a single species, the Brazilian hare {Lepus brasUiensis). With the exception of the rabbit and the curious hispid hare of Northern India, all the members of the family dwell either in open country among grass and other herbage, or among rocks and bushes. They are solitary : and each inhabits a particular spot known as its form ; such form being either a flattened resting-place among grass or bushes, or merely the sheltered side of some rock or stone. As a rule, a hare returns to its form, sometimes day by day, for a considerable portion of the year ; but the situation is changed periodically. Hares are mainly nocturnal, going forth at evening in quest of food, and not returning to their forms till after sunrise. Their speed is great ; but, owing to the great relative length of their hind-limbs, they are better adapted for running uphill than down. All the members of the genus are remarkable for their extreme timidity, and their long ears are admirably adapted to collect the least sound, and thus to give the earliest possible notice of danger. It will not fail to be observed that the ears are the shortest and the legs the less elongated in the rabbit and the hispid hare, both of which dwell in burrows, and have not, therefore, such need of protecting themselves by acuteness of hearing and extreme speed. All the members of the family breed with great rapidity : the young being able to reproduce their kind within about six months after birth. Whereas, however, the young of the true hares are born fully clothed with hair and with their eyes open, those of the rabbit, and probably also of the hispid hare, come into the world blind and naked. The Common Hare (Lepus europcvus). Such a well-known animal as the common hare requires but a comparatively brief description, although it is necessary to point out such features as serve to distinguish it from the mountain-hare. The length of the head and body is generally a little short of 22 inches ; the ears being rather longer than the head, with black tips. The general colour of the soft fur of the upper-parts and flanks is tawny grey, more or less mingled with rufous, but tending to a purer grey in winter than in summer. The under-parts are white : while the tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the head, is black above and white beneath. The usual weight is from 7 to 8 lbs. With the exception of the north of Russia, the Scandinavian Peninsula, and Ireland, the common hare is found over the whole of Europe, ranging as far eastwards as the Caucasus ; but in the north of Scotland the species is confined to the low grounds and valleys. It may be mentioned here that this species is commonly alluded to under the name of Lepus timidu* ; that name was, however, applied by the Swedish naturalist Linne to the hares of his own country, and therefore clearly rightly belongs to the next species. In the more northern parts of its habitat the hare tends to become white in winter; while the maximum of rufous in its coloration occurs in the more southerly districts. vol. 111. — 1 ; 194 RODEXTS. Habits, The hare, like other members of the genus, is an exclusively vegetable feeder, its food consisting of grass, corn, bark, etc. In cultivated districts hares often inflict much damage on growing wheat, and like- wise on garden vegetables ; while the destruction these animals cause among young trees by nibbbng away the bark is sometimes very great. In fine weather hares are usually to be found in the open, while during rain they show a decided prefer- ence for cover: but while on some days they select the bare fallows, on others they common hare (j nat size). repair to fields with long grass or other herbage. On some occasions, either when lying in the open or in their forms, they will almost allow themselves to be trodden upon before stirring : and it is then that they are sometimes captured by the poacher merely walking silently up and throwing himself suddenly upon them. On other occasions they are so wild that it is difficult for the sportsman to come within range: Prof. T. Bell observing that they are generally most wild in bad weather, and more so in the afternoon than in the morning The hare will take readily to the water, not only to escape from pursuit, but likewise to obtain food PICAS AND HARES. >95 or a mate; and there is a record of one actually swimming across an arm of the sea about a mile in width. The author last mentioned writes that " on hearing an unusual sound the first impulse of a hare is to sit upright with erected ears to reconnoitre ; then it either endeavours to conceal itself by ' clapping ' close to the ground, or at once takes to flight. It is a cunning animal, and the sharp turns or ' wrenches ' by which it strives to baffle the fleeter but less agile greyhound, con- stitute one of the principal beauties of the sport of coursing." The female produces several litters in the course of the year, the earliest of which may arrive in January and the latest in November. The number of young mus* 'x MOUNTALN-HARE (l int. size). Mountain-Hare. in a litter varies from two to five ; and the " leverets " are suckled for about a month, after which they are left to shift for themselves. The mountain or Alpine hare (Lepus timidus) is a species with a very wide distribution, ranging over the greater part of Northern Europe and Asia, from Ireland in the west to Japan in the east, and also met with in the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus. It is represented by a variety known as the Polar hare in Aretie America, which extends as far south as Nova Scotia. In the British Isles this species is not met with except in Scotland and Ireland ; and in the former country is commonly termed the blue hare. Its present distribu- tion is doubtless to be accounted for by the glacial period, when it was able to exist i96 RODENTS. in the lowlands of the greater part of Europe ; but it is somewhat curious that it should lind the wild climate of Ireland suitable to its existence. The mountain-hare is intermediate in size between the common hare and the rabbit ; and has a relatively smaller and more rounded head, with shorter ears, hind-legs, and tail than the former. Throughout the year in Ireland and the south of Sweden, and during summer in the greater part of the rest of its habitat, the general colour of the pelage is light fulvous grey ; the tips of the ears being- black. With the commencement of winter, however, except in the regions named, the fur gradually becomes more and more flaked with white, until at length it assumes a uniformly white hue, save on the black tips of the ears. It is believed, however, that in the extreme north the fur is white throughout the year. In general habits the mountain-hare appears to agree very closely with the common species. Its " form " is generally made in the clefts of rocks, or between stones ; and during the winter its food consists largeby of lichens and pine-seeds. In summer it ascends the higher mountains, produces from four to six young at a birth, and it is doubtful if there is more than one litter in a year. It seems to be more inclined to seek shelter under tree-stems, thick evergreens, etc., than the common hare ; and the young are believed to be produced in sheltered cover. In Arctic America the Polar hare remains active throughout the winter, feeding chiefly on the berries of the arbutus and the bark of dwarf willows. North American In addition to the polar hare, North America is the home of Hare. several species of the genus, two of which turn white in winter, although the bases of the hairs retain their normal colour. The two species in question are the prairie-hare (L. campestris), distinguished by its large size, long ears, and the white hue of both surfaces of the tail ; and the smaller varying hare (L. americaniis), with shorter ears, and the tail dark above. Of the North American species, which do not turn white in winter, the best known is the small wood-hare (L. sylvaticus), not unfrequently termed the grey rabbit ; the usual colour of the upper-parts being grey, varied with black, and more or less tinged with yellowish brown, while the under-parts are white. This hare is a southern species, not ranging further north than the Adirondack region of New York. In habits this species approximates somewhat to the rabbit, frequently dwelling in hollow tree-stems or the deserted burrows of other mammals. Mr. Kennicott states that it " is very prolific, producing young three or four times a year, and usually from four to six at a birth. In open ground the female scratches a shallow hollow, in which to bring forth her young. In this she forms a nest of soft leaves and grasses, well lined with fur from her own body ; and when she is absent the young are always completely covered and concealed in the nest, which they leave at an early age, and separate from the mother as soon as able to take care of themselves." The Brazilian hare (L. brasiUensis) is very closely allied to the wood-hare, but has the under surface of the tail yellowish brown. There are a large number of species of hares inhabiting Central Asiatic Species. ° . L ° Asia, India, and the regions to the eastward Of these the Indian black-naped hare (L. nigricollis) is distinguished by the presence of a black patch on the back of the neck, which is wanting in the common Indian hare (L. rtifi- caudatus). Both these species appear to be much less prolific than the European PICAS AND HARES. 197 .species ; and when pursued generally take refuge in holes. Of the Tibetan species, the Afghan hare (L. tibetanus), which is found as low as five hundred feet above the sea, is distinguished by the black upper surface of the tail ; while in the woolly hare (L. oiostolus) and upland hare (L. hypsibius) both surfaces of the tail are nearly or quite white. The latter species does not occur below fourteen thousand or fifteen thousand feet ; and I have found it in swarms among eleagnus bush in the higher valleys of the Ladak. The most remarkable of the Indian species is. however, the hispid hare (L. hispid/us), inhabiting the foot of the Eastern Himalaya. In this hare the ears are shorter than the skull, the eyes small, the ears coarse and bristly, the tail dark both above and below, and the hind-legs scarcely longer than the front pair. Although not gregarious, this species is said to burrow like a rabbit; and probably, therefore, produces blind and naked young. Its flesh is reported to be white. An allied species (L. nitscheri) inhabits Sumatra. In Africa hares are found from Egypt to the Cape; those from South Africa afford but poor sport, as their speed is not great, and when pursued they almost invariably run to ground. Moreover, some of them at least, are very foul feeders. The Egyptian hare (L. cegyptiui) is considerably smaller than the common species, but with relatively longer ears, and paler fur. Of the Cape species, the rock-hare (L. saxatilis) is nearly equal in size to the common European hare, and has relatively long limbs ami ears, with the fur rufous above and dirty white below. The Cape hare (L. capensis) differs by its shorter legs, and the absence of a rufous tinge on the back of the neck, and the yellowish colour of the throat; when hunted, it always carries the ears erect. Lastly, we have the small thick-tailed hare (L. crassicmidatus), which is not larger than a rabbit, and is of a foxy-red colour above, paler beneath, with the large and thick tail of the same rufous tint as the body. This species, which has very short legs, is confined to the highlands, ranging from the Cape Colony to the Transvaal. The Rabbit (Lepus two kinds will not even breed together; and if the history of the Porto Santo race were not known, it would undoubtedly be regarded as a distinct species. Tame rabbits which have run wild in Jamaica and the Falkland Islands have not reverted to the ordinary wild form, but still exhibit distinct traces of their origin. Introduced rabbits are also numerous in Teneriffe and the Crozet Islands. In Teneriti'e, where the breed is small, they do not burrow, but live in crannies among the rocks. Domesticated The rabbit has long been kept in a domesticated state, in which Rabbits. it varies not onlj' in colour but likewise in size, in the length of the fur, in the form and direction of the ears, and also to some extent in the conforma- tion of the skull. The usual colours are brown, fawn, reddish brown, or black, more or less mingled with white ; and there is also an albino race with pink eyes. Lop-Eared Among the most remarkable changes produced by domestication Breeds. js the assumption of a pendent position by one or both ears, which become greatly enlarged, accompanied by a modification in the skull. Whereas in the ordinary wild rabbit the length of the ears from tip to tip when extended is rather less than 8 inches, and the breadth of each not more than 2 inches : a " lop- ear" has been exhibited in which these dimensions were respectively 23 and 5£ inches. The weight of these rabbits is, moreover, frequently from 8 to 10 lbs.; while, according to Mr. Darwin, it has been known to reach 18 lbs. When only one ear hangs down the rabbit is called a "half- lop " ; and in some cases this pendent ear is larger than the upright one. Many lop- eared rabbits have large dewlaps, or folds of skin beneath the throat. Neither whole nor half-lops breed at all truly : and in all lop-eared rabbits the skull is proportionately longer than in the wild race. The Angora breed is readily distinguished by the length and fineness of its fur, which is even of considerable length on the soles of the feet. Mr. Darwin states that these rabbits are more sociable in disposition than the other domestic breeds ; and that the males do not exhibit that tendency to destroy their offspring which is so characteristic of the rest. -.„ „ The hare-coloured or Belgian rabbit differs mainlv from other Other Breeds. " large breeds by its colour : while other strains which breed true to ^s%V-^5&^^i-3/^x LOP-EARED RABBIT. Angora. PICAS AXD HARES. colour are the so-called silver-greys and chinchillas, which are born black, and assume their characteristic colours later on. Silver-greys generally have black heads and legs, and the tine grey fur of the body is intermingled with a number of long black and white hairs. These rabbits have long been kept in warrens ; and when crossed with the wild breed, one- half of the progeny, or thereabouts, takes after the one parent, and the second half after the other. On the other hand, chinchillas, or tame silver-greys, have short, paler, mouse-coloured, or slaty fur, among which are long, black, slate- coloured, and white hairs. Darwin remarks that silver-greys may be re- garded as black rabbits, which become grey at an early period of life. By crossing silver-greys with chinchillas a certain number of the resulting offspring belong to what is known as the Hima- layan breed. When first born these rabbits are generally true albinos, having pure white fur and pink eyes; but in the course of a few months they gradually become blackish brown on the ears, nose, feet, and the upper surface of the tail. In spite of their sudden production, Himalayan rabbits generally breed true; and Darwin suggests that their remarkable change in coloration may be due to both chinchillas and silver-greys having descended from a cross between black and albino parents. Lastly, we have tli« ■ Nicard or Dutch rabbit, distinguished by its very small size ; some examples not weighing more than a pound and a quarter. 'HALF-LOP BABBIT. CHAPTER XXXV. The Edextates, — Order Edentata. The Mammals described in this chapter, which include the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos of South America, together with two Old World groups, are collectively characterised by the total absence of front teeth, while in a few instances their jaws are entirely tootldess. Strictly speaking, therefore, the title of the group applies only to those of its representatives as present the latter feature ; but if we THE GREAT A^'T-EATER. regard the term as indicating the absence of front teeth alone, it will be applicable to the whole group, so far as existing forms are concerned. In addition to this absence of front or incisor teeth, the Edentates are also characterised by the simple structure of their cheek-teeth, which are composed solely of ivory and cement, without any trace of enamel. Moreover, these teeth never form distinct roots, but grow continuously throughout life, and have their pulp-cavities open inferiorly. Then, again, these animals usually lack a functional series of milk-teeth : although in two instances such teeth are developed, which in one case cut the gums and come into use. GENERAL CHARACTERS. 203 The foregoing are almost the only characters common to the whole of the Edentates. It may be added, however, that all these animals are of a comparatively low degree of organisation, although many of them are specialised for particular modes of life. In general their brains are relatively small, with the hemispheres, or anterior portion, devoid of convolutions, and not extending backwards to overlap and conceal the hinder portion or cerebellum. In some cases, however, the hemi- spheres of the brain are distinctly convoluted. Very frequently the shoulder-blade, or scapula, is characterised by the great development of the anterior portion of its lower extremity ; this so-called coracoidal portion (of which we shall have to speak more fully when we come to the Egg-laving .Mammals), being sometimes, as shown in our figure of the skeleton of the sloth, marked off from the remainder of the bone by a perforation, and suturally united with it. Certain members of the order, such as the armadillos and their extinct allies, are peculiar among Mammals in possessing a bony cuirass in the skin : while the pangolins are equally remarkable for the coat of overlapping horny scales with which the entire body is invested. From the absence of enamel in their teeth, and the presence of rudimental milk-teeth in some of their representatives; it is probable that the Edentates should be regarded as somewhat degenerate types, descended from ancestors provided with a double set of enamel-coated teeth. There are, however, no indications of any close relationship between the Edentates and any other of the Mammalian orders; and it is accordingly pretty evident that they are descended from extinct primitive Mammals quite independently of all other members of the class. As already mentioned,, the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, are Distribution. . P -, ^- m 1 • • • entirely confined to the New \\ orld : and since it is these alone which form the typical Edentates, the order is essentially an American one. Indeed, there is a considerable degree of doubt whether the Old World pangolins and aard-varks, which form its only other representatives, are rightly included within the order; their organisation being very different from that of the typical forms. Be this as it may, the typical Edentates appear to have been always confined to the New World, in the southern half of which they attained their greatest development ; for while fossil forms are abundant in America, they are unknown elsewhere.1 Some of these extinct types are of the greatest importance to the zoologist, since they serve to connect together most intimately such widely different forms as the arboreal sloths and the terrestrial armadillos. Although varying greatly in their mode of life, the whole of the Mode of Life. ^ ... Edentates — both living and extinct — are either arboreal or terrestrial, none of them being modified either for flight in the air or for swimming in the water. While the purely arboreal sloths are entirely vegetable feeders, all the other members of the order, of which a few are likewise more or less arboreal in their habits, subsist on flesh or insects. Moreover, several of these carnivorous forms are burrowing animals; and it is remarkable that the members of three distinct groups, namely, the ant-eaters, the pangolins, and the aard-varks, subsist mainly, or exclusively, on white ants or termites ; the only other purely ant-eating members of the class belonging respectively to the Pouched Mammals and the Egg- 1 Certain remains from the Tertiary rocks of France have been considered to belong to armadillos, but this determination is exceedingly doubtful. 204 EDEXTATES. laying Mammals. It is further noteworthy that while among the ant-eating Edentates the true ant-eaters and the pangolins have entirely lost their teeth, those organs are retained in a comparatively high state of development among the aard- varks. At the present day the Edentates are evidently a waning group, the whole of the larger members of the order having died out ; while those which remain have sought protection by the acquisition of either arboreal or burrowing habits, or by the development of a protective coat of mail to their bodies. The Sloths. Family BRADYPODID.E. Although by the older zoologists the sloths were regarded as ill-formed creatures destined to lead a miserable life on account of their misshapen limbs, no animals are in reality better adapted to their peculiar mode of existence. We SKELETON OF THREE-TOED SLOTH. see this not only in their elongated limbs, which have been modified into hook-like organs of suspension, with the removal of all superfluous digits and the great development of the claws of those which remain ; but likewise in the extraordinary resemblance of their coarse coat of hair to the shaggy lichens clothing the gnarled and knotted boughs of their native forests. It is noteworthy that while the monkeys of the same regions have mostly acquired a fifth limb by the development of the prehensile power in their tails, the sloths have almost dispensed with tails altogether. The sloths are characterised externally by their short and rounded heads, in which the ears are very small and buried among the fur, their rudimentary tails, and the excessive elongation of their fore-limbs, of Characteristics. SLOTHS. 205 which the length far surpasses that of the hinder-pair. Both pairs of limbs are furnished with long and slender feet, in which there are never more than, three toes ; while the toes themselves are invested for nearly their whole length in a common skin, and terminate in long curved claws of great strength. The thick coat of long, coarse, and somewhat brittle hair with which the whole of the body and limbs is invested, is generally of a brownish or dull ashy-grey colour, mingled with a greenish tint: each individual hair having a tinted or roughened external surface. The most remarkable feature connected with the pelage is, however, the growth of a vegetable — a kind of alga — on the hairs themselves ; the alga attach- ing itself to the aforesaid flutings, and growing luxuriantly in the moist atmosphere of the South American forests, although quickly withering when the animals are brought to Europe. It is this extraneous vegetable growth which communicates the greenish tinge to the hair during life ; and its object is doubtless to render the coloration of these creatures in still closer harmony with their inanimate surround- ings than would have been otherwise possible. It may be mentioned here that it is almost impossible to conceive that any sort of so-called natural selection could have given rise to this peculiar and unique kind of protective resemblance. In the region of the back between the shoulders many sloths exhibit a patch of tine woolly under-fur marked by longitudinal stripes of rich brown and orange ; the ex- posure of such patches being due, according to Brehm, to the animals having abradei I the long hair by rubbing or resting their backs against trees. The coloration of this patch of under-fur approximates to that obtaining in the coat of the ant-eaters, from which it may be inferred that both these groups of animals originally had bright-coloured fur, and that the long external dull-hued coat of the sloths has been a special development suited to the needs of their environment. The sloths have five pairs of teeth in the upper, and four in the lower jaw ; the individual teeth, with the exception of the first pair in one of the two genera, being nearly cylindrical in form, and in all cases consisting of a core of ivory invested with a thick coating of cement. The skeleton is characterised by the presence of complete collar-bones ; while in the fore-arm the two bones are completely separate, and allow the hand to be supinated like that of man. The claws are, however, permanently fixed parallel to one another, so that the hand, like the foot, can be used merely as a claw. In the hind-limb the foot is articulated obliquely to the bones of the leg ; so that when on the ground the animal can walk only on the outer sides of its feet. Of the soft parts, it will suffice to mention that the tongue is short and soft ; while the large stomach, as in so many leaf-eaters and grass-feeders, is divided into several compartments. The windpipe is peculiar in being folded before reaching the lungs, — a feature found elsewhere only in certain birds. Finally, the female sloth has but a single pair of teats on the breast. Tiiree Toed The typical members of the family are commonly known as sloths. three-toed sloths, or, from their native title, ais, and constitute the genus Bradypus, readily characterised by the presence of three toes on both the fore and the hind-feet. The teeth are all of nearly the same height, with their grinding surfaces deeply cupped ; the first tooth in the upper jaw being considerably smaller than either of the others, while the corresponding lower tooth is broad and compressed. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the genus is. how- 206 EDEXTATES. ever, the presence of nine, instead of the usual seven, vertebrae in the neck ; that is to say, it is the tenth vertebra from the head which first carries ribs articulating with the breast-bone, although the ninth, and occasionally the eighth vertebra, is furnished with a pair of free floating ribs, which stop short of the breast-bone. There are several species of the genus characterised by differences in coloration, or by the relative length of the hair on the face ; but the precise number of species is THE COMMON THREE-TOED SLOTH (jn.lt. size). not yet definitely ascertained. In some kinds the coloration is uniform, while in others there is a dark stripe across the shoulders : the presence of the above- mentioned bright-coloured patch on the back cannot, however, as was once thought, be regarded as a specific character. The typical B. tridactylus inhabits the drier regions of the forests, while others, as noticed below, frequent the permanently flooded districts. As a rule, these animals appear to be silent ; but it is recorded that a captive specimen, when dragged from the branch to which it was clinging. littered a shrill scream. SLOTHS. 207 The two-tced sloths, or unaus, of -which there are two well- -defined species, constitute the genus Choloepus, characterised by having only two functional toes on the fore-foot : these two digits representing the index and middle finger of the human hand. The hind-foot has, however, three toes, as in Bradypus. The unaus are further distinguished by the characters of their teeth: the first pair in each jaw being longer and stouter than the others, from which they are separated by a considerable interval These anterior teeth assume, indeed, the characters of tusks, and have their summits obliquely worn awaj* by mutual attrition. That they do not correspond to the true tusks, or canines, of other mammals is shown, however, by the circumstance that the lower ones bite behind, instead of in front of those of the upper jaw. In the common unau (C. didactylus) the number of vertebrae in the neck is the usual seven, but in Hoffmann's sloth (C. hoffmanni) it is reduced to six. Of these two species the former is restricted to Brazil; while the latter extends from Ecuador to Costa Rica. Hoffmann's sloth utters at rare intervals a cry like the bleating of a sheep, while when suddenly seized it gives vent to a loud snort The haunts of the sloths are the pri val forests of South and Central America, where vegetation attains its highest development, and the warm air is heavily laden with moisture. The darker and denser the forest, the more thickly is it tenanted by these creatures, which are as thoroughly arboreal as the squirrels and spider-monkeys, and seldom or never descend of their own accord to the ground. Indeed, on the ground the sloth is but a helpless creature, walking uneasily on the edges of its in-turned feet, and seeking as soon as possible to regain its native trees. Writing of the habits of the common three- toed sloth {B. tridactylus), Bates observes that the Indians call it ai ybyrete\ or sloth of the mainland, to distinguish it from the B. infuscatvs, which has a long black and tawny stripe between the shoulders, and is called ai ygapo, or sloth of the flooded lam Is. Some travellers in South America have described the sloth as very nimble in its native woods, and have disputed the justness of the name which has been bestowed upon it. "The inhabitants of the Amazon regions, however, both Indians and descendants of the Portuguese, hold to the common opinion, and consider the sloth as the type of laziness. . . It is a strange sight to watch the uncouth creature, fit production of these silent shades, lazily moving from branch to branch. Every movement betrays, not indolence exactly, but extreme caution. He never loosens his hold from one branch without first securing himself to the next, and when he does not find a bough to immediately grasp with the rigid hooks into which his paws are so curiously transformed, he raises his body, supported on his hind-legs, and claws around in search of a fresh foothold." Bates goes on to say that after watching its movements for some time, he shot the specimen under observation ; its body remained, however, firmly suspended to the bough to which it was clinging, and it was not till the muscles became relaxed that it fell. He adds that on another occasion he saw a three-toed sloth swimming a river, about five hundred yards wide. Sloths are mainly nocturnal ; and in their usual attitude they hang suspended back downwards. When sleeping, they roll themselves into a ball, with the head tucked between the arms; in this position they somewhat resemble the 2o8 EDENTATES. pottos among the lemurs, and it is then that they present the most striking resemblance to a lichen-clad knot. They are found usually either in pairs or in small family parties ; and are harmless and inoffensive in disposition. They are most active in the dusk and at night ; and will then wander slowly for consider- able distances through the forest. Their food consists exclusively of leaves, young shoots, and fruits, the moisture contained in which renders drinking unnecessary. Their favourite food is afforded by the large-leaved and milky cecropia trees, which are so abundant in the South American forests ; and it is said that they seldom desert a cecropia so long as it affords them nutriment. The sense of hearing in these animals seems but imperfectly developed ; and their small, dull and reddish eyes do not appear capable of very acute vision. Indeed, on first observing a sloth its eyes look so devoid of brightness as to give the impression that the creature must be blind. But a single young is pro- duced at a birth. When it first comes into the world the young sloth is fully developed, having the body thickly clothed with hair, and the claws on the toes of the same proportionate length as in the adult. With these claws it clings fast to the long hair of its mother, clasping its arms around her neck. Sloths are capable of enduring deprivation from food for protracted periods, and they are also remarkable for the severe bodily injuries they are capable of sustaining, while they appear to be unaffected by doses of poison which would immediately prove fatal to other animals of larger size. It is related that on one occasion a three-toed sloth kept in captivity at Turin took no food for upwards of a month, and appeared none the worse at the end of its long fast. All these circumstances clearly point to the low organisation of these animals; it being a well-known fact that reptiles exhibit a far greater tenacity of life than the higher mammals. Indeed, as a rule, the lower we descend in the animal kingdom, the greater becomes the power of sustaining injury. The Extixct Grouxd-Sloths. Family Mega theriid^e. No account of the Edentates would be complete without some reference to the gigantic ground-sloths which were formerly so abundant in South America, as it is by their aid alone that we are able to comprehend the relationship of the true sloths to the ant-eaters. The best known of these creatures is the megathere, which rivalled the elephant in bulk ; while the mylodon and scelidothere were somewhat smaller forms. They may be described as possessing the skulls and teeth of sloths, and the back-bones, limbs, and tails of ant-eaters. The megathere differs from most of the others in having the crowns of the teeth square and divided into wedge-shaped transverse ridges, owing to the variation in the hardness of their constituents ; but in most cases the teeth were subcylindrical, with depressed centres. They agreed with the sloths iu having large and complete collar-bones ; but, as we infer from the conformation of the lower jaw, they approximated to the ant-eaters in the elongation of their tongues. The majority of the ground-sloths were South American : but one species of megathere ranged into North America, while an allied genus, Megalonyx, was apparently exclusively North American. \, '/ Sinn. THE TWO TOED SLOTH AXT-EATERS. 209 That the ground-sloths were herbivorous is evident from the structure of their teeth ; while it is obvious that creatures which must have weighed several tons when in the flesh could not have been climbers. Their bodies were probably clothed with coarse hair some- what like that of the ant-eater; but there is evidence that the mylodon had also a number of small bony plates embedded in its skin. From the enormous width ami massivenesa of the pelvis of the ground - sloths, coupled with the extraordinary size of the bones of the tail, it is probable that these creatures were in the habit of procuring their food by supporting them- selves on the tripod formed by their hind-limbs and tail, and rearing their bodies against the trunks of trees, from which the boughs were then dragged down by the powerful arms. Possibly, how- ever, the megathere, as suggested by the late Prof. Parker, may in some cases have bodily uprooted trees, by first digging a hole at their roots with its powerful front claws, and then grasping the trunk with its arms, ami swaying it to ami fro till it fell with a crash. Jt may be added that the ground-sloths resembled the ant-eaters and sloths in walking on the outer sides of their enormous fore-feet : but they differed from the latter in also applying only the outer side of the hind-feet to the ground All these gigantic forms lived during the Pleistocene period : but in the lower Tertiaries of Patagonia they are represented by the much smaller EuchdUx ops, in which the skull was only some 5 inches in length ; the teeth resembling those of the megathere. PALATAL VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTIV D SLOTH (mylodon).— After Owen. The Axt-Eaters. Family llYRUECOPHAGIDJE. The ant-eaters, or, as they are often called, ant-bears, differ f;o widely in appearance and structure from the sloths that it is difficult to believe at first sight in their close relationship: indeed, had it not been for the fortunate preservation of the remains of the ground-sloths, it may be questioned whether even zoologists would have fully understood the alliance of the two. As it is, we have an excellent example of the effects of adaptation to widely different modes of life in modifying the organisation of nearly allied animals. In the present instance the extinct ground-sloths are probably the least removed from the original common type. In the sloths the needs of a purely arboreal life have led to a great elongation of the fore-limbs, coupled with the reduction of the digits to a few hook-like claws, and the functional loss of the tail. In the other group, the ant-eating habit has led to an extraordinary elongation of the skull, with the loss of all traces of teeth. vol. in. — 14 2io EDENTATES. All the ant-eaters are characterised by the body being clothed with hair, and by the more or less marked elongation of the head, in which the mouth is tubular, and provided with a long worm-like tongue, while teeth are wanting. The mouth has only a small aperture at its extremity, through which, when feeding, the long extensile tongue, coated with viscid saliva, is rapidly protruded and as instantane- ously withdrawn. The tail is always long, and in two species is prehensile. In the fore-feet the middle toe is enlarged and furnished with an enormous curved claw, while the other digits are reduced in size, and some of them may be rudi- mentary. The hind-limbs are as long as the front pair ; and their feet terminate in four or five equal-sized and clawed toes. In the skeleton the collar-bones are generally rudimentary, although in one genus well-developed ; and the ribs are remarkable for their breadth. In the soft parts the stomach is comparatively simple, the brain much more convoluted than in the sloths. The heart is very small. As their name implies, ant-eaters are purely insectivorous. SKELETON OF GREAT ANT-EATER. Great Ant Eater. The great, or maned ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata) — known in Paraguay as the yurumi, and in Surinam as tamanoa — is the largest member of the family. Externally it is characterised by the extreme elon- gation of its narrow head, and the enormous mass of long hair clothing the tail. The anterior portion of the head forms a kind of cylindrical beak, which is of far greater length than the hinder half, and carries the small nostrils at its tip. The eyes are minute ; and the oval ears small and erect. The body is somewhat compressed laterally, and is about equal in length to the tail, which is not prehensile. In the fore-feet claws are present upon all the toes except the fifth : that of the third being far larger than either of the others ; when walking the toes are bent back, and the weight of the body supported on the upper surfaces of the third and fourth, aided by a hard pad at the extremity of the fifth. The hind-feet, in which the toes are of nearly equal length, are comparatively short,1 and have the soles applied to the ground in walking. The hair is stiff and bristly : although short on the head it is of considerable, though varying, length on the body. On the neck and back it forms an upright mane ; while on the fore- 1 They are somewhat too long in the figure. ANT-EATERS. 211 limbs and flanks it becomes still more elongated and pendent, but attains its maximum development on the tail, where it may measure as much as 16 inches iu length. The general colour of the hair over a large part of the body is ashy grey mingled with black, this tint prevailing 011 the head, neck, back, flanks and hind- quarters, fore-legs and tail. The throat, chest, under-parts, hind-feet, and under- surface of the tail are blackish brown ; while a broad black band, margined with white, extends obliquely upwards and backwards to terminate in a point on the loins. The length of the head and body is about -4 feet, the height at the shoulder being about two. THE GREAT ACT-EATER, WITH THE TAIL ELEVATED (,V, Iiat. size). In addition to these external features, there are certain points in the internal anatomy of this ant-eater which demand some attention. In the first place, the exceedingly elongated skull is characterised by the zygomatic or cheek-arch being incomplete ; and also by the circumstance that the passage above the bony palate, through which the creature breathes, instead of stopping short near the middle of the skull, is prolonged nearly to its hinder extremity. This is brought about by the union in the middle line of descending plates from the bones known as pterygoids; this feature occurring elsewhere among mammals only in certain dolphins and one genus of armadillo. In consequence of this arrangement the posterior or inner nostrils of the great ant-eater open at the back of the skull, 2i2 EDEXTATES. instead of near its middle. Another peculiarity of the skull is the absence of any postorbital process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye, which is consequently continuous with the temporal fossa, or large open space at the side of the hinder portion of the skull. Then, again, the lower jaw is very long and slender, with an extremely short union in front between its two lateral branches, and without the process which usually ascends behind the socket of the eye for the attachment of the muscles of mastication. Like the sloths, the females of the great ant-eater have but a single pair of teats on the breast. Distribution and Although distributed over the whole of the tropical portions of Habits. South and Central America, the great ant-eater is nowhere common : and from its nocturnal habits but seldom seen. It frequents either the low, wet lands bordering the rivers, or swampy forests : and is strictly terrestrial in its habits. Its strong claws might lead to the supposition that the creature was a burrower, but this is not the case. It has. however, usually a regular lair, or at least an habitual place of resort, generally situated among tall grass, where it spends the day in slumber, lying on one side, with its head buried in the long fur of the chest, the legs folded together, and the huge tail curled round the exposed side of the body. Except in the case of females with young, the ant-eater is, as a rule, a solitary creature. Its usual pace is a kind of trot, but when pursued it breaks into an awkward, shuffling, slow gallop. The food of the great ant-eater consists exclusively of termites and ants, together with their larvse. In order to obtain these insects, the ant-eater tears open their nests or hillocks with the power- ful claws of its fore-feet. As soon as the light of day is let into their domicile, the ants or termites rush to the surface in order to investigate the cause of the dis- turbance, and are foi'thwith swept up by hundreds adhering to the viscid tongue of the ant-eater, which is protruded ami withdrawn with lightning-like rapidity. The breeding-habits of the animal are still very imperfectly known. A single young is. however, produced by the female in spring, which is carried about on the back of its parent for a considerable time. The period of suckling lasts for several months ; and even when the young ant-eater has taken to feeding on insects, it does not leave its parent until she is again pregnant. Usually the ant-eater is a harmless, inoffensive creature, which may be driven in almost any direction so long as it is not pressed too hard. If, however, driven to close quarters, it turns furiously on its assailants, whom it attacks by hugging with its immensely muscular arms. It has been asserted, on the authority of the natives, that the ant-eater will even face and attack the jaguar: and although the truth of this statement was denied by the traveller Azara, a later explorer believes that it may be founded on fact. Like the sloths, ant-eaters are exceedingly difficult to kill, their skin being so tough that an ordinary small hunting-knife will make no impression on it, while their skulls may be battered with a heavy stone without producing any other effect than temporarily stunning the creatures These ant-eaters thrive fairly well in captivity in Europe ; but spend most of their time in sleep, with the head, limbs, and tail folded up in the manner already mentioned. On awakening, the animal generally unfolds itself with considerable deliberation, usually sitting up at first on its hind-quarters, with its legs stretched out rigidly in front, and its bird-like head swaying slowly from side to side. "In AXT-EATERS. 213 its slow and measured walk.' writes Sclater, "the tail is stretched out in a straight line with the back (as in the illustration on p. 211 ), and the animal then presents a length of between 6 and 7 feet, of which the head occupies 1 foot, and the tail 3." The small mouth and face are cleaned from any of the viscid saliva which ma}' have adhered to them by being rubbed from time to time against the slightly bent knee. The flesh of the great ant-eater, although black in colour, and musky in odour, is largely eaten by the natives and negroes of South America. The lesser ant-eater, or tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla) is an animal of scarcely half the size of the preceding, from which it is distinguished by its much shorter head, longer ears, uniformly short bristly hair, Tamandua. •y -W THE TAMANDUA (J nut. size). and the prehensile tail, of which the extremity, together with the whole length of the inferior surface, is naked and scaly. The three middle toes of the fore- foot have well-developed claws, of which that on the third is much larger than either of the others ; while the first toe has only a minute claw, and the fifth is clawless, and concealed within the skin. The hind-foot is very similar to that of the great ant-eater, and has five subequal clawed toes. The structure of the skull is essentially the same : and the collar-bones are likewise rudimentary. The whole leno-th of the head and body is about 2 feet, and that of the tail 6 inches less. As regards coloration, there is a great amount of individual variation. The general hue of the fur is, however, yellowish white, with a more or less marked rusty tinge ; but a broad black band extends from the sides of the neck along the flanks, and becomes so deep on the hind-quarters as to appear the predominating colour. The tip of the snout, together with the lips, eyelids, and the soles of the feet, are naked and black ; and the ears are but sparsely haired. 214 EDENTATES. Distribution and The tamandua (which, by the way, is the Portuguese term for Habits. the creature, the native name being eaguari) ranges through the tropical forests of South and Central America. It is mainly an arboreal animal : its climbing powers being largely aided by the prehensile tail. Generally nocturnal, it may be sometimes seen abroad during the day. Its movements are more rapid than those of the great ant-eater; and when asleep it lies on its belly, with the head bent under the chest and covered with the fore-feet, while the tail is curled along the side. Its food apparently consists mainly of ants, and termites — probably belonging to arboreal species; but it has been suggested that honey may likewise form a portion of its diet. Like the great ant-eater, it produces only a single young one at a birth. It is a much commoner animal than the tamanoa, and is said to be generally found on the borders of the forests. Frequently it ascends two-toed ant-eatek (J nat. size). to the top of the tallest trees. When pursued, it endeavours to escape by flight ; but if hard pressed it turns on men or dogs in the same manner as its larger cousin, sitting up on its hind-quarters, and trying to hug its foes in its anna Two-Toea The third and last representative of the family (Cyclotunis Ant-Eater. didactylus) is no larger than a rat. Its skull is only slightly elongated. The length of the head and body is only 6 inches, and that of the highly prehensile tail a little over 7 inches. The fore-feet have four toes, of which those corresponding to the index and third fingers of man alone have claws : the claw of the third toe being very much larger than that of the second. In the hind-feet there are four nearly equal-sized toes, which are placed close together so as to form a hook-like organ somewhat after the fashion of the foot of a sloth. The fur is soft, thick, and silky ; its colour being generally foxy red above and grey beneath, with the individual hairs greyish brown or black at the base, and yellowish brown at the tips. The skull differs from that of the other ant-eaters ARMADILLOS. 215 by its shorter muzzle, and by the absence of the backward prolongation of the nasal passage on the palate, to which allusion has been already made. The lower jaw is less widely removed from the ordinary type. Another peculiarity in the skeleton is the presence of well-developed collar-bones ; and it may also be noted that the ribs are so extraordinarily wide as to come nearly in contact with one another, and thus render the bony casing of the body well-nigh continuous. Distribution and The two-toed ant-eater is an exclusively arboreal animal, with a Habits. somewhat restricted geographical range. It inhabits Northern Brazil, Guiana, and Peru, between the 10th parallel of south and the 6th parallel of north latitude, and it also extends into Central America; its range thus including the very hottest portions of the continent. In the mountains it ascends to an elevation of some two thousand feet above the sea. It is either a rare creature, or one but seldom seen, even by the natives; frequenting the thickest portions of the forests, and escaping observation through its arboreal habits and diminutive size. Like its larger relatives, it leads, except during the pairing-season, a solitary existence; and it is likewise nocturnal, sleeping during the day among the boughs. Its movements are generally slow ami deliberate; but when so disposed, it can climb quickly, always with the aid of the tail. Ants, termites, bees, wasps, and their larvae, are its food. When it has captured a lai_ I it sits up on its haunches like a squirrel, and conveys the prey to its mouth with its paws. Bates had one of these ant-eaters brought to him which had been captured while slumbering in a hollow tree. He kept it in the house for twenty-four hours, where "it remained nearly all the time without motion, except w ben irritated, in which case it reared itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung, and clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat. Its manner of clinging with its claws, and the sluggishness of its motions, gave it a great resemblance to a sloth. It uttered no sound, and remained all night on the spot where I had placed it in the morning. The next day I put it on a tree in the open air, and at night it escaped." The Armadillos. Family DASYPODID.-E. The armadillos, together with their near ally the pichiciago, constitute a well- defined South American family distinguished from other living mammals by the development of a number of bony plates in the skin, so as to form a more or less complete shield enveloping the body ; and it is from the presence of this bony cuirass that the members of the family derive their distinctive Spanish title of armadillos. In general the bony shield of the back is formed by the union of quadrangular or many-sided plates, and is divided into an anterior and posterior solid portion, separated by a series of movable transverse bands, varying in number from three to thirteen. The anterior shield, into which the head and fore-limbs may be more or less completely withdrawn, is termed the scapular shield ; while the posterior portion, which is notched for the tail, is known as the lumbar, or pelvic shield. The movable bands are composed of parallel rows of similar plates connected together by flexible skin : and in some cases the degree of flexibility in this region 216 EDENTATES. is so great as to allow of the animal rolling itself into a complete ball. One peculiar genus of extinct armadillo differs from all living forms in that the whole body-shield was composed of these movable plates. Usually a certain number of hairs protrude between the bony plates of the armour ; and in some cases these are so numerous as almost to conceal the armour, and give the appearance of a furry animal. Each bony plate is sculptured, varying in pattern in the different genera; and it is overlain by a homy shield, developed in the cuticle or epidermis ; the bones themselves belonging to the true skin. The upper surface of the head is also protected by an armour of similar structure ; and the tail is usually en- circled by a series of bony rings. The limbs are likewise protected externally by a number of bony plates embedded in the skin, which do not, however, articulate together by their edges. The fore-feet are provided with very powerful curved claws adapted for dig- ging, and varying in number from live to three : while in the hind- feet the claws are of smaller size, and invari- ably five in number. The numerous teeth are small and simple, looking like small pegs fixed in the jaws ; and in one genus the anterior teeth are preceded by a deciduous milk series. The tongue is considerably elongated, although to a less extent than in the ant-eaters. The elongated skull is characterised by the full development of the zygomatic or cheek arch; and the collar-bones are complete. In the hind-limbs Un- bones of the second segment — tibia and fibula — differ from those of the other existing members of the order by being united together at their lower extremities. Another peculiarity is that a variable number of the vertebrae in the middle of the neck are likewise immovably welded together. In the development of additional facets for mutual articulation, the vertebrae of the loins of the armadillos resemble those of the ant-eaters. The ribs are of considerable width : and the upper lateral processes of the back are specially developed for the support of the carapace. .Must of the species are of comparatively small size: the largest living one not exceeding 3 feet in length, exclusive of the tail : but in the Pleistocene of Argentina there occurs the gigantic Dasypotherium, with a skull about a foot in length. In the Argentine pampas the armadillos are as a rule diurnal, in other districts many appear to be crepuscular or nocturnal. The majority are mainly or exclusively insectivorous, but one species consumes not only flesh, but vegetable substances. In disposition these Edentates are mostly harmless and inoffensive little creatures ; a Gaucho remarking to Mr. Darwin, as he sharpened his knife on the back of one, they are so quiet (son tan tnansos"). All of them burrow in the ground : and so rapid is the act of burrowing, that, as the writer has witnessed, if a horseman sees one of these animals, it is almost necessary for him to tumble off his horse in order to capture it before it disappears in the soft soil of the pampas. They run with considerable speed, some of the species merely touching the ground with the tips of ARMADILLOS. 217 their claws, and carrying the body elevated high on the limbs. They are found both on the open pampas and in the forests; and, with the exception of a single species which ranges as far north as Texas, they are restricted to the warmer parts of South and Central America. Their burrows are frequently found in the neighbourhood of the mounds erected by ants and termites; and although most of the species wander abroad in search of food, a few lead an almost exclusively subterranean and mole-like life. Except in the pairing-season, armadillos are solitary creatures: and they nearly always prefer flat, open country for their habitations. Although generally found in dry districts, they are said to be able to swim well and swiftly. In spite of the nature of their food (which in addition to ants and other insects includes snails and worms), the flesh of most armadillos is free from unpleasant flavour. The smallest, and at the same time the most curious repre- sentative of the whole group, is the tiny creature known as the pichiciago, or pink fairy armadillo {Chlamydophorua truncatus), which differs so remarkably from the true armadillos as to constitute a subfamily by itself. This Edentate was discovered by the American naturalist Harlan, ai Mendoza in 1824, much to the astonishment of the natives, who hail no knowledge of its existence. For many years it was known only by two examples — the one preserved in London and the other at Philadelphia; but of recent years a considerable number of specimens have been obtained; and it has been kept alive in the Zoological Gardens at Buenos Aires. The pichiciago is only about 5 inches in Length; and, while the shield or mantle covering the head and body is pink, the fur is of a snowy white. The head is short, widest behind, and gradually tapering to the muzzle, where it terminates in a short and abruptly truncated snout, with small and rounded nostrils. The small and almost rudimentary eyes are nearly concealed among the long hair: ' ami the ears are quite invisible, having scarcely any external conchs. The mouth is very small, witli the lips hard and stiff; and the rather long and fleshy tongue is conical, and covered above with warty protuberances. The teeth, of which there are eight in the upper and eight or nine in the lower jaw, are small ami nearly cylindrical : those in the middle of the series being larger than at the two extremities. The neck is short and thick; and the body long and depressed, becoming gradually wider from the shoulders to the abruptly truncated hinder extremity. The limbs are short, ami the front pair much more powerfully made than the hinder ones. Both are provided with rive toes; but whereas in the fore- limbs these are connected nearly to the bases of the claws, in the hind-pair they are entirely free. The second claw- in the fore-foot is the largest, and the fifth the smallest : while the claws of all the hind-toes are comparatively small. The tail, which protrudes through a notch in the lower border of the bony shield on the hind-quarters, is short and inflexible, terminating in a flattened and pointed paddle- iike expansion, and covered with a leather skin, dotted over with small horny plates. The whole of the upper surface of the body is covered with a continuous shield, or mantle, of quadrangular horny scales, underlain by very thin, bony plates. This mantle commences in a point a short distance above the muzzle, and 1 They are made too conspicuous, in our figure. 2l8 EDENTATES. gradually increases in width to the hinder extremity of the body, where it is abruptly truncated. Instead of being hrmly attached to the body throughout its extent, the mantle is only affixed along the line of the backbone, and consequently lies quite loosely on the hairy sides of the body; on the head it is, however, firmly joined to the bones. There are usually about twenty transverse rows of plates in the mantle ; and while the number of plates in each row at the hinder extremity of the head varies from seven to eight, on the loins there may be as many as twenty- four in a row. The abruptly truncated hinder extremity of the body is protected by a solid shield, composed of firmly welded plates of bone, overlain by thin scales of horn. This shield is slightly convex, and forms a segment of a circle, the centre of which would be the notch in its inferior border through which protrudes the tail. It is firmly welded to certain bony processes arising from the pelvis, and the picHiciAGO (i nat. size). comprises five or six concentric rows of plates: the number in the uppermost row being about twenty, and that in the lowest only six. The entire shield is placed in a nearly vertical plane. Both externally and internally the mantle is smooth and devoid of hair. With the exception of the tail, the soles of the feet, the snout, and the chin, which are nearly naked, the whole of the skin is covered with a coat of long, silky hair, forming a fringe along the edges of the mantle. This hair is longest on the flanks and limbs, and shortest on the upper surface of the feet, where it is intermingled with wart-like masses of horn. The female pichiciago has a single pair of teats situated on the breast, as in the armadillos. Distribution and The pichiciago is a rare animal, confined to the western part of Mode of Life. Argentina, and is least uncommon in the neighbourhood of Mendoza ; where, as elsewhere, it frequents open, sandy dunes, or their proximity, the vegetation in such spots consisting of thorny brushwood and cacti. The best account of the habits of this creature is given by Mr. E. W. White, who writes that, when walking, the pichiciago " plants both the fore and hind-feet on the soles, and ARMADILLOS. 219 not on the contracted claws, carrying its inflexible tail, which it has no power to raise, trailing along the ground, and much inclined downwards from the body. As it commences to excavate, the fore-feet are first employed ; and, immediately afterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and the extremity of the tail, both hind-feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with incredible swiftness. The burrows, which are never left open, usually have but slight, if any, inclination to the horizon. Sluggish in all its movements, except as a fodient, in which capacity it perhaps excels all other burrowing animals, the Chlamydophorus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that a man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried itself to the depth of its own body." Mr. White believes that the use of the bony .shield at the hinder extremity of the body is to act as a rammer in closing up the entrance to its burrow, and he is further of opinion that when the creature desires to come above ground, it emerges by digging a new exit. When in search of a .spot in which to burrow, the pichiciago utters a sniffing sound, but is otherwise silent. " So extremely sensitive is this delicate little burrower to cold," writes Mr. White, "that my living example, after passing a night in a box of earth covered with flannels, was found the following morning in a very exhausted condition. Wrapped in warm clothing, and placed near a tire, it soon revived. On taking it in my hand under a Mendozan midday sun it shivered violently; but whether through fear or chill it is impossible to say. Its normal paradise seems to be when the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to scorch the hand : and yet, if cold be unfriendly, no less so is wet, for although its winter is spent beneath the earth, a fall of rain quickly drives it from its retreat. During summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food ; and being truly nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favourable for discovering it." A second, and rather larger species of pichiciago (C. retusus) inhabits Bolivia, and is dis- tinguished from the typical form by the mantle being attached to the skin of the back throughout its whole extent. The remaining members of the family, with the exception of the rue a os. ^a armadillo and its allies, are included in a single subfamily, characterised by the division of the bony carapace on the back into scapular and lumbar shields, separated from one another by a variable number of movable bands. They all have moderate-sized ears, set at a considerable distance apart ; and the first and second claws of the fore-feet are, when present, slender ; while the females have but a single pair of teats on the breast. six Banded The weasel-headed, or six-banded armadillo {Dasypus sexcinctus) Armadillos. ;s fae type 0f a genus characterised by having usually six or seven, but occasionally eight, movable bands in the carapace ; each bony plate of which is marked by an elliptical row of punctures. The head is broad and flattened, with an obtusely pointed muzzle, and rather small or moderate-sized ears; and the body is broad and much depressed. In length the tail is less than the head and body ; and the plates on its basal portion form well-defined rings. Of the five toes in the fore-feet, the first is the most slender, the second is the longest, while the three outer ones are the stoutest, and gradually diminish in size from the third to the fifth. They have a rounded inner border, and a sharp outer ami lower edge. 220 EDENTATES. The teeth may be either nine in the upper and ten in the lower jaw, or one less in each ; they are of large size, and the first upper pair are generally implanted in the premaxillary bones. The figured species, which attains a length of about 16 inches, exclusive of the tail, inhabits Brazil and Paraguay; but is replaced in Argentina by the closely allied peludo, or hairy armadillo (D. villosus). The fleecy armadillo (D. vellerosus), from Argentina and the north of Patagonia, and the pichi, or pigmy armadillo (D. mirvwtus) of Argentina, are much smaller forms : of which the second is distinguished by the absence of any teeth in the premaxillary bones. The different species of the genus vary somewhat in habits : the pichi being mainly diurnal, while in the cultivated districts of Argentina the peludo has become nocturnal. The pichi, according to Mr. Darwin, Habits. THE WEASEL-HEADED ARMADILLO (i nat. size). prefers a very dry soil ; and the sand-dunes near the coast, where for many months it can never taste water, are its favourite resort : it often tries to escape notice by squatting close to the ground All of the species live in burrows, where in winter or spring the young are born ; the number in a litter varying from two to four, although the female has but a single pair of teats with which to afford them nourishment. The young are born blind, but with their armour fully formed, although soft and flexible. They grow with great rapidity, and remain for several weeks in the burrows ; it is believed, however, that they are not suckled for any very lengthened period, and that they soon learn to shift for themselves. The armadillos of this genus are usually found alone : and most of them feed chiefly on ants and other insects, although they will also attack and devour small snakes. On the other hand, the peludo is omnivorous. Dr. E. Peard writes that this species "comes forth for a short time only by day; on a moonlight night he may be met ARMADILLOS. 221 with at any hour. I have very often made a peludo post-mortem examination, and several times found his last meal consisted of putrid flesh, as well as insects and vegetable fibre. I do not mean to assert that he cannot live on vegetables alone ; but he evidently does not prefer them, and looks on a dead lamb or other animal as a bonne bouche by no means to be despised. A fresh peludb-burrow may almost invariably be found by or underneath a stinking carcase. This is not merely that the occupant may avail himself of the maggots bred in the carrion, for pieces of the flesh may frequently lie seen drawn partly into the burrow, and the softer parts chewed and eaten." These flesh-eating propensities of the peludo frecpiently lead to its destruction, since these animals often devour the poisoned meat spread for wandering dogs and foxes. It is also stated that in some districts, win-re peludoes are so numerous as to render rifling dangerous, on account of their burrows, flesh poisoned with strychnine is exposed for their destruction The foregoing observations are confirmed by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who writes that the peludo, like its fast-disappearing congeners, " is an insect-eater still, but does not like them seek its food on the surface and on the ant-hill only : all kinds of insects are preyed on, and by means of its keen scent it discovers worms and larvae several inches below the surface. Its method of taking worms and larvae resembles that of probing birds, for it throws up no earth, but forces its sharp snout and wedge-shaped head down to the required depth; and probably while working it moves round in a circle, for the hole is conical, though the head of the animal is flat. Where it has found a rich hunting-ground, the earth is seen pitted with hundreds of these neat symmetrical bores. It is also an enemy to ground- nesting birds, being fond of eggs and fledglings; and when unable to capture prey it will feed on carrion as readily as a wild dog or vulture, returning night after night to the carcase of a horse or cow as long as the flesh lasts." Mr. Hudson adds that this armadillo resorts to a vegetable diet only when animal food fails; and states that on such occasions it will eat not only clover, but likewise grains of maize, which are swallowed whole. The peludo also displays marked intelligence in capturing some of the animals on which it preys. Mr. Hudson had a tame one which was an adept at catching mice in a most ingenious manner. After stating that the creature had a most keen sense of smell, and was in the habit of trotting along with its nose to the ground like a beagle, Mr. Hudson writes that " when near his prey he became agitated, and quickened his motions, pausing frequently to sniff the earth, till, discovering the exact spot where the mouse lurked, he would stop and creep cautiously to it ; then, after slowly raising himself to a sitting posture, spring suddenly forwards, throwing his body like a trap over the mouse or nest of mice concealed in the grass." Still more remarkable is the manner in which a peludo has been observed to kill a snake, by rushing upon it and proceeding to saw the unfortunate reptile in pieces by pressing upon it closely with the jagged edges of its armour, and at the same time moving its body backwards and forwards. The struggles of the snake were all in vain, as its fangs could make no impression upon the panoply of its assailant ; and eventually the reptile slowly dropped and died, to be soon after devoured by the armadillo, which commenced the meal by seizing the snake's tail in its mouth, and gradually eating forwards. 222 EDENTATES. Both the peludo and the weasel-headed armadillo are hunted for Hunting. . . . the sake of their flesh, with dogs specially trained for the purpose. A moonlight night is generally selected for the pursuit ; and the hunter arms himself with a stout cudgel, pointed at one end. As soon as the armadillo perceives the dog, it either makes straight for its burrow, or endeavours to bury itself Xr$ digging a hole where it stands. If the dog come up with the creature before it gain its retreat, its fate is sealed. As the carapace affords no hold, the dog generally seizes the armadillo by the head, or a paw, and holds it till the arrival of his master, by whom it is despatched with a blow on the head from his stick. A specially clever dog will, however, endeavour to overthrow the armadillo as it runs by thrusting his nose under the edge of the carapace. The ci-eature is then promptly seized by the soft under-parts, and soon killed; the teeth of the dog crunching up the edges of the carapace as readily as an egg-shell is crushed in the hand. Broad-Banded The tatouay, or broad-banded armadillo (Lysiv/rua unicinctus), Armadillo. 0f Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, is the best known representative of a small genus distinguished from the last b}^ the presence of twelve or thirteen movable bands in the carapace, and likewise by the teeth. The latter are either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, and are of moderate size: while in the upper jaw the last of the series is placed considerably in advance of the hinder extremity of the bony palate, instead of close to it, as in the preceding group. The head has tb.3 same general form as in the six-banded armadillos, with rather widely separated, large, and rounded ears; and by the presence of from twenty to twenty-five teeth on each side of the jaws. The slender tail, which is considerably shorter than the body, is nearly naked, except for a few bony plates on its under-surface and near the tip. In the fore-foot the third toe has a huge curved claw, much larger than that on either of the others ; the claws of the first and second toes being; slender. The hind-feet have short triangular nails, of which the first is the shortest and the third the longest. The bones of the armour are ornamented with an indistinct granular sculpture. Next to the under- mentioned giant armadillo, the present species is the largest of the group. Its habits are probably very similar to those of the six-banded armadillo, although our information is somewhat scant on this point. By far the largest living member of the family is the giant Giant Armadillo. ... . armadillo (Priodon gigas), from the forests of Surinam and Brazil, which attains a length of nearly a yard from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, and is the sole representative of its genus. While agreeing with the broad- banded armadillo in the number of five bands in the carapace, and the general structure of its feet, this species is distinguished by the still greater relative development of the third toe, and the small size of the claw of the fifth. It is further characterised by the small size and elongated form of the head, on which the ears are oval and rather small : and by the tail, which is nearly equal in length to the body, being covered with large scales arranged in spiral rows. There are ten rows of plates in the scapular, and sixteen or seventeen in the pelvic shield. With the exception of the head, tail, and a band on the sides, which are whitish, the colour is blackish brown. The immensely powerful front claws of this armadillo ARMADILLOS. 223 clearly proclaim its fossorial habits; ami it is said to feed chiefly on ants and termites, although not averse to carrion. Three Banded The common three-banded armadillo, or apar, (Tolypeutes Armadillos, t riciitctus), is the typical representative of a genus comprising three rather small species, distinguished by the great development and solidarity of the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace, and the reduction of the movable bands to three. The teeth, of which there are nine on each side of the lower jaw, and either nine or eight in the upper jaw, are relatively small, and extend back ^N^KISS^P^I :::r -• THE giaxt armadillo (J nat. size). nearly to the end of the palate. The head is long and narrow, with the elongated and oval ears placed rather low down on its sides. The third claw in the fore-feet is even more developed than in the giant armadillo ; the first and fifth claw^s being very minute or wanting. In the hind-foot the three middle toes have short hoof- like nails : while those of the first and fifth digits are smaller and compressed. The plates of the carapace are small and polygonal, with a strongly-marked granular sculpture. Both the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace are very large, and much pi-oduced on the sides of the neck and tail, thus forming large chambers into which the limbs, tail, and head, can be withdrawn. The conical tail is less than a third the length of the body, and is covered with bony tubercles. The total length of the head and body is about 15 inches; and 224 EDENTATES. THE THREE lJA.N'DEO ARMADILLO. the general colour is dark grey, with a more or less marked brown tinge ; the skin between the movable bands being whitish, while that on the under-surface of the body is dusky. The apar is found throughout the Argentine pampas ; and, in common with the other two members of the genus, differs from the rest of the armadillos in being able to roll itself up into a complete ball, with the shield of the head and the bony upper-surface of the tail packed away side by side, and thus completely rilling up the notches in the scapular and lumbar shields. In this state the creatm-e is perfectly safe from nearly all foes save man. For instance, when a dog attempts to seize one of these armadillos, it is compelled, from the size of its mouth, to make a bite upon one side, upon which, as Mr. Darwin tells us, the ball immediately rolls away from its grasp. The apar is mainly diurnal in its habits ; and trusts for defence to its power of rolling itself into a ball, not dwelling in burrows like the members of the other genera. When running, these armadillos tread only on the tips of the claws of the fore- feet, and consequently have the edges of the carapace raised high above the ground. Our figure represents a specimen witli the fore-legs Btretched out in front preparatory to digging up an ant's nest. In captivity these armadillos will eat fruit and green vegetables: although, on account of the small size of their mouths, it is necessary that all the food witli which they are supplied should be chopped up into small pieces. Fossil remains of armadillos of this species, together with others belonging to all the genera except Priodon . are met with in the cavern-deposits of Lagoa .Santa, in Brazil ; and are mostly referable to species still existing in the country. The Peba armadillo (Tatusia nov&mdncta), ranging from Texas to Paraguay, together with the mulita — "little mule" — (T. hybrida), of Argentina and other parts of South America, and certain allied species, differ from all the members of the family yet noticed by the elongated ears being closely approximated at their roots, by the female having a pair of teats on the abdomen, in addition to the two on the breast, and by the circumstance that the permanent teeth, with the exception of the last pair in each jaw, are preceded by deciduous milk-teeth, each furnished with two roots. The permanent teeth, which are either seven or eight in number in each side of both the upper ami lower jaws, are very small in proportion to the size of the skull, and do not come into use until the animal has well-nigh attained its full dimensions. The head is narrow, and produced into a nearly cylindrical snout, obliquely truncated at the extremity : and the bony palate of the skull has a backward prolongation formed in the same manner as Peba Armadillo. GLYPTODOXTS. 225 that of the great ant-eater. The body is long and narrow, with from seven to nine movable bands between the scapular and lumbar shields ; the former being produced on either side of the shoulders, and having a deep notch at the neck. Each bony plate is ornamented with a series of pits arranged in the shape of a V. The tail is nearly or quite as long as the body, and surrounded for the greater part of its length with complete bony rings. The fore-feet have four long claws, of which the inner pair are considerably larger than the others; while the hind-feet carry five claws, of which the third is the longest, and the fourth and fifth the shortest. The length of the body of the peba armadillo is about 16 inches, ami that of its tail some 2 inches less. In producing from six to twelve young at a birth the peba armadillo differs from all the species hitherto noticed. It inhabits CARAPACE AND SKELETOX OF GLYPTODOX, WITH THE TAIL-SHEATH IMPERFECT (b'j uat. size). — After Zittel. burrows in the open plains, and feeds largely on carrion, which is said to be stored up in tin- burrows for future consumption. In spite of this unsavoury diet, the peba is much hunted for its flesh, which is stated to be of delicate flavour. The above-mentioned mulita is a smaller species, with a relatively shorter tail. A very remarkable form is the rare shaggy armadillo (T. pilosu) from Peru, in which the cheeks and the whole of the carapace, except the front margin, as well as the upper parts of the limbs and the under surface of the body, are covered with a thick coat of light brown hair, of about an inch and a half in length. So dense is this hairy covering that the carapace is completely concealed, giving to the creature, save for its mail-clad head, the appearance of an ordinary hairy mammal. The Extinct Glyptodoxts Family GL YFTODOXTID^E. As we have seen, the carapace of the largest existing armadillo scarcely exceeds a yard in length : but during the Pleistocene, or latest, geological period, there existed in South America a number of gigantic armadillo-like animals, in some of which the carapace attained a length of between (3 and 7 feet. All these Edentates differed from the living armadillos in having complex teeth (eight in vol. m. — 15 226 EDEXTATES. number on each side of the jaws), which were divided into three prisms by a pair of deep vertical grooves on each side. In all of them the carapace consists of a single solid shield, formed of a number of polygonal bony plates, which are firmly united together by suture. A peculiar form from Brazil known as the chlamydothere serves in some respects to connect the glyptodonts with the arma- dillos, having the carapace of the latter, and the teeth approximating to those of the former. The typical species was about the size of a rhinoceros ; but others were smaller. In all the glyptodonts the skull was short, the feet were short and massive, generally with five toes in front and four behind ; and the limbs were likewise short and massive. In the larger forms the bony plates of the carapace were fully an inch in thickness : and in all the species the head was protected by a bony shield, somewhat similar in structure to the carapace. In the larger types, constitut- ing the genus Glyptodon, the carapace was much vaulted, and its margins ornamented with a number of large projecting tubercles ; while the tail was protected by a series of bony rings, also ornamented with bosses, gradually diminishing in size from root to tip. In one species the total length, along the curve of the back, from the nose to the end of the tail was 1H feet, while END OF SHEATH OF TAIL OF A , , , _ „ , . , ,, ." . . ,,, glyfiodont, much REDUCED. the carapace measured i feet in length and 9 in width, inclusive of the curves. On the other hand, in the mostly smaller forms known as Lomaphorv.x, the carapace was less vaulted, and devoid of bosses on the margin; while the tail had several movable smooth rings at the root, and terminated in a long bony tube of more than a yard in length. The extremity of such a tube, showing the large bony plates with which its surface is covered, is shown in the accompanying cut. Another gigantic kind from the pampas, distinguished by the tail terminating in a huge flattened club, armed during life with horns, is known as Dtfdicurus. In the Miocene beds of Patagonia all the glyptodonts were of smaller size. The Pangolins. Family MaxiL-E. Stranger even than the armadillos are the Edentates commonly known as pangolins, or scaly ant-eaters, which may be compared in appearance to an animated spruce-fir cone furnished with a head and legs. These creatures constitute a family by themselves, in which there is but a single genus — Man is, and, like the remaining representatives of the order, they are confined to the Old World. As already mentioned, the relationship of the pangolins to the typical New World Edentates, is remote ; and it may be even questioned whether the group is rightly included in the same order. Their internal anatomy is of a different type ; and the joints of the backbone lack the additional articular processes characterising most of the American Edentates. PANGOLINS. 227 The pangolins may be briefly characterised as a family by the total want of teeth, and by the upper surface and sides of the body and the whole tail being covered with a number of large, overlapping horny scales. Their limbs are short, with rive toes on each foot ; and the long, worm-like tongue is capable of being protruded a great distance from the small mouth. The head is small, long, and pointed, with the eyes small, ami the external conchs of the ears minute or rudi- mentary. The scales of the body extend on to the outer sides of the limbs ; but they are absent from the inner surfaces of the latter, as well as from the sides of the head and the inferior aspect of the body, all of which are sparsely covered with hair. There are often a few coarse, bristly hairs arising from between the scales. All the toes have slightly curved claws, which are much longer in the front than in the hind-feet, and of which the third is larger than either of the others. In walking, the front toes are bent under the feet, and the weight of the body supported mainly on the upper and outer sides oi the fourth and fifth toes. On the other hand, the hind-feet are of the ordinary plantigrade type, and have .SKELETON OP PANGOLIN. the whole sole applied to the ground in walking. The female has a pair of teats situated on the breast. In the skeleton the skull is remarkable for its smooth and solid structure, and almost conical form. The zygomatic, or cheek-arch, is incom- plete, and there is no distinction between the sockets of the eyes and the fossae at the hinder extremity of the skull ; while the palate is much produced backwards. The lower jaw is extremely slight and slender, without any ascending or descending processes. In many of these respects the skulls of the pangolins approach those of the true ant-eaters ; but it must be remembered that such resemblances are purely adaptive, and are brought about by the identical modes of life of the two groups. Two other points may be noticed in the skeleton; — firstly, that collar- bones are wanting; and, secondly, that the terminal joints of the claws are deeply cleft. Distribution and The pangolins, of which the largest species attains a length of Mode of Life. aDout 6 feet, are exclusively confined to Africa south of the Sahara, and South-Eastern Asia. Africa possesses the largest species, and the greater number of forms. The pangolins are essentially burrowing and nocturnal animals, feeding exclusively on ants and termites, which are captured on the long extensile tongue. They have the power of rolling themselves into a ball as a 228 EDENTATES. protection against foes ; and when thus coiled up their muscular strength is such as to set at defiance any attempt to unroll them. Asiatic Asia is inhabited by three species of the family, namely, the Pangolins. Indian pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), confined to India and Ceylon, and represented in the accompanying figure ; the Chinese pangolin (M. aurita), ranging from Nipal and Assam to China ; and the Malayan pangolin (M. javanica), inhabiting the regions to the westward of the Bay of Bengal as far as Celebes, and also occurring in North-Eastern India. All these species agree with one another in having the whole of the outer surfaces of the limbs covered with scales, and in their tapering tails, on which the middle upper rows of scales is continued uninterruptedly to the extremity. In the first two species the front THE DJDIAJJ PAXGOLIX (J nat. size). - - claws are about twice the length of the hinder ones ; the Indian pangolin being distinguished by having from eleven to thirteen rows of scales round the body, against from fifteen to eighteen in the Chinese species. On the other hand, the more slenderly-built and longer-tailed Malayan pangolin differs from both the others in having the claws on the fore-feet only slightly exceeding in length those of the hind-feet. In the Indian pangolin the length of the head and body is just over 2 feet, and that of the tail a foot and a half. The habits of all the three kinds are believed to be similar, although the Malayan species is probably less of a burrower than the others. The Indian pangolin dwells either among the crevices and clefts of rocks, or in burrows of its owm construction ; such burrows extending to a depth of from eight to twelve feet below the surface, and terminating in a large chamber, which O OCT may be as much as six feet in diameter. Here a pair of these animals take up their abode, and in the winter or early spring give birth to their young. The Habits. PANGOLINS. 229 young, which are one or two in number, are covered with soft scales at birth, but it does not appear to be ascertained whether they are born blind. "When inhabited, the entrance to the burrow is stopped with earth; and it is rarely that its occupants are seen abroad after sunrise. The food consists chiefly of termites; the pangolin tearing open the nests of these insects with its powerful front claws, and thrusting its long glutinous tongue into their runs. The tongue is rapidly with- drawn with a swarm of the white ants clinging to it. In captivity pangolins will readily eat finely-chopped raw meat, hard-boiled eggs, and rice. Their stomachs have a somewhat gizzard-like structure: and frequently contain a few small pebbles, probably introduced to aid in triturating the food. In captivity pangolins drink freely by rapidly extending ami withdrawing the tongue; but Mr. Blanford THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN- (J nat. Size). doubts whether this habit is natural to them, as they are often found in places where there is no water. When irritated, pangolins will give vent to a hissing sound ; but at other times they are believed to be silent. African There are four African species of pangolin, all of which are Pangolins, characterised by the middle row of scales on the upper surface of the tail bifurcating at a short distance from the tip. They are also distinguished by the absence of any external conch to the ear, and the lack of any hairs growing between the scales ; while in some of them the scales do not extend all the way down the outer surfaces of the limbs. Of the four species, the long-tailed pangolin (M. macrura) is easily recognised by the great length of its tail, which is nearly twice as long as the body, and also by the absence of scales at the lower part of the outer surface of the fore-limbs. A nearly allied form is the white-bellied pangolin (M. tricuspis), distinguished by its larger and tricuspidate scales, and 230 EDENTATES. the white under-parts. The short-tailed pangolin (M. tc mi a inch I) is readily distinguished by its short and blunt tail, in which the under surface of the tip lacks the bare patch found in all the other species except the next. The outer surfaces of the limbs are also fully scaled The giant pangolin (J/, gigantea) is sufficiently distinguished from the last by its superior size. It is remarkable that the remains of a closely-allied species have been found in a cavern in Madras. The whole of the four African species inhabit the West Coast ; but the short-tailed species also extends to South Africa and ranges across the Continent to Zanzibar and Southern Somaliland. The general habits of the African pangolins appear to be very similar to those of their Asiatic cousins. While, however, the long- tailed and the white-bellied pangolins are partially arboreal, the other two are purely terrestrial. Most of the observations as to their habits have, however, been made white-bellied pangolix. (From Guide to British Museum.) from captive specimens. In 1878, Mr. F. Holwood, in sending a young example of the short-tailed pangolin to the London Zoological Gardens, wrote as follows to the secretary. These pangolins " always appeared to burrow in hard or stony ground, and I saw them always in the daytime. The mother of the specimen I sent you lived three months in Zanzibar. She onty fed at night, and remained curled up in a ball all day. She regularly retired to the dark corner of my harness-room at daylight, and left for the garden at sunset. There were very few ants, but she seemed to get plenty of insects. She burrowed at intervals all round the garden walls, but this was evidently only trying to escape, as she never made a hole large enough to give cover." Although the scales of this young pangolin were quite soft at birth, they had completely hardened by the second day. Mr. L. Fraser relates how his pangolins would climb the somewhat roughly-hewn square posts, which supported a building, and sometimes roll up into a ball and throw themselves down, apparently without suffering any inconvenience from the fall. W"v AARD-VAUKS. 233 The Aard-Yarks. Family OS YCTEROPODIDjE. The name aard-vark, or earth-pig, has been appli. d by the Dutch Boers of the Cape to the southern representative of the second group of Old-World Edentates, of which there are two living species exclusively confined to Africa. To the English colonists of South Africa the Cape species is known as the ant-bear : while by the zoologist the aard-varks are termed OrycU ropus, and collectively constitute a very distinct family group. In addition to the two living forms, the remains of the Ethiopian AARD-VARK. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1876.) an extinct species have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of the island of Samoa ; while those of another have been recorded from the Oligocene beds of France. In appearance both species of aard-vark are singularly ungraceful, not to say ugly. Thus the body, which may be either almost naked or sparsely clad with bristly hairs, is heavy and ungainly; the head greatly elongated, with a small tubular mouth, and somewhat pig-like snout; the ears of enormous length, and the tail thick, cylindrical, and tapering, and nearly equal in length to the body. The neck is very short : the fore-quarters are short compared with the hinder part of the body : and the back is much arched. The tongue is long and extensile, although not so completely worm-like as that of the pangolins ; and the round nostrils are situated at the extremity of the truncated muzzle. The fore-limbs are rather short, but very powerful ; they have four toes, with moderate-sized, strong nails ; and, in walking, the entire sole of the foot is applied to the ground. The hind-feet have five toes of nearly equal size, each carrying a nail. The skin 234 EDEXTATES. is of remarkable thickness ; its general colour being yellowish brown, with a tinge of red on the back and sides, while the head and under-parts are light reddish yellow : and the hind-quarters, the root of the tail, and the limbs brown. A full- grown aard-vark measures a little over C feet in total length. The jaws are furnished with a considerable number of well-developed teeth, of which all but the last three in each jaw have milk-predecessors, which do not, however, cut the gum. In full-grown specimens there are usually five teeth on each side of both upper and lower jaws ; but the total number of teeth developed is from eight to ten in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw ; the anterior ones falling out as the animal attains maturity. When unworn, these teeth, which are of considerable size, have rounded summits. They are composed of a number of closely-packed denticles, which by mutual pressure assume a polygonal form, and are traversed by a series of radiating tubes; such a structure being unknown elsewhere in the whole mammalian class. The skull has a complete cheek-arch ; and the lower jaw is far less slender than in the pangolins. It has been considered that the aard-varks are nearly-allied to the pangolins, but the result of more recent observations has been to disprove this view ; and it is even doubtful whether they should be included in the Edentate order, with the typical forms of which these animals have but little in common, except so far as regards the want of front teeth, and the absence of cement in the teeth of the cheek- series. The typical Cape aard-vark (Orycteropux afra) inhabits South and South- Eastern Africa : it is replaced in Xorth-Eastern Africa by the Ethiopian aard-vark (0. cethiopicus) -} the former being distinguished by the thicker coating of hair, more especially on the back and flanks, as well as by the tliicker and less elongated tail, and the longer head and ears. The aard-varks are essentiallv nocturnal and burrowing in their Habits habits ; and feed exclusively on termites and ants. In South Africa their deep burrows are generally constructed in the neighbourhood of the tall conical mounds formed by the termites ; and, in the old days, before these animals were hunted for their skins, it used to be said that wherever tennite-hills were numerous, there an aard-vark might confidently be expected. Wherever these animals are abundant, a number of half-formed holes are seen in the ground and on the sides of the ant-hills, which have been commenced and abandoned. Aard- varks usually spend the whole of the day asleep in their burrows, but may occasionally be seen abroad in the early morning. Their powers of digging are so great, that in a few minutes they can bury their large bodies, even when the ground is hard and sun-baked. In digging, they work with their fore-feet, and throw out huge clods of earth between their hind-legs. Aard-varks are quick of hearintr, and verv shy, making off at the slightest sound to their burrows with considerable speed But little definitely is known as to their breeding-habits; although it has been ascertained that the Ethiopian species gives birth during May or June to a single offspring. At birth the young is naked ami flesh- coloured ; and is suckled by its parent for a long period. Je^k, Gambicr Dolto" BENNETT'S WAI.I.AUY. CHAPTER XXXVI. The Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials. Order Marsupialia. Distinctive The whole of the Mammals treated of in the preceding chapters Characters. are collectively characterised by certain peculiarities connected with the development of their young. In all of them the young are brought into the world in a more or less high state of development ; this high grade of development being due to the circumstance that during the greater portion of intra-uterine life the circulatory system of the foetus is connected with that of the maternal parent by a special vascular organ termed the placenta ; this placental connection between the blood-vessels of the parent and offspring allowing the blood of the latter to be oxygenated almost as completely as by breathing. On account of the development of this placenta, the whole of the foregoing orders of Mammals are brigaded together into a single large group, or subclass, and are collectively termed either Placental, or Eutherian Mammals ; the latter term referring to their general high degree of development, as compared with those remaining for consideration. On the other hand, in the Mammals of which we have to treat in the present chapter, the young are born at a very early stage of development, and in an exceedingly imperfect and helpless condition, — being, in fact, little more than 236 POUCHED MAMMALS. animated lumpa Previous to birth there is no placental communication between the blood-vessels of the foetus and the parent ; and at birth the rudimental young are transferred to the teats of the female, to which they adhere tightly for a long period, their lips being specially modified into a cylindrical sucking-organ. In most case3 the young thus suspended are protected by a fold of skin on the abdomen of the female, which forms a pouch in which the teats are contained. From the universal absence of a placenta, these Mammals are regarded as forming a subclass of equal rank with the Placentals or Eutherians, and are spoken of as Implacentals or Metatherians ; the latter term indicating their lower position, as compared with the Eutherian, or highest Mammals. The Placental, or Eutherian Mammals are, as we have seen, divided into numerous orders; and it may be thought that similar divisions could be instituted among the Implacentals or Metatherians. It happens, however, — so far at least as existing forms are concerned, — that this is not the case ; but so as to render our classification symmetrical, it is necessary to have a name for the one order of Implacentals, the term Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, has been selected, and we shall speak of these Mammals under either of these terms ; it must, however, be constantly borne in mind that they also have the higher designation of Implacentals. or Metatherians, ranking with the term Placentals, or Eutherians. In addition to the primary distinction of the absence of a placenta, the Pouched Mammals present certain other more or less distinctive peculiarities. Mention has already been made of the general presence of a pouch, or marsupium, in which the abdominally-placed teats of the female are concealed ; and to this it may be added that, with the single exception of the thylacine, the front brim of the pelvis always has a pair of divergent splint-like bones projecting forwards in the form of the letter Y. These so-called marsupial bones — shown in all our figures of the skeletons of this group — were originally considered to be for the purpose of affording support to the pouch; but this view is discredited by their presence in both sexes. A peculiarity of the skull of all Pouched Mammals save one, is that the so-called angle, or lower posterior projection of the lower jaw, is more or less bent inwards, or inflected, as seen in the figure of the skull of Gray's rat-kangaroo, given in the sequel. This peculiarity is not, however, distinctive of the order, since it also occurs in some of the Insectivores. The skull of every marsupial is further characterised by the presence of larger or smaller vacuities, or unossified spaces, in the bony palate. As regards their brains, it may be observed that all the Pouched Mammals display a low grade of organisation ; the whole brain being small in proportion to the size of the body, while the foldings on the surface of its hemispheres are never of a very complex nature, and only developed at all in the largest members of the order. The reproductive organs of the female are likewise constructed after a lowly fashion ; the oviducts always remaining perfectty separate from one another, and never uniting, as they do in so many of the Eutherian Mammals, to form a common chamber, or womb. Certain peculiarities connected with the number and mode of Teeth. replacement of the teeth also aid in distinguishing marsupials from other Mammals. In the first place, as shown in the figure of the skull of the Tasmanian devil given later on, there may be more than three pairs of front or GEXERAL CHARACTERS. 237 JAWS AND TEETH OF THE ROFODS RAT-KANGAROO. The letters i indicate the front or incisor teeth ; c, the upper tusk, or canine ; pm, the premolars ; and m, the molars. incisor teeth in the upper jaw : and in such eases the number of pairs of these teeth in the upper jaw always exceeds those in the lower by one. More important is the circumstance that but a single tooth on each side of both the upper and lower jaw ever has a milk predecessor. This tooth, marked pm in the accompanying figure, corresponds to the fourth or last premolar of the dog (Vol. I. p. 10); and consequently all the four teeth behind it are molars. Xow, as we have alreadjr seen, it is but very rarely that there are more than three of these molars in Placental Mammals, whereas in the present order there are nearly always at least four. On the other hand, there are never more than three premolar teeth, which in the adult of some forms, as in the figure, may be reduced to one. It may be added that, according to recent researches, all the teeth in advance of the last premolar appear to represent the milk-series of the higher Mammals, which are here permanently retained. Mode of The fact that the new-born young of the Pouched Mammals, when Suckling Young. grst transferred to the teats of the mother, are little more than mere animated lumps of flesh, renders it imperative that some special arrangement should be made for their nutrition, as they are quite incapable of sucking by themselves. For this purpose the mammary gland of the female is overlain by certain specially-developed muscles, the periodical contraction of which injects a supply of milk into the stomachs of the helpless young. In order to prevent the young marsupials from being choked during this injecting process, their throats are provided with an arrangement .similar to that obtaining permanently in the Cetaceans. That is to say, the larynx, or upper terminal expansion of the wind- pipe, is prolonged upwards so as to extend into the hinder aperture of the nostrils at the back of the palate ; and consequently there is a closed tube from the nostrils to the lungs, on either side of which the milk can flow without danger of choking the young animal. When there is no longer any necessity for this special arrange- ment, the larynx is shortened, and respiration and swallowing are carried on after the usual manner. It may be added, that in the Pouched Mammals the teats are confined to the region of the abdomen, and that the number of teats is frequently greater than that of the young. Such teats as have been in use may always be recognised by their great elongation, owing to the weight of the young suspended from them. Geographical With the exception of the opossums, which are confined to Distribution. America, and are most numerously represented in the southern half of that continent, the living representatives of the order are restricted to Australia, Xew Guinea, and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and Lombok. Exclusive of the Egg-laying Mammals, the Marsupials fonn almost the whole Mammalian fauna of Australia, where the chief other types are certain Rodents and Bats. In the more western islands thev are, however, mingled with 238 POUCHED MAMMALS. Placental Mammals, thus showing that these islands have had some connection with those of the Malayan region. The channel separating Lombok and Celebes from Java and Borneo is, however, of much greater depth than those dividing the other islands ; and it may accordingly be inferred that any land-connection which formerly existed between the two groups must have been remote. In the Tertiary period opossums were distributed over a large portion of Europe; and recent discoveries indicate the existence during the same epoch of marsupials allied to the Australian thylacme in South America. In the preceding Secondary period, as we shall show later on, Pouched Marsupials appear to have ranged over the whole world, and were then, together with Egg-laying Mammals, the chief, if not the sole representatives of the class. The Kangaroos and their Allies. Family MACROPODID.E. We commence our survey of the Pouched Mammals with their most aberrant and specialised representatives, or those commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies, rat -kangaroos, etc. And it may be mentioned here, that whereas kangaroos are very frequently spoken of as typical Marsupials, this is really very far from being the case. It is true that they con- form in all essential characteristics to the Marsupial type of structure ; but they have been specially modified for a particular kind of progression — namely, leaping. This has profoundly modified their whole organisation, and rendered them some of the most specialised of all Mammals : and they retain accordingly but little resemblance to what may be termed a typical, or generalised marsupial, such as a bandicoot, or thylacine. The kangaroos belong to a group or suborder of Marsupials characterised by the adaptation of their teeth to a vegetable diet. Thus the front, or incisor teeth, as shown in the figure on p. 239, are never more than three in number on each side of the jaws, and are usually three in the upper and one in the lower jaw; while in all cases the innermost pair in each jaw are of large size, .SKELETON OF KAXCAROO. K.LXGAROOS. 239 SKL'LL OK LESUBUB'S RAT-KAHOABOO. c, tusk, or canine tooth. and adapted for cutting. As a rule their upper canine teeth, or tusks, are small, or -wanting: and this invariably holds good for those of the lower jaw. As regards their molar teeth, these are invariably characterised by having broad, flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or transverse ridges, and adapted for the trituration of vegetable substances. The members of the kangaroo family vary greatly in size, and in the relative length of the hind-limbs, but they are collectively characterised as follows. In the tipper jaw there are three pairs of incisor teeth, with sharp and cutting edges; while the lower jaw is furnished with a large single pair inclining forwards, and sometimes biting against one another with a scissor-like action. The upper canine, or tusk, if present at all, is of small size, as in the accompanying figure : while there is no corresponding lower tooth. In the adult the cheek- teeth are five in number on each side, of which the first is a premolar ; this condition obtaining in the figured skull. In young animals there are, however, two milk -molars in place of this premolar : the number of cheek-teeth then being six on each side. The molar teeth themselves may cany either a pair of transverse ridges, or four blunt tubercles. A characteristic feature of the family is to be found in the lower jaw, which lias a deep pocket in the outer side of the hinder portion, communicating at its base by a large perforation with the canal on the inner side. The pocket is shown in the accompanying figure, but the communicating aperture is concealed by its outer wall. In all the members of the family the fore-limbs are short and feebly developed, with five complete digits. The hind-limbs, on the contrary, are very powerful, and more or less elongated. Usually they have but four toes, of which the one corre- sponding to the fourth in the typical series of five is much larger than either of the others, and terminates in a huge claw. The outermost toe is considerably smaller, but still stout. The two toes on the inner side of the large one, corre- sponding to the second and third of the typical series, are, however, reduced to small slender rods, lying parallel to one another, and enclosed in a common skin. These rudimental digits are of course useless in progression, and their aborted condition is technically known as syndactylism. The head, especially in the larger forms, is small in proportion to the body, and tapers towards the muzzle. Generally the tail is long, cylindrical, and tapering ; while it frequently aids in supporting the body, and may be prehensile. The female is provided with a large pouch, of which the aperture looks forwards. All the members of the kangaroo family are purely vegetable feeders, and are mainly confined to Australia and Tasmania, where, before the introduction of sheep and cattle, they took the place of the ruminants of other regions. They are divided into numerous genera, of which the first includes the true kangaroos and wallabies. 240 POUCHED MAMMALS. The True Kangaroos axd Wallabies. Genus Macropus. In the summer of the year 1770, when Captain Cook was refitting his vessel at the mouth of the Endeavour River in New South Wales, a party of his crew who had landed to procure food brought back reports of a sti-ange animal of large size, which sat upright on its hind-limbs and tail, and progressed by a series of enormous leaps. Excitement among those on board was naturally raised to the highest pitch by this account — especially as a naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was a member of the ex- pedition ; — and soon after a specimen of the animal in ques- tion was killed. This creature was the one we now know by the name of the great grey kangaroo [Mac- ropus glgn nt 1 a.--); and was the first member of the family which came fully under European notice, although one of the smaller forms from the Aru Islands had been partially made known as early as the year 1711. The name kangaroo, it may be observed, is said to be of Australian origin, although it appears to be now unknown to the natives. The kangaroos and wallabies, which include the largest members of the family, are characterised by the great length and powerful development of the hind-limbs as compared with the front pair ; and the enormous size of the tail, which is regularly tapering, and evenly covered with fur from end to end. In the hind-foot the claw of the fourth toe is enormously developed, and the first toe is wanting. The head is small, with an elongated and usually completely naked muzzle, and large upright ears. The females have four teats. The skull is characterised by its smooth and rounded contours, and the absence of any inflation in the bulla of the internal ear. The tusk in the upper jaw is minute, and shed at an early period; and the upper incisor teeth are of nearly equal length, and form a regular open curve. The lower incisor teeth have sharp inner edges capable of cutting against one another in a scissor-like manner ; and the crowns of the molar teeth carry a pair of transverse ridges, which are nearly THE GREAT GREY KANGAROO. WITH TOFNG IN POUCH. KANGAROOS. 241 always connected by a longitudinal bridge. Tbe true kangaroos and wallabies comprise twenty- three living species, as well as several which are extinct; and they are found not only in Australia and Xew Guinea, but also in some of the islands to the eastward. While the larger species are as tall as a man, the smallest do not exceed the dimensions of a rabbit. They may be divided into three groups, distinguished by size, and partly also by coloration. Under the common title of true kangaroos may be included all True Kangaroos. . the larger forms, characterised by their generally uniform and sombre coloration, and their large and massive skulls, in which the hinder portion of the skull is well ossified. The best known of all the species is the great grey kangaroo (J/, giga/ntevbs) — the " boomer," "old man,'' or " forester" of the colonists, to which allusion has been already made, and which is represented in the figure on p. 240. A full-grown male will measure 63 inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the length of the tail being 52 inches ; while the entire animal will weigh some 200 lbs. This species is of rather slender and graceful build, with soft woolly hair, which is greyish brown above, ami nearly white beneath on the under-parts and limbs, without any white markings on the face. It is further characterised by the middle of the muzzle being hairy between the nostrils, and also by the shortness from back to front of the permanent premolar tooth. It is an inhabitant of open plains, ami is found over the great part of Australia and Tasmania. On the other hand, the red kangar<><> (.1/. rufus), represented in our coloured Plate, and the antelopine kangaroo (J/, antHopin . palpator), represent a non-flying genus, agreeing with the two last in having the under surface of the tip of the tail naked, but distinguished by having the fourth toe of the fore-foot much longer than either of the others. These phalangers, which are of medium size, are, n:oreover, easily distinguished from their kindred by the back being ornamented with broad longitudinal stripes of black and white. Although nothing definite is known as to their habits, it is probable that the elongated fourth digit of the fore-paw is for the purpose of extracting insects and grabs from beneath the bark, or out of holes in trees. True Hying- The true rlyinu'-phalangers (Petav/rus), of which there are two maiangers. exclusively Australian species, and one common to Australia and New Guinea, are small or medium-sized forms, closely allied to Leadbeater's phalanger, noticed below. They are readily distinguished from the preceding groups by the tail being evenly bushy to its extreme tip, without any naked portion, and not prehensile. The flying-membrane is broad, and extends from the outermost toe of the fore-foot to the ankle. The best known species is the squirrel flying- phalanger {Petav/rus sciureus) — the sugar-squirrel of the colonists — which is the one represented in our illustration. It is confined to Eastern Australia. The Length of the head and body in this pretty little animal is about 9 inches, and that of the tail rather more. The ears are of medium length, the tail extremely bushy, especially near its root, and the fur very soft. The general colour is a delicate ashy grey ; but a longitudinal black band commencing near the nose runs down the back, to stop short of the root of the tail. The eyes are ringed with black ; the ears are black at the base externally but white at the hinder angle ; the cheeks are white, save for a black patch immediately below the ear; while the chin, under-parts, and edges of the flying-membrane are also white. The tip of the tail is black, and there is a black line on each side of the flying-ruenibrane internally to the white margin. The following excellent account of the habits of the yellow flying-phalanger (P. australis), from mountain districts in New South Wales and Victoria, is given by Gould, who says that "this animal is common in all the bushes of New South Wales, particularly in those which stretch along the coast from Port Phillip to Jloreton Bay. In these vast forests trees of one kind or another are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the 1 ili issoms upon which it feeds ; the flowers of the various kinds of gums (eucalyptus), some of which are of great magnitude, being the principal favourites. Like the rest of its genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes and in the sprouts of the larger branches during the day, and displaying the greatest activity at night while running over the small leafy branches, frequently even to their very PHALANGERS. 261 extremities, in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be reached by flight. When chased or forced to flight, it ascends to the highest branch and performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address ; a slight ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap ; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock it would otherwise sustain." . SQUIRHEL FLYING-PHALANGEIt (J uat. size) Leadbeaters The little Leadbeater's phalanger (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri), Phaianger. which is rather smaller than the lesser flying squirrel, is of interest as being apparently a representative of the parent form from which the true flying squirrels were derived. This animal may, indeed, be concisely described as a flying squirrel, minus the flying-membrane. It is an inhabitant of Victoria. Dormouse- The dormouse-phalangers, of which there are four species from Phaiangers. Western Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, are small creatures somewhat resembling dormice in general appearance, and readily distinguished by their cylindrical mouse-like tails, which are covered with fur at the base, then scaly for the greater part of their length, but naked and prehensile at the tip. In the smallest species (Dromicia concinna) the length of the head and body may be 262 POUCHED MAMMALS. less than 2£ inches, while the tail is slightly longer. They are all nocturnal and arboreal in their habits; one of the species being stated to conceal itself during the day beneath the loose bark of large gum-trees. They feed upon honey and young shoots of grass, and probably also insects. Pigmy Hying- One of the smallest and at the same time the most elegant of Phaianger. mammals is the exquisite little creature commonly known as the pigmy flying-phalanger (Acrobates pygmaxi), in which the length of the head and body only slightly exceeds 2i inches ; that of the tail being somewhat more. This phaianger is readily distinguished from those yet noticed by the long hairs on the tail being arranged in two opposite fringes like the vanes of a feather. The general build of the animal is extremely light and delicate ; the flying-membrane is very narrow, extending from the elbow to the flank, where it almost disappears, and thence to the knee ; while the toes are furnished with expanded pads at their tips. PIGMY FLTHJG-PHALANQEB ;ll:lt. size). The fur is long, soft, and silky : its general colour on the upper-parts being brownish grey ; while on the margins of the nying-niembrane and beneath, together with the inner sides of the limbs, it is white. The teeth are sharp, and apparently adapted for an insectivorous diet. In spite of its diminutive proportions, the female has a well-developed pouch containing four nipples ; but it is difficult to imagine the minuteness which must necessarily characterise the newly-born young. The pigmy flying-phalanger is confined to Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria ; and is reported to be very abundant in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. Its food consists of honey and insects ; and its agility in leaping from branch to branch is described as little short of marvellous. Pen-Tailed The little pen-tailed phaianger (I) Istoechurus pennatus), of New Phaianger. Guinea, has precisely the same relation to the preceding animal as is KOALA. 263 Koala. presented by Leadbeater's phalanger to the members of the genus Petauru.% being in fact a pigmy fiying-phalanger without the parachute. The foot-pads are. however, wanting. The general appearance of the animal is very dormouse-like , the head being ornamented with stripes of white and dark brown, while the fur of the body is uniformly butf. This curious and somewhat bear-like creature is an aberrant member of the family, constituting not only a distinct genus but likewise a separate subfamily by itself. To the natives it is known by the name of koala, while by the colonists it is generally termed the native bear; its scientific title being Pliaxcolarctus cinereus. The koala has been compared in size to a large poodle dog, the length of the head and body being about 24 inches. It is a heavily-built animal, differing from all the other members of the family in the absence of any external tail, and also readily recognised by its large, squared, and thickly-fringed ears. The fur is extremely thick, woolly, and - x' THE koala (J nat. size). moderately soft; its general colour on the upper-parts being ashy grey, with a tinge of brown, but becoming yellowish white on the hind-quarters, while the under-parts are whitish. All the feet are provided with long claws, and the two innermost toes of the fore-feet are completely opposable to the remaining three. A peculiarity of the koala is the possession of pouches in the cheeks for storing food ; while the dentition differs from that of the typical phalangers in the absence of the minute rudimentary teeth referred to above. The upper molar teeth have very short and broad crowns, somewhat resembling, in the structure of their tubercles, those of the crescent-toothed phalangers. In its internal organisation the koala approximates to the wombats. The koala is confined to Eastern Australia, where it ranges from Queensland to Victoria, Like the other members of the family it is Habits. 264 POUCHED MAMMALS. chiefly arboreal, moving awkwardly when on the ground, and when pursued always endeavouring to gain a tree with all possible speed. Its movements are usually comparatively slow and sluggish, and, although mainly nocturnal, it may not unfrequently be seen abroad in the daytime. Koalas are generally found in pairs : and spend the day either high up on the tree-tops or in hollow logs. They are purely herbivorous, and subsist chief!}- on the leaves of the blue gum-tree, although at night they descend to the ground in order to dig for roots. In the evenings these animals slowly creep along the boughs of the giant gums, the females often having a solitary cub perched on their backs. When irritated or disturbed, the koala utters a loud cry, variously described as a hoarse groan, and a shrill yell. Giant Extinct The superficial deposits of Australia have yielded evidence of Phaianger. the former existence in that country of a phalanger {Thylacoleo ca riiifex) far exceeding any of the living forms in point of size, and remarkable for the exceedingly specialised character of its dentition. The functional teeth, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skull, were, indeed, reduced to a pair of large incisors, and a single elongated cut- ting premolar on each side of both the upper and lower jaws: the latter tooth evidently corresponding to the permanent premolar of the rat - kangaroos (see the figure on p. 237). Such other teeth as remain were small, and of no functional importance. The skull is unique among Marsupials in that the sockets of the eyes PHiiA-N-GER (J nat. size). are completely surrounded by bone. This huge phalanger received its technical names on the supposition that it was of purely carnivorous habits ; but from the resemblance of its dentition to that of the existing members of the family, it seems more probable that its diet was mainly of a vegetable nature. The Wojebats. Family Peascolomyid^:. The wombats of Australia and Tasmania, where they are represented by three existing species all referable to the one genus Phascolomys, constitute the last family of the herbivorous Marsupials. These animals are of considerable size, and characterised externally by their massive build, short and flattened heads, broad flat backs, and extremely short and thick legs : their hind-feet being plantigrade. Their ears are small or of moderate size, and more or less pointed ; the eyes are small, and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The fore-feet have five toes, of which the first and fifth are considerably shorter than the remaining three, all being furnished with powerful and somewhat curved nails. In the hind-feet the inner or "great" toe resembles that of the phalangers in being unprovided with a nail, although it cannot be opposed to the rest ; the others have strong curved nails and SKULL OF THE GIAXT EXTINCT WOMBATS. 265 SKELETON OF WOMBAT. are of nearly equal length, but the second and third are relatively slender and partially united by skin, thus foreshadowing the "syndactylism" of the two fore- going families. The most distinctive feature of the wombats is, however, their dentition. The teeth, twenty-four in number, all grow uninterruptedly throughout life, and thus never develop roots. The incisors are reduced to a single pair in each jaw, these being exceed- ingly powerful chisel - shaped teeth, with enamel only on their front surfaces, thus resembling the incisors of Rodents. The cheek-teeth arc rive on each side, of which the first is a premolar, and separated by a long interval from the incisor. Each molar is much curved, and consists of two triangular prisms; but the premolar comprises but one such prism. It will thus be evident that, so far as their teeth are concerned, the wombats simulate the Rodents, to many of which thejT also approximate in habits. In general appearance these Marsupials are however, curiously like diminutive bears, as shown in the illustration on p. 266. Of the three species of the genus, the smallest is the Tasmanian wombat (P. ursinvs), inhabiting Tasmania and the islands in Bass St rait. It is characterised by its small and somewhat rounded ears, the naked extremity of the muzzle, and the coai"se and rough hair; the colour being uniform dark grizzled greyish brown. About one-fourth larger than this species is the common wombat (P. m/itchetti), from New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia, in which the length of the head and body is about 30 inches, while the colour may vary from yellow, through yellow mingled with black, to nearly pure black. The third species is the hairy-nosed wombat (P. Idtifrons). from South Australia, intermediate in size between the other two, from which it differs by its longer and more pointed ears, hairy muzzle, and soft silk}- hair. All the three species seem to agree in their habits, and are exclusively herbivorous, living either in burrows excavated by them- selves, or in clefts and crannies of rocks. Like most Marsupials, the}' are exclusively nocturnal ; and their food consists of grass, other herbage, and roots. They walk with a peculiar shuffling gait ; and utter either a hissing sound or a short grant when irritated. In disposition they are shy and gentle ; although their powerful incisor teeth are capable of inflicting severe bites. On the rare occasions that these animals are seen abroad in the daytime, they sutler themselves to be caught with ease, and often make no resistance after their capture. Habits. The Bandicoots. Family PERAMELID.E. All the members of the preceding families are characterised by the presence of not more than three pairs of upper incisor teeth, and also by those of the lower jaw 266 POUCHED MAMMALS. being reduced to a single functional pair of large size, which are invariably inclined forwards. On account of this single pair of functional lower incisor teeth, they are collectively termed Diprotodonts. The upper canine or tusk is small in all the group, and the corresponding lower tooth absent or represented by a rudiment. On the other hand, in the remaining families of the order the incisor teeth, as shown in the woodcut on p. 268, are of a more normal type ; that is to say, they are numerous, and the innermost pair is not greatly developed at the expense of the others. The tusks are large and prominent ; and whereas in the Diprotodonts the molar teeth have broad and often squared crowns, surmounted wdMm TASMANIA^ WOMBAT (ON THE LEFT) AND HAIRY-NOSED WOMBAT (OB THE RIOHT;. (J Hat size.) by transverse ridges or blunt tubercles, those of the present group have sharp cusps, and are generally more or less triangular in form, thus indicating a partially or wholly carnivorous diet. On account of the number of their lower incisor teeth, the name of Polyprotodonts has been suggested for this second great group of the Marsupials, which occupy the place in the order held by the Carnivores and Insectivores among the Placental Mammals. Instead of being restricted to the Australasian region, the Polyprotodonts are represented in America by the opossums ; while in former epochs they had apparently a world-wide distribution, and included some of the oldest mammals known. The bandicoots are small or medium - sized animals of fossorial habits, living either on insects or a mixed diet, and are readily characterised by the structure of their hind-feet. They have long and sharply pointed noses; and the BANDICOOTS. 267 pouch is complete, with its opening directed towards the hinder end of the body. In the fore-feet the three middle toes, or two of them, are of nearly equal size and furnished with well-developed and somewhat curved claws, while the first and fifth toes are rudimentary or absent. The hind-feet are constructed on the same type as in the kangaroos ; the fourth toe being much larger than the others, while the second and third are small, slender, and united by skin, the first being rudimental or wanting. The terminal bones of the larger toes in both feet are peculiar among Marsupials in having their extremities cleft by a longitudinal slit, in the same manner as are those of the pangolins. As regards their dentition, the bandicoots are char- acterised by having either four or five pairs of incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and three in the lower ; while their upper molars are more squared than in the other families, with their cusps arranged in the form of the letter W. The similarity between the hind-feet of the bandicoots and the kangaroos is a very remarkable feature ; — more especially if, as is now generally considered to be the case, this structure has been independently acquired in the two groups. The true bandicoots (Peramdes), of which there are eleven ' species, are characterised by having the three middle toes of the fore-foot large and functional, and the first and fifth present, although small and nailless ; while on the hind-foot there is also a rudiment of the first toe. The ears, although variable, are never of enormous length, and the tapering cylindrical tail is devoid of a crest of hairs near its extremity. In all, the build is stout and clumsy, and there is no great disproportion between the fore and hind-limbs. The various species of bandicoots inhabit Australia and Papua ; one of the best known being Gunn's bandicoot (P. gu n at), from Tasmania. The length of the head and body in this creature is about 16 inches, and that of the tail 4 inches. It belongs to a group characterised by the ears being long and pointed, reaching as far as the eyes when turned forwards : and also by the hinder-half of the sole of the foot being covered witli hairs. The fur is soft, and of a general grizzled yellowish brown colour above, with four or more pale vertical bands, separated by dark brown intervals on the rump ; the chin and under -parts being white or yellowish white. The smaller short-nosed bandicoot (P. obesvla), which is common to Australia and Tasmania, represents a second group, in winch the ears are very short and rounded at the tip, the soles of the hind-feet completely naked, and the fur intermingled with short spines. These two groups are closely connected by the Papuan representatives of the genus. Bandicoots are the commonest of the Australian carnivorous Marsupials; and are cordially detested by the colonists on account of the damage they do to gardens and cultivated fields. Omnivorous in their diet, consuming, with equal gusto, roots, bulbs, berries, fallen fruits, or other vegetable substances, as well as insects and worms, they are chiefly nocturnal, and pass the day either in holes or hollows or logs ; to which retreat they at once fly when pursued. In addition to their burrows, some of the species at least construct nests. Rabbit- The rabbit-bandicoot (Peragale lagotis), together with a closely Bandicoot, allied species, constitutes a genus readily distinguished by the enormous length of the ears, by the terminal half of the tail having a crest of long hairs on its upper surface, and by the great relative length of the hind-limbs, in 26S POUCHED MAMMALS. which all trace of the inner toe is wanting. The molar teeth are, moreover, curved; and in the type species have longer roots and shorter crowns than in the true bandicoots. The rabbit-bandicoot is about the size of an ordinary- rabbit, and is clothed with fine silky hair of considerable length. The general colour of the upper-parts is pale grey, passing into rufous on the flanks, and becoming white beneath ; the feet, as well as the end of the tail, being white. Pig-Footea The pig-footed bandicoot (Choeropus castanotis) is a deHcately- Bandicoot. built and rather small animal, measuring from 10 to 11 inches in length, exclusive of the short tail. It has long ears ; and a rather short but sharp muzzle, naked at the extreme tip ; but its most characteristic features are to be found in its feet. In the fore-limbs, which are much shorter than the hinder-pair, the functional toes are reduced to the second and third, these being furnished with short, symmetrical, and slightly curved claws: while the first and fifth toes are absent, and the fourth represented merely by a small rudiment. In the long and slender hind-limbs the whole strength is concentrated in the long and stout fourth toe, the united second and third toes being very small, and the fourth altogether rudimentary. The fur is coarse and straight; its general colour on the head and bod}- being a uniform grizzled grey, with a tinge of fawn ; while the chin, chest, and under-parts are white, and the feet pale grey or white, with a yellowish tinge. This animal inhabits the greater part of Australia, with the exception of the extreme north, north-east, and east ; its favourite haunts being open grassy plains, where it constructs nests like those of the ordinary bandicoots. The Dasyure Tribe. Family BASYURW^E. Dasyures are distinguished from the members of the preceding family by having the second and third toes of the hind-foot perfectly separate from one another, and as well developed as the fourth and fifth; the first toe, if present at all, being small and without a claw. The dentition differs from that of most of the bandicoots in that there are four in place of five incisor teeth on each side of the upper jaw ; both groups having three pairs of these teeth in the lower jaw. In all the members of the family the fore and hind -limbs are of approximately equal length : and the fore-feet have five well- . . . . . FRONT VIEW OF SKILL OF THE TASMA2CIAX DEVIL, developed toes, all armed With claws. (From Sir w. H. Flower, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv.) The tail, which may be either medium or long, is hairy, and without the power of prehension : and the pouch, DASYURES. 269 when present, opens downwards and forwards. In the more typical forms the incisor teeth are small, and the tusks large, as shown in the figure on p. 268; the number of cheek-teeth being either six or seven on each side of both jaws. At the present day the family is confined to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, although in the Tertiary period it was represented in South America, where some of the extinct forms appear to have been veiy closely allied to the existing thylacine. While the larger species are purely carnivorous, catching and killing their own prey, the smaller representatives of the family are mainly insect-eaters. In structure these animals are the most generalised of all Marsupials, and come nearest to the extinct forms from the Secondary rocks. . The largest of the carnivorous Marsupials is the animal com- monly known in Australia as the Tasmanian wolf, but better desig- nated the thylacine (Thylaoinus cynoeephalus). In appearance this creature is extraordinarily wolf-like; and the unscientific observer would probably at first raamf|..- SKELETON OP THYLACINE. sight regard it as a member of the canine family. Nevertheless, the female has a well-developed pouch: although the marsupial bones are wanting, being repre- sented merely by cartilages, of which the position is indicated by the * in the figure of the skeleton. In size the thylacine is rather smaller than the European wolf; from which it is readily distinguished externally by the tapering and thinly haired tail, as well as by the dark transverse stripes on the hinder part of the back and loins, and the shortness and closeness of the fur. The ground-colour of the fur is greyish brown, while the transverse bands are black. In the hind-foot the first toe is wanting ; and there are seven cheek-teeth on each side of the jaws. Tasmania is now the only habitat of the thylacine ; although remains of a species near akin to the living one are met with in the superficial deposits of the mainland. Like most Marsupials, the thylacine is mainly nocturnal. Its favourite haunts are caverns and clefts of rocks among the deep glens of the mountains in the more remote districts of Tasmania ; the settlers having nearly exterminated the animal from the more populated regions on account of the damage it inflicts on their flocks. 270 POUCHED MAMMALS. Tasmanian Devil. The animal rejoicing in the name of the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus ursinmi) is the sole living representative of its genus. Like the thylacine, it has, however, an extinct cousin on the Australian mainland. The Tasmanian devil is an ugly and powerfully -built animal, with an exces- sively large head, terminating in a short and broad muzzle ; its size being approximately that of the common badger. The ears are large and rounded on the outer side ; and the tail is of moderate length, and thickly, although evenly haired As in the thylacine, the hind-foot has no trace of the first toe ; but, instead of being digitigrade, both fore and hind-feet are markedly plantigrade. The fur THE THYLACINE, OR TASMANIAN WOLF (^ nat. size). of the head and body is thick and close, with a large quantity of under-fur, which is nearly equal in length to the straight fur. In colour the fur is mainly black or blackish brown, but there is a white collar or patch on the throat, and a variable number of white spots on the neck, shoulders, and rump. The incisor teeth (as shown in the figure on p. 268) differ from those of the thylacine in that the outer- most pair are not markedly larger than the others ; while the cheek-teeth are six instead of seven in number, on each side, and are closely packed together, in place of being separated from one another by intervals. It is an even more exclusively nocturnal animal than the thylacine, being almost blinded if exposed to the rays of the sun, and passing the day coiled up in some dark and secluded lair, which may be either a natural cave or cleft among the rocks, or a burrow excavated by DASYURES. 271 the animal's powerful claws at the root of a tree. In its gait and movements it presents a considerable resemblance to a badger or small bear. Except those which are too large to be attacked, living creatures of all kinds — whether vertebrate or invertebrate — form the prey of the Tasmanian devil ; even sheep being destroyed in large numbers by these comparatively small marauders. On the mainland of Australia the carnivorous Marsupials are represented by the civet-like dasyures, or native cats (Dasyurus), the largest of which are about ecpaal in size to an ordinary cat. They have the same number of teeth as in the Tasmanian devil, but the cheek-teeth are less massive and powerful. The general form of the body is also much longer and more slender, and the tail more elongated ; wliile in all cases the body is profusely spotted with white, upon a grey or brown ground-colour. The muzzle Dasyures. ' 11 ^ ■ ' ' ' V // THE TASMANIAX DEVIL (i^ nat. size). is sharp, the ears long, narrow, and pointed ; and the long tail evenly and thickly furred. In some of the species there is a rudiment of the first toe of the hind-foot. The dasyures, of which there are five species, are common to Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The largest is the spotted-tailed dasyure (D. macidatus), from Eastern and South -Eastern Australia, distinguished from the others by the tail being spotted as well as the body; but the best known species is the common dasyure (B. viverrinus), inhabiting both Australia and Tasmania. The dasyures are arboreal animals, and in habits resemble the martens, of which they appear to take the place in Australasia. They feed on small mammals, birds and their eggs, and probably also lizards and insects, and are especially destructive to poultry. Far more numerous than the dasyures are the smaller phascolo- asco og es. ^^ (Phascologale), the largest of which is not bigger than a good- sized rat. They are distinguishable from the dasyures by" the absence of white spots 272 POUCHED MAMMALS. on the fur, and by the presence of an additional premolar in each jaw. thus bringing up the number of cheek-teeth to seven on each side. The crowns of these teeth are more minutely cusped, and the canines relatively smaller than in the dasyures. The muzzle is rather long and pointed, the ears moderately rounded and nearly naked, ami the feet short and broad; the hind-foot always having a distinct, although nailless, first toe. The long tail is subject to considerable variation in the different species, being in some cases bushy, in others furnished with a crest of hair, and in others nearly naked. The pouch is rudimentary, being represented merely by a few loose folds of skin. Probably these animals produce a larger number of young at a birth than any other Australasian Marsupials, seeing that in some species the number of teats may be as many as ten. There are altogether thirteen distinct species of the genus, distributed over Australia and New Guinea, and also ranging into the Aru Islands. Of these thirteen, nine are distinguished by the absence of any stripe down the back.and are mainly confined to Australia. This stripe is present in the remaining common DisruBE (J liat. size). four, which are exclusively Papuan. Of the two species figured here, the yellow- footed pouched-mouse (P. flavipes) is a small form, liable to considerable variation in point of size and colour, and inhabiting a large portion of Australia, although unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the first group, characterised by the tail being evenly covered with short hair. In general appearance it is a mouse- like creature, with close and rather crisp fur, of which the prevailing colour is clear grey more or less suffused with yellow or rufous. The under-parts. together with the feet, in the typical East Australian variety, are yellow: this colour sometimes deepening to rufous and spreading over the whole body. The variety inhabiting Western and Northern Australia differs in that the whole of the under- parts and limbs are more or less nearly pure white instead of yellow. The brush-tailed phascologale (P. peniciUata) is a larger species, inhabiting the whole of Australia except the extreme north, although likewise unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the unstriped group, characterised by the extremity of the tail being evenly tufted on all sides. It is a more stoutly-built POUCHED MICE. '■73 animal than the last, with short and coarse fur. The general colour of the upper-parts is pale grizzled grey, while the chin is white, and the lower surface of the body pale o-rey or white. The head is characterised by the large size of the ears, and the presence of a more or less indistinct black streak down the nose. These pretty little animals are arboreal and insectivorous in their habits ; and appear to fill the place in Australia occupied in the Oriental region by the placental tree-shrews, which they much resemble in general habits. All seek their insect-prey by climbing the boughs of trees ; and at least some make nests in the hollows of the trunks and branches. Common The tiny creature, known as the common pouched-mouse (Smin- Pouched-Mouse. thopsis marina), constitutes, with three other nearly-allied species, a distinct genus, differing from the last by the extreme narrowness of the hind-foot, and also by the circumstance that the soles of the feet are covered with hair or granulated. This species measures 3^ inches in length to the root of tin- tail : the YELLOW-FOOTED poucued-mouse (nat. size). length of the tail being a little less than 3 inches. The pouched-mice of this genus are confined to Australia and Tasmania; and since they are terrestrial and insectiv- orous, they may be compared to the shrews among placental mammals. In all the pouch is well-developed ; and the number of teats varies from eight to ten. Jerboa The last and apparently the rarest of the typical section of the Pouched-Mouse. family is the jerboa pouched-mouse {Antechinomys laniger), from South Queensland and New South Wales, which constitutes a genus by itself. This little creature, which has much the appearance of a sharp-nosed jerboa, with very large oval ears, and a long tail, becoming bushy at the end, is distinguished from the members of the preceding genus by the great elongation of the hind- limbs, and the total absence of the first toe from the hind-foot Its form is very slender and graceful ; and the soft and fine fur composed almost entirely of under- fur. The general colour is pale grizzled grey, with the chin and feet pure white, and the hairs of the under-parts grey at the base and white at the tips. The tail, of which the length considerably exceeds that of the head and body, is fawn- vol. in. — iS 274 POUCHED MAMMALS. Banded Anteater. coloured. This pouched-mouse inhabits open sandy districts, and is mainly if not exclusively terrestrial. It progresses by leaps like a jerboa, and is accompanied in its haunts by the placental jumping mice of the genus Hapalotis. One of the most curious and interesting of all the Australian Marsupials, is the little banded anteater (Myrmecobius fasciatus); which derives its special interest from the circumstance that it comes closer to some of the extinct Marsupials of the Secondary rocks of Europe than does any other living type. This animal, which may be compared in size to a squirrel, differs from the other members of the family in that there are more than seven cheek-teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and also in the tongue being elongated and cylindrical, and thus capable of being protruded a long distance from the mouth. The banded anteater takes its name from the broad transverse bare of white on the dark ground-colour of the binder-half of the back and loins : the general hue of the fur of the upper-parts being dark chestnut-red, with the under surface of the body white, and a dark line running from the ear through the eye towards the nose. The fur itself is of a somewhat coarse and bristly nature. In form the animal is characterised by its long but broad head, and narrow, elongated muzzle, moderate-sized and somewhat pointed ears, elongated body, short limbs, and long bushy tail. In the fore-feet the first and fifth claws are considerably shorter than the others ; while in the hind-foot there is no external trace of the first toe. The banded anteater is one of the few Marsupials in which the female has no pouch ; the young, when first born, being merely concealed by the long hair of the belly as BANDED ANTEATER. 275 they cling to the teats (four in number). The teeth are all small, and are mostly separated from one another by distinct intervals ; those of the cheek-series are jerboa POD( in I uat. size). either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaw, thus making a total of either fifty-two or fifty-six teeth — a greater number than in i I THE BANDED ASTEATER (J nat. size). any other existing members of the order. In many of the above-mentioned points this creature differs widely from all the other JDasyu Hda . and there is considerable justification for the view that it ought to constitute a family by itself. The banded 276 POUCHED MAMMALS. anteater inhabits Western and Southern Australia, and lives mainly on the ground, although it will sometimes ascend trees. Its nutriment consists entirely of insects, and chiefly of ants and termites, which are collected by the long extensile tongue. Its favourite haunts are sandy regions, where there are numerous hollow tree-stems and ant-hills. The Pouched-Mole. UNDER SURF. rHE pouched-mole (3 nat. size).— After Stirling. Family NoTORYCTIDjE. In general bodily conformation the pouched-mole (Xotoryctes typhlops) is a mole-like creature, measuring about 3 inches in total length, and covered with long, soft and silky hair of a light fawn colour, deepen- ing in parts to golden. There are no external ears, and the eyes are represented merely by small black dots buried in the skin. The nose and upper lip are pro- tected by a peculiar quadrangular leathery shield, the use of which to a burrowing animal is sufficiently obvious. The short limbs, which are covered with hair down to the claws, are very remarkable in structure. Both pairs are of nearly equal length, powerfully made, and furnished with five toes. In the fore-paws the third and fourth toes are enormously enlarged tJnd furnished with huge triangular claws of great power; while in the hinder-pair the first toe is small and furnished with a small claw, and the others decrease in size from the second to the fifth. The short, cylindrical, and stumpy tail is hard and leathery, and marked by a series of distinct rings. The pouch opens backwards, and contains two very small teats. The teeth are small and weak.and appear to be forty in number. Of these three pairs in each jaw are incisors, and seven are cheek-teeth ; the molars having triangular three-cusped crowns, and much resembling those of the golden mole. This mole appears to be a very rare and locally distributed animal, restricted to the deserts of Northern South Australia, tying to the north-east of Lake Eyre. Here it inhabits flats and hills of red sand, upon which grow porcupine-grass(2Viod*'ffl)and acacia* Dr. 1'EET OP THE POUCHED-MOLE (about j nat.. size)i 1. Outer aspect of left fore-foot. 2. Profile view of same. 3. Inner aspect of same. 4. Upper surface of left hind-foot 5. Palmar surface of same. — After Stirling. OPOSSUMS. 277 Stirling, by whom the marsupial mole was first made known to science, states that most of the specimens he obtained were "captured by the aboriginals, who, with their phenomenal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For this reason they can only be found with certainty after rain, which sets the surface of the sand and enables it to retain tracks that would lie immediately obliterated where it is dry and loose. Nor are they found except during warm weather, so that the short period of semitropical summer rains appears to be the favourable time for their capture." Perpetual burrowing seems to be the characteristic trait of this animal. On "emerging from the sand, it travels on the surface for a few feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar sinuous motion, the belly much flat- tened against the ground, while it rests on the outsides of its fore-paws, which are thus doubled in under it. It leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous SKULL f1 and -) ^D skeleton of the hind (3) and . . , i,i , • • FORE (4) FEET OF THE POUCHED-MOLE (about 3 Hat. triple track, the outer impressions, size).-After Stirling. more or less interrupted, being caused by the feet, and the central continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed down in the rear. It enters the sand obliquely, and travels underground either for a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of more than two or three inches, for whilst underground its progress can often be detected by a slight cracking or moving of the surface over its position.'' The Opossums. Family DlDELPHYIDsE. The last family of the existing Marsupials is constituted by the well-known opossums, which are now confined to America, although during the early portion of the Tertiary period they also ranged over Europe. Closely allied to the Australian Dasyuridce, the opossums are mainly distinguished by the hind-foot having a well-developed inner toe, which, although nailless, is capable of being opposed to the other digits. They are further distinguished by the number of their incisor teeth, of which there are five pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The tail is generally of considerable length, partially naked and prehensile at the extremity; and the feet are likewise devoid of any hairy covering. Although com- plete in a few of the species, the pouch is generally either wanting altogether, or represented merely by a couple of longitudinal folds in the skin of the abdomen, which partially conceal the numerous teats. As a rule, opossums may be compared in general outward appearance to rats, although they have longer snouts terminating 278 POUCHED MAMMALS. in a perfectly naked muzzle : while in the larger species the body becomes proportionately stouter. As regards habits, all the opossums, -with the exception of the water-opossum, are arboreal, and omnivorous or insectivorous in their diet. They are nocturnal, and spend the day concealed either among the foliage of trees or in hollows in their trunks or boughs. The opossums take the place in America of the Insectivores of the Old World. They are naturally forest-loving animals; but a few are found on the pampas of Argentina, where they have adapted themselves to a terrestrial life. In those species in which the pouch is rudimental or wanting, the young after leaving the teats are carried upon the back of their female parent, where they maintain their position by curling their tails round that of their mother, - ■ \ r< True Opossums. COMMON opossum (J nat. size). which is bent forwards for the purpose. Opossums are essentially characteristic of Central and South America, only one out of some twenty-four species ranging into North America, where it extends as far north as the United States. The true opossums, of which there are about twenty-foiir living species, are characterised by the absence of webbing between the toes, and by their arboreal habits. The common or Virginian opossum (Duldplii/s imi rsiqnalis) is the sole representative of the first group, and bkewise the only species found in the northern half of America. It is from three to five times the size of any other species, and characterised by its long, scaly, prehensile tail, and by the fur consisting of a mixture of long bristle-like hairs and a fine under- fur. It may be compared in size to a cat, the length of the head and body reaching 22 inches in large specimens, and that of the tail 15 inches. Tt is. however, subject to great variation both in size and colour, and on this account has received a number of distinct names, the common South American OPOSSUMS. 279 form being generally known as the crab-eating opossum. The general colour of the fur may, indeed, vary through all the intermediate shades from black to white, while the hair on the face shows an almost equal amount of variation, the northern forms being almost wholly white in this region, while those from the south are darker, and often nearly black. Iu all cases the pouch is complete; but the number of teats may vary from five to thirteen. The range of this widely-spread species includes the whole of temperate North America, and extends southwards through the tropical regions of the other philander OPOSSUM (J nat. size). half of the continent. In many parts it is one of the commonest animals, and may be met with even in towns, where it lies concealed during the day in drains and other lurking-places. Its diet is a mixed one, comprising fruits, roots, birds, and other small animals, eggs, and carrion : and it is reported to be very destructive to poultry. With the aid of its prehensile tail, this opossum is one of the most expert of climbing mammals ; and when caught, it has, in common with some of the other members of its genus, the habit of feigning death. Like so many marsupials, it is extremely tenacious of life. The young are born in the spring, and comprise from six to sixteen in a litter. They remain in the pouch till they 28o POUCHED MAMMALS. are about the size of a mouse, after which they venture abroad, although return- ing to its shelter for the purpose of being suckled or sheltering for a considerable time. The female exhibits the most marked attachment to her offspring, and endeavours by every means in her power to prevent her pouch from being opened. Rat-Tailed The rat-tailed opossum (D. rmdicaudata) is a well-known opossum. representative of the second group of the genus, which includes three medium-sized species, characterised by their short, close fur being of one kind only, and their long tails, which in two of the species are naked, although in the thick-tailed opossum (D. crass! en In fa) the tail is hairy nearly to its tip. Although in the two species above-named the pouch is rudimental or absent, it is well-developed in the Quica opossum (Z). opossv/ni). Philander The philander (D. philander) and the woolly opossum Opossum. (£. lanigera) are easily distinguished from the members of the preceding group by the presence of a distinct brown streak running down the middle of the face. The pouch is represented merely by two longitudinal folds of skin. The philander attains a length of from 9h to Hi inches to the root of the tail; the tail itself varying from 12| to 15 inches. The fur is thick, soft, and woolly, and of a dull yellowish or rufous grey colour, with the face pale grey, save for the dark brown streak down the forehead, and similar dark areas round the eyes ; the under-parts being some shade of yellow. This species is restricted to Guiana and Brazil, but is replaced in most other parts of tropical South America by the somewhat larger woolly opossum. In both species, the young, which may be a dozen in number, are carried on the back of the mother, ami it is marvellous with what rapidity the females when thus loaded manage to climb trees. The murine opossum (D. mv/rvna), ranging from Central Mexico Murine Opossum. x ° ° to Brazil, may be taken as an example of the fourth group of the genus, in which all the species are small, with short, close hair, very long tails, and no dark streak down the middle of the face. The pouch is absent in all the group In size the murine opossum may be compared to a common mouse ; the general colour of its fur being bright red. From their small size it may be inferred that all the opossums of this group live exclusively upon insects. Three-striped The last group of the genus includes its smallest representatives, opossum. among which the three-striped opossum (D. americana) of Brazil is conspicuous for its coloration. The whole ten species which constitute this group are shrew-like little creatures, easily recognised by their short and generally non- prehensile tails, which are less than half the length of the head and body. The three-striped species, which is by no means the smallest, measures from 4£ to 5^ inches to the root of the tail : while the length of the tail is rather less than 2i inches. Its general colour is reddish grey, with three black bands running down the back. Another species (D. ivnistriata) has a single dark line down the back ; but in nearly all the others the colour is uniform. The smallest of all is the shrew-opossum (D. sorex), from Kio Grande do Sul, in which the length of the head and body is less than 3 inches. The water-opossum or yapock (Chironectes minima) differs from all the other members of the family in having the hind-toes webbed, and the presence of a large tubercle on the outer side of each fore-foot, giving the OPOSSUMS. 281 appearance of a sixth digit. This animal ranges from Guatemala to Brazil, and is distinguished by its peculiar coloration and aquatic habits. The fur is short and close, and the long tail naked and scaly for the greater part of its length. The head and body measure about 1-i inches in length, and the tail about 15^ inches. The ground-colour of the fur is light grey, upon which there is a blackish brown stripe running down the middle of the back, and expanding into large blotches on the .shoulders, the middle of the back, the loins, and rump. The face has also blackish markings, with an imperfect whitish crescent above the eyes; while there is a water-oposscm (J nat. size). certain amount of the dark tint on the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under-parts being pure white. The female possesses a complete pouch. In habits the yapock closely resembles an otter, to which group of animals it was indeed referred by the earlier naturalists. Its food consists of crustaceans, small fish, and other aquatic animals. Extinct Marsupials. From their low degree of organisation it would be expected that Marsupials are some of the oldest of mammals; and this expectation is borne out by the facts. So far as can be determined, no placental mammals are known to have 282 POUCHED MAMMALS. M^m^ LOWER JAW -After Marsh. existed before the Tertiary period, that is to say, in the rocks lying below the London clay. The cretaceous rocks of North America, and the under- lying Jurassic or Oolitic rocks both of that continent and of Europe have, however, yielded a number of remains of small mammals which may be pretty confidently assigned to the Polyprotodont section of the present order. In one form, known as Triconodon, the molar teeth, of which there were four in the fully adult state, although only three are shown in the lower jaw here figured, are characterised by carrying three compressed cones arranged in a line one before the other; while the premolars, three in number, were simpler. The groove (g) seen on the inner side of the lower jaw, corresponds to one found in the banded anteater and a few other living ^Marsupials, but unknown in any other mammals. In a second type, as represented by Arnphi- lestesirom the Stonesfield 1 r Oxford. the cheek-teeth were much more numerous, and the molars less unlike the premolars. In the molar teeth the front and hind- cones were relatively smaller in proportion to the middle one than is the case in Trieonodon ; and in the number and form of these teeth this early mammal comes exceedingly close to the living Australian banded anteater. A third type is represented by jaws from the Purbeck rocks of Dorsetshire, known as Amblo- tht ;•/(' in. closely allied to which is the jaw from America repre- sented in our third figure. Here the front and hind-cones have become twisted round to the inner side of the main cone, so that the crown of each molar forms a triangle, as in the living bandicoots and opossums The number of the cheek-teeth is, however, much greater than in the latter, and thus indicates relationship with the banded anteater. LOWER JAW OF A HABST. the stoxesfield slate (twice nat. size). LOWER JAW OF AN AMERICAN JURASSIC .MAMMAL (twice nat. size). — After Marsh. ECHIDNA WALKING. CHAPTER XXXVII. Egg-Laying Mammals, or Monotremes, — Order Monotremata. The Australasian mammals, known as the duckbill and the echidnas, differ from the other members of the class not only in certain important structural points, but also by their young being hatched from eggs laid by the female parent. In their structural differences, and in their mode of reproduction, they resemble reptiles, although they agree with other mammals in that the young, when hatched, are suckled by milk secreted by the mother. Owing to these great differences, the Egg-laying Mammals, or Monotremes, as they are technically termed, constitute not only a distinct order (Monotrematu) in the class, but form a separate subclass known as Prototherians {Prototheria). Consequently we find that Mammals are divided into three primary groups or subclasses, viz. : 1. Eitiieriaxs, or Placextals, containing the first nine orders. 2. Metatheriaxs, or Implacentals, including the Pouched Mammals. 3. Prototherians, represented only by the Egg-laying Mammals. These Egg-laying Mammals have no immediate relationship to Birds, but are closely allied to certain extinct orders of Reptiles and Amphibians : and the present representatives of the group are highly specialised creatures, and thus widely different from the original ancestral types of the Mammalian class, which we may fairly presume to have once existed as members of the Prototheria. Such ancestral types were doubtless furnished with a full series of teeth of a 284 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. simple type of structure, and it is possible that certain imperfectly known mammals from the earliest Secondary rocks may turn out to be such missing links. In regard to the distinctive features of the Egg-laying Mammals as a subclass, it may be mentioned that they differ from all other members of the class in having but a single excretory aperture to the body ; whence their name of Monotremes is derived. Then, again, in their skeleton the shoulder-blade (scapula), instead of forming the sole support for the arm, is connected with the breast-bone (sternum) by another plate-like bone termed the metacoracoid, in advance of which is a third element known as the coracoid ; the metacoracoid being always present in the lower Vertebrates. Another resemblance to Reptiles is found in the presence of a T-shaped bone overlying the breast-bone, and collar-bones (clavicles), and known SKELETON OF DUCKBILL. as the interclavicle ; such interclavicle being similar to that of lizards and certain other reptiles, and unknown among higher mammals. Another feature of these animals is connected with the milk -glands, which instead of opening by nipples or teats, communicate with the exterior by a number of small pores situated in a cup- like depression in the skin of the abdomen. Although there are many other peculiarities in the structure of these animals, if we add to the above that their brains are of an exceedingly low and simple type, and that their young are pro- duced from eggs, we shall not have much difficulty in understanding why they are referred by naturalists to a distinct subclass. It may be added that their skeletons possess " marsupial " bones similar to those of the Pouched Mammals. The Duckbill. Family Qrsithorhyxchidje. The duckbill, or duck-billed platypus {Ornithorhynchus anatimis), derives its name from the duck-like bill forming the extremity of the head. In length the adult male duckbill measures from 18 to 20 inches from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the rather short tail. The muzzle is expanded and flattened, and has both the upper and lower jaws invested with a blackish naked beak not unlike that of a duck. This beak is bordered by a naked sensitive skin, forming a lappet-like fold at the base of the snout ; the nostrils being situated near its anterior extremity. The depressed and oval-shaped body is covered with short, close, and somewhat mole -like fur, comprising both longer hairs and a woolly under-fur; its usual colour being deep brown, becoming paler underneath. There are no external conchs to the ears ; and the eyes are small, and in the living state inconspicuous. The tail DUCKBILL. 285 is broad and somewhat flattened, with a coat of coarse hairs, which on the under surface become more or less worn ofl' in old individuals. The short limbs have their feet — more especially the front pair — expanded and webbed for the purpose of swimming. Each foot has five complete toes furnished with strong nails ; but while in the fore- feet the web extends considerably beyond the extremities of the nails, in the hind-pair it reaches only to their bases. The extension of the web of the fore-feet might appear to be a hindrance in burrowing ; but this difficulty is avoided by the web being then folded back on the palm of the paw. The nails of the fore-foot are somewhat flattened and expanded, while those of the hind-foot are longer, narrower, and much curved. To the heel of the male is affixed a long, » THE DUCKBILL (} nat. size). horny spur, curving upwards and backwards, and nearly an inch in length. A canal traversing this spur, and opening near its summit, is connected with a gland on the leg, which appears to secrete a poisonous fluid. The tongue is small and non-extensile ; while the cheeks are provided with pouches of considerable size, doubtless used for storing food. If it be a fully adult specimen that we examine, it will be found that in lieu of teeth each jaw carries two pairs of horny plates, of which the more anterior are sharp and narrow, while those behind are broad and flattened. Between these plates the palate is thrown into a number of transverse wrinkles, like those in a duck. In young specimens, however, two or three pairs of cheek-teeth may be observed in the upper, and two pairs in the lower jaw ; most of these teeth being broadly quadrangular in form, with two cusps on one side, separated by a hollow from a longitudinal crenulated ridge on the other. As these teeth are gradually worn away by the sand taken into the mouth with the food, the horny plates grow up beneath and around them, 286 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. till they are eventually shed. That the ancestors of the duckbill were provided with a full series of persistent teeth is thus evident. Distribution. The duckbill is restricted to Southern and Eastern Australia and and Habits. Tasmania, where it is fairly common in places suited to its habits. Thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and exclusively frequenting fresh waters, duckbills are remarkably shy creatures, and rarely seen, except at evening, when they come up to the top of the water, and look like so many black bottles floating on the surface, — sinking down immediately if alarmed. By quietly watching the stream in the evening they may be easily shot, and thej- will readily take a bait on a hook. Although gregarious when in the water, these animals live in pairs in the burrows constructed in the banks ; their favourite haunts being where the streams expand into wide, still pools. In the banks of such sequestered spots are constructed their burrows ; each of which usually has one entrance opening beneath the water, and another above the water-level, hidden among the herbage growing on the bank. The burrow runs obliquely upwards from the water to a great distance — sometimes as much as fifty feet — into the bank ; and ends in a chamber, lined with grass and other substances, where the young are produced. Two eggs are laid at a time, enclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, measuring about three-quarters of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter. They resemble the eggs of birds in the large size of their yolk, of which only a small portion goes to the formation of the embryo, while the remainder serves for its food. When hist hatched, the young are blind and naked, with the beak very short, and its margins smooth and flesh\-, thus forming a nearly circular mouth, well fitted to receive the milk t-jected from the glands of the mother. The duckbill feeds on various small aquatic animals, such as insects, crustaceans, and worms, which it obtains by probing with its beak in the mud and sand near the banks; the food being tirst stored in the capacious cheek- pouches, and afterwards devoured at leisure. The large front paws are the chief agents in swimming and diving. On land these creatures move somewhat awkwardly, in a shuffling manner ; and when reposing in their nests curl them- selves up in a ball-like fashion. The aborigines capture the duckbill, by digging holes with sticks into the burrow from the ground above at distances from one another, until they light upon the terminal chamber. The Echidnas. Family EcHWXlD.E. The echidnas, or spiny anteaters, of which there are two species, representing as many genera, are widely different in appearance and structure from the duckbill, and have a more extensive distribution. Instead of mole-like fur, the echidnas have the upper surface of the head and body covered with a mixture of stiff hairs and short thick spines. The head is rather small and rounded, and has a long, slender, beak-like snout, covered with skin, at the extremity of which are situated the small nostrils. There are no external conchs to the ears ; but the eyes are of fair size. The opening of the mouth is very small : and the extensile tongue ECHIDNAS. 287 has the elongated cylindrical form characterising anteaters of all kinds. The skull is devoid of all traces of teeth, and remarkable for the slenderness of its lower jaw, and its generally bird-like form. Although there is nothing corre- sponding to the horny plates of the mouth of the duckbill, both the palate and the tongue are thickly beset with small spines. The body of the echidnas is remark- ably broad and depressed, with a sharp line of division between the spine-covered area of the back and the hairy under-parts. The tail is a mere stump; and the short and sturdy limbs are armed with enormously powerful claws, varying in number from three to five on each foot. Although the front-feet are applied to the ground in the usual way, the hind-feet, in walking, have the claws turned outwards and backwards. The males resemble those of the duckbill in having a hollow spur at the back of the hind-foot, which is probably employed as a weapon in the contests between rival males during the breeding-season. The brain of the echidnas differs from that of the duckbill in that the surface is extensively convoluted. The common echidna (Echidna aculeata), is a variable species, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea : and characterised by having live toes SKELETON OF ECHIDNA. on each foot, all provided with claws ; those on the fore-feet being broad, while the others are narrow and more curved. In length the beak is about equal to that of the remainder of the head ; and it is either straight or slightly turned upwards. The smallest variety inhabits Port Moresby, in New Guinea, and attains a length of about 14 inches; its distinctive feature being the shortness of the spines on the back. The variety from the Australian mainland is larger, and the spines are of great length. Larger than either is the Tasmanian variety, in which the length may be 19 inches ; the very short spines on the back being partially or completely hidden by the fur, the dark brown hue of which is frequently relieved by a white spot on the chest; while the beak is unusually short. The three-toed Echidna (Pvoechidna bruijnii), of North-Western New Guinea, is larger than any of these. Usually it has but three claws to each foot, but there is considerable variation in this respect, one specimen having five claws on the front, and four on the hind-feet. The beak is bent downwards, and attains a length equal to about double that of the rest of the head. The short spines are generally white, and the colour of the fur is dark brown or black, although the head may be almost white. Echidnas are fossorial and mainly nocturnal animals frequenting rocky 288 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS. districts, and subsisting almost exclusively on ants. They are generally found in the mountains, and the three-toed species has been taken at an elevation of between three and four thousand feet. Although it is definitely ascertained that they lay eggs, much less is known of their breeding- habits than is the case with the duckbill ; according, however, to native reports, the young, which are probably two in number, are born during the Aus- tralian winter, generally in the month of May. Remains of a large extinct echidna have been obtained from the superficial deposits of New South Wales. Allied Extixct Mammals. Certain forms from the Secondary and early Tertiary rocks of Europe, Africa, and North America are believed to belong to the Prototherian subclass, of which they probably indicate a distinct order. Their molar teeth have a distant resemblance to the teeth of the duckbill, while the bones of the shoulder seem to have comprised the two elements characterising the Egg -laying Mammals. The peculiarity in the teeth of these mammals is that the molars are traversed by one or two longitudinal grooves, on either side of which are ridges carrying a number of small tubercles; and from this feature the name of Multituberculata has been proposed for the group. The number of ridges in the upper molars is always one more than in those of the, lower jaw. In some species, as in Tritylodon, represented in our hrst figure, the premolar teeth are similar to the molars ; but in others, as in our second figure, the molars are small, while the premolars are large and have sharp cutting edges. When unworn, such cutting premolar teeth gener- ally have a series of oblique grooves on the sides, and as the incisor teeth (a) are large and often reduced to one pair, the jaw resembles that of the rat-kangaroos. The molar teeth, however, are different, and if these Secondary Mammals are really Prototherians, the character of their teeth indicates that they cannot be the ancestral types of the higher groups of the class. UNDER TART OF THE SKULL OF A SOUTH AFRICAN SECONDARY MAM- MAL, (ij uat. size). lower jaw OF plagiaulax (nat. size and enlarged). — After Marsh. BIEDS. CHAPTER I. General Characteristics, — Class Aves. A traveller may in many parts of the world journey from one week's end to another without coming across a single .Mammal or Reptile, but few indeed are the regions where bird-life, in some form, will not present itself more or less abundantly to his gaze : and in no country is this exuberance <>!' bird-life, as contrasted with the apparent scarcity of Mammals and Reptiles, more remarkable than in the British Islands. This abundance is largely due to the great majority of Birds being diurnal in their habits, whereas most Mammals are nocturnal, but it is chiefly owing to the Birds being more numerous in must parts of the world, both as regards individuals and species. On this account alone Birds have always aroused a widespread interest even among those who pay no particular attention to Natural History: and in addition to it we have the beauty of their form, the gorgeous hues with which their plumage is so frequently adorned, and the power of melodious song with which so many members of the class are endowed. Then, again, the many interesting points connected with their habits, and more especially their conjugal affection and the care they bestow on their helpless young, haw combined to aid in producing the universal enthusiasm for what have been most vol. in. — 19 290 IURDS. appropriately designated " our feathered friends." As the result of this widespread popularity, the literature devoted to Birds is far more extensive than that relating to any other group of animals of equal size. And it may, perhaps, be questioned whether, in spite of their many undoubted claims to special interest. Birds have not attracted rather more than their fair share of attention; for, after all, the whole of the members of the class are wonderfully alike in general structure, even its most divergent representatives presenting no approach to the differences dis- tinguishing nearly allied mammalian orders. It is to a great extent owing to this remarkable structural uniformity that such different views still exist as tn the classification of Birds. Distinctive char- Birds form a class in the Vertebrates ranking on the same level acters of Birds. as the Mammalia, and technically known as Aves; and from the aforesaid structural uniformity of all its members, there is no difficulty in denning a Bird, nor is there any possibility of mistaking any other animal for a Bird. All living Birds, and so far as we know all fossil ones likewise, are sharply distinguished from every other creature by the possession of feathers; these corresponding in essential structure to hairs, and being similarly developed from pits sunk in the superficial layer of the skin or epidermis. This is the grand and essential characteristic of Birds, most of their other peculiarities being shared by some of the other groups of Vertebrates, either living or extinct. Birds agree with Mam- mals in having a four- chambered heart ami hot blood, and also in that the blood is carried to the holy by only a single great artery or aorta: but while in Mammals this aorta passes over the left branch of the windpipe or bronchus, in Birds it crosses the right. In producing their young from eggs laid by the female parent, Birds resemble not only the Egg - laying Mammals, but likewise most of the lower Vertebrates. All living members of the class possess two pairs of limbs: of which the hinder pair are always adapted either for walk- ing or swimming, while the front pair are generally specially modified for flight, although in the flightless species they are small and more or less rudimentary. Except to a small degree in the penguins, they never subserve the purpose of walking, at last in the adult condition. The power of true flight, which is such an essential characteristic of the majority of Birds, is found elsewhere among Vertebrates only in the bats among Mammals, and the extinct pterodactyles among Reptiles. An especial peculiarity of Birds is the manner in which their whole structure is permeated by atmospheric air taken in through the windpipe. Thus, whereas in Mammals the lungs are enclosed in complete sacs (the pleuron), and LEFT SIDE I Is "F THE KIWI. it, hauiich-bone or ilium : j>, p', pubis : is, ischium ; a, uup for head of thigh-bone.— After Marsh. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. j cj i are freely suspended in the cavity of the chest, in the present class they are moulded to the form of the back of that cavity, while some of the great air-tubes pass completely through them, and thus carry the air to all parts of the body. In most Birds even the bones, which are hollow, are thus permeated by air; and in the dried state they show a small aperture (pneumatic foramen) by which the air-tube enters. It is in consequence of this arrangement that it is impossible to kill a " winged " bird by compressing its windpipe, the process of respiration being carried on by means of the air entering the broken end of the bone. In addition to the hollow bones. Birds also have a number of air-sacs disposed beneath the skin. Curiously enough, there appears to be no sort of relation between the power of flight of a bird and the degree of development of pneumaticity, as the aeration of the body and bones is called. The hornbills, for instance, which are poor and heavy fliers, have the whole of the bones, including the vertebrae, so hollowed that they are reduced to little more than shells, while in their not very distant cousin the rapid Hying swift, the aeration is reduced to a minimum. Among swimming birds a similar difference may be observed, the gannei having a remarkably pneumatic skeleton and large air-sacs, while in the allied cormorants there are no air-sacs, and the bones are but slightly or not at all pneumatic. According to the old theory, the heated air in the sacs and hollow bones made the bird lighter than the medium in which it flew, and thus rendered flight easy ; but, as Mr. Headley well observes, the sight of an eagle flying off with a lamb ought to convince anyone that the saving of a fraction of an ounce cannot make the slightest difference to its flight. Moreo^ er, the swallow has all the bones solid. That the air-sacs aid to some extent in general res' .SKELETON OF YULTIKE. 1. head : 2, neck ; 3, back : 4, tail ; 5, ribs ; 6, breast-bone; 7, furcula; S. metacoraeoid ; 9, thumb ; 10, humerus ; 11, ulna : 12, meta- carpus; 13, phalanges; 14, pelvis; 15, femur; 16, tibia; 17. metatarsus or cannon-hone; 18, toes. respira- tion, and thus help in maintaining the high temperature of the blood in birds (reaching in some cases 112° F.) is probable, but this cannot be their sole function, and it is most likely that duringflight, when a bird's breath- ing must be rapid, they are the chief agents in maintaining an equable temperature of the system. The function of the pneumaticity of the bones is not at present decided, and it would therefore be only entering on controversial matters to discuss it here. That one of the objects of the coat of feathers, which forms a most efficient insulator, is to assist in the maintenance of a uniform high temperature, cannot be doubted. An important structural difference between Mammals and Birds is to be found in the absence in the latter of the partition or diaphragm, which in the former separates the cavity of the chest containing the heart and lungs from that of the abdomen. 292 BIRDS. Skeleton. As tlic skeleton of Birds affords many important characters, whereby the class is distinguished from Mammals, it is advisable to enter at once upon its consideration. In the first place, the skull of a bird, as shown in the figures given later on iu the chapter, differs from that of a mammal SKBLETON (IF I'AKKOT AND SKULL OF COCKATOO. in that it is attached to the first joint of the backbone by a single knob or condyle, instead of by two such condyles. Secondly, each half of the lower jaw is composed of several pieces instead of but one; and instead of the lower jaw articulat- ing directly with what is known as the squamosal region of the brain-case, it does so by the intervention of a separate bone, termed, from its form, the quadrate, the position of which is indicated in the accompanying figure. It may be mentioned here that in all existing Birds both jaws are encased in horn, and are devoid of teeth : while the two halves of the lower jaw are completely soldered together by bone at their junction, or symphysis. Certain extinct Birds had. however, a full series of teeth, and the two halves of the lower jaw separate. MUE VIEW OF SKULL I IF TEAL, WITH THE LOWER JAW DISPLACED. Tlie bone immediately to the left of the one marked /'/ is the quadrate. (From Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.) GENERAL CHAR A CTERISTICS. 293 As regards the backbone, existing Birds differ from Mammals in that the bodies of the vertebrae ai least in the region of the neck, an' articulated to one another by saddle-shaped surfaces, instead of by a cup-and-ball joint or two nearly flat surfaces; and there is no constancy in the number of joints in the neck. A further peculiarity is that a number of the vertebrae of the hack, together with some of those of the tail, are solidly united with the proper sacrum, while the whole Long series of welded vertebrae are themselves as firmly attached to the ANTERIOR ASFEf-T OF THE DORSAL VERTEBRA OF A MOA (PachyomU. ) 11s, upper or neural spine ; n, neural canal ; pz, prezygapophysis : d. transverse process : !>, pedicle of arch ; p, facet for rib ; ac, anterior surface of body or centrum ; hy, lower or haemal spine. — After Owen. haunch-bones of the pelvis. In all living Birds the bones of the tail are very few in number, and terminate in a triangular bone (as seen in our figure of the skeleton of a parrot), termed the ploughshare -hone. It is to this region of the body that the tail-feathers of a bird, commonly called the tail, are attached : and it will thus he apparent that the so-called tail of a bird does not correspond with the tail of a mammal. In the earliest known bird the tail was, however, long, and composed of a number of vertebrae, each carrying a pair of feathers. The pelvis of a bird is remarkable for the great elongation of the haunch-bones, and also for the circumstance that the pubis (p, p' in the figure on p. 200) is 294 BIRDS. LEFT SIDE OF SHOULDER AND BREAST-BONES OF FLIGHTLESS HIHD. directed backward parallel with the element termed the ischium; the three elements being united together as in Mammals, but differing from them, with two exceptions, in that neither the ischium nor the pubis unites with its fellow of the opposite side in the middle line. Moreover, the cup in the pelvis for the head of the thigh-bone is always open at the base. The firm union of the haunch-bones with such a large portion of the backbone is necessary to afford a solid basis of support for the rest of the skeleton in flight. Equally essential is a solid union between the bones of the shoulder and the breast-bone. Accordingly, we find that, as in the Egg-laying Mammals, the blade-bone or scapula (s) is connected with the breast- bone (sf), by a metacoracoid (<■); the scapula and metacoracoid thus jointly forming the cup for the articulation of the head of the arm- bone or humerus (h). Although in flightless Birds the metacoracoid is sin irt and broad, in other species it is more or loss elongated; and in cither case its lower expanded end is received in a groove on the Usually are well-developed, and united together to form a V or U-shaped bone, now known as the " merry-thought," or furcula (/) ; this furcula generally articulating with a process on the metacoracoid (a), and also with the anterior end of the breast-bone. The breast-bone in flying Birds is provided with a strong keel up the middle of its inferior surface, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of a parrot on p. 292, in order to afford support for the powerful muscles moving the wing ; but in flightless Birds, as in the figure on this page, it is smooth and rounded. To the sides of the upper part of the breast-bone are attached the lower segments of the ribs ; the ribs themselves being few in number, and distinguished from those of Mammals by the presence of oblique (uncinate) processes projecting from their hinder borders. With regard to the limbs, the bones of a bird's wing- correspond generally to those of the arm or fore-leg of a mammal; the arm-bone or humerus having distinct condyles (a, b) for the articulation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna); and being sometimes furnished with a projecting process above the outermost of these two condyles. The s, blade-bone or scapula; c, metacoracoid; /<, arm-bone or humerus; /, furcula; st, breast-bone or sternum. — After summit of the breast-In HH'. the collar-bones, or clavicles FRONT SURFACE OP THE LEFT .METACORACOID OF A FLYING BIRD. a, process for articulation of furcula ; 6, r, 2), and carries the so- called bastard-win"- : while the other two digits represent the index and middle fingers of the human hand. Their respective metacarpals, as seen in the figure cited, are united at their two ends so as to form a single bone; while the index finger lias two flattened joints, and the third finger (not present in the figure) but one. In the hind-limb there is a still wider departure from the Mammalian type. The uppermost bone in a bird's leg (A of the accompanying figure) is the thigh- bone, or femur: below this comes the tibia, or larger bone of the lower leg, on the outer side of which is ;i small splint (not shown in the figure) representing the fibula. Below the tibia comes another long bone, terminating (except in the ostrich, where they are reduced to two) in three pulley-like sur- faces, known as trochleas, to which are articu- lated the toe-bones. Obviously, then, this third long bone corresponds to the metatarsus of a mammal, consisting in fact of the three middle metatarsals of the typical five-toed limb welded together, in the same manner as two such metatarsals are united in the hind-limb of a ruminant mammal. It may. therefore, be called either the metatarsus or the cannon-bone. The reader will, however, now ask what has become of the ankle or tarsus in the bird's leg. To this it may be replied that its upper bones have united to the lower end of the tibia : while the lower row has joined th" upper end of tic cannon-bone. The figure on p. 296 exhibits th" lower end of the tibia of an adult crane and of a young ostrich : and it will be seen that in th" latter the upper ankle-bone is still distinct, while in the former it has become completely united with the tibia. A precisely similar state of things takes place in the for- mation of the cannon-bone. It will, therefore, lie apparent that the tibia of a bird corresponds to the tibia. /Jus the upper half of the ankle, of a mammal : while the cannon-bone represents the metatarsus, plus the lower half of the ankle. Hence, while the ankle-joint in a mammal occurs between the tibia and the upper row of ankle-bones, in a bird it is placed between tin1 upper and lower rows of tie' ankle. The bony bridge seen at " in the tibia of the crane is very commonly present in birds: it acts as a pulley for tin- tendons of the muscles of the front of the leg A. BONES "t THE RIGHT LEG OF A Mill ; B, CANNON - BONE OF SAME ON A LARGER SCALE. 296 BIRDS. Skull. LOWER END OF THE LEFT TIBIA 01 A CRANE (a), AXD A I'll NG OSTRICH (B). which pass beneath Such pulleys enable the fleshy portions <>t' the muscles to be placed high up in the limb, and thus cause the centre of gravity of the body to be near the wings, an arrangement essential for flight In addition to the three toes articulating with the lower end of the cannon-bone, most birds have another toe, corresponding to the first or great toe of the human foot, of which the metacarpal is loosely attached to a facet on the inner edge of the hinder surface of the cannon-bone — as shown in the figure of the cannon-bone of a buzzard in our fourth volume. No bird has any trace of the fifth toe. The number of joints in each toe, in place of not exceeding three as in ordinary mammals, increases regu- larly from the first to the fourth toe. As the structure of the base of the skull is of some import- ance in classification, a few words are neces- sary on this point. In the first place, the skull of a bird is characterised by the great size of the sockets for the eyes, which are separated from one another merely by a thin bony partition. The apertures for the nostrils (immediately below Na in the figure on p. 292) may be either short and rounded, when the skull is said to be holorhinal (as in that figure); or they may form elongated slits, as in a pigeon, when the condition is termed schizorhinal. In all Birds most of the component bones of the skull are completely united together, without any trace of the original lines of division, in the adult state: and in ornithology it is usual to apply the terms upper and lower mandible to the two parts of the beak. With regard to the bones of the palate, the introduction of a number of technical terms is unavoidable. In the middle of the hinder part of the lower surface of a bird's skull can be seen a pointed rod of bone, known as the sphenoidal rost /■" m, which may carry, as in (A) of the figure, a pair of basiptt rygoid facets (f). In advance of this is a single or double bone, termed the voim r ( Vb), On the two sides of this central axis are two pairs of slender benes, of which the hinder are termed pterygoids (Pi), and articulate with the basi pterygoid processes when present : while the front pair are named palatines (PI). From the sides of the upper jaw or maxilla (-Jfx),are given off two niaxiUo-palatine processes (Mxp), projecting in the middle line towards the vomer. Now when the vomer, as in the fowl and capercaillie (A) is pointed in front, while the maxillo-palatines remain separate both from it and from one another, the skull is said to be schizognatkous (cleft palate). When, on the other hand, as in the duck (B), the maxillo-palatines unite in the middle line, so as to form a bridge in front of the vomer, the construc- tion is termed desmognathous (bridged palate). In a third modification, as exemplified in the raven (C) and all other living passerine birds, the maxillo- palatines, although extending beneath the vomer, do not unite either with that bone or with one another, while the vomer itself is expanded and abruptly truncated in front: this arrangement being termed agiihognathous (passerine- GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 297 palate). Various minor modifications of these three types exist, but a little practice will enable the student to determine to which of the three any given skull conforms. A fourth modification, met with onlj among the ostrich-like birds and the South American tinamus, need not be referred to till a later chapter. Before leaving the subject of the skull, it may be mentioned that the outer coat or "white" of the eye of a bird contains a movable ring of overlapping bones Rurrounding the pupil and iris, which by their contraction or expansion are con- A B 1 DNDER VIEW OF SKULL OF CAPEBCATi 1 IF (a), III 1 K In). \NI> RAVEN (C). Mxp, maxillo-palatine ; Vo, vomer; Pa, palatine ; Pt, pterygoid ; f> basipterygoid facet. (From Proc. Zool. Soc., 1867.— After Huxley. sidered to alter the degree of convexity of the aqueous humour and cornea, and thus to render the eye focally adapted to the constantly varying distance of objects during flight. External When clothed with its feathers, the bodily conformation of an Characters, ordinary bird is that best adapted for cleaving the air with the least possible resistance; the head being more or less sharpened, the body gradually swelling to a point some distance in advance of the middle, and then as rapidly decreasing in girth, while the feathers are all directed from the head towards the tail. In those birds in which the neck is not unduly elongated the whole contour is, indeed, spindle-shaped, and may be compared to two cones placed base to base at the thickest part of the body. It is essential to the exigencies of flight that the centre of gravity should be on the lower aspect of the body, as nearly as possible immediately below the points of suspension by the wings; and, in order to ensure 298 BIRDS. this, there is the concentration of muscles and other organs in this region, to which some allusion has been already made. Not only are the fleshy portions of the muscles of the legs mainly confined to the upper regions of these limbs, but the muscles which elevate the wings are actually placed cm the under instead of on the upper surface of the body. In the breast of a flying bird the great superficial muscle known as the pectoralis major is for the purpose of depressing the wing: beneath this is, however, a second muscle — the pectoralis minor — of which the function is to raise the wing-bone, or humerus. This is effected by the muscle terminating in a tendon, which passes tl irough a pulley over the head of the scapula —Crown The&ian covers. .Breast ....l Secondary corerts Bastard, ' DIAGRAM OF A BIRD, TO ILLUSTRATE THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLUMAGE, ETC.1 and metacoracoid. and then hi-ing attached on the upper surface of the humerus. The result of this arrangement is that the humerus is elevated when the muscle contracts. The same tendency to the concentration of structures is exhibited by the organ of voice (syrinx) of a bird being placed within the chest, where the windpipe divides into the two bronchi, instead of, as in Mammals, immediately beneath the lower jaw. An important external feature in Birds is the frequent presence of a gland termed the oil-gland, on the upper surface of the rump, the function of which is to secrete oil for the lubrication of the feathers. This eland, which is most developed in acpiatic birds, may be absent, and when present may be either naked or crowned with a tuft of feathers. 1 For this cut the Editor i- indebted to Mr. Rowland Want, in wh ■ ■■ // a nefr '■•■■■'■ it originally appeared. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 290 Ornithologists have devised a number of terms to indicate the different parts of a body of a bird, several of which arc located in the accompanying diagram; the others it will be unnecessary to mention here. It may be observed, however, that the ears of Birds are unprovided with external conchs, merely opening fiat on the sides of the head, usually a little behind and below the eyes. The ryes, which are in most eases placed laterally and near the middle of the head, are provided with a third eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which can lie drawn obliquely like a shutter over the eyeball, while the proper eyelids remain open; as may be observed in a captive owl or eagle, when the glistening white membrane will he seen from time to time to sweep across the eye with extreme rapidity. The beaks of birds, which, as we have said, are always encased in horn or leathery skin, have different terms applied to them, according to their relative length and form ; the meaning of most of such terms, as fissirostral, dentirostral, conirostral, etc., being self-apparent. A horny investment is also generally present on such portions of the lower part of the legs as are devoid of feathers: although in some cases, as in the ducks, this is replace, I by a more or less leathery skin. The horny covering of the metatarsus may consisi of small pieces, with the edges in apposition, as in the plovers, when it is said to 1»- reticulate; but frequently the front surface, as in the fowls, has a number of broad overlapping plates, when it is termed scutate. Occasionally each side is invested by a single greave-like plate, meeting' its fellow in a prominent ridge at the back. The feathers of birds, being all-important, need a somewhat fuller notice. A feather in its most c plete state of development consists of a main stem, and a secondary stem, or after-shaft; but the latter is frequently wanting. The base of the main stem is formed by the hollow horny quill, the lower end of which is pointed and inserted into the' skin. The upper part of the quill passes into the shaft, or rachis, at a point marked by a small aperture termed the upper wnibilicus. The shaft is four-sided, elastic, pithy, and less horny than the quill ; and gradually tapers at its extremity to a fine point. On either side of the shaft are the two webs, collectively forming the vane of the feather. Each web or half of the vane, one of which is generally considerably wider than the other, is composed of a series of flattened plates closely applied to one another, and diverging from the shaft at an open angle, each plate terminating in a point. These plates form the barbs, and they are held together bj' barbules, given off in the same manner as are the barbs from the stem ; while the barbules may again give off booklets. The after-shaft is, when fully developed, a miniature of the main stem, from which it is given off at the junction of the quill with the shaft. Such is the structure of atypical feather: but the soft feathers known as down have the stem short and weak, or even wanting, while the barbs are soft and not held together by fully-formed barbules and hooklets. Sometimes the ends of such feathers break up into powder, and they may then be spoken of as poivder-down /•"fliers. In another type of feather the vane is rudimentary, and the whole structure then becomes more or less hair-like ; to such the term thread-feathers is applicable. Finally, the feathers covering the body and concealing the underlying down are conveniently referred to as the contour-feathers. Instead of being evenly distributed over the body of a bird, the feathers oTow 3oo BIRDS. from certain well-defined tracts, between which are bare spaces. Although such tracts have received distinct names, and are of some importance in classification, it will suffice to mention their mere existence ; and we pass on to the consideration of the names applied to the feathers of the tail and wings. As shown in the diagram on p. 298, the tail-feathers, which are very generally twelve in number, are termed rectrices; and are usually firm and fully developed. Above and below the rectrices are the upper and under tail-coverts; although generally small and unimportant, in the peacock the upper tail - coverts attain an extraordinary development, and constitute what is commonly designated the tail. Premising that the feathers clothing the shoulders are termed scapulars, and those between them interscapulars, we pass on to the consideration of the feathers of the wings. First of all, we have the little group of feathers forming the bastard-wing, or alula, which are carried by the first digit, or thumb, and lie on the front border of the back of the wing. Next, we have the flight* feathers, remiges, or quills, which arise from the bones of the arm and pinion (or hand, exclusive of the thumb); all are strong, firm feathers, giving rise to the main contour of the wing. Such of the remiges as take their origin from the pinion are termed primaries; while those attached to the fore-arm (ulna) and upper arm (humerus) are entitled secondaries, though the remiges arising from the humerus used to be distinguished as tertiaries, and the term *- >■<,,, i lanes con- fined to those attached to the ulna. The primaries are the firmest and stiffest of the wing-feathers, and are very generally either nine or ten in number. As the rectrices of the tail have tail-coverts, so the remiges have wing- coverts, both above and below. Of the upper wing-coverts, we have first the primary coverts overlying the primaries; while the secondaries are overlain by three series, respectively known as the greater, median, and lesser upper secondary wing -coverts. Of these the greater coverts are the largest and the most important in classification. The under wing-coverts, which are less important in classification, are likewise divided into a primary and secondary series. change of When first hatched, Birds are covered with some kind of down, Plumage. very scanty in those which are reared in nests, but thick in all those able to run about at the time of birth. The true feathers are, however, soon developed, those of the wings and tail being usually the first to make their appear- ance, and the rapidity with which feathers grow is one of the most remarkable features of Birds. In order to preserve the plumage in good condition, it is essential that it should be renewed at least once a year. This renewal of the feathers is termed moulting, and frequently takes place twice during the year: while in the ptarmigan there are three moults. The chief moult usually takes place soon after the breeding-season; but in those birds which, like ducks, have a special breeding-plumage, a second moult takes place previous to that period. In the ptarmigan the third moult is for the assumption of the white winter dress. Usually the wing-feathers are shed in pairs one after another; but among the ducks, which are enabled to conceal themselves among water plants, and can thus protect themselves without flight, the shedding of all the wing-feathers is frequently almost simultaneous. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 301 As already mentioned, birds produce their young- by means of s' eo-o-s covered with a hard calcareous shell, often remarkable for the beauty of its coloration. Into the structure of an egg it will be quite unnecessary to enter in this work; but the following remarks, chiefly taken from the descriptive account of a series of some of the most remarkable forms in the central hall of the British Museum, will be found of general interest. Although the number of eggs laid and incubated together is generally pretty constant in each kind of bird, yet there is great specific variation in this respect. The Manx shearwater, for instance, lays but a single egg, while clutches of the long-tailed tit and red-legged partridge may contain from nine to twelve eggs. In form, eggs vary from an almost spherical shape, as in owls, to different modifications of the elliptical or oval. The latter shape, in which one end is smaller and more pointed than the other, although far from being universal, is decidedly the most common : this conical shape allowing a larger number of eggs to be accommodated in a circular nest than would otherwise be possible; and it may be noticed that, when only a pair of eggs is laid, this form is but seldom assumed. Such eggs as narrow very rapidly, and thus take a pear-shaped Eorm, mainly pertain to the wading- birds and their terrestrial allies the plovers, of the order Limicolae; four of these being laid in a nest. Their size being large in proportion to the bulk of the bird by whom they are laid, their position in tin- nest, witli their pointed ends meeting- together in the centre, causes them to occupy the smallest possible amount of space. Sea-birds, like the guillemot and razorbill, which lay one or two eggs on barren ledges of rock, likewise have them pointed, as being much less liable to roll than would be the case if they were spherical. Although the size of the eggs generally varies proportionately to that of the parent bird, yet this is by no means invariably the case; and it appears that in birds of which the young are hatched in a helpless condition, the eggs are relatively smaller than in those in which the young come into the world fully Hedged. Moreover, it is the birds that have helpless offspring that usually make the most carefully constructed nests; while those that have fully fledged young lay their eggs in very rude nests or on the bare ground. As examples of birds of equal size, laying differently sized eggs, may be mentioned the curlew and the raven; while the bird which has the relatively smallest egg is the cuckoo, and that with the largest the kiwi. The texture of the outer surface of the shell is liable to much variation, tinamus and kingfishers laving smooth and porcellaneous eggs, while those of the ibises and ducks are dull and chalky, those of the flamingos coated with a calcareous outer film, and those of the emeu rough and pitted. As regards coloration, no relation can be traced between eggs and the birds by which they are laid ; and it is probable that originally Birds resembled Reptiles in laying white eggs, this want of colour being retained, or perhaps reacquired, in the eggs of the majority of birds which lay in holes. The larger number of eggs are, however, variously coloured by the deposition of pigment on or near the outer surface of the shell. The colour (as in the tinamus) may lie either uniform over the whole surface, or it may take the form of irregular washes, blotches, lines, or more or less nearly circular spots, upon either a white or uniformly-coloured ground. 30-' BIRDS. Very little is, however, at present understood with regard to the signification of egg-coloration Frequently the different species of a group lay very similarly coloured eggs, as is exemplified by the warblers and buntings; but this is by no means invariably the case, as is well shown by the different members of the thrush family. In many cases the coloration of the eggs is evidently adapted to the hue of their natural surroundings, as is well exemplified by sandpipers, dunlins, plovers, and their allies, and likewise by pheasants and partridges. „. .Since no bird hibernates, while a large number breed in regions Migration. ° *> where they could not possibly exist during the cold winter months, it is essential that tiny should i ligrate to warmer regions in which to pass that season of the year. Such migrations may be very partial, as is the case with many British species, when the individuals passing the summer in the more northern parts of the country come further south during the winter: while those from the area into which the immigrants arrive likewise move southwards. From such partial migrations there is a gradual transition to complete migrations, when the lards of one country travel to a far distant land for the winter. As the great masses of land enjoying a cold climate are mainly confined to the Northern Eemisphere, it is obvious that bird migrations must take place from south to north, and the following general laws of migration are now accepted With the exception of purely tropical species, every bird breeds in the coldest or most northern part of its range: such nesting-grounds being generally reached by a horizontal migration, although in a few instances birds may ascend mountains until they meet with the required degree of temperature. This northerly migration is always for the purpose of breeding, while the southward return is for food and warmth. Those species which go furthest north often also range furthest to the south ; while every species has its particular peziod of migration. Finally, no species ever breeds during its sojourn in the southern portion of its migratory area. It would be quite out of place to enter into any discussion as to the origin of this migratory instinct: but it may be mentioned that as the young frequently make the autumn migration unattended by the old. it is quite evident that the journej- is made independently of any knowledge of the route. Moreover, as most migrations take place in the night, it is clear that this alone will preclude any guidance of the host by landmarks. Then, again, from the circumstance that during astronomical observations flights of birds have been seen crossing the moon's disc at an immense elevation above the earth, there is good reason to believe that at least many migrations take place at heights whence the con- figuration of tlie continents and oceans would be invisible even during the day. Nevertheless, it appears that there are certain definite lines along which vast numbers of birds, subject to conditions of weather, habitually migrate : one of these trunk-routes passing through the island of Heligoland and along the western coast of Europe. „. , „. , Although, from their power of flight and migratory habits.it Distribution. ° _. o J might seem that Birds would have no definite distributional areas, yet this is by no means the ease: and the different zoological regions into which the world is now mapped out were originally defined from the various groups of Birds s GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 303 by which they are inhabited. For instance, while the Palsearctic region, that is to say, the greater part of Europe and Asia north of the line of the Himalaya, is characterised by the sole possession of the capercaillie, and its abundance of grouse, buntings, etc., North America is the sole home of the turkey, while humming-birds are mainly characteristic of South and Central America, as arc birds of paradise, lyre-birds, and cockatoos of the Australasian region. Many birds, especially some of the humming-birds, have indeed a very local distribution; and, as might have been expected, the various groups of flightless Birds are now respectively confined to particular continents and islands. It would be impossible to pursue the subject further in the space available, but the reader will be enabled to gather many of the leading facts of avian distribution in the course of our description of the various g 1 mips. As regards their geological distribution, it may be mentioned that most of the birds from the Tertiary formations are more or less closely allied to existing types. When, however, we reach the antecedenl < Iretaceous (chalk 1 epoch, we find that at least Beveral of the birds were furnished with teeth: while in the still older Jurassic or Oolitic epoch the one definitely known bird (Archceopteryx) was not only furnished with teeth, but had a lone- tapering tail, and exhibited several other features indicative of reptilian affinity. While Birds present no sort of relationship to Mammals, they show manifest indications of being nearly allied to certain extinct groups of Reptiles : but the nature of that relationship can be best indicated in our consideration of those groups. On no subject is there greater diversity of views among zoologists than with regard to the classification of Birds; scarcely any two ornithologists being in accord on this point. To a great extent this is owing to that structural uniformity among the members of the class to which reference has been already made, which renders it almost impossible to determine what features should be regarded as of primary importance. With such conflicting views it is inevitable that schemes of classification are to be counted almost by the dozen, and scarcely a year passes without one or more new ones being proposed. As it is unlikely that any one of these latter classifications will be permanently accepted, it has been thought advisable, in a popular work of the present nature, to revert to a modification of a scheme proposed some years ago by Dr. Sclater. Including certain extinct groups, the class, according to this scheme, may be divided into the following twenty-four groups, of which the first twenty-one may be reckoned orders—such orders, be it understood, being for the most part far less distinct from one another than are those of Mammals. Orders of Birds. 1. PASSERES — Perching Birds. 2. PlCAREE — Woodpeckers, Cuckoos. Hornbills, etc. 3. PsiTTACi — Parrots. 4. Striges — Owls. 5. Pandiones — Ospreys. G. Accipitres — Eagles, Falcons. Vultures, etc. 3o4 BIRDS. 7. Stegaxopodes — Pelicans, Cormorants, and Gannets. 8. Herodioxes — Herons and Storks. 9. Odoxtoglossi — Flamingos. 10. Axseres — Ducks, Geese, and .Swans. 1 1. Palame i )E.e — Screamers. 12. Coeumb.e — Pigeons, Dodo, and Sand-Grousa 13. GaujNjE — Fowls and Game-Birds. 14. Fulicari.e — Rails and Coots. 15. Alectorides — Cranes and Bustards. 16. L1.MIC0L.E — Plovers, Curlews, Snipe etc. 17. Gayl.e — Gulls and Terns. LS. Tubinares — Petrels an' 1 Albatrosses. 19. Pygopodes — Divers, Auks, and Grebes. 20. Impexxes — Penguins. 21. ODONTOBNITHES — Toothed Bird- (extinct). 22. Crypturi — Tinamus. 23. Katit.e — Ostriches, Emeus, Cassowaris, etc. 24. Saurur.e — Long-Tailed Birds (extinct). Of these groups the first twenty-two, which are reckoned as orders, are brigaded together to form the subclass of Carinate Birds (Carinatse), the great majority of which possess the power of flight, and have a strong keel (carina) to the breast-hone. The twenty-third group, or Ratitse, constitutes, on the other hand, a second subclass, characterised by the absence of a keel to the breast-bone, and the loss of the power of flight: while the extinct long-tailed birds (group 24) form a third main division differing from all the others by the retention of the long reptilian tail. The number of existing species of birds being in all probability considerably over ten thousand, it will lie obvious that in the space at our command the various groups must be treated much more briefly than were the Mammals; ami in many instances we shall be able to allude only to the families, without referring to the genera, and in some cases not even the whole of the former are mentioned. It will be noticed that in the course of this Introduction practically nothing- has been said as to the anatomy of the soft parts of birds; for this wc must refer the reader to other works. C HAPTER II. Tur. Perching Birds, — Order Passeres. < Ieows to Honey-Creepers. Families Corvila: to Cceresidjs. The order of Pa-seres, which includes by Ear the great majority of existing birds and especially those popularly termed song-birds, may be regarded as occupying a position analogous to that held by lizards among the Reptiles, and by tin- bony fishes in the Fishes, all its members being more or less specialised and highly organised On this account the group is now, by general consent, regarded as the highest in flu- class. All these birds are characterised by having the palate constructed on what is termed the segithognathous modification, the structure of which is described and illustrated on p. 301. They are further distinguished by producing their young in a helpless and nearly naked condition, having merely a few patches of down scattered here and there over the body. In the skeleton the slender metatarsus has its three nearly equalised condyles placed al si in the same transverse line : while the arm-bone, or humerus, has a well-marked bifurcate process at the outer side of its lower end: and, as a minor character.it may be mentioned that the breast-bone lias but a single notch. The first toe is always present, and is mobile and directed backwards, in addition to being worked by a muscle independently of the other digits. A covering of feathers invests the legs as far down as the ankle-joint. There are usually twelve feathers in the tail; while the primary quills of the wings vary in number from nine to ten, the latter being the usual complement among the typical memb rs of the order. With three exceptions, the perching birds of the Old World belong to a section characterised by having the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx, or organ of voice, attached to the cords of the open rings of the bronchial tube, and technically termed the Acromyodi. The Indian members of the order provided with ten primary quills in the wings may be divided, according to an arrangement sug- gested by Mr. Oates, into five groups. In the first of these the nestling resembles that of the adult female ; this is likewise true of the second group, in which the coloration of the young bird is more brilliant than that of its parent, being in the Indian forms generally surt'used with yellow. On the other hand, in the third group, the nestling is transversely barred ; while in the fourth it is striated; and in the fifth group the nestling-plumage is either mottled or squamated. Although certain species of the perching birds, such as the snow-bunting and the sand-marten, have a circumpolar distribution, numerous genera of this order voi,. in. — 20 3o6 PERCHIXG BIRDS. are restricted to the New World ; while in spite of the fact that many species, as well as families, range across the whole of the north temperate parts of the Old World, from the British Isles to Japan, comparatively few families can be teemed strictly cosmopolitan. Among those families, which are variously represented in almost every region of the globe, may be ranked the finch tribe, the swallows, and the true crows. For lustre of plumage and striking combinations of colour, the perching birds of the Indo-Malayan region excel all others; but South America possesses a larger and more varied assortment of these birds. Among the number, tanagers and chatterers form special];, interesting groups. While the mocking-birds, represented by closely allied si ecies in both the northern and southern divisions of the New World, have the best claim to be considered the finest songsters in the entire order, in Europe it is probable that the blue thrush possesses the most beautiful notes of all the passerines. In such a large and difficult group as the perching birds it is but natural to expect diverse views among ornithologists in regard to classification. To a great extent the scheme of Dr. Sharpe is here followed, which differs very considerably from that recently proposed by Mr. Oates in the Birds of British India. Without attempting to weigh the value of the two, the former has been adopted, as being that more generally known. It will be obvious that in such a vast assemblage all that can be attempted in the limits of our space is to notice some of the more generally interesting types. The Crow Tribe. Family CoRVTDjB. Frequently conspicuous by a black or pied plumage, often variegated with grey, and occasionally with brown, although some species, like the blue jays of South America, are much more gaudily coloured, the members of the crow family form a group which, while having few characters in common, are yet easy of recog- nition. Possessing a stout and generally large beak, without a distinct notch in the upper mandible, and generally straight, the crows have the chin-angle, or union of the two branches of the lower jaw, almost always produced in front of the line of the nostrils ; while the tongue is non-extensile. The toes are of the normal passerine type, but although the first toe is strong, it is inferior in length to the third. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and are protected by a number of stiff bristles reaching to the middle of the beak, which are, however, sheil in the adult of the European rook. The wing always has ten primary quills, and the tail twelve feathers. Mr. Oates, who includes the tits in the present family, points out that the crows may lie distinguished by having the first primary quill longer than half the length of the second : while the plumage is more or less firm and glossy, and the length of the bill considerably greater than its depth. Both groups agree in that the plumage of the two sexes is alike, and undergoes but one moult (in the autumn) ; while the plumage of the young is paler. Some representatives of this specialised family are found in all the great continents; and even islands have in some cases their peculiar species. The piping smmm : CA'Olf TRIBE. 3°y crows are only found in Australia; while magpies, nutcrackers, and choughs, are characteristic of the northern and central parts of the Old World South America possesses some jays of brilliant plumage; those of the genus Xanthv/ra having beautiful blue feathers, associated with black or deeper blue markings. THICK-BILLED I Ravens and The genus Corvus includes all tin- true ravens and crows, crows. distinguished by a stout compressed bill, straight at the base, arched towards the point, and sharp at the edges. The wings are long and graduated, and the tail is more or less graduated. The feet are powerful, the metatarsus ex- ceeding in length the middle toe. The plumage is identical in both sexes; and black, more or less glossed with green or purple, decidedly predominates. Birds of this genus are found throughout the whole of Europe and Asia north of the line of the Himalaya, ranging into North-Western India, Australia, North America, and Mexico. The type of this well-known genus is the large raven (Corvus corax), familiar to the natives of the northern parts of both hemispheres. In Japan its place is occupied by the Oriental raven, which is also found in India, Ceylon, South China, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The common raven of temperate Europe may be regarded as the parent form, ami thrives in a wide diversity of regions, ranging from Greenland to Spain and from Portugal to Palestine, contriving constantly to adapt its habits to its immediate Raven. 3'° PERCHING BIRDS. environment. The raven is an early breeder, and the birds of the English fells annually repair their nests while .snowdrifts are lying in deep folds on the mountain sides. It sometimes happens that a raven's nest becomes swamped fey rain and driving sleet to such a degree that the eggs are chilled and rendered useless. In the event of such a contingency arising, the breeding ravens retire to some other favourite haunt, in which the female lays a fresh complement of eggs. The latter are four or live in number, rarely six: and are usually of a bluish green colour, blotched and spotted with dark olive-brown, although a reddish variety is occasionally obtained. The raven performs valuable services as a scavenger, and the damage it does the game-preserver is infinitesimally small ; but it must be confessed that WHITE-BELLIED CHOW (J Hat. size). shepherds have only too good reason to complain of the injuries inflicted upon ewes when dropping their lambs, for the raven readily attacks any defenceless animal such as a weak lamb or a feeble fawn. In Africa the genus is represented by the black African rook (C capensis); the white-necked raven ( ( '. albicollis), which is brown and black with a conspicuous white collar ; the thick-billed raven (C. crassirostris) ; and the white-bellied crow (C. scapulatus). This last is a handsome bird, easily recognised by its black and white or parti-coloured plumage. It obtains much of its E 1 about the high roads, examining the droppings of the animals that pass by, and picking the carcases of such as perish on their journeys. It makes its nest in trees or in the recesses of rocks, and African Crows. CROW TRIBE. 311 la \-s about six eggs, light blue in colour, prof usely spotted with brown. It some- times nests in gardens, approaching the haunts of nun: at other times it is shy and retiring, especially when breeding. Although hybridisation is comparatively rare among the true crows, naturalists have long been aware that the hooded crow (C. cornix) occasionally interbreeds with the carrion crow (0. corone) notably in such parts of Scotland as both species frequent during the summer. It was. however, reserved for Mr. Seebohm to discover that these two species inter- breed to an extraordinary extent, the hybrid offspring of the original stocks apparently proving fertile for several generations, in the valley of the Yenesei in East Siberia, This is the more remarkable because both forms possess a well- defined distribution, and only occasionally overlap one another in the breeding- season. Many naturalists (among them Professor Newton) consider that the carrion crow is only a black form or variety of the hooded crow, which lias lost the dun-coloured portions of the plumage peculiar to the hooded crow of both sexes and all ages; and it must be confessed thai the flight and cries of these two forms are to all intents and purposes identical While, however, the carrion crow lives chiefly in wooded valleys, nesting in isolated pairs, and harrying the nests of other birds, the hooded crow frequents the wildest coasts of Western Europe, ranging from the northern islands that fringe the continent to the forest-regions of Central Russia, rearing its young with equal success upon the ground, in the top of a tree, or on the face of a frowning precipice. The nest of the hooded crow is often a cumbrous collection of heather-roots, sticks, and seaweed, lined with softer substances well felted together. The eggs vary from four to six in a clutch, and are greenish in ground-coloured, blotched with dark olive-brown. The ordinary "crow" of the British public has long been known to naturalists as the rook {C. frugilegus), and as such is almost the best known and most familiar of European birds. The sooty plumage differs from that of its Eastern repre- sentative, the Siberian rook (C. pasti- nator) chiefly in Inning a bluish purple gloss in lieu of the reddish purple of the Asiatic species. The latter to a large extent retains the feathers around the bill, which are generally moulted by the western bird when arriving at maturity. Like many other crows, the rook is an early breeder, nesting sometimes in shrubs or even on the roofs of houses, but chiefly in tall trees, often in the midst of crowded streets. The young are mainly reared upon noxious insects in their various stages, on held - voles, and waste substances. Rook. f, > ' 3i2 PERCHING BIRDS. In the autumn the rooks band together to plunder cornfields. They also do much mischief to young turnips, often tearing up thousands of newly-planted seedlings : and in severe weather they attack the roots of the turnips, or devour such small birds as have become too enfeebled by want of food to elude their enemies. During the greater part of the year they are gregarious, and many of their established " rookeries " contain myriads of birds every night. Their sagacity enables them to evade the various forms of destruction which reduce the numbers of other birds, and, as they are extremely long-lived, the rapid increase in their numbers has become somewhat alarming. Though less easily reconciled to captivity than other members of the famihj . they are nevertheless lively and amusing pets. The daw or jackdaw (C. monedula) is readily distinguished from other crows by its small size, less powerful bill, and slaty-grey collar, the remainder of the plumage' being entire black in the western form. The typical European daw is replaced in Northern Asia and Japan by Pallas's daw (C. elm rims), which wears a broad collar of ashy white and has a white belly. The daw is distributed locally throughout temperate Europe, and is very abundant in parts of Algeria. A highly gregarious species even in the breeding-season, it forms colonies in low cliffs, nesting numerously in the holes and recesses formed by weathering. Elsewhere single pairs appropriate disused rooks' nests, adapting them to their own purposes. Not the least remarkable of the many idiosyncrasies of this familiar bird, is the readiness with which it contents itself with every variety of nesting site, rearing its young as happily in a disused rabbit-hole as in the belfry of a church. The nest is often a cumbrous pile of sticks, carefully lined with hair, wool, or other soft material. The eggs vary in number from four to six, and are bluish green spotted with grey and brown. Mr. Tait says that the jackdaws frequenting the islands on the coast of Galicia breed in holes under the stmies, and follow the droves of pigs, in order to secure the insects which these animals turn up when grubbing in the soil with their snouts. While the pig ploughs up the ground, they may often be seen perching on its back, waiting their opportunity. During seasons of drought jackdaws are sometimes compelled by hunger to commit serious depredations upon the pheasant-coops, in consequence of the earthworms upon which these birds largely subsist having retired from the surface to secure moisture at a greater depth. This species does not appear to make the migratory journeys frequently accomplished by rooks and hooded crows, the daw being in fact of a somewhat sedentary character, as evinced by the attachment which it displays for favourite nesting sites. A black variety of the European jackdaw, in which the usual grey collar has become entirely suppressed, has been regarded by some naturalists as a valid species. Although these are rare, white jackdaws are sufficiently plentiful. Examples of a uniform silver-grey occur from time to time, but are less frequently met with than white or pied birds. The genus Nucifraga contains only four species, three of which 'are designated nutcrackers from their partiality for nuts ami other fruits. The American representative of the genus is Clarke's crow (A. columbiana), a plain grey-coloured bird with glossy black wings, most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white, and the tail white, with the exception of the black central CA'OW TRIBE. 3*3 feathers. This unspotted bird ranges through the coniferous woods of Western America, nesting in high pines in mountainous and northerly localities. The nutcrackers of the Old World are birds of well-marked form and colour, not only sharing the possession of a long, straight, pointed bill with their American relative, and a black-and-white tail which is always conspicuous iu flight, long wings, nostrils covered with bristly feathers, but exhibiting, in a special degree, NUTCRACKER AND SIBERIAN JAY | \ oat. size). a general uniformity of coloration among themselves, all three species being constantly of a general chocolate-brown, more or less spotted with white. Two of these species belong to the higher parts of the Himalaya, where they are resident throughout the year in forests of pine and cedar. The best known species is the European nutcracker (A caryocatactes), which inhabits the northern and central portions of Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into Northern China and Japan. A conspicuous species during many months of the year, sometimes approaching the neighbourhood of human dwellings in search of food, in the 3H PERCHING BIRDS. breeding-season the nutcracker becomes shy and cautious, so that its whereabouts is no longer easy to ascertain. The difficulty of discovering the vicinity of its nest is enhanced by the nutcracker being one of the very earliest birds to nest, and consequently the forests in which it breeds, usually vast extents of pine trees, often at an elevation of several thousand feet above sea level, are covered with deep snow at the time when the eggs have to be sought. These are usually laid in the month of March, and are pale bluish white in ground-colour, thickly spotted with olive-brown. The young are easily reared by hand if supplied with a sufficient variety of food, and exhibit a marked predilection for insects. Mr. Howard Saunders gives the following description of the habits of the nutcracker, as observed in the Prattigiiu : — "Between September 14th ami 18th this species was quite common among the hazel bushes, and the top of a low wall, within five minutes' walk above the village where I was staying, was a favourite anvil on which to hammer the nuts, their shells lying thick on it. Every few minutes a bird might be seen flitting along the hillsides — its widely-spread tail-feathers dis- playing the white spots on their tips — with a somewhat dipping flight, less laboured than that of the jay. Often alighting on a sloping patch of sward, the nutcracker would draw itself up till its neck seemed unnaturally elongated, then give a few skips, and, taking a short flight, make a furious attack on a bush, tearing off a whole cluster of nuts. This was sometimes rejected, after a comically critical examination, and another cluster would be turn off, after which the bird would fly up to some tolerably wide branch of a fir, and hammer the nuts energetically to free them from their shucks, pausing to look up as if for admiration. Then the bird would hop rapidly up the branches — as if on the rungs of a ladder — to the top of the ti-ee, dash away across a ravine, settle on a bush, and be lost to view for a time, return- ing with its crop quite distended with nuts." One of the notes is a peculiar gv/rre, gv/rre ; but there is another, like a sprung rattle. Hancock records the fact that a nutcracker which lived "n n's possession for six years had a sweet, low, delicate, warbling song: this was uttered only when everything was perfectly quiet. Characterised by their stout and compressed beaks, which are Magpies. J l sharp at the edges and arched towards the tip, short and rounded wings, strong feet, and long, graduated tails, the magpies have typically a black- and-white plumage, although many of their Oriental representatives are gorgeously coloured. The common magpie (Pica rustica ) is found throughout the more northern portions of the Old World, from Britain to Northern China, and likewise occurs in the western districts of the United States. On the other hand, the Moorish magpie (P. man rita nica) is peculiar to North- Western Africa, although certain Spanish specimens tend to bridge over the distinctions of colour distinguishing the typical representatives of the two forms. Familiar enough in many parts of the British Islands, magpies in the north of Europe may be seen hunting for insects on the roofs of cottages ; but elsewhere they lead a wandering life, feeding on carrion, small birds, and such other animal food as they can obtain. Breeding in a variety of situations — frequently in a tall poplar, but at other times in a low bush or hedge— they construct a domed nesi of dry branches, securely protected by projecting thorns. Even in China, where they nest in February, their choice of a situation of a site for building is quite as varied as in Europe, Swinhoe stating CROW TRIBE. 3'5 h\i that he has seen nests on the poles in front of a mandarin's house, and in the crown of a cocoa-nut palm. The eggs, from five to seven in number, are bluish white, with greenish brown or brownish spots. A nonmigrant, as a rule, and fre- quenting open rather than forest districts, the magpie affords excellent sport before the hawk. Sebright stating that "it is far superior to every other kind of hawking. The object <>!' the chase is fully a match for its pursuers — a requisite absolutely necessary to give an interest to any sport of this kind, and it lias the advantage of giving full employment to the company, which is not the case in partridge-hawking. A down or common where low trees or thorn bushes are dis- persed at distances of from thirty to fifty yards apart, is the place best calculated for this diversion. When a magpie is seen at a distance, a hawk is immediately to he cast off. The magpie will take refuge in a bush the moment he sees a falcon, and will remain there until the falconer arrives, with the hawk waiting on in the air. The magpie is to be driven from his retreat, and the hawk if at a good pitch will stoop at him as lie passes to another bush, from whence he has to be driven in the same way, another hawk having been previously cast off, so that one or the other may always be so situated as to attack him with advantage. Four or five assistants besides the falconer are required for this sport. The magpie will always endeavour to make his way to some strong cover ; care therefore must be taken to counteract him and to drive him to that part of the ground wdiere the bushes are farthest from each other." Azure winged The azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cooki), on account of certain Magpies. differences, is regarded as representing a genus apart from the typical pies ; and is one of the handsomest of European birds. In colour, the head and upper part of the neck are coal-black, the back and mantle brownish grey, the throat greyish white, the under-parts light fawn grey, and the wings and tail light greenish blue. This bird is selected for notice on account of the remark- able geographical distribution of the genus to which it belongs. Thus the typical azure- winged magpie is confined to certain districts of Spain and Portugal, where it is far from common, and very local, breeding in small colonies, and 316 PERCHING BIRDS. generally resorting to districts where evergreen oaks are abundant. Unknown elsewhere in Europe, this bird is replaced in China by an almost identical form, distinguished by its superior size, and generally greyer tone of coloration, the same form also occurring in Japan Such an instance of discontinuous M WINGED MAGPIE 1 nut. Size). Blue Magpies. distribution is scarcely paralleled among the Passerines. In disposition the azure-winged pie is described as being an active and intelligent bird, building a nest very like that of the common jay. The magpies included in the genus Urodssa are distin- guished by having the nostrils covered with soft plumes instead of stiff bristles, and situated near the base of the bill. They further differ from the pies in having the bill eithn- red or yellow, but never black: and they are all characterised by the predominance of azure-blue in their plumage. Unlike the true magpies, they build open nests. ( hie species is found in Formosa, China, and Burma, and two others inhabit the Himalaya and NipaL The Chinese blue magpie (U. ftiTiensix) inhabits the hills of Eastern China, sometimes extending it- range into the more wooded portions of the plains. Styan states that it is a noisy bird, and possesses a great variety of notes. It wanders about the wooded hillsides in large parties, composed exclusively of members of its own kind. The upper-parts are lavender-brown, slightly shaded with bluish purple, CROW TRIBE. 3T7 the wings