L : :B. = B! i BS hoa : ; , orks | E: 4 \ 7 3 fs e% a al . \ . ae H 4 4 . 2a. 4 ; ’ . ba Dy ; j ; a on oe ‘e wy AM . i le a ‘ \ 3 4 4 . ‘ , A 4 Hy 4 . \ \ i » BARS AN . ‘ a 4 ,. ‘4 \ » 4 ee ‘ \ \ x = > \ Seo a % + 4 Lice F \ 2 ? 4 , : > \ H asus \ 4 A %y ; Ee ; 4 4, fH AUT srr ; he é i HO iments i ; y ? . ; . ; , : Bi oer ta ; - ig : 4 ca 8 4 ; » ff :6 H - ? j i 4 W. B. FROSTICK 26 MINSTER PRECINCTS PETERBOROUGH Oi ae Wo ee ene on THE ROYAL eA ALO BO ie 1 ta ZV ORS OG THE ROYAL PetURAL HISTORY EDITED Bx NICHARD LYDEKKER, “BA. F-K ss eseic- With RREFACE BY Rew ke. SCEATER, M:As,. PHD EeRsS. Ene: SECRETARY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON ILLUSTRATED WITH Seventy-two Colowred Plates and Sixteen Hundred Engravings BY W. KUHNERT, F. SPECHT, P. J. SMIT, G. MUTZEL, A. T. ELWES, J. WOLF, GAMBIER BOLTON, F.Z.8.; AND MANY OTHERS WOL. iT: SHC LOAN lve LONDON FREDERICK WARNE -& CO: AND NEW YORK 1894 [All Rights Reserved | MORRISON AND GIBB, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH, CO N Tiroineaes MAMMALS CHAPTER XXI.—UNGULATES,—continued. THE Hotitow-Hornep Rumimants,—continued.—The Gazelles (Gazella)—Springbok—Dorcas Gazelle—Indian Gazelle—Persian Gazelle—Grant’s Gazelle—Thomson’s Gazelle— Other Species—Clarke’s Antelope (A mmodorcas)—Gerenuk (Lithocranius)—Chiru, or Tibetan Antelope (Pantholops)—The Saiga (Saiga)—Palas (pyceros)—Lesser Pala—Angola Pala—Black Buck (Antilope)—Reitbok (Cervicapra)—Water-Buck, Lichi, etc. (Cobus)— Sing-Sing—Puku—Rhebok (Pelew)—Klipspringer (Oreotragus)—Steinboks (Nanotragus) —Oribi—Grysbok—Salt’s Antelope (Neotragus)—Duikerbok (Cephalophus)—Red Buck —Blue Buck—Zebra-Antelope—W ood-Antelope—Four-Horned Antelope (Tetraceros) —Wildebeests (Connochwtes)—Hartebeests, Blessbok, and Bontebok (Bubalis)—Titel— Hartebeest—Cooke’s Hartebeest —Konzi— Herota— Korigum— Sassabi— Blessbok— Extinct Species CHAPTER XXII.—UnauLatEs,—continued. THE Pronesuck (Antilocapride), and the Giraffe (Girafide)—The Prongbuck (A ntilocapra) —Shedding and Renewal of Horns—Habits—Hunting—Extinct Forms—The Giraffe (Giraffa)—Distribution—Habits—Hunting— Extinct Mammals allied to the Giraffe— Samothere—Sivathere, CHAPTER XXIII.—UneutLatEs,—continued. THE DEER-TRIBE (Cervidw)—Nature and Growth of Antlers—Other Characters—The Red Deer Group (Cervus elaphus, etc.)—Characters and Habits of Red Deer—Allied Species —Hangul—Shou—Maral—Wapiti—The Japanese Deer Group (C. sika, etc.)—Mant- churian Deer—Dybowski’s Deer—Formosan Deer—Caspian Deer—Indian Spotted Deer, or Chital (C. axis)—The Sambar Group (C. wnicolor, etc.)—Allied Species—Hog- Deer—The Swamp-Deer Group (C. duvauceli, etc.)—Schomburgk’s Deer—Eld’s Deer— David’s Deer (C. davidianus)—Fallow Deer Group (C. dama, ete.)—Persian Fallow Deer—Extinct Irish Deer—The Muntjacs (Cervulus)—The Tufted Deer (Zlaphodus)— The Reindeer (Rangifer)—Caribou—The Elk, or Moose (Alces)—Distribution— Habits —Hunting—The Roe Deer (Capreolus)—Tartarian Roe—Chinese Water-Deer (Hydro- potes)—The American Deer (Cariacus)—Characters of their Antlers—Brockets—Costa Rica Deer—Guemals—Pampas Deer—Marsh-Deer—Virginian Deer—Naked-Eared Deer—Mule-Deer—Black-Tailed Deer—The Pudu Deer (Pudua)—The Musk-Deer (Moschus), . CHAPTER XXIV.—UnevtLarEs,—continued. CHEVROTAINS AND CAMELS (Tragulide and Camelide).—The Chevrotains—True Chevrotains Tragulus)—Water-Chevrotain (Dorcatheriwm)—Camels and Llamas—Their Distinctive {J PAGE 289 338 vi CONTENTS PAGE Characters—The Camels (Camelus)—Arabian Camel—Its Various Breeds—Bactrian Camel—The Llamas (Lama)—Vicunia—Guanaco—Llama—Alpaca—Extinct Camel- like Ungulates, . : : : : : : : . 398 CHAPTER XXV.—UNGULATES,—continued. Tue Pic-LikE Unaunates, Pics, Peccarres, AND HipporpotaMi.—The Pigs (Suide)—The True Pigs (Sus)—European and Indian Wild Boars—Andaman Pig—Pigmy Hog— Malayan Pigs—Domestic Swine—European Breeds—Masked Swine—Bush-Pigs— Extinct Pigs—The Babirusa (Babirusa)—Its Remarkable Tusks—The Wart-Hogs (Phacochwrus)—The Peccaries (Dicotylide)—Extinet Types—Hippopotami (Huppopo- tamide)—-Common Hippopotamus—Its Distribution and Habits—Hunting—The Pigmy Hippopotamus—Extinct Species, . 5 3 : : : . 420 CHAPTER XXVI.—UNGULATES,—continued. Tapirs, RHINOCEROSES, AND Horses.—Characteristics of Odd-Toed Ungulates—The Tapirs (Tapirvide)—Characters and Distribution—Malayan Tapir—American Tapirs—Habits —Huntinge—The Rhinoceroses (Rhinocerotidw)— Characteristics — Teeth—H orns— Habits—The Asiatic Rhinoceroses—Indian Rhinoceros—Javan Rhinoceros—Allied Extinct Species—Sumatran Species—African Rhinoceroses—Common African Species —Size of Horns—Habits—Hunting—Burchell’s Rhinoceros—Holmwood’s Rhinoceros —Extinct Rhinoceroses—The Horse-Tribe (Hquidw)—Characteristics—Specialisation— Equus—Nomenclature of Limbs—Indications of Age—The Horse—Its Distribution— Tarpan—Prejevalski’s Horse—Domestication—In America—In Australia—Barbs and Arabs—Arab—Levant and Persian Horses—English Race-Horse— Hunters, ete.— Leaping Powers—American Trotter—Shetland, and other Ponies—Cart-Horses— Shire-Horse—Clydesdale—Suffolk Punch—Foreign Breeds—The Zebras—True Zebra —Burchell’s Zebra—Grévy’s Zebra—Quagga—The Asses—Asiatie Wild Ass—Varieties, Distribution, and Habits—African Wild Ass—Domestic Ass—Mule—Fossil Horses—- Other Extinct Odd-Toed Ungulates—Ancestry of the Horse—Paleotheres and Lophio- dons—Titanotheres and Chalicotheres—Paleeosyops, : ‘ . 454 CHAPTER XXVII.—UneutatsEs,—concluded. Hyraces, ELEPHANTS, ETC.—Characters of Foot in the Elephants and their Allies—The Hyraces (Hyracoidea)—Characters of the Procaviide—Distribution—Abyssinian Hyraces— Cape Hyrax—Syrian Hyrax—Tree-Hyraces—Elephants (Proboscidea)—Characters of the Hlephantide—The Skull and Teeth—Habits—Indian Elephant—Distribution— Habits—Breeding—Elephant - Shooting—Modes of Capture—Value and Uses of Elephants—The Mammoth—The African Elephant—Distribution—Habits—Hunting —Mode of Capture—Extinct Elephants—Sutledje Elephant—Narbada Elephant— Straight-Tusked Elephant—Pigmy Species—Southern Elephant—Stegodont Elephants —The Mastodons—The Dinothere—Short-Footed Ungulates(Amblypoda)—The Macrau- chenia and its Allies (Litopterna)—The Astrapotheres and their Kin (Astrapotheria)— The Toxodonts (Toxodontia), : ; : F : ‘ ; e oles CHAPTER XXVIIL—Manatis anp Ducones,—Order Senta. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE Group.—Mode of Life— Distribution—Classification— Manatis (Manatus)—Distribution and Number of Species—Habits—The Dugong (Halicore)— Distribution—Habits—Northern Sea-Cow (Rhytina)—Distribution and Habits— Extermination —Tertiary Sirenians, ' : ; : : : - 567 INDEX To Sxconp VoLuME, CoMPRISING SECTIONS III, anp IV., : : ' » 577 mist OF [LLUSMReAd hens COLOURED PEAGES GAZELLES, , Frontispiece GIRAFFES, é : Facing page 332 FaLLtow DEER, : : 5 a5 364 InDIAN RHINOCEROS, re 464 ZEBRAS, , 55 505 AFRICAN ELEPHANT, 2 = 545 PAGE PLARES GRouP OF AFRICAN ANTELOPES, Page 317 A Famity or Rep DEkrr, » 342 ARABIAN CAMEL, ‘ » 405 A Famity oF EUROPEAN Wien Sv » 423 InDIAN ELEPHANT, 4 Bill THE Haunt OF THE AFRICAN ianctoeeee » O47 ihexT ENGRAVINGS PAGE PAGE A “Trek” of Springbok, 289 | Skull and Horns of Cooke’s Hartebeest, 320 Head of Grant’s Gazelle, 290 | Head of Swayne’s Hartebeest, 321 The Springbok, 291 | Head of Hunter’s Hartebeest, 322 Dorcas Gazelle, 292 | Head of Korigum or Senegal oaks 323 Skull of Indian Gazelle, 293 | Group of Prongbuck, . 3826 Horns of Thomson’s Gazelle, 294 | Head of Prongbuck, with newly-growing Head of Clarke’s Antelope, 295 Horns, 328 Head and Neck of the Gerenuk, 296 | Giraffes at a Pool, 331 Head of Chiru, 297 | Skeleton of Giraffe, 332 The Saiga, . 298 | South African Giraffe, 334 Head of Pala, 299 | Skull of Samothere, 337 Male and Female Black- Back, 300 | Skull of Sivathere, : 337 Skull of Black-Buck, 301 | Skeleton of Male Red Deer, 338 Head of Water-Buck, 303 | Head of Red Deer with new Antlers in The Puku, . : 304 the “ Velvet,” 339 Male and Female Kars inger, 306 | Left Antlers of Asiatic beer 340 The Oribi, . 308 | Antler of Red Deer, 344 The Duikerbok, : 309 | Red Deer at a Pool, 346 Male and Female Four-Horned Revels 311 | Wapiti Chased by Wolves, . 349 Skull of Four-Horned Antelope, 312 | Antlers of Spotted Deer, Swamp-Deer, White-Tailed Wildebeest, . 313 and Sambar, 353 Blue Wildebeest, 314 | Indian Spotted Deer, 355 Wildebeests curveting round a W: aggon, 315 | The Sambar, 357 Hartebeest, 319 ' Head of pehonheeges ieee 361 Vill Antlers of Ivish Deer, The Indian Muntjac, Head of Hairy-Fronted Muntjac, . Michie’s Deer, Bones of Root of Roebue i Foot of Reindeer, Reindeer, Foot of Elk, A Family of Elk, A Moose-Yard, Male and Female Roe Deer Skull of Chinese Water Deer, Antlers of Marsh, Virginian, and Mule meen The Red Brocket, Pampas Deer, Virginian Deer, Virginian Deer Swimming, Head of Mule-Deer, Head and ehonlder: of Pudu Des Male and Female Musk Deer, Bones and Foot of Chevrotains, The Smaller Malayan Chevrotain, Skeleton of Arabian Camel, Bones of Camel’s Foot, ; Water-Cells in Camel’s Stomach, The Bactrian Camel, A Drove of Vicunias, The Llama, The Alpaca, Skeleton of Wild Boar, Molar Teeth of Extinct Pig-hke Aeemanle Bones of Foot of Pig, ‘ : Skull of Bearded Pig, : ‘ Hi Molar Tooth of Pig, : ; A “Sounder” of Wild Swine, Berkshire Pig, Harrison Pig, Dwart Chinese Pig, Masked Japanese Pig, The Red Bush-Pig, The Babirusa, Skull of Babirusa, Alian’s Wart-Hog, : Head of Pallas’s Wart-Hog, The Collared Peccary and oe Skeleton of Hippopotamus A Family Party of Hippopotami, Hippopotami at Home, Skeleton of Malayan Tapir, Bones of Foot of Rhinoceros, Teeth of the Anchithere, Malayan Tapir, American Tapir, Teeth of Rhinoceroses, PAGE 365 366 367 368 370 370 ey 376 BT 379 382 384 385 386 388 390 392 > bo bo or ee bo by bs ~JI a ww bo LIST OF TLELOSPRATLIONS Indian Rhinoceros in Zoological Gardens, The Indian Rhinoceros, The Sumatran Rhinoceros, : The Common African Rhinoceros, Head of Common African Rhinoceros, surchell’s Rhinoceros, Head of Burchell’s Rhinoceros, Skull of Extinct Rhinoceros, Teeth of Anchithere, Horse, and Hipparion, Skull of Three-Toed Horse, Shire Stallion, Teeth of the Horse at Various ieee English Race-Horse (“ Doncaster ”) The Tarpan, English Race-Horse (Bend: Or ») xerman Half-Bred Horse, Percheron Cart-Horse, Clydesdale Mare, Burchell’s Zebra, Grévy’s Zebra, The Quagea, : : Tibetan Wild Ass, or Kiang, A Troop of Persian Wild Asses, The African Wild Asses, Domestic Ass, Cheek-Teeth of Paleothee! Molar Teeth of Palzeosyops, Foot-Bones of Elephant, Skeleton of Cape Hyrax, Foot-Bones of Hyrax, Syrian Hyrax, Tree-Hyrax, Skeleton of Indian jilephant Molar Teeth of Mammoth, Molar Tooth of Clift’s Elephant, Molar Tooth of Elephant, . Indian Elephant Drinking, : Indian Elephants Enjoying Themselves, . Indian Elephant Kneeling, Elephant Carrying Timber, Molar Tooth of African Elephant, Last Molar Teeth of Mastodons, Molars of Mastodons, ‘ 5 : Skull of Dinothere, ‘ Cheek-Teeth of Uintathere, Palate of Homalodontothere, Lower Jaw of Astrapothere, Skeleton of Toxodon, Skull of Nesodon, . Skeleton of Manati, The American Manati, The Dugong, Skeleton of Northern Sea- Con, Fea of the African Elephant, Ov Or Or Or Or Or Sr Ot Sr Or tr bo bo Wb PD OR OH BS ik oe i Inwreownooaonwtinaaoaw re or Or Oo on we) Or oO DAD Or © bo Or oP) CHAPTER XXI. THE UNGULATES,—continued. " THE HoLitow-HorNnepD RuMINANTS,—continued. THE GAZELLES. Genus Gazella. THE large and extensive group of antelopes known as gazelles brings us to the first of an assemblage of several widely-spread genera, differ- ing considerably from those yet noticed. Most of these antelopes are of small or moderate size, and the majority of them are inhabitants of the deserts of the Old World. The whole of them have narrow upper molar teeth like sheep, and their muzzles are similarly covered with hair. There is very frequently a gland below the eye, and the tail is either short or of moderate length. As a rule, the horns are compressed and lyrate or recurved, or cylindrical and spiral, with distinct rings for a considerable portion of their length. The skull has large pits in the forehead. The gazelles are among the most elegant of all antelopes, and are characterised by their sandy colour and the presence of a white streak on the side of the face from the base of the horn nearly to the nose, thus cutting off a dark triangular patch in the middle of the forehead, while the streak itself is bordered externally VOL. I1.—19 A ** TREK” OF SPRINGBOK. 290 UNGULATES. by a diffused dark linet The horns, which are generally present in both sexes, are lyrate or recurved and are compressed, oval in section, and completely ringed throughout the greater part of their length. The knees are generally furnished with tufts of hair. Glands are present in the feet, and the gland below the eye, if present, is small and covered with hair. Most of the gazelles do not exceed 30 inches in height, although the mohr reaches 36 inches. There are about twenty- one living species belonging to the genus Gazella, which are mainly found in the deserts of Asia and North Africa, although the group is represented in South Africa by the springbok. Two of the Asiatic species are found at great eleva- tions. Several species of fossil gazelles occur in the Pleistocene and Pliocene deposits of both Europe and India. The existing gazelles may be divided into several groups, accord- ing to coloration and the presence or absence of horns in the females; and, since the species are so numerous, we shall content our- selves with selecting one from each group for special notice. Our first representative of the genus is the South African springbok (Gazella ewchore), which differs from all the other species by the presence of a stripe of long white erectile hairs running down the middle of the back, and also by having only two premolar teeth in the lower jaw. Both sexes are horned. In height the springbok stands about 30 inches, and the black horns are lyrate, with about twenty complete rings, and in the males attain a length of from 10 to 15 inches. The general colour is dark cinnamon-yellow, but there is a dark brown stripe on the flanks dividing the cinnamon colour of the sides from the white of the under-parts, and a dark streak running through the eye. The general distribution of the white is shown in our figure, but it may be remarked that there is more white on the face than in any other species, the dark central area of the forehead being reduced to a small patch below the horns. The snow-white hairs on the back have a length of 3 or 4 inches. In eastern South Africa the northern range of the springbok extends to about latitude 20°, its limits being marked by the forests south of the Mababi River; 1 These markings are absent in the Tibetan gazelle. HEAD OF GRANT’S GAZELLE. (From Sir V. Brooke, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1878.) Springbok. ANTELOPE. 291 westward of Lake Ngami it extends, however further north, reaching Benguela and Angola on the west coast. According to Mr. Selous, this antelope is still found in the north-west of the Cape Colony, and throughout the Transvaal and Griqualand West ; while it is abundant on the borders of the Kalahari desert. The springbok derives its name from its habit of suddenly leaping in the air; and is remarkable both for the vast numbers in which it formerly occurred, and for its periodical migrations. Writing of one of these migrations, Gordon Cumming states that “for about two hours before dawn I had been lying awake in my waggon, listening to the grunting of the buck within 200 yards of me; imagining that some large THE SPRINGBOK (yy nat. size). herd of springboks was feeding beside my camp, but, rising when it was light and looking about me, I beheld the ground to the northward of my camp actually covered with a dense living mass of springboks, marching slowly and steadily along. They extended from an opening in a long range of hills on the west, through which they continued pouring like the flood of some great river, to a ridge about a mile to the north-east, over which they disappeared—the breadth they covered might have been somewhere about half a mile. I stood upon the fore-chest of my waggon for nearly two hours, lost in astonishment at the novel and wonderful scene before me, and had some difficulty in convincing myself that it was a reality which I beheld, and not the wild and exaggerated picture of a hunter’s dream. During this 292 ONGULATES. time, these vast legions continued streaming through the neck of the hills in one unbroken phalanx.” Later on the same writer continues that, “on our climbing the low range of hills through which the springboks had been pouring, I beheld the plains and even the hillsides which stretched away on every side of me thickly covered, not with herds, but with one vast mass of springboks ; as far as the eye could strain, the landscape was alive with them, until they softened down into a dim red mass of living creatures. To endeavour to form any idea of the amount of antelopes which I had that day beheld were vain; but I have no hesitation in saying that some hundreds of thousands were within the compass of my vision.” Vast, however, as must have been the numbers on this occasion, the Boers informed the narrator that they were nothing to those that had been witnessed in some DORCAS GAZELLE. trekbokken, when the animals extended over a succession of flats, instead of being confined to one alone, and were crowded together like sheep in a fold throughout a long day’s journey, as far as the eye can reach. So dense are the moving masses that if a flock of sheep becomes intermingled with the herd they are swept along without hope of escape; and it is said that even the lion may be thus entrapped. Livingstone suggests that these migrations are due to the grass in the Kalahari desert becoming so tall as to impede the springbok from obtaining a clear view of the surrounding country. The Dorcas gazelle (G. dorcas), which is figured in our coloured Plate, may be taken as the representative of a group in which the white of the rump does not encroach on the fawn-colour of the haunches, while both sexes have lyrate or sublyrate horns. This well-known species inhabits the deserts of Egypt, Algeria, Syria, Palestine, and parts of Asia Minor. It stands barely Dorcas Gazelle. ANTELOPES. 293 24 inches at the shoulder; and the horns are relatively long and slender, with their tips incurved, their length being sometimes a little over 13 inches. Like most other gazelles, this beautiful little animal is of extremely delicate build, and is re- markable for its great speed. When running, it appears to skim the ground like a bird, and often takes leaps of a yard or more in height. Closely allied to this species is the isabelline gazelle (G. csabellina) of Kordofan and Senaar, distinguished by the tail being rufous, instead of black, above. Other species are the korin (G. rufifrons) of Senegal; Sundevall’s gazelle (G. levipes) of Senaar; and the black- tailed gazelle (G. tilonwra) of Bogosland; the latter being characterised by its superior size, reaching 29 inches at the shoulder, and the horns varying from 7 to 10? inches in length. The Indian gazelle (G. bennetti), brings us to a subgroup dis- tinguished from the preceding by the horns not being distinctly lyrate, but generally having a slight S-shaped curvature when seen from the side. The general colour of this well-known species—the ravine-deer of Indian sports- men—is light chestnut above, while the tail is blackish. In height the buck stands 26 inches at the withers; and the horns, which usually have fifteen or sixteen rings, average 10 to 12 inches in length along the curve. This species inhabits the plains of Central and North-Western India, whence it extends through Baluchistan to Persia. It is commonly found in parties of from two to six, although occasionally from ten to twenty may be found together. Its swiftness is such that it can but seldom be taken with dogs; but it does not leap in the air like the doreas. Mr. Blanford writes that this gazelle “keeps much to waste ground, especially where that is broken up by ravines, but it is seldom seen on alluvial plains, and it haunts cultivation less than the [Indian] antelope. It is frequently found amongst scattered bushes or thin tree-jungle, and may be met with on undulating ground even on the top of hills; it is com- monly found amongst sand-hills, and is nowhere so abundant as in parts of the Indian desert. It lives on grass and the leaves of bushes, and I believe never drinks, for it is common in tracts where there is no water except from deep wells.” Other members of this group are the mountain-gazelle (G. cuvierr) of Morocco and Algeria, which reaches a height of 274 inches; the small-horned gazelle (G. leptoceros) of the Sudan; the well-known Arabian gazelle (G. arabica); and Speke’s gazelle (G. spekez) of the plateau of Somaliland. The latter species is of very small size, and remark- able for the loose flabby skin of the nose, and is further distinguished by the length of its hair and dull coloration. The length of the horns ranges from 9} to 114 inches. Another group is formed by three Asiatic gazelles, which differ from all other members of the genus by the females being hornless. Of these, the Persian gazelle (G. swhgutturosa) inhabits the highlands of Persia and Indian Gazelle. SKULL OF INDIAN GAZELLE. Persian Gazelle. aw UNGULATES. a large area in Central Asia, extending as far the Gobi Desert. This species has lyrate horns, with incurved tips, which may have from sixteen to twenty-five rings ; and the tail is not surrounded by a white dise. The longest pair of horns known measure 144 inches. In Mongolia, this species is replaced by the larger Mongolian gazelle (G. guttwrosa), characterised by its extremely pale-coloured horns. The third member of the group is the goa or Tibetan gazelle (G. picticaudata), dis- tinguished by the white dise round the tail, the long winter-coat, short ears and tail, the greatly curved horns, and the uniform colour of the face. The height of the animal is 24 inches; and the largest recorded horns measured 15? inches in length; the number of rings varying from twenty to thirty. This gazelle inhabits the Tibetan plateau at elevations of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet, and goes in small parties of from two or three to a dozen. It is less shy than other species. The last group of the true gazelles is characterised by the white of the rump extending forwards in an angle into the fawn-colour of the haunches; both sexes having horns, which are frequently longer than in the other groups; the animals themselves being also relatively large. Perhaps the handsomest member of the whole genus is the East African Grant's gazelle (G. grantt), from the Kilima-Njaro district and the neighbourhood of Zanzibar, of which the head is figured in the woodcut on p. 290. Grant’s gazelle has longer and finer horns than any other species of the genus; their length being frequently as much as 26 inches, while in one instance a length of 30 inches has been recorded. The general colour of the upper part of the body is fawn, and there is no dark band on the flanks dividing the fawn-colour from the white of the under-parts. On the neck and back the hair has a kind of wavy appearance, somewhat like the pattern on watered silk. This gazelle is common on the open plains of East Africa, and is generally found in small parties comprising from ten to fifteen does and fawns, accom- panied by a single adult buck. Sir J. Willoughby states that in the Kilima-Njaro district these gazelles “were in extraordinary profusion, though extremely wild, and among the herds we noticed many fine bucks. It may be worthy of record that they would often allow us to crawl towards them without showing any sign of alarm, until we were within a fair rifle range; whereas, if we attempted to walk towards them, even in a stooping position, they would invariably start off before we had approached within 400 yards.” Grant’s Gazelle. Thomson's In Masailand, on the east coast to the north of HORNS OF THOMSON’S Gazelle. = Zanzibar, Grant’s gazelle is replaced by the allied GAZELLE. (From : ’ : : Giinther.) but smaller Thomson’s gazelle (G. thomsonz), of which the horns are figured in the woodeut. In this species the horns are relatively smaller and thinner than in the last, not exceeding 15 inches in length. This gazelle is also distinguished from the preceding by the broad dark brown band on the flanks, dividing the fawn-colour of the body from the white of the belly. The largest of all the group is the swift gazelle (G. mohz), which Other Species. = ° . ; is a West African species from Senegal, standing upwards of 32 ANTELOPES. 295 inches at the withers, and still higher at the rump. Allied to this is the dama gazelle (G. dama), from the Sudan, with relatively short lyrate horns, and no dark band on the flanks. Another fine species is the aoul (G. semmerring?), inhabiting the lowlands of Somaliland, and also found in Abyssinia and the Sudan. In the swift gazelle the length of the horns may be 12 inches; while in the aoul or Scemmerring’s gazelle this varies from about 12 to upwards of 194 inches. The height of the latter species at the shoulder is about 30 inches. It is characterised by its very massive lyrate horns, marked with about eighteen rings, and may be distinguished from the dama by its longer ears, bordered with black externally, and the more strongly-defined and nearly black markings on the face. This is the finest of the Somaliland gazelles; and was formerly found in small herds close to the shore. CLARKE’S ANTELOPE. Genus Ammodorcas. Nearly allied to the true gazelles is a remarkable antelope (Ammodorcas clarkei), recently discovered in Somaliland, which serves to connect the preceding with the following species. Clarke’s antelope, while having the facial markings of the gazelles, is distinguished by the regular upward and for- ward curvature of the rather short horns, which are ringed in front at the base. The females are hornless; and the skull is intermediate between that of the gazelles and the under- mentioned gerenuk. The neck is very long, and the tail thin and long. The number of rings on the horn varies from five to ten. The general colour is a deep cinnamon, darker than in any of the true gazelles. These ante- lopes appear to be local in Somaliland, but are said to be common in parts of the interior. Mr. Clarke states that when running they throw the tail upwards and forwards, and at the same time incline the long neck backwards, so that the two look as if they would touch each ether. It is locally known as the dibata 2. HEAD OF CLARKE’S ANTELOPE.—After Thomas. THE GERENUK. Genus Lithocranius. Still more remarkable than the preceding is the gerenuk, or Waller’s gazelle (ithocranius walleri), which is also an East African species, ranging from Somaliland to the Kilima-Njaro district. The most peculiar external feature about this animal is the excessively long neck (as shown in the accompanying figure), which has led to its being likened to a miniature giraffe. The horns of the bucks curve forwards at the tips in a peculiar hook-like manner, and are usually about 13 inches in length, although they may reach 14 inches. The skin of this antelope is distinguished by the presence of a very broad dark-brown band running down the middle of the back, which in its widest part measures some 7 or 8 inches across, and stands out in striking contrast to the rufous fawn of the flanks and limbs. The skull differs from those of the true gazelles by its extremely dense and solid structure, as well by the relative shortness of its facial portion, its remarkable straightness, and the unusually small size of the cheek-teeth. Captain Swayne says that “the gerenuk is found all over the Somali country in small families, never in large herds, and generally in scattered bush, ravines, and rocky ground. I have never seen it in the cedar-forests, nor in the treeless plains. Gerenuk are not neces- sarily found near water; in fact, generally in stony ground with a sprinkling of thorn-jungle. The gait of this antelope is peculiar. When first seen, a buck gerenuk will generally be standing motionless, head well up, looking at the intruder, and trusting to its invisibility. Then the head dives under the bushes, and the animal goes off at a long, crouching trot, stopping now and again behind some bush to gaze. The trot is awkward-looking, and very like that of Habits. HEAD AND NECK OF THE GERENUK. ; a (From Sclater, Proc, Zool, Soc., 1892.) camel; the gerenuk seldom gallops, and its pace is never very fast. In the whole shape of the head and neck, and in the slender lower jaw, there is a marked resemblance between the 3 gerenuk and the dibatag.” This antelope subsists more by browsing than by grazing, and it may not unfrequently be observed standing up on its hind-legs, with outstretched neck, and its fore-feet resting against the trunk of a tree, in order to pluck the foliage. THE CHIRU, OR TIBETAN ANTELOPE. Genus Pantholops. In addition to possessing a peculiar species of gazelle, to which reference has already been made, the elevated and barren plateau of Tibet is further characterised by an antelope remarkable for the swollen nose and long elegant horns of the bucks. This antelope is the chiru (Pantholops hodgsont), the sole representative of the ANTELOPES. 297 genus to which it belongs. In many respects the chiru is allied to the saiga, mentioned next, but the nose is less convex, and the nostrils open anteriorly instead of downwards. The horns (which, as in all the following members of this group are present only in the bucks) are black, long, erect, laterally compressed, and sub- lyrate, with rings in front for the lower two-thirds of their length. There is no gland below the eye; and the skull lacks the pits between the eyes found in the other members of the group. In height the male chiru stands 32 inches at the shoulder; and it is covered with very thick, close fur, becoming woolly near the skin. The colour is pale fawn above and white below; the whole face and a stripe down the front of each leg being black or dark brown in the bucks. The horns frequently reach 24 and 26 inches in length, and one pair has been recorded of 27% inches. The chiru probably inhabits the whole of the Tibetan plateau, at the same elevations as the Tibetan gazelle. In summer the sexes live apart; and these ante- lopes are often found in parties of from three to four individuals, but sometimes in large herds. They frequent the open rolling plains, or broad river-valleys, and generally feed at morning and evening. Although usually difficult to approach, a solitary buck will sometimes start up from a ravine close to the traveller’s feet, as once happened to the present writer. General Kinloch states that the chiru is in the habit of excavating hollows in the sand, in which it will lie concealed during the day. ‘The young are born in summer; one only being produced at a birth. Habits. HEAD OF CHIRU. THE SaAIGA. Genus Saiga. From the peculiarly bloated appearance of the nose of the male, the saiga (Saiga tartarica) of the steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia is one of the most ungainly of the antelopes, and thereby presents a marked contrast to the gazelles. In size this animal may be compared toa sheep, and its whole build is clumsy. The nose is very large, convex, and inflated, with the nostrils opening 298 UNGULATES. downwards; and the face has a small gland below the eye. The ears are small and rounded ; and the tail is of moderate length. The lyrate horns are rather short, completely ringed, and of an amber-yellow colour. In summer the general colour of the upper-parts is tawny yellow; but in winter, when the hair increases in length, the tint is greyish, and, in fact, externally nearly white; the face, under- parts, and the lower surface of the tail are always white. The horns usually attain a length of from 10 to 12 inches along the curve, but may be over 14 inches. The saiga is found in large herds, sometimes comprising several hundred individuals during the summer, but these split up into small parties in the winter ; the old males always remaining with the herds. According to Habits. THE SAIGA (yy nat. size). Pallas, some members of the herd keep watch while the others sleep. Although the saiga, when first started, can run swiftly for a short distance, it soon becomes blown. When caught young, these animals can be easily tamed, and will follow their owners about like a dog. At the present day the range of the saiga embraces Southern Russia and South-Western Siberia; its headquarters being the Kirghiz Steppes. A century ago the saiga extended, however, as far as the confines of Poland; and it is now gradually retreating towards the east of the Volga. In summer the saiga wanders as far north as the districts inhabited by the reindeer ; while in winter it migrates south, and thus comes in contact with the Persian Distribution. ANTELOPES. ‘299 gazelle. When we pass back to the Pleistocene period, the saiga had a much more extensive range to the westward, its fossilised remains having been obtained from the caverns and superficial deposits of Hungary, Belgium, and the south of France. Moreover, from the frontlet of a male having been discovered in the gravels of Twickenham, it is evident that the animal occasionally wandered as far as Britain. In Moravia there have been found the remains of a saiga difterimg from the living species by having six, in place of five, lower cheek-teeth. From the occurrence of saiga remains, together with those of other mammals now characteristic of the steppes, in Western Europe, it has been inferred that steppe-like conditions and climate must formerly have prevailed over portions of that area. PALAS. Genus dpyceros. The South African antelope, known by the name of pala or impala (4/pyceros melampus), is a rather large animal, standing a little over 3 feet in height, and of a dark-red colour above, gradually shading into white below. There is no gland on the face below the eye ; and the feet are distinguished by the total absence of the lateral hoofs. The horns of the males are lyrate, widely divergent, and somewhat spiral, with about a dozen complete and widely-separated rings. The ordinary length of pala horns does not exceed 16 inches; but Mr. Selous records specimens of 20 and 21 inches, measured in a straight line. The pala is found throughout Southern and South-Eastern Africa. Mr. Selous states that these antelopes are nowhere more plentiful than along the Chobi, and may often be seen in herds of from twenty to one hundred together. “There are very few males in comparison with the number of females, though I have sometimes seen a herd composed entirely of rams, ten or fifteen in number. They are like thick corn along the river’s bank, and are seldom seen at a distance of more than a mile from water; and there is no more certain sion of the proximity of water than the presence of impala antelopes.” In Nyasaland, Mr. Crawshay states that they frequent sandy plains covered with mimosas and low scrub near the rivers. The same writer observes that “no antelope I have seen can compare with the impala in fleetness of foot, and cer- tainly no other can display such wonderful leaping power; they go off like the proverbial arrow from the bow, and, with most beautiful gliding bounds, cover the ground, without apparently the least effort. When alarmed they often give utterance to a sharp bark.” From its red colour, the pala is known to the Dutch Boers as the roybok. Gordon Cumming relates that on one occasion near his camp “a loud rushing noise was heard coming on like a hurricane; this was a large troop of pala pursued by a pack of about twenty wild dogs. They passed our camp in fine style within HEAD OF PALA.—After Selous. 200 UNGULATES. v9 a hundred yards of us, and in a few minutes the dogs had fastened upon two of the palas, which my Bechuanas ran up and secured. One of these animals cleared a distance of fifty feet in two successive bounds, and this on unfavourable ground, it being very soft and slippery.” The lesser pala is a smaller variety inhabiting part of Nyasaland, in the very heart of the distributional area of the typical form from which it is distinguished by its more slender skull and smaller horns. On the west coast, in Angola and Hasholand, the genus is represented by the Angola pala (4. peters). This pala is dis- tinguished by the presence of a black streak down the middle of the face, from the eyes to the upper part of the nose, and also by a black patch below each eye. Lesser Pala. Angola Pala. THE BLAcK-BUCK. Genus Antilope. The handsomely-coloured black-buck or Indian antelope (Antilope cervicapra) is the sole representative of its genus, and at the same time the last member of the MALE AND FEMALE OF THE BLACK-BUCK (75 nat. size). present group. The black-buck stands about 32 inches at the shoulder, and has a short: and compressed tail, large glands, with a linear aperture below the eyes, tufts ANTELOPES. 301 of hair on the knees, and small but distinct lateral hoofs. The horns of the bucks rise close together, and are cylindrical, divergent, and spiral, with complete blunt rings throughout their length. The number of turns in the spiral of the horns varies from less than three to as many as five; and there is great individual variation in regard to the degree of divergence of the horns. The usual length of horns varies from 16 to 20 inches in a straight line, and in Peninsular India the length seldom exceeds 22 inches; but in Rajputana and Harriana the horns are longer, and have been known to attain a length of 28} inches. Does and young bucks are yellowish fawn-colour above and on the outer sides of the limbs, and white on the under-parts ; the two colours are sharply defined, and just above the line of division there is a distinct pale streak. Save for a rufous patch on the nape of the neck, the old bucks are blackish brown above, and also on the sides of the neck and the whole of the face, with the exception of a white ring round each eye. Invery old individuals the black- ish brown becomes almost completely black. Occasionally does are met with having small recurved horns. The black-buck is an in- habitant of open plains from the foot of the Himalaya nearly to Cape Comorin, and from the Punjab to Lower Assam; and is most abundant in the North-West Provinces, Rajputana, and portions of the Deccan. It frequents either grassy districts or cultivated lands, and is generally found in herds, which may comprise hundreds or even thousands of individuals, but more usually number from ten to thirty, or even fifty does, accompanied by a single old buck. Mr. Blanford states that frequently “two or three younger bucks, coloured like the does, remain with the latter, but these young males are sometimes driven away by older bucks, and form separate herds. This antelope never enters forest nor high grass, and is but rarely seen amongst bushes. When not much pursued or fired at, it will often allow men to come in the open within about one hundred and fifty yards, some- times nearer.” Carts and natives can approach still closer. The black-buck feeds at all hours, although it generally rests during the middle of the day. In certain districts, where there is no fresh water except in deep wells, it is certain that these animals never drink; but several observers have proved that in other places they, at least occasionally, drink freely. Like the springbok, the black-buck frequently leaps high in the air when running. The speed and endurance of these animals are well known; and it is but very seldom that they are pulled down on good Habits. SKULL OF BLACK-BUCK. 302 UNGULATES. ground by greyhounds. In heavy sand, or on soft ground during the rains, they are, however, easily overtaken by good dogs; and wounded buck may be ridden down. An account of black-buck coursing with the hunting-leopard will be found on p. 445 of the first volume ; and antelope-stalking is a favourite Indian sport. Young fawns are generally concealed by the does in long grass. The bucks utter a short grunt, and the does a kind of hissing sound when alarmed. During the pairing-season the bucks engage in frequent combats among themselves. When taken young, the black-buck can be easily tamed, but the males are apt to be dangerous at certain seasons. THE REITBOK. Genus Cervicapra. The reitbok, or reedbuck (Cervicapra arundineum), introduces us to a totally different group of large or small antelopes confined to Africa. These animals have horns only in the males; narrow, goat-like, upper molar teeth; and either a hairy or a naked muzzle. There is generally a gland below the eye, which may, however, be very small; and the skull usually has a large unossified space below the eye, and distinct pits in the forehead. The horns may be either large, lyrate, widely spreading, and thickly ringed, or small and upright. The tail is either of medium length, or very short. The reitbok is characterised by its comparatively small horns, which bend forwards somewhat after the manner of those of Clarke’s antelope. The tail is bushy and comparatively short, not reaching to within some distance of the hocks, and the lateral hoofs are very small. In height this antelope stands nearly 3 feet ; and the short, smooth, and almost woolly fur is of a pale brownish fawn on the upper-parts, with a tinge of orange on the head; the under-parts and inner sides of the limbs being dirty white. Very old does become much paler, in fact almost white. The ordinary length of the horns is from 12 to 13 inches along the curves, although they occasionally reach 15 and 16 inches. Distribution and Formerly reitbok were to be met with throughout Central South Habits. Africa, wherever there are open grassy or reedy valleys traversed by streams, but they are now practically exterminated in Bechuanaland, and rare in the Transvaal, although still common in many districts, such as the Chobi region, They generally associate in pairs, and it is seldom that more than three or four individuals (of which one or two will be young) are seen together, although some- times as many as eight may be observed feeding within a short distance of one another. Mr. Selous mentions that “although the reedbuck is never found far from water, it always keeps on dry ground, and when chased I have never seen one take to boggy ground, but have noticed that rather than cross a narrow stream of water they will make a long detour.” Indeed, when hunted these antelope will invariably seek refuge in bush, or by flight into the open dry country. The males, if suddenly frightened, sometimes utter a whistling sound. In pace this species is slow, and it is one of the easiest of African antelopes to stalk. ANTELOPES. 303 The South African antelope known as the roi rhebok (C. lalandt), which, by the way, must not be confounded with the true or vaal rhebok, is a smaller but nearly-allied species, standing only about 28 inches at the shoulder. It has long and coarse reddish-brown hair on the upper-parts, while beneath it is white. The horns are seldom more than 8 or 9 inches in length, and bend forwards in a sharp sweep, without any outward inclination. The West African nagor (C. redunca) is closely allied to, if not identical with, this species ; the coloration being similar, and the small horns not usually exceeding 6 inches in length. The other representative of the genus is the bohor (C. bohor), extending in East Africa from Abyssinia to Masailand; it is a larger and brighter-coloured animal than the last, from which it is also distinguished by certain characters of the skull. Other Species. WaATER-Buck, LICHI, ETC. Genus Cobus. The antelopes included in the genus Cobus are water-loving animals, generally of larger size than the reitbok, and associating in herds. Their horns are long, sublyrate, and ringed nearly throughout; the tail is longer than the reitbok, and tufted at the end. As in the latter, the gland below the eye is rudimentary; and the colour, with the excep- tion of some patches on the rump and the head is uniform, The muzzle is naked. The skull may be distinguished from that of Cervicapra by the premaxillary bones reaching upwards to join the nasals. The water-buck (C. ellipsiprymnus) stands upwards of 4 feet or more at the withers, and is characterised by its long and very coarse hair, which varies in colour from reddish brown to dark grey, with an oval ring of white on the buttocks, extend- ing above the tail, a white gorget on the throat, a streak of the same colour on part of each eye, and some white near the muzzle. Good horns average about 28 inches along the curve, but they may measure 30, 31, or even 334 inches; their colour is pale. Water-buck inhabit Southern and Eastern Africa to some distance north of the Zambesi; and they are never found in herds of more than twenty individuals. Mr. Selous states that the water-buck is most partial to steep stony hills, and is thi: tac : Z HEAD OF WATER-BUCK.—After often found at a distance of more than a mile from the Saldas nearest river, for which, however, it always makes when pursued. Though a heavy-looking beast, it can clamber with wonderful speed and sureness of foot up and down the steepest hillsides. In Nyasaland Mr. Crawshay writes, that water-buck are always found in greatest numbers on large swampy plains overgrown with coarse grass, tall reeds, and papyrus, where in the wet season it is almost impossible to get at them; unlike other antelopes, except the Water-Buck. 304 UNGULATES. reedbuck, they do not appear to leave the lowlands in the rains, but keep to the plains all the year round. The water-buck is less difficult to stalk than the reitbok, but its flesh is so coarse and stringy as to be almost uneatable. The sing-sing (C. defassa), from Western and Central Africa, which stands 3 feet 10 inches at the shoulder, differs from the water-buck by its fine and soft hair, and the presence of a continuous whitish patch on the buttocks, which does not rise above the level of the rest of the tail ; while there is no white gorget. The horns do not exceed 27; inches in length, or a fraction over. The sunu (C. leucotis), from Uganda, is another large species, distinguished by the blackish colour of its fur, and the white ears, rings round the eyes, and under-parts. The horns are relatively long and thin, reaching from 17 to nearly 20 inches in length. The remaining species are of smaller size, and distinguished by their more reddish or foxy-coloured hair. It is probably to one of these smaller species that the species of Cobus found in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India is allied. The West and East African zquitun (C. cob) is a much smaller animal than the under-mentioned lichi, and has shorter horns, coming more for- wards. It has a relatively shorter tail than the water-buck, and is of a general pale reddish-brown colour, with white on the inner sides of the ears, the under-parts, the inner surfaces of the limbs, the tip of the tail, and a ring round each fetlock. Good horns vary in length from 17 to 18 inches. This is one of the few antelopes that range across Africa, occurring both in Uganda and in Gambia. The lichi (C. leche) and the puku (C. vardonz), are two allied species from South Central Africa, both of which were discovered by Livingstone. The puku is about the size of the pala, standing some 3 feet 3 inches at the shoulder; its hair is of a uniform foxy-red colour, with the tips of the ears black, and black markings down the front of the fore-legs. The horns are rather small, without much forward curvature, and with the rings not extending so high up as in the lichi; their length varying from 13 to 16, and in one instance reaching 19 inches. The puku is a plumply-built animal, with a very erect carriage; and its horns may attain a length of 16 inches along the curve. The lichi is distinguished by its superior size, less erect carriage, and the completely fawn-coloured ears of the adult; the general colour being pale brown, Sing-Sing. Other Species. y THE PUKU.—After Livingstone. ANLEL OPES. 305 with the under-parts and rings round the eyes whitish. The horns seldom exceed 24 inches in length, although they have been recorded of 274 inches. The lichi is strictly a swamp-dwelling animal; and, when undisturbed, can be approached very easily. Mr. Selous states that when these antelopes “first make up their minds to run, they stretch out their noses, the males laying their horns flat along their sides, and trot; but on being pressed they break into a springing gallop, now and then bounding high into the air. Even when in water up to their necks they do not swim, but get along by a succession of bounds, making a tremendous splashing. Of course, when the water becomes too deep for them to bottom they are forced to swim, which they do well and strongly, though not so fast as the natives can paddle; and when the country is flooded, great numbers are driven into deep water and speared.” Generally these animals are to be seen standing knee or belly-deep in the water, lazily cropping the aquatic plants; or reposing close to the water's edge. Puku are usually met with in herds of from three to twelve in number, although occasionally as many as fifty may be seen together. They are generally found on dry ground close to the edges of the rivers, but when pursued will take readily to the water. Mr. Selous states that puku and lichi are never found together, although the latter may associate with pala. THE RHEBOK. Genus Pelea. The rhebok, or vaal rhebok (Pelea capreola), is the first representative of the second division of the Cervicaprine group, in which the species are mostly of small size, and characterised by their short and nearly upright horns. Of this subgroup the rhebok, which stands about 30 inches at the withers, is the largest species. The horns are placed wide apart over the eyes, and are sharp, slender, and well ringed, rising nearly vertically with a slight forward bend, but with little divergence. Their cross-section is elliptical; and their length from 5} to 8} ‘inches. The gland below the eye and the corresponding depression in the skull are wanting. The muzzle is naked; the tail short, broad, fan-like, and bushy ; and the hair thick and rather woolly. The colour is a light greyish brown, passing into white beneath. This antelope is an inhabitant of hilly and mountainous districts in Southern and Eastern Africa; and its habits much resemble those of the chamois. Mr. Drummond states that rhebok “are never found but on the bare hills among rocks and stones, and their habits of springing are wonderful. Habits. It seems extraordinary how their delicate limbs escape injury, when they take bound after bound, like an india-rubber ball, in places that a cat would shudder at. I do not suppose that they are really more shy than some of the other antelopes ; but the nature of the ground which they inhabit makes it appear so. That it is hard to get at them no one will deny, and it is equally difficult to drive them, unless, indeed, you happen to know the particular troop, have often seen it, and been accustomed to notice the direction they usually take when disturbed.” Rhebok only descend from the mountain-tops and ridges at night for the purpose VOL. II.—20 406 UNGULATES. of drinking. They are usually found in parties of from six or seven to as many as a dozen. From their wary nature, the best way of shooting rhebok is by driving. At the present time, although widely distributed, these antelopes are nowhere abundant. THE KLIPSPRINGER. Genus Oreotragus. Even more active than the rhebok is the diminutive klipspringer (Oreotragus saltator), which derives its name—meaning “ rock-jumper”—from its unrivalled i eae Y AN ( vA (Xf MALE AND FEMALE KLIPSPRINGER (,, nat. size). power of leaping from crag to crag. This little antelope stands about 22 inches in height, and is characterised by its peculiarly thick and brittle hairs, which are ANTELOPES. 307 o hollow internally. The colour of the upper-parts is uniform olive. The small straight horns of the male rise vertically from the head and incline slightly forwards at their tips; their length averaging only about 4 inches, so that they are overtopped by the large ears. The hoofs, although somewhat clumsily shaped, are so small that all the four feet could easily stand upon a penny-piece. The range of the klipspringer extends from the Cape through Kastern Africa as far north as Abyssinia; and in the latter country these pretty little animals are found as high up as eight or nine thousand feet above the sea. The small size of their hoofs enables the klipspringers to obtain foothold on the smallest projections, and they are consequently enabled to bound up the sides of the steepest cliffs; needless to say, these antelopes are exclusively confined to hilly districts. They were formerly abundant at the Cape, but have now become com- paratively scarce. Mr. Crawshay writes that “I have never seen more than a pair together, though in places where they are numerous, one occasionally sees as many as three or four on the move at the same time.” The flesh is tender and well- flavoured. Habits. THE STEINBOKS. Genus Nanotragus. Although the name steinbok is properly restricted to a single species of ante- lope, it will be found convenient in zoology to apply it to all the members of a small group of these animals forming the genus Nanotragus. These pretty antelopes are all of small size, with short horns in the males, no tuft of hair on the erown of the head, a naked muzzle, and a distinct gland below the eye, of which the aperture is circular. The steinboks may be divided into three sections, of which the first is represented by the true steinbok (JV. campestris). This antelope stands about 23 inches at the shoulder, and is usually of a reddish brown colour, white below; but while in one variety the hue of the fur tends to rufous, in another it is more or less silvery. Together with the other members of the section to which it belongs, the steinbok has neither lateral hoofs nor tufts of hair at the knees. The horns usually attain a length of about 4 inches, but rarely may be 5; and the tail is of moderate length, and of the same colour as the back. This little antelope frequents either open country or thin forest, but avoids mountainous districts, and is common throughout South and East Africa as far north as the Zambesi. Although abundant, these animals are difficult to find, owing to the careful manner in which they conceal themselves. On the east coast this species is replaced by the larger Zanzibar steinbok (NV. moschatus). The third member of the section is the royal antelope (V. pygmcus) of the Guinea coast, which is the smallest of all the Ruminants, standing only 12 inches at the shoulder. It is of a bright chestnut colour, darker on the back than the flanks, with the under- parts glistening white. The oribi (V. scoparia), which is the species represented in our figure, differs from the preceding forms by the presence of lateral hoofs, and tufts of hair on the knees. It stands 24 inches in height, and is of a tawny-yellow above and white beneath, the horns being about 5 inches in length. Oribi. 308 UNGULATES. These antelopes range in South Africa to some distance north of the Zambesi, and are found in parties of two or three on open ground, but are very local. ‘Their colour harmonises closely with the ground, and their speed is very great. The flesh forms excellent venison. There are three other species of this section, among which is the Abyssinian steinbok (Y. montanus). THE ORIBI (y's nat. size). The grysbok (VW. melanotis), which is met with only to the north of the Limpopo, differs from the oribi by the absence of the tufts of hair on the knees. It is of about the same size as the steinbok, and of a chocolate- red colour. It is fairly numerous in hilly districts and extends far into the interior. Grysbok, SALTS ANTELOPE. Genus Neotraqus. The Beni-Israel or Salt’s antelope (Neotragus saltianus) of the Red Sea littoral and Abyssinia, which is only slightly larger than the royal antelope, is the best- known representative of a genus distinguished from the preceding by the presence of a tuft of hair on the crown of the head, and by the hairy muzzle, as wellas by the horns of the males sloping backwards in the plane of the face. Moreover, the skull is distinguished by the great size of the aperture for the nose and the short- ness of the nasal bones, while the last molar tooth in the lower jaw, instead of being composed, as in other Ruminants, of three distinct lobes, has either only two such ANTELOPES. 309 lobes, or two with a mere rudiment of the third. The female of the Beni-Israel is only 16 inches in height. In central Somaliland, Kilima-Njaro, and Damaraland this species is replaced by Kirk’s antelope (NV. hirkz), differing from the first by having a rudiment of the third lobe in the last lower molar. Kirk’s antelope also has a more puffy nose than the Beni-Israel, while its horns are cylindrical instead of being flattened on the inner side. So common is Kirk’s antelope in parts of Somaliland, that two or three may be killed at a shot. When disturbed, they start up with great bounds, uttering a shrill ery; the flesh has an unpleasant musky flavour. DUIKERBOK. Genus Cephalophus. The elegant little South African duikerbok brings us to an assemblage of small or medium-sized antelopes, differing in many important respects from the preceding, or Cervicaprine group, which includes all the species from the reitbok to the Beni- THE DUIKERBOK (7; nat. size). Israel. The name duikerbok properly applies, of course, only to the typical species, but it may be conveniently extended to include the whole group. These antelopes, which are éxclusively African, are mainly inhabitants of thick forest, although the typical form frequents brush-covered or open country. They are characterised by their small straight horns, which are generally present in both sexes, being placed far back on the skull and separated by a long tuft of hair. The gland below the 310 UNGULATES. eye is small, and is peculiar in opening either in the form of a slit (as in the species figured) or as a row of small pores. The muzzle has a large naked portion, and the tail is very short. The upper molar teeth have broad and square crowns (as in the figure on p. 158), and thereby differ markedly from those of the preceding group. The majority of the duikers are light and elegantly-built animals, of a more or less uniform colour, and are all very similar in structure. From their generally inhabit- ing jungly or forest country, they are frequently spoken of as bush-bucks, but since that name is also employed for the guib (p. 277), its use is best avoided. The common or true duiker (Cephalophus grim) is found in bush-covered districts from the Cape to the Zambesi and Nyasaland, and on the west coast ranges as far north as Angola. It stands about 26 inches in height, and belongs to a group of three species characterised by the general absence of horns in the female, and by those of the male rising upwards at a sharp angle to the plane of the nose. The ears are very long and narrow, and the colour typically yellowish brown, with a more or less marked grey tinge; but there is great variation in this respect, some skins tending to reddish and others to greenish, while the amount of white on the under-parts is also variable. The length of the horns is usually from 3 to 4 inches, although they may reach 5 inches. The name duiker, it may be mentioned, signifies diver or ducker, in allusion to the rapidity of the creature’s movements when in cover. The madoqua (CL abyssinicus) is a smaller but allied species from Abyssinia, distinguished by its grizzled greyish brown colour. The red buck or Natal duiker (C. natalensis), which stands about 24 inches at the shoulder, differs by its horns (present in both sexes) inclining backwards in the plane of the nose, as in the majority of the genus. It is also distinguished by its bright reddish-bay colour, shorter and broader ears, smaller horns, and larger head-tuft. Owing to the sudden rushes they make when disturbed, these antelopes are difficult to shoot, and their flesh is unpalatable. There are many other more or less nearly-allied species, such as the philantomba (CL maxwellr) of Sierra Leone, to which it will be unnecessary to refer. The little South African blue buck or pigmy antelope (C. monti- cola) must, however, claim attention as being the smallest member of the genus. These tiny creatures, which swarm in the Natal jungles, and stand only 15 inches at the shoulder, are smaller and lighter in build than a hare, and are of a bluish mouse-colour, with the tiny straight horns scarcely showing above the tuft of hair. Mr. Drummond states that these antelopes feed principally on certain berries and shrubs found growing in the jungles, and seem to be on the move, more or less, the whole day, though they are most often to be seen at early morning and evening. “Perhaps the most enjoyable way of shooting them is to steal about in the dense jungle, and shoot them as they patter about among the dead leaves which strew the game-paths, or catch them while feeding on some favourite bush.” Red Buck. Blue Buck. Another member of the group is the much larger zebra-antelope (C. dori) of West Africa, which takes its name from the eight or nine black transverse bands crossing the back and loins, and gradually narrowing to a point on the flanks; the ground-colour being a golden-brown. This coloration is quite unique among Ruminants, and rivals that of the marsupial thylacine. Zebra-Antelope. ANTELOPES. Sic Two species of this genus from West Africa also call for mention on account of their great superiority in size over its other representa- tives. One of these is the wood-antelope (C. sylvicultor) of Sierra Leone and the Gabun, and the other the black wood-antelope (C. jentinki) from Liberia. The former stands about 2 feet 104 inches in height, and is of a blackish colour, with the hinder part of the middle of the back marked by a yellowish white line. The second species is rather smaller, and is of a greyish colour on the body, with the head and neck black, and the legs, lips, and inner sides of the ears whitish. The tuft of hair on the head is small and inconspicuous. Altogether nineteen species of these antelopes are recognised by Mr. O. Thomas. Wood-Antelope. Four-HoRNED ANTELOPE. Genus Tetraceros. The chousingha, or four-horned antelope (7. quadricornis) is the Indian representative of the duikerboks, and differs from all other living Ruminants in MALE AND FEMALE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES (14 nat. size). that the inale generally has two pairs of horns, of which the larger are placed as in the duikers, while the smaller pair are situated immediately over the eyes. The gland below the eye has nearly the same elongated aperture as in the duikers; but there is no tuft of hair on the crown of the head, and the upper molar teeth ne UNGULATES. have no additional column on the inner side. All the horns of the male are short, conical, and smooth; the front pair being often reduced to mere knobs, and not unfrequently absent. In height the male chousingha stands 254 inches at the withers, but an inch and a half higher over the haunches. The fur is thin, harsh, and short, and longer on the upper surface of the tail than elsewhere. ‘The general colour is dull pale brown, with a more or less marked rufous tinge above, passing gradually into white on the under-parts and inner sides and lower portions of the limbs. There, is a dark streak down the front of each leg, which is larger in the fore than in the hind pair. The second pair of horns usually vary from 34 to 4 inches in length, and do not appear to exceed 43 inches. The front pair are generally not more than 14 inches in length, but may reach 2} inches; they are fre- quently absent in specimens from Madras. The chousingha is found along the foot of the Himalaya from the Punjab to Nipal, and over the greater part of Peninsular India in wooded and hilly country, although it avoids dense jungle. It is unknown in the plain of the Ganges, on the Malabar coast in Madras, and likewise in Ceylon. Myr. Blanford writes that the chousingha “ differs from’ all other Indian antelopes in habits as much as in structure. It is not gregari- ous, very rarely are more than two seen together; it haunts thin forest and bush, and keeps chiefly to undulating or hilly ground. It drinks daily, and is never seen far from water. It is a shy animal, and moves with a peculiar jerky action whether walking or running The rutting season is in the rains, and the young, one or two in number, are born about January or February.” General Kinloch writes that these animals “conceal themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and some- what resemble hares in their habits. They are seldom to be seen out feeding, but usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away at a great pace.” Fossil remains of the existing species have been discovered in a cave in Madras; and it is believed that the genus is represented in the Pliocene deposits of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya. SKULL OF FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE, Distribution. Habits. WILDEBEESTS. » Genus Connochetes. The last group of the antelopes is represented by the wildebeests and their allies the hartebeests and blessbok ; and is mainly confined to Africa, although one species of hartebeest ranges into Syria. All these antelopes are of large size, and are characterised by the presence of horns in both sexes, as well as by the cireum- stance that the withers are more or less elevated above the level of the haunches. The muzzle is naked; and there is a small gland below the eye, marked by a tuft of hairs. The tail is long, and the general colour mostly uniform. The horns are more or less lyrate or recurved, and at their origin are placed more or less closely together. Unlike those of other antelopes, the bony cores of the horns are honey- ANTELOPES. 2m combed with cavities, as in the oxen; but the upper molar teeth differ entirely from those of the latter animals, having very narrow crowns, without any additional column on the inner side. The wildebeests, or, as they are often called, gnus, are ungainly-looking creatures, distinguished by their broad and short heads, in which the’ muzzle is of great width, and fringed with long bristles, so that the nostrils are separated from one another by a considerable interval. The neck is furnished with an erect mane of stiff hairs; and the long tail is thickly haired throughout its length. The nearly smooth, cylindrical horns are situated on the highest point of the skull, and curve THE WHITE-TAILED WILDEBEEST (+ nat. size), outwards, or outwards and downwards, and then bend upwards near the tips. In the young wildebeest the horns are, however, straight and diverging, placed at some distance below the highest point of the skull, and separated from one another by a wide space at the base covered with hair. These straight horns persist as the tips of those of the adult, the curved basal portion of the latter being a subsequent development. In very aged bulls the two horns approximate at their bases, so as to form a helmet-shaped mass completely covering the part of the skull, as in the Cape buffalo. There are two well-marked species of wildebeest, confined to South and East Africa, both of which are represented in our illustrations. Of these the common, 314 UNGULATES. or white-tailed wildebeest (Connochetes gnu), is strictly South African ; while the blue, or brindled wildebeest (C. tawrina), is not found to the south of the Orange River, and on the east side of the continent extends in the Uganda district some distance to the north of the Victoria Nyanza. The former species, which stands about 44 feet at the shoulder, is distinguished by the long hair fringing the chest, the long white tail, and the uniform coloration of the body. On the other hand, the blue wildebeest has no long hair on the chest, the tail is black and shorter, the sides of the withers are marked with dark transverse stripes, and the hair on the face lies more smoothly. In the ordinary form of this species, the fringe of long \ y Ibe Tats ART a ay (ess CS 6; & Re Al a8 a ail ; - Ae) ~ ci ie aoa) * Sie 4 ‘ é i a, <% es ‘ vj i? igo 8 ° 1 a td : ! et » i] ‘ * tee Si q = 4a 1 i i 5 ee » a = id ' i 7 ‘ io us pre } “ 3 = < ——— v8 Py _ a y vi , * * Ph ‘ =. ~ , <4 j A : 7 1a — ' i n : t - ’ " : n dace = 7 “es a ' : . rs * ey } - A F wv es 7 « “ 2 - v set - . “ 7 hy aro . ri i : : *p t~ ~ i t t “ iy ’ 8 ' nd <_ ANTELOPE. 319 bent suddenly backwards, nearly, but not quite, at a right angle. Their length varies from 13 to 144 inches. The Tunisian hartebeest (B. major), of west North Africa, is a much larger but closely-allied species, with enormously massive horns, which may be just over 20 inches in length, with a girth of 101 inches. The true hartebeest (B. cama) is a South African species, not Hartebeest. : one a ranging as far north as Matabililand and Mashonaland. This fine — = ~ HARTEBEEST (7 nat. size). animal stands about 4 feet at the withers; its general colour being greyish brown, with a pale yellowish patch on each side of the haunches, and black markings on the forehead and nose. The hair of the face is reversed as high up as the eyes, or even to the horns; whereas in the preceding species it is reversed only for a distance of one or two inches above the muzzle. The horns are long, and boldly ringed, diverging from one another in the form of a V, with their tips directed backwards at a right angle, and the bases curved away behind the plane of the forehead. Their length varies in good specimens from 20 to 24 inches. . In the neighbourhood of the Victoria Nyanza the preceding species 1s re- 320 UNGULATES. placed by Jackson’s hartebeest (B. jackson7), distinguished by the uniform pale colour of the face; the hair being reversed for a distance of only about 4 inches above the muzzle. The horns are of about the same dimensions as those of the hartebeest ; in the typical specimen their length being 20} inches along the front curves, with a basal girth of 12 inches; but in a second example the length was 234 inches. Writing of the common hartebeest, Mr. Drummond states that it Habits. is one of the fastest antelopes in Africa, and possesses such strength as to render it almost impossible for anything under a whole pack of strong and swift hounds to bring it to bay. “It is common in the great level grass-plains to the north-west of Zululand, and on several occasions I tried coursing them there with two very fast crossed Amaponda grey- hounds; but although the latter could run up to them when they had a fair start, they never once suc- ceeded in bringing one to bay, or even in causing one to separate from the herd.” In such districts it appears that the only way to obtain a suc- cessful shot is for the hunter to me ye conceal himself in a ravine, and UPPER PART OF SKULL AND HORNS OF COOKE’S have the antelope driven in his HARTEBEEST. (From Giinther.) : : direction. Cooke’s Cooke’s hartebeest (B. cooke7), of British and German East Africa, Hartebeest. brings us toa group of three species, readily distinguished from all the preceding forms by the wide expansion of their horns, as shown in the figure of the skull. The other two members of this group are the tora antelope (B. tora), of Upper Nubia and Abyssinia, which is represented on the left side of our illustra- tion on p. 317; and Swayne’s hartebeest (B. swaynei), of Somaliland, of which the head is shown in the accompanying woodcut and the skull on p. 159. In all these species the hair of the face is reversed only for a distance of 2 inches or less above the muzzle. In Swayne’s hartebeest—the sig of the Somalis—the general colour is reddish chestnut, the face being marked by a broad purplish streak extending from a little distance below the eyes. The horns expand very widely, rising at first nearly in the plane of the face, and then forming a right angle with the middle line of the forehead ; their smooth tips being bent at right angles to the base, and directed immediately backwards. Their length varies from 15 to 181 inches. In regard to . the habitat of this species, Captain Swayne writes, that to the “south of the highest ranges of Somaliland, and at a distance of about one hundred miles from the coast, are open plains, some four thousand or five thousand feet above sea-level, alternating with broken ground covered with thorn-jungle, with an undergrowth of aloes growing sometimes to a height of six feet. This elevated country, called ANTELOPES. 321 the Hand, is waterless for three months, from January to March. Much of it is bush-covered wilderness, or open semi-desert, but some of the higher plains are, at the proper season, in early season, covered as far as the eye can reach with a beautiful carpet of green grass, like English pasture-land. At this time of the year pools of water may be found, as_ the rainfall is abundant. This kind of open grass-country is called the Ban. Not a bush is to be seen, and some of these plains are thirty or forty miles in extent each way. There is not always much game to be got in the Hand, but a year ago, coming on to ground which had not been visited by Europeans, I found one of these plains covered with herds of hartebeests, there being perhaps a dozen herds in sight at one time, each herd containing three or four hundred individuals. Hundreds of bulls were scattered singly on the outskirts, and in the spaces between the herds, grazing, fight- ing, or lying down. The scene I describe was at a distance of over a hundred miles from Berbera, and the game has probably been driven far beyond that point by now.” Cooke’s hartebeest is of a reddish brown colour on the upper-parts and greyish brown beneath, the head being dark rufous in front and fulvous on the sides, and thus very different from that of the sig. The horns are also shorter and less widely expanded than in the latter. On the other hand, the tora antelope has the whole face of a uniform pale isabelline tint, like that of the body; the horns being fully as long as in the sig, but rising much more rapidly from the base, then coming farther forwards, and projecting much more in the backward direction. Tora horns vary from 12 to 194 inches in length. The konzi (B. lichtenstein7) is a very distinct species, inhabiting all the Zambesi region and Nyasaland, characterised by its small horns, which are much expanded and flattened at their bases. These horns incline at first upwards and outwards, and then inwards, with their tips directed backwards and upwards, so as to enclose a kind of vase-shaped space, their length ranging from 14 to 20 inches. The skull is also shorter than in any of the foregoing species. The general colour is a little lighter than that of the hartebeest ; the tail, knees, and the front of the legs being black, while the face is without any dark markings, but the buttocks usually have a pale yellow patch, and the under-parts are likewise yellowish. In Nyasaland. this species, according to Mr. Crawshay, is very generally VOL. Il.—21 HEAD OF SWAYNE’S HARTEBEEST.—After Rowland Ward. Konzi. 322 GONGULATES. met with in the hills, if not too steep and rocky, and in the plains, but it appears to prefer a flat or undulating country, well-wooded and with intervening open glades. It is frequently found feeding with water-buck or zebras, and generally goes in small herds of from five or six to fifteen or twenty. Its vitality appears to be nearly equal to that of the water-buck. Perhaps the handsomest representative of the genus is the herota, or Hunter’s hartebeest (B. huntert)—from the southern borders of Somaliland, on the great river Tana—which is readily distinguished by the white Herota. chevron on the forehead, and the peculiar form of the long horns. This fine antelope stands about 4 feet at the withers, and is of a uniform chestnut- brown colour, with a rather long white tail, and white under-parts. The chevron on the forehead has its angle directed upwards, and terminates in rings surrounding the eyes. The horns, after in- clining upwards and outwards for a short distance, run vertically upwards for a much greater length, with long smooth tips. Their length is about 22 inches in the males. The face is still of considerable length, but the hind-quarters do not slope away in the same manner as in the true hartebeest. This antelope is found on the plains and in thick bush on the Tana River. Mr. Hunter says that his party first met with this antelope about one hundred and fifty miles up the Tana River. “It is only found for certain on the north bank of the river. It frequents the grassy plains principally, but is also found in thick bush. It is generally met with in herds of from fifteen to twenty-five individuals. At the time of year when I came across them (October and November) I saw several young ones in the herds. The banks of the Tana River are fringed with a thin belt of forest; then the ground rises slightly, and one sees extensive plains, dotted here and there with large patches of bush, composed principally of euphorbias and aloes. HEAD OF HUNTER’S HARTEBEEST. i= 5 . . (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1890.) The lesser kudu (see p. 274) lives principally in these patches, and feeds outside of them in the early mornings and evenings. When I first saw the new antelope I was stalking two examples of Waller's gazelle, and though I saw the Hunter's antelope in the distance I mistook them for impalas, which, however, are not found on the Tana on either bank. It was only when I fired at the gazelles and the Hunter's ANTELOPES. 323 antelope ran away, that I noticed they were new to me. They ran with rather a heavy gallop, like a hartebeest. We did not come across these antelopes again for some days, but then met with them in large numbers and got several specimens. They seemed to me to have more vitality than any other antelope I ever killed. This species certainly does not extend down to the coast, but we saw them as far as the farthest point we reached (about two hundred and fifty miles) up the river, at a place called Mussa.” Ranging across Central Africa, from Senegal on the west to Southern Somaliland on the east, is the korigum or Senegal antelope (B. senegalensis), in which the comparatively short horns are regularly lyrate, ringed nearly to their tips, and curving back- wards without any distinct angulation. This species is represented in the right upper corner of the illustration on p. 317. The face is only of moderate length, and the withers (as in the sassabi) are not greatly higher than the rump. The face has a broad black band, extending from the root of the horns to the nose. Better known than the last is the nearly - allied sassabi or bastard hartebeest (B. lunata), widely distributed in South Africa as far north as the Zambesi. The horns, which seldom exceed 12 inches in length, diverge widely from their bases, and are then inclined inwards and upwards, without any angulation. The general colour of Korigum. Sassabi. 4 . HEAD OF THE KORIGUM OR SENEGAL ANTELOPE. the coarse fur is dark purplish red, becom- (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1890.) ing almost black along the back, and with a broad blackish mark down the face. In height the animal stands about 3 feet 10 inches, and has horns ranging from 13 to 15} inches in length. Mr. Selous states that the sassabi “is never found in hilly country or in thick jungle, but frequents the open downs that are quite free from bush, or else open forest-country in which treeless glades are to be met with. On the Mababi flat at the end of the dry season large herds of these animals congregate together, and I have often seen, I am sure, several hundreds of them at once. They are without exception the fleetest and most enduring antelope in South Africa.” In regard to sassabi-hunting, Mr. Drummond observes that “I do not consider them a difficult animal to shoot for a good rifle-shot, as standing chances at from one hundred and fifty to two hundred yards are easy to obtain, and they will often allow one to walk up to within that distance in full view before even attempting to take to flight, while, 324 UNGULATES. when wounded, I have found them unable to go far, and easy to finish; and their flesh may be classed with that of the best of the choicer antelopes.” The blessbok (B. albifrons) and the closely-allied bontebok (B. pygargus), which are represented in the right lower corner of the illustration on p. 317, are smaller South African antelopes, which are the last representatives of the genus. In both species the horns are compressed and regularly lyrate, with the rings strongly marked, and extending nearly to the tips; for a short distance they run almost parallel, and then curve backwards. Their usual length is about 15 inches, but a pair of 18} inches is on record. Both species are characterised by their brilliant purple-red colour, and the broad white “ blaze ” down the face, from which the blessbok takes its name. The bontebok (the animal standing in front of the two on the right side of the illustration) is distin- guished by the white blaze on the face continuing without interruption right up to the root of the horns, the white patch on the buttocks surrounding the tail, and the white legs. On the other hand, in the blessbok (shown in the hinder of the two animals standing on the right side of the plate) the blaze on the face is divided by a transverse dark line just above the eyes; there is no white on the rump above the tail, but a dark stripe runs down the outer side of the legs. In height the blessbok stands about 3 feet 2 inches or rather more at the withers, but the bontebok may reach from 3 feet 2 inches to 3 feet 11 inches. After mentioning that blessboks resemble the smaller springbok in manners and habits, Gordon Cumming goes on to observe that they differ from the latter “in the determined and invariable way in which they scour the plains, right in the wind’s eye, and also in the manner in which they carry their noses close to the ground. Throughout the greater part of the year they are very wary and difficult of approach, but more especially when the does have young ones. At that season, when a herd is disturbed and takes away up the wind, every other herd in view follows it, and the alarm extending for miles and miles down the wind, to endless herds beyond the vision of the hunter, a continued stream of blessboks may often be seen scouring up wind for upwards of an hour, and covering the landscape as far as the eye can see.” On one occasion when on the Vet River the same writer states: “On my right and left the plain exhibited one purple mass of graceful blessboks, which extended without a break as far as my eye could strain. The depth of their vast legions covered a breadth of about six hundred yards.” Blessbok. Habits. We may conclude this notice of the hartebeests and their allies by mentioning that a member of the group occurs fossil in the Pliocene strata at the foot of the Himalaya; and it may be inferred from this and the facts above mentioned that the essentially African groups of sable antelope, water-buck, and hartebeests, and probably also kudus, were once represented on the plains of India. Extinct Species. CHAPTER, XOXh: UNGULATES,—continued. THE PRONGBUCK, Family ANTILOCAPRID4 ; and THE GIRAFFE, Family GIRAFFIDA. THE prongbuck of North America and the giraffe of Africa differ so much from all other hving Ruminants, and likewise from one another, that they are referred by common consent to two distinct families, namely, the Antilocapride and the Gurafide. Whereas, however, the former is closely allied to the preceding family of the Oxen, the affinities of the latter are rather with the Deer family, to be described in the next chapter. THE PRONGBUCK. Family ANTILOCAPRIDZ. The prongbuck or prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra americana) much resembles an antelope in general appearance, but differs from all members of the family Bovide in that the sheaths of the horns give off a short branch about the middle of their length from their front edge, while the sheaths themselves are periodically shed and afterwards replaced by a new growth. The prongbuck stands about 2 feet 10 inches in height at the shoulder, and some 3 inches more at the rump, and is of a light and graceful build, with the head carried very high. The head is of moderate length, with the muzzle hairy except for a narrow line in the middle of the upper lip, and large and pointed ears. The horns, which are present in both sexes, rise vertically above the eyes; they are much compressed from side to side, and curved slightly backwards at the tips, while the anterior process is inclined upwards and forwards at an angle of about 45 degrees with the main axis. The bony cores of the horns are dagger-shaped, without any branching. The tail is extremely short, not exceeding 3 inches in length, and the feet have small hoofs and no traces of the lateral hoofs so commonly present in the Bovide. There is no gland on the face below the eye, neither are there any tufts of hair on the knees. The coloration of the prongbuck is decidedly handsome and striking; the general hair of the upper-parts and outer surfaces of the limbs being chestnut. The hair on the back of the neck, which is of the general chestnut tint, is lengthened into a kind of mane. The face is brownish black; but the summit of the head above the eyes, and likewise the ears, cheeks, and chin are white. White also 326 UNGULATES. prevails on the lower portion of the throat, the under-parts, and the inferior half of the flanks, and extends upwards to form a large patch on the rump which includes the tail. Usually the throat is crossed by three. russet-yellow transverse bars, of which the uppermost is continuous with the dark area of the lower jaw. The lower portion of the limbs is white. The horns are black, save at the tips, where they become yellowish; and their usual length is about 12 inches, but Mr. Otho Shaw has a pair measuring 17 inches, with a span of 20 inches. dob) NKs VAD» V; i) v(/) ay GROUP OF PRONGBUCK (y'5 nat. size). The habitat of the prongbuck appears to be restricted to the temperate regions of the western portion of North America, and there is no evidence that it ever occurred to the eastward of the Mississippi, while it only impinges on that river in its upper reaches. According to Mr. Caton, these animals originally inhabited all the regions, except wooded districts and high mountain ranges, lying to the westward of the Mississippi within the limits of the United States. Up to the year 1855 they were abundant in California, and were not uncommon in the open parts of Oregon; but they have now almost if not com- Distribution. PRONGBUCK. 327 pletely disappeared from both these states. In latitude their range extended from the tropics to the 54th parallel ; and within these limits they frequent by choice the open prairie country, avoiding thickly-timbered districts or high naked mountains. That the horns of the prongbuck were shed annually was long and persistently urged by the hunters of Fort Union; but these statements were received with incredulity by naturalists, who scouted the idea. Eventually, however, it was proved to their satisfaction that the hunters were right and they themselves in error. In fully adult individuals, the annual shedding of the horns usually takes place during October, but in the young the horns are retained till January. In the males the horns can be felt as prominences beneath the skin even at birth, and at about four months old they burst through the skin. They are later in making their appearance in the females, and cannot be detected at birth. One of the best accounts of the shedding and replacement of the horns is given by Mr. Caton, from which the following summary is taken. On looking into the hollow of a shed horn, it will be found that the cavity does not extend much above the point of bifurcation; while it will be also noticed that the interior of the horn contains a number of coarse light-coloured hairs, all of which are firmly attached to its substance, while in the lower part many pass completely through it. The core from which the sheath was cast will also be found to be covered with similar hairs growing from an investing skin; and it will thus be evident that the sheath was more or less completely penetrated by a number of the subjacent hairs, which were of course torn asunder at the time of shedding. Indeed the horn of the prongbuck is in reality nothing more than a mass of agglomerated hairs, and thereby differs markedly from the bovine horn. On examining the head of a prongbuck from which the horns have been freshly shed, it will be observed that the summits of the cores are already capped with small new horns, which have evidently commenced their growth considerably before the period of casting, as they reach for several inches above the tips of the cores. The summits of these new horns are perfectly hardened, but lower down they gradually become softer and softer, until they pass into the skin investing the greater part of the core. The condition presented by an animal with newly-growing horns is shown in the woodcut on the following page. It is thus clear that as the new horn gradually increased in length above the summit of the core, it must have loosened and earried with it the old sheath, which eventually became completely detached from the core by the breaking and tearing away of the hairs passing from the skin into its substance. When nearly the whole of the hairs were detached or broken, any sudden motion of the animal would doubtless lead to the loss of the horns; but it does not appear that, at least as a rule, the process is assisted by the animal rubbing its horns against neighbouring objects. In regard to the renovating process, Mr. Caton writes that “when the old horn was east off, the new one, as we have already seen, had made a considerable growth above the core, which was already tipped with perfected horn, while a section below it was more or less hardened, or partially converted into horn. This inter- vening section gradually moved down the horn, constantly invading the soft skin below, and followed above with perfected horn. All this time the horn was growing in length above the core, and assuming that posterior curvature near its upper part Horns. 328 UNGULATES. which so much resembles the curvature of the horns of the chamois. After the horn is perfected down to the top of the cores, it ceases to increase in length, while the apparently converting process steadily progresses downward along or around the core. The cores being laterally compressed, the horn assumes the same form ; not, however, conform- ing precisely to the shape of the core, but extending considerably in front of it, where it is thinner than the posterior part. At the upper extremity of the wide flattened part the snag or prong is thrown out, which consists of little more than an abrupt termination of the wide part, with an elevated exterior point. By the latter part of winter, in the adult, the horn has attained about this stage of growth. From this it presses on, ~ SQ ~ \\ WS we hardening in its down- ward growth till the HEAD OF PRONGBUCK, WITH NEWLY-GROWING HORNS. latter 1g. oNeummnen, (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, p. 540.) by which time the growth is perfected down to the base, and is a complete weapon for warfare. In this state it con- tinues until the new horn has commenced its growth and begun to displace the old one from its position, in the manner described above.” As regards habits, the prongbuck is a shy and timid creature, avoiding its enemies with great intelligence, although sometimes betrayed into danger by its extreme curiosity. It is swifter than any other native North American Ungulate; but is somewhat short-winded and cannot maintain its speed for any length of time. Prongbucks are essentially gregarious; and, aecord- ing to Dr. Canfield, individuals of both sexes and of all ages congregate in herds: from the beginning of September to the end of February. By the beginning of March, the same writer states, “the does separate themselves from the band one by one to drop their kids. They produce two at a birth. After a little time the does collect together with their young, probably for mutual protection against coyotes ; the old bucks in the meantime go off alone, each by himself or at most two together, leaving the young bucks and young does together in small bands. The old bucks now for a month or two wander a great deal, and are seen in the timber-lands, and in other places where they never go at any other season of the year, evidently ‘tired Habits. PRONGBUCK. 329 of the world’ and fleeing from society. After two or three months, the young bucks and does join the old does and their kids, and finally, by the first of September, all are together once more in bands of hundreds or thousands. oe and when a herd is seen scattered = = \ »y SOUTH AFRICAN GIRAFFE, through a grove of the picturesque parasol-topped acacias which adorn their native plains, and on whose uppermost shoots they are enabled to browse through the colossal height with which nature has so admirably endowed them, he must indeed be slow of conception who fails to discover both grace and dignity in all their movements.” Referring to the admirable protective resemblance of many animals to their natural surroundings, the same author goes on to observe that “in GIRAFFE. 335 the case of the giraffe, which is invariably met with among venerable forests, where innumerable blasted and weather-beaten trunks and stems occur, I have repeatedly been in doubt as to the presence of a troop, until I had recourse to my telescope, and on referring to my savage attendants I have known even their practised eyes deceived, at one time mistaking these dilapidated trunks for camelopards, and again confounding real camelopards with these aged veterans of the forest.” It may be added that the dappled hide of the giraffe blends harmoniously with the splashes of light and shade formed by the sun glinting through the foliage of the trees beneath which the animals are wont to take their stand, and thus intensifies the illusion. It will be observed that in the foregoing account the maximum number of individuals observed in a single herd was forty. Larger numbers have, however, been seen together by other observers in Southern Africa, while in the Sudan Sir S. Baker states that on one occasion he counted seventy-three, on another one hundred and three, and on a third upwards of one hundred and fifty-four individuals in a herd. The food of the giraffe consists almost exclusively of leaves, carefully plucked one by one from the trees by the aid of the long flexible tongue. The senses of both sight and hearing are highly developed; and the lofty position of the head gives to the soft and liquid eyes a wide field of view. The animal’s only means of defence is by kicking out with its legs; and the blows thus delivered are of terrific foree and power. This mode of attack is employed by the cow in defending her young against Carnivores, and likewise in the contests which take place among the males during the pairing-season. From observations made on individuals in menageries, it appears that the pairing-time is either during March or in the early part of April, and that the young are born in May or June of the following year; the duration of the period of gestation thus being as much as from four hundred and thirty-one to four hundred and forty-four days, or fourteen and a half months, or a little less. Buta single young is produced at a birth, and the little creature in three days after its appearance in the world is able to trot by the side of its dam. The speed and endurance of giraffes are alike considerable. When running, the tail is carried twisted in a corkscrew-like manner over the back, and the neck inclined somewhat forwards. Their gait is peculiar, and takes the form of a kind of awkward gallop, “their hind-legs,” writes Mr. Selous, “being straddled out at each step and coming (one on each side) in front of the fore-legs. If you only look at their bodies and necks from behind, they appear to be sailing or gliding along without making any movement at all. They get over the ground, however, at a great rate, and it requires a good horse to run one down. The great thing is to press them to their utmost speed at first, when, if fat, they soon get blown and can be ridden into, and, if the wind is favourable, driven for miles right up to one’s waggons, just like an ox or an eland. At a hard gallop they can, however, spin along for miles.” Giraffe-hunting seems to be generally undertaken on horseback, and all who have partaken of it speak of the excitement of galloping behind a line of these magnificent animals scouring across the plains. There are, however, but few who fail to be struck with the pathetic and half-reproachful Hunting. 336 UNGULATES. expression of a fallen giraffe, and whose hearts are so hardened as not feel some compunction at thus ruthlessly destroying one of the noblest specimens of nature’s handiwork. Mr. Selous expresses his admiration at the sight of a herd of giraffes galloping before the hunter in the following words. On the occasion to which he refers, his horse was not a particularly good one, and the pace consequently not very great. Eventually he got, however, within one hundred yards of his quarry, and he then writes that “even in the ardour of the chase it struck me as a glorious sight to see these huge beasts dashing along in front, clattering over the stones, or bursting a passage through opposing bushes, their long, graceful necks stretched forwards, sometimes bent almost to the earth to avoid horizontal branches, and their bushy black tails twisted up over their backs. And how easily and with what little exertion they seemed to get over the ground, with that long, sweeping stride of theirs! Yet they were going at a great rate, for I felt that my old nag was doing his best, and I could not lessen the distance between us by an inch.” All who have eaten of it, testify to the excellence of the flesh of the giraffe ; and we have already made mention of the value attached to its hide. The giraffe thrives well in captivity, where it breeds readily. On the morning of May 24th, 1836, those Londoners who happened to be passing along what was then called the New Road, were startled by the appear- ance of four giraffes, with their Nubian attendants, on their way from the docks to the Zoological Society’s Gardens in the Regent’s Park. Of these four individuals three were males and one a female; and they respectively lived till the years 1837, 1846, 1849, and 1852. Between 1836 and 1892 the Zoological Society had upwards of thirty giraffes in their menagerie, no less than seventeen of which were bred and born there. One of the latter which was born in the spring of 1846 lived till January 1867, or close upon twenty-one years. The last of this series of giraffes died in March 1892, and owing to the inaccessible condition of the Sudan at the present time, it has hitherto been found impossible to replace its loss. Fossil giraffes are found in the Pliocene rocks of Greece, Persia, the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya, and China. All these extinct forms appear to have been closely allied to the living African species, although in some instances the length of the limbs seems to have been proportion- ately somewhat less. Captivity. Extinct Giraffes. EXTINCT MAMMALS ALLIED TO THE GIRAFFE. In addition to the fossil giraffes just mentioned, there are other extinct Mammals from the Pliocene formations of Europe and Asia which, while evi- dently referable to the same group of Ruminants, must be assigned to distinet genera. One of the most giraffe-like of these creatures is the helladothere of Greece, a hornless animal, of larger dimensions than the giraffe, but with a shorter neck and limbs. The limbs agree, however, with those of the latter in the great proportionate length of the front pair, and the skull has a considerable general resemblance, although with a smaller development of cells in the bones of the forehead, and ALLIES OF THE GIRAFFE. 337 without an unossified space in front of the eye. An allied animal, known as the libythere, has left its remains in the Pliocene strata of Algeria. In the samothere of the Isle of Samos and Persia, of which the skull is shown in the accompanying woodeut, the fore and hind-limbs are of nearly equal length, and the forehead, owing to the absence of cells, is nearly flat, while there is no unossified space in front of the eye. The eyes were sur- mounted by a pair of flattened bony processes, which there is some reason to believe were detached from the bones of the forehead in the young state, and which may have been clothed either with skin or with horny sheaths in the living condition. In many respects the skull of this animal approximates to that of the elk. By far the largest of all Ruminants was the gigantic Indian sivathere, whose skull and limb-bones rival in magnitude those of the biggest rhinoceroses. Mhe* skull of = this enormous creature was very short and wide, and, in the male at any rate, carried a pair of large antler-like appendages, situated immediately over the occiput, in addition to which there was a pair of simple spike-like horns above the eyes. Although the branched appendages of the skull SKULL OF THE SIVATHERE (about $ nat. size). recall the antlers of the elk, it is evident that they were never shed; and it is, therefore, probable that they were covered during life either with hairy skin or with horn. In any case, they were to a considerable extent intermediate in their nature between the horns of the oxen and the antlers of the deer. Other kindred types were the hydaspi- there and the bramathere of India, in both of which the appendages of the skull take origin from an elevated common base rising above the forehead. In the former of these animals there was a large unossified space in front of the eye, similar to that occurring in the giraffe and the deer. VOL. Il.—22 SKULL OF THE SAMOTHERE (about } nat. size). CHAPTER XXIII. UNGULATES,—continued. THE DEER-TRIBE. Family CERVIDZ. THE last representatives of the true Ruminants, or, as they are technically called, Pecora, include the typical deer, the elk, the reindeer, the musk-deer, ete. The SKELETON OF MALE RED DEER. great and distinctive feature of this group is the general presence in the male sex of the peculiar branched appendages on the skull, which are now generally known DEER. 339 o by the name of antlers. Unfortunately, so far as simplicity of classification is con- cerned, these appendages are not present in all the members of the family, and the zoologist has, therefore, to rely partly on other characters in defining the group. Still, however, as these antlers are the most characteristic features of the deer-tribe as a whole, their importance cannot be overrated, and we accordingly take them first into consideration. With regard to the meaning of the term antler, it appears that the word is derived from the old French antoiller—a corruption of the late Latin antoculorwm (before the eyes)—which was originally applied to that branch of the antler which descends over the forehead, and is now designated the brow-tine. At a subsequent period the word antler seems to have been employed indifferently for all the branches of these appendages, while still later it was used to designate the entire appendages themselves. It is in the latter sense that it is now employed, the various branches of the antlers being termed tines. In addition to being generally more or less branched, the most characteristic feature of an antler when fully developed is that its outer surface is rugged and devoid of any covering of skin or horn. In fact, for all practical purposes, an antler may be regarded as a mass of dead bone borne for a certain period by a living animal. Except occasionally, as an individual peculiarity, antlers are shed once every year, and, save in the reindeer, are present only in the male sex. They arise from a pair of longer or shorter bony pedicles situated on the skull above and behind the eyes, and forming part of the skull itself. When the antlers of a stag have been recently shed the above-mentioned bony pedicles are completely covered with skin, and merely form small prominences upon Antlers. the upper part of the fore- head. In a short time, how- ever, there appear on_ the summits of these pedicles small velvety knobs, which are highly sensitive and tender, and are supplied by HEAD OF RED DEER WITH NEW ANTLERS IN THE “ VELVET. an unusual number of blood- vessels. These knobs are formed by a deposition of bony matter, and increase very rapidly in size. In young deer and a few of the smaller forms their growth is limited to the formation of a simple spike, or a spike with one fork, but in the adults of the more typical kinds of deer they branch into a smaller or larger number of tines, until they finally assume the form of the complete antler. The 340 UNGULATES. whole antler is then completely invested with a soft and vascular skin clothed with exceedingly fine hair, hence termed the “ velvet.” When, however, the growth of the antler is completed in its upper part, a deposition of bony matter takes place at its base, just above the point of union with the pedicle of the skull, in the form of a prominent ring. This ring, of course, constricts the blood-vessels supplying the velvet, and ultimately causes them to dry up. In consequence of this cutting off of the supply of blood by the ring or “burr,” the velvet itself likewise dries up, and is eventually removed by the animal rubbing its newly-formed antlers against the stems of trees or other convenient objects. The antlers are then com- plete. They attain their full development shortly before the commencement of the pairing-season, and during that period they are employed as most efficient weapons in the contests which then take place between the males of all the species of the deer-tribe. Subsequently the living bone beneath the skin below the burr of the antlers is absorbed, when the antler itself is shed, to be renewed in the following season in the same manner as before. In the fawns the antler takes the form merely of a simple conical spike, and this type is retained in certain South American species throughout life. In the following year the antler gives off a branch near the base, and this form also constitutes the highest development attained by some of the smaller species. In the more typical deer the antlers, however, become more and more branched with each succeeding year, till in the red deer they may occasionally have as many as forty points. The amount of bony matter annually secreted to form the antlers of the larger deer is enormous, antlers of the red deer having been obtained which weighed upwards of 74 Ibs., while those of the extinct Irish deer must have probably scaled 100 lbs. during life. The different tines borne by the antlers of the red deer and other allied species have received distinct names, and, as it is of the highest import- ance that these should be clearly understood, they may be referred to at once. In the red deer group (A of the accompanying figure) the shaft or beam of each antler carries three tines on _ its lower front edge, of which the lowest (a) is termed the brow- tine, the second (6) the bez-tine, and the third (c) the trez-tine, or A. Hangul, or Kashmir deer; B. sambar; C. spotted deer; D. swamp-deer ; 2. sometimes the roval Eld’s deer ; a, brow-tine ; 6, bez-tine ; ¢, trez-tine; d, e, anterior and posterior ., : y surroyals.—After Blanford and Forsyth. tine. The summit of £2 me \i is D LEFT ANTLERS OF ASIATIC DEER. A A FAMILY OF RED DEER. JOY BIDSRE 343 the beam may either be divided into two or three tines (as in the figure on p. 340), or may be split up into an almost indefinite number of snags, radiating out- wards from a kind of cup; but in any case these terminal snags, irrespective of their number, are collectively spoken of as the surroyals, or the crown of the antler. It will be seen from the figure that in many deer the bez-tine of the antler is wanting; but of this and other variations in form more will be said later on. Having thus noticed that the deer are more satisfactorily dis- tinguished by the presence of antlers in the males, we have now to mention certain characters which will aid in distinguishing from other Ruminants those members of the family in which the antlers are wanting. In the first place, all deer have a very large unossified space in the skull in advance of the orbit, this space being so extensive as to prevent the lachrymal bone from coming in contact with the nasal bone, as it does in the Ox family. Of less importance is the circumstance that the first molar tooth in each jaw has a short crown. As a rule, tusks or canine teeth are usually present in the upper jaw; and since these are always developed in those forms unprovided with antlers we have a ready means of distinction from the Ox family, in which there are never upper tusks. Moreover, with the single exception of the musk-deer, no member of the family has the gall- bladder, so constantly present in the Bovide. From both the prongbuck and the giraffe the deer are distinguished by the presence of well-developed lateral hoofs in both feet. It may also be mentioned that whereas in the Bovide these lateral toes are represented merely by the bones of the toes themselves and the terminal hoofs, a large number of deer have remnants of the lower extremities of their supporting metacarpal and metatarsal bones lying alongside of the cannon-bone. In all deer the end of the muzzle is naked, and there is a gland in front of the eye. Although numerically far inferior to the Bovide, the deer-tribe includes a large assemblage of species, which may be grouped under several generic headings, and have a wide geographical distribution. In the Old World deer are found over the greater part of Europe and Asia, but are quite unknown in Africa south of the Sahara—the Ethiopian region of zoologists. Three of the Old World species, representing as many genera, extend into North America ; but the other New World forms, which range as far south as Chili, belong to quite a different type from any of those inhabiting the Eastern Hemisphere. Deer are for the most part inhabitants of forests or grass-jungles, and are never found in desert districts. They are an older group than any of the other typical Ruminants, making their appearance in the lower portion of the Miocene period, where the species were of small size, and for the most part unprovided with antlers. Other Characters. Distribution. Habits. THE Rep DEER Group (Cervus elaphus, etc.). The well-known red deer of Europe is the typical representative of the genus Cervus, and belongs to a group containing several species or varieties, which is distributed over Europe, Asia (north of the Himalaya), Northern Africa, and North America, and is mainly characterised by the conformation of the antlers. These (as shown in the illustration and in A of the figure on p. 340) have both a brow and 344 UNGULATES. a bez-tine, and a nearly cylindrical beam, splitting up into two or more points at the summit. The tail is short, and the buttocks are marked by a light-coloured disc- like patch, which includes the tail, while the rest of the hair is uniformly coloured. All the members of the group are of large size, and their young are spotted. The red deer is characterised by the surroyals of the antlers of the adult having at least three points, and thus forming a cup in the middle of the crown; the total number of points being not less than twelve. Such a stag is called in Scotland a Royal Hart. The number of points in the crown may, however, be greatly increased, as shown in the accompanying figure of an antler dug up many years ago in an Irish bog. In the stag to which this antler belonged, the total number of points, if the two antlers were symmetrical, would have been thirty ; but instances are recorded where there are as many as forty-five and even sixty-six points. The latter number must, however, be regarded as abnormal. At the present day no Scotch stag ever has antlers of the complexity of the one shown in the woodcut, and it would indeed be very doubtful if that specimen could even be matched among the living deer of Eastern Europe, where the heads are considerably finer than in Scotland. Such antlers, and even larger ones, were, however, not uncommon on the Continent a few centuries ago; many magnificent examples are preserved in some 5 een ae eee of the old German castles, the collection at Moritz- FROM AN IRISH BOG. burg being especially rich. ; A fine specimen of the red deer will stand fully 4 feet at the shoulder. The hair on the throat forms a long fringe, most developed in the pairing-season. During summer the general colour of the pelage is a bright reddish brown, the head and legs being somewhat greyer, the throat pale grey, and the patch on the buttocks yellowish white. In winter, when the fur becomes longer and softer, the colour tends to a brownish grey. Wild stags are occasionally found white; the tendency to albinism increasing in the domesticated state. A fine Scotch stag will weigh some 280 lbs. (20 stone), but they range up to 420 lbs. (30 stone), and a stag was killed at Woburn, in 1836, which weighed 476 Ibs. (84 stone) as it stood. These weights are, however, exceeded by the stags of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The large pair of antlers mentioned above have a total length of 68 inches, and examples have been obtained from Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, varying from 46 to 48} inches in length. The antlers of Scotch and Irish stags rarely, however, exceed 33 inches, although some of the latter may reach 385 inches. A Devonshire stag with antlers of over 38 inches is on record. Red Deer. The red deer has a wide distribution in the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, but its eastward extension in the latter continent is not yet fully ascertained. Formerly it was probably found throughout the forest- Distribution. DEER. 345 regions of Central Europe, but it has now been exterminated in many districts. In Scandinavia, it is found only in a few forests in Sweden, and in some of the Norwegian islands. It also remains in the larger forests of France and Germany, while it is more abundant in Hungary, Servia, Transylvania, Poland, and the Danubian States. In parts of Greece, Italy, and Spain, as well as the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, it is less plentifully represented. In the British Islands it is only in the Scottish Highlands to the north of the Clyde and the Forth that wild red deer are met with abundantly, and then only by the aid of protection. They are, however, also found on the moors of Devon and Somerset, in certain districts of Ireland, such as Killarney and Connemara, as well as in the Hebrides. As late as the reign of Queen Anne, wild deer were, however, common in Wolmer Forest, Hampshire, while a few lingered on in Epping Forest till the early part of the present century. In European Russia the red deer is reported to be restricted to the Caucasus. Eastwards a large deer ranges through Siberia to Amurland and Northern China, which is probably only a variety of this species, although on account of the larger size of the light-coloured patch on the buttocks, it has been regarded as a distinct form under the name of C. xanthopygus. The red deer is again met with in Asia Minor, where it attains large dimensions, but it does not appear to enter Persia, or at least only infringes on the western borders of that country. The so-called Barbary deer of Morocco and Algiers, now regarded merely as a variety of the present species, is distinguished by the frequent absence of the bez-tine of the antlers. Fossil remains of the red deer are found abundantly in the caverns and super- ficial deposits of the greater part of Europe; these fossil antlers being far larger than those of any modern representatives of the species, some of them measuring upwards of 40 inches in length. Like most of the tribe, the red deer is gregarious; but, except during the pairing-season, the full-grown stags remain apart from the other members of the herd, and generally frequent higher ground. On the Continent this species is almost exclusively a forest-dweller, remaining concealed during the day in the thickest cover, and only venturing out to feed in the open glades or adjacent cultivated lands with the falling shades of evening. On the other hand, the Scottish red deer inhabits the open hills, and has for its only con- cealment the intervening glens and valleys. The pairing-season commences in the later part of September or beginning of October, and lasts for about three weeks; during which period the venison is rank and unfit for table. At this season, writes Mr. Scrope, “the harts swell in their necks, have a ruff of long wiry hair about them, and are drawn up in their bodies like greyhounds. They now roll restlessly in the peat-pools till they become almost black with mire, and feed chiefly on a light-coloured moss that grows on the round tops of the hills, so that they do not differ so entirely from the reindeer in their food as some naturalists have imagined... . This is a very wild and picturesque season. The harts are heard roaring all over the forest, and are engaged in savage conflicts with each other, which sometimes terminate fatally. When a master hart has collected a number of hinds, another will endeavour to take them from him. They will fight till one of them, feeling himself worsted, will run in circles round Habits. 346 UNGULATES. the hinds, being unwilling to leave them; the other pursues, and when he touches the fugitive with the points of his horns, the animal thus gored either bounds suddenly on one side, and then turns and faces him, or will dash off to the right or the left, and at once give up the contest. The conflict, however, generally continues for a considerable time, and nothing can be more entertaining than to witness, as I have often done, the varied success and address of the combatants. It is a sort of wild joust, in the presence of the dames who, as of old, bestow their favours on the most valiant. ... In solitary encounters, there being no hinds to take the alarm, the harts are so occupied and possessed with such fury that they may be occasionally ap- proached inamanner that it would be vain to attempt at any other time.” One instance has been recorded where the antlers of two stags fighting in this manner became so firmly interlocked that the victor was unable to disengage himself from his dead antagonist, and was thus held cap- tive until killed by a forester. After an interval of eight months and a few AN = days from the pair- ing-season—that is to say, generally in the early part of RED DEER AT A POOL June—the fawns are produced; there being but rarely more than one at a birth. The fawn is dropped in high heather, and is left concealed there during the day by the hind, who returns to visit it in the evening. Mr. Secrope states that the dam makes her offspring “lie down by a pressure of her nose; and it will never stir or lift up its head the whole of the day, unless you come right upon it, as I have often done. It lies like a dog, with its nose to its tail. The hind, however, although she separates herself from the young fawn, does not lose sight of its welfare, but remains at a distance to windward, and goes to its succour in case of an attack of the wild cat or fox, or any other powerful vermin.” a a AY The old stags shed their antlers about February or March, according to the nature of the season, but those of the young bucks are retained for some time IDVBIGIEE. 347 longer. In spite of traditions as to the great age attained by stags, it appears that the ordinary limit of life is about twelve years, although a few individuals may survive to twenty years. Red deer are essentially shy and wary animals; and, in the open districts which they frequent in Scotland, can detect an enemy at an immense distance. When all the members of a herd are together, the chief duty of watching appears to fall on the hinds, but at other times the stags have to depend on their own alertness. When their foes are in sight, deer will watch them with the greatest coolness and circumspection, but they become anxious and restless when they have reason to suspect the near presence of a concealed enemy. In Scotland, deer are now killed only by driving or stalking ; although wild red deer are still hunted with hounds in Devonshire, no less than 276 having been killed there in the five years ending 1892. Formerly it was the custom in Scotland to surround a large tract of country with a circle of beaters ; and deer-driving on a large scale is now practised in Austria and some other parts of the continent. When hunted, as indeed at other times, red deer will take freely to the water; and when a wounded stag is hotly pursued by deer- hounds, he generally seeks refuge in the mountain streams, where his length of leg gives him a great advantage over his pursuers. Sometimes, writes Mr. Scrope, a stag “will stand upon a rock in the midst of the river, making a most majestic appearance ; and in this case it will always be found that the spot on which he stands is not approachable on his rear. In this situation he takes such a sweep with his antlers, that he could exterminate a whole pack of the most powerful lurchers that were pressing too close upon him in front. He is secure from all but man; and the rifle-shot must end him. Superior dogs may pull him down when running, but not when he stands at bay.” It may be added that, when disturbed, deer invariably run up wind. In addition to the red deer, Asia possesses several closely allied forms, which are generally regarded as distinct species, although it may be a question whether it would not be better to consider them all as local races. One of the best known of these Asiatic deer is the hangul or Kashmir stag (C. kashnvirianus). This species stands about 4 feet 4 inches at the shoulder, and differs from the red deer in that each antler (as shown in A of the figure on p. 340), usually has but five tines, so that no cup is formed at the crown, which is simply forked. Moreover, the whole beam of the antler is much curved, with the main tine of the surroyals (¢) greatly inclined inwards; while the bez-tine is generally longer than the brow-tine, or just the reverse of the condition obtaining in the red deer. Occasionally, six or even seven points may be counted in the antlers of the hangul. In colour, this deer closely resembles the European species. Whereas, however, the call of the red deer during the pairing season is a loud squeal, ending in a more guttural tone, in the hangul it is distinctly a roar, which may be compared to that of a leopard. The antlers of the Kashmir stag average about 40 inches in length, but specimens have been obtained of which the measurements were respectively 52, 53, and 55 inches. The true hangul is confined to the mountains surrounding the valley of Kashmir and some of the adjacent districts. There is, however, a deer from Eastern Turkestan known as the Yarkand stag, which appears to be merely a Hunting. Allied Species. 348 UNGULATES. variety of this species, distinguished by its straighter antlers and the paler colour of the fur. In Kashmir the hangul, which is essentially a forest animal, is found in summer at elevations of from 9000 to 12,000 feet. In winter, however, it descends to the valleys during heavy falls of snow ; and at such times it is ruthlessly attacked by the villagers, as many as five hundred head, it is reported, having been thus slaughtered upon a single occasion. These indiscriminate slaughters, together with the more orthodox pursuit by English sportsmen, have so thinned the ranks of this fine deer, that it is now becoming comparatively rare, and unless proper means are taken for its preservation, it stands a good chance of being exterminated at no distant date. In summer, hangul are generally found singly or in small parties, the old stags being usually solitary; but in winter they collect in herds. The antlers of the stags are usually shed about March, and the new ones do not attain their full development till October. In that month and through November the males are continually calling, and it is this time that is the proper shooting-season. The fawns are born in April, so that the period of gestation appears to be only about six months, or considerably less than in the red deer. Leith Adams states, that hangul “are seldom confined to one region, but roam from forest to forest, preferring grassy glades alternating with dense forest, where there is a copious supply of water.” I have on one occasion seen a small party of these deer on the Ladak side of the mountains bounding Kashmir where there is no forest. Far to the south-east of Kashmir, probably in the districts lying between Darjiling and Lhasa, there occurs a much larger deer, known as the shou (C. affinis). In addition to its superior dimensions, this deer is distinguished from the hangul by the beam of the antlers being strongly bent forwards just above the trez-tine; while the bez-tine is less constantly longer than the brow-tine. Each antler seems to have constantly but five points. Antlers have been measured of 54, 55, and 55# inches in length; anything like such dimensions being only very exceptionally attained by those of the Kashmir stag. The height of the animal is from 43 to 5 feet at the shoulder. In the Caspian provinces of Persia, and probably also in Cireassia, the red deer group is represented by the maral (C. maral). This is a large species allied to the last, but distinguished by the much greater length of the face, and by the crown of the antler having apparently always more than two tines. Specimens of this species in confinement kept entirely apart from some red deer inhabiting the same enclosure. These deer are said to be abundant in the thick forests of the Caspian provinces of Persia; but we know very little about their habits. Another Old World deer of the present group, is the great Thian Shan stag (C. eustephanus), from the forest-regions of the mountain-barrier on the north-west frontier of Eastern Turkestan ; the so-called Leudorf’s stag (C. leudorft), of Amurland, being in all probability not specifically distinct. The great peculiarity of this deer is, that it is so closely allied to the American wapiti, that it is very doubtful if it can be regarded as anything more than a variety of that species. The antlers have the peculiar characteristics (to be noticed immediately) of the latter; one pair having a length of 51 inches along the curve, with a basal DEER. 349 diameter of 103 inches on one side, and of 11 on the other. The Thian Shan stag is said to stand 6 feet at the shoulder, but this requires confirmation. The New World representative of the present group is the well- Wapiti. ss Ss 3 : E known North American wapiti (C. canadensis), persistently misnamed WAPITI CHASED BY WOLVES. elk in its native country. The wapiti is distinguished from the hangul and the shou (to which it is more closely related than it is to the red deer) by the form and proportions of its antlers, which are characterised by their general smoothness, and the tendency to a flattening and expansion of the surroyal tines, which, in 350 UNGULATES. fully adult stags, are usually three or more in number; and also by the well- marked backward curvature and want of convergence in the upper-part of the beam. In colour the wapiti is dark brown on the head and neck, while the back, flanks, and thighs are creamy grey, with the under-part of the body blackish. The legs are brown, and the lower portion of the light patch on the buttocks is bordered with black. Mr. Caton gives the height of a full-grown stag as rather more than 5 feet 4 inches (16 hands), but other writers estimate the height of the largest individuals at 5 feet 8 inches (17 hands) at the shoulder. The usual weight is about 700 Ibs. but it is said that large males will exceed 1000 Ibs. in weight, although some full-grown females do not scale more than 400 Ibs. . In the fifth year the antlers develop five points; but after that period the number increases irregularly, and there are frequently more snags on the one antler than on the other. Very rarely is there any approach to the cup in the crown of the antler distinctive of the red deer. Antlers of the wapiti attain very large dimensions. Of two fine pairs in the collection of Mr. Otho Shaw, the dimensions are as follows, in inches,—No. 1, length 494, span 54, basal girth 8; No. 2, length 554, span 48, basal girth 73. In two examples belonging to Mr. E. S. Cameron, the total lengths are respectively 534 and 554 inches, the spans 474 and 444 inches, and the basal girths just above the burr 93 and 10 inches. The maximum recorded lengths are, however, 60%, 615, 62, and 623 inches. The range of the wapiti has of late years been greatly restricted by the advance of civilisation, while the same cause, coupled with constant persecution on the part of sportsmen, has likewise reduced its numbers in a corresponding degree. Mr. W. A. Perry states, that the wapiti was formerly found in nearly all parts of the United States, in Mexico, and in British America as far north as the 60th parallel of north latitude; but it has vanished before the approach of civilisation, and is now found only in the remotest mountain fastnesses west of the Missouri River, or in the great forests of British America. The largest herds now remaining outside of the National Yellowstone Park are found in the Olympic Mountains of Washington, and among the mountains of Vancouver Island. There are still many remaining in the Cascade and Rocky ranges, but they do not congregate there in large herds as they do in the Coast ranges. Another recent writer states, that less than ten years ago there were many secluded districts in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, where, during the late autumn and winter, wapiti might be seen banded together in herds numbering many thousands of individuals; whereas now, it is seldom that a hundred can be found together. The general habits of the wapiti seem to be very similar to those of the red deer, the old stags living apart from the main herd during the greater part of the year; and in the pairing-season taking exclusive possession of a party of hinds, after having vanquished their rivals in fight. The shedding of the antlers is late, generally taking place in the full-grown stags during the latter part of December or the first half of January. The new antlers begin to sprout in March or April, and are fully complete by the middle of August. At this time the old stags begins to call, the note being a roar very like that of the hangul. It has, however, been compared to the bray of a donkey; and it is suggested that it is partly from this DEER. 351 that the wapiti has received the nickname of “jackass deer,’ bestowed upon it by the traders in the Rocky Mountains. During May Mr. Perry states that the wapiti desert the lower hills to take refuge in the higher ranges, getting as near as possible to the snow-line without leaving the upper belt of forest. The hinds then leave the herds to give birth to their fawns in the most secluded thickets. Usually there is but a single fawn pro- duced at a birth, although two do not appear to be very unfrequent. The hind will fight to the death in the defence of her helpless offspring against the onslaught of puma, bear, or coyote. At such times she gives utterance to a loud ery, which at once brings to her aid all the members of the herd which may be in the vicinity, and all of which unite in driving off the foe. The wapiti is a promiscuous, not to say a coarse, feeder. Mr. Caton says that “all the grasses and most of the weeds within his reach are taken freely, and the leaves and trees of all the deciduous trees are alike enjoyed. A considerable pro- portion of his daily food he desires to be arboreous, yet if deprived of it he will keep in good condition on herbaceous food alone. In winter he will take the coarsest food ; even that which the ox and the horse reject, he will eat freely.” The venison, although unlike that of other deer, is of fine flavour, and is said to be more nutritious than any other meat. A combat between two male wapiti during the pairing-season is described by Mr. Perry as follows: “The challenger, when approaching a band, or harem, blows a loud whistle of defiance. (Take a half-pint bottle and blow strongly into it, and the sound so produced will be similar to the call of the male wapiti during the rutting-season.) This whistle is at once answered by the ruler of the herd, who steps boldly forth to do battle with the intruder. With heads lowered between their fore-feet, the two adversaries walk around waiting for an opening, and when one is thrown off his guard the other makes a savage rush; but his opponent instantly recovers, counters the charge, and as they rush together the antlers strike each other with such terrific force that the report can be heard for a long distance. Slowly retreating, bellowing, grumbling, and grinding their teeth in a paroxysm of rage, they again circle around, and when an opportunity is afforded, make another charge, which is countered as before, The challenging wapiti usually does most of the offensive fighting until he finds (if such be the case) that he is the weaker; then he sullenly retires, bellowing as he goes. These battles are seldom fatal, and during the rutting-season are an everyday occurrence. Ugly wounds often result from them, and sometimes a prong of an antler is broken in the aftray.” Wapiti differ from the majority of the deer tribe in that they do not feed during the night, although they are on the move with the first streak of dawn. From that time till about eight in the morning they continue feeding almost without interruption, after which they indulge in a midday siesta. During this midday rest they can be easily approached. About four o'clock in the evening they once more commence feeding, in which occupation they continue till dusk. In winter they are often pressed for food; and when the snow lies deep on the ground each party occupies a small area, over which the snow is trampled down as hard as ice, while all the trees are gnawed bare both of bark and leaves as high as the animals can reach. 352 UNGULATES. When wapiti were found on the great prairies, the Indians were accustomed to hunt them on horseback by forming a wide circle of mounted men, from whom a certain number were detached to harass the unfortunate animals until they were brought to a standstill. Another favourite method was by forming a cordon of horsemen and driving a whole herd over a precipice. At the present day the more sportsman-like method of hunting is, however, almost exclusively employed; and it appears that the wapiti is an animal far less difficult to approach than the red deer, while it is killed by a comparatively slight wound. THE JAPANESE DEER GrouP (Cervus sika, etc.). The prettily-marked Japanese deer represents a group differing from the last by the antlers having no bez-tine, so that each has usually but four points; and also by the coat being spotted with white in summer, although uniformly brown during winter. Moreover, the proportionate length of the tail is much greater than in the red deer group; and the large white patch on the buttocks is completely bordered with black. All the deer of this group are of medium dimensions, and for the most part inhabitants of Eastern Asia. The Japanese deer, from Japan and North China, stands somewhat lower at the shoulder than a fallow deer, and has the ground-colour of the fur dark or yellowish brown, with the greater part of the tail white. These deer are very abundant in North Japan and parts of China, where they frequent dense forest, generally in hilly regions. The only way of shooting them is by beating the country with a large number of men. The Japanese deer has been introduced into several parks in Ireland and England, where it thrives well, sometimes interbreeding with the red deer. Mantchurian The Mantchurian deer (CL mantchwricus), of Northern China, Door. may probably be regarded merely as a larger variety of the last, in which the coat is generally darker coloured, with a larger dark area on the upper surface of the tail. Dybowski’s deer (C. dybowshi7), from Mantchuria, appears, how- ever, to be a distinct species of relatively large size, easily recognised by its pure white muzzle. The ordinary length of the antlers is about 22 inches, but a pair, having five tines each, which have been referred to this species, measure upwards of 354 inches. Better known than the last is the Formosan deer (C. taévanus) from the mountains of the island from which it takes its name. The body-colour is lighter than in the other species, while the spots have a tendency to persist during the winter ; the tail being white with a black streak down the middle of the upper surface. These deer are caught in traps by the inhabitants of Formosa, by whom, as well as by the dwellers on the island of Samasana, they are kept as pets. Lastly, we have the imperfectly-known Caspian deer (C. caspicus) from the Talish Mountains, near the south-western extremity of the Caspian Sea in Northern Persia, which has been provisionally assigned to the present group. If rightly thus placed, this species is of interest as showing that the group is represented in Western, as well as in Eastern Asia. The one skull, on Dybowski’s Deer. Formosan Deer. Caspian Deer. DEER. 353 o the evidence of which the Caspian deer was considered to represent a distinct species, differs from that of the other members of the group in that the antlers have only three points when fully adult, namely, a brow-tine and a fork at the extremity. THE INDIAN SpoTTED DEER, OR CHITAL (Cervus axis). The spotted, or axis deer, of India and Ceylon, is our first representative of two very closely allied groups of Indian deer, in which the cylin- drical antlers have but three tines on each side ; the bez-tine being absent, and the beam terminating in a simple fork. In the spotted deer, of which a single antler is shown in C of the figure on p. 340 and a pair in the upper figure of the accom- panying woodcut, the bez-tine of the antlers is given off nearly at a right angle with the beam. The whole length of the antlers is about three times that of the skull in average specimens; and the hinder tine of the terminal fork is con- siderably longer than the one in front. The spotted deer or, as it is called in India, the chital or chitra, varies consider- ably in height in differ- ent localities, buek from Northern and Central India standing, accord- cp ms to Blantord, from ANTLERS OF INDIAN SPOTTED DEER (1), SWAMP-DEER (2), AND SAMBAR (3). 3 feet to 3 feet 2 inches at the withers, whereas in Southern India the height seldom exceeds from 2 feet 6 inches to 2 feet 8 inches. The neck and throat of this deer are devoid of any VOL. I1.—23 354 UNGULATES. mane; the tail is relatively long, poimted, and thin; and the cheek-teeth are characterised by the great height of their crowns. The ground-colour of the fur is a rufous fawn; the whole of the body being marked by a number of large white spots, which are present at all ages of the animal throughout the year, and tend to arrange themselves in longitudinal lines. The head and neck are of a uniform brownish colour, and there is a black line running from the nape of the neck to the end of the tail. White prevails on the inside of the ears, the chin, the upper part of the throat, the under-parts of the body, and the insides of the limbs, as well as on the under surface of the tail. As in the case of the fallow deer, a blackish variety is occasionally met with, in which the spots are only very faintly indicated. An individual standing close upon 3 feet in height weighed 145 lbs. Although the antlers of the spotted deer are typically but three-tined, there are not unfrequently a number of small points or “sports” at the junction of the brow-tine with the beam; but such sports are rare higher up. The average length of the antlers of the larger race of this species may be given as about 30 inches; but examples reaching 38 and 38} inches in length, with a girth of 5} inches above the burr, have been recorded. Great difference exists in regard to the degree of divergence or span of the antlers; thus, in two examples of which the respective lengths were 34 and 343 inches, the span in the former case was only 24 inches, against 304 inches in the other. This deer is found nearly throughout India and Ceylon, but in the Himalaya it only occurs on the outermost spurs, and it is unknown on the plains of the Punjab, Sind, a large part of Rajputana, Assam, and the whole of the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. On the hills of Southern India it is found at elevations of from three to four thousand feet above the sea. It has been introduced by Sir E. G. Loder into his park near Horshain. The native name chital refers to the dappled hide of this deer, which is, perhaps, the handsomest member of its tribe as regards colour and form, and is certainly one of the most characteristic of the mammals of India. My. Blanford states that it is most generally found among bushes or trees in the neighbourhood of water, and in bamboo-jungles, while it frequents both hilly tracts and plains, and never wanders far from its drinking places. “So long,” writes the author named, “as it has a wild tract of bush or ravines for shelter, it appears to care little for the neighbourhood of man. Many of its favourite haunts are in some of the most beautiful wild scenery of the Indian plains, and lower hills, on the margins of rippling streams with their banks overgrown by lofty trees, or in the grassy glades that open out amidst the exquisite foliage of bamboo clumps. Spotted deer are thoroughly gregarious and associate at all times of the year in herds, sometimes of several hundreds. They are less nocturnal than sambar, and may be found feeding for three or four hours after sunrise, and again in the after- noon for an hour or two before sunset. They generally drink between eight and ten oclock in the morning, the time varying with the season of year, and repose during the day in deep shade. They swim well, and take readily to water. They both graze and browse.” Distribution. Habits. It appears that there is a great range of individual variation as regards the date of the pairmg-season and the shedding of the antlers; bucks with fully- DEER. 355 developed antlers being met with at all times of the year. In Northern India the pairing-season seems, however, to be generally during the winter; although young fawns may apparently be met with at any season. As regards its usual habits, General Kinloch writes that “the chital is a shy and retiring animal, lying quiet in the densest thickets during the heat of the day, and if disturbed generally attempting to elude observation by concealment, or by trying to sneak quietly away. I have often, when beating for tigers, seen a cunning old stag with his head down silently creeping away through the jungle, sometimes passing almost under the elephants. When on foot, I have known a \ | a / y | TH, Par Hal Ye: Sis J —— — i Wea. \ IAS = EN Rl \ WSS \qi {0 mS} oaeh\ S| ec =A | \\\N / . oN THE INDIAN SPOTTED DEER (4 nat. size). herd come quietly past within two or three yards of me in thick cover, and even at that short distance have had difficulty in getting a shot. It might be supposed that such a brightly-coloured animal would be very conspicuous in the forest, but this is far from being the case; unless it moves, few beasts are more difficult to see; the colour of the skin harmonises with the dead leaves and grass, while the white spots are indistinguishable from the little flecks of hght caused by the sunshine passing through the leafy branches. Chital generally assemble in herds of from ten to thirty, among which are probably two or three stags, but occasionally herds of hundreds are met with. On being disturbed, and especially on detecting the presence of a beast of prey, the chital utters a sort of shrill bark, and many a time 356 UNGULATES. has this cry betrayed a tiger to the sportsmen. The stag’s cry is a peculiar moan- ing sort of bellow, and is generally to be heard at night. Immense numbers of spotted deer are frequently met with when beating for tigers, and many are shot off elephants in this way. In long grass it is of course only possible to shoot them from elephants, but however satisfactory it may be to bowl over a stag in full career by a clever snap-shot from the howda, it cannot, in my opinion, compare with the pleasure of stalking and shooting the same animal on foot, where the nature of the country renders it possible.” The months of March, April, and May are the best for chital-shooting on foot in the valleys and low hills on the flanks of the Himalaya. Remains of deer apparently nearly allied to the chital are found in the Pliocene formations of the south of France. THE SAMBAR GrouP (Cervus unicolor, etc.). Nearly allied to the chital is a group of deer from South-Eastern Asia, dis- tinguished by the brow-tine of the three-pronged antlers forming an acute angle, instead of nearly aright angle, with the beam, as shown in the figures on pp. 340, 353. The majority of this group are peculiar in that they are uniformly coloured at all ages, although in two forms the young are spotted, while in one case this type of coloration persists in the adult. The well-known Indian sambar is the largest member of this group, as it is the largest of all the true deer, next to the representatives of the red deer group. Externally the sambar is characterised by its coarse wiry hair, which on the neck and throat of the adult male is elongated to form an erectile mane. The ears are large and broad, and the tail thick and of moderate length. In colour the fur is a nearly uniform dark brown throughout, tending, however, in some individuals to a more or less well-marked yellowish, and in others to a greyish tinge. The chin, under-parts, and inner surfaces of the limbs, are always yellower, and may be yellowish white. In the ordinary form the young are likewise uniformly coloured, but there is said to be a variety in Cachar of which the fawns are spotted. The height of the buck varies from 4 to 5 feet, and possibly rather more at the withers; and largé specimens have been killed weighing 560 lbs. (40 stone) and 700 Ibs. (51 stone). The antlers are generally characterised by their rough external surface, and their freedom from sports; while in Indian examples the two tines of the terminal fork are nearly equal in length, although in other districts there is great variability in this respect. In India fine horns attain a length of about 36 inches, but these dimensions are seldom reached in the countries to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. As regards shape and girth, there is a great amount of variation in sambar horns. In a fine pair, of which the extreme length was 384 inches, the span was 372 inches, and the basal girth 82 inches; whereas in another pair, while the length was only 322 inches the span was 38 inches and the girth 9 inches. The longest recorded pair measured 48 inches in length, but their girth at the middle of the beam was only 6 inches, against 8} inches in a pair measuring 88 inches in length. Perhaps, however, the finest known pair is one in which the length is 44 inches, the span 45] inches, and the girth just above the brow-tine 7? inches. There is DEER. 357 oO likewise an equally-marked difference in regard to the degree of development of the ridges and furrows on the antlers. The sambar occurs typically in the wooded undulating or hilly districts of India and Ceylon; but Mr. Blanford concludes that the smaller Malayan and Burmese forms, which have been described under the names of C. hippelaphus and C. equinus, are not specifically separate ; although the front-tine of the terminal fork of the antlers is much shorter than the back one, instead of Distribution. ae ENF A < Lae THE SAMBAR (ys nat. size). the two being subequal. The range of the sambar accordingly extends from India to the Malayan Islands, and thus covers nearly the entire Oriental region. In the Himalaya it may range to elevations of nine thousand or ten thousand feet; and it is commonly found on the highest mountains of Southern India and Ceylon. It is but seldom seen on the alluvial plains frequented by the chital, and is absent from the sandy plains of Sind, the Punjab, and Rajputana. Haris Mr. Blanford observes that the sambar “is the woodland deer of South-Eastern Asia generally, and is more widely and generally dis- tributed than any other species. Although it does not shun the neighbourhood of 358 UNGULATES. man to the same degree as Bos gawrus does, it 1s only common in wild tracts of country. It comes out on the grass slopes, where such exist, as in the Nilgiris and other hill-ranges, to graze, but always takes refuge in the woods. It is but rarely found associating in any numbers; both stags and hinds are often found singly, but small herds from four or five to a dozen in number are commonly met with. Its habits are nocturnal; it may be seen feeding in the morning and evening, but it grazes chiefly at night, and at that time often visits small patches of cultivation in the half-cleared tracts, returning for the day to wilder parts, and often ascending hills to make a lair in grass amongst trees, where it generally selects a spot well shaded from the sun’s rays. It feeds on grass, especially the green grass near water, and various wild fruits of which it is very fond, but it also browses greatly on shoots and leaves of trees. It drinks, I believe, daily, though Mr. Sterndale doubts this; it certainly travels long distances to its drinking-places at times.” As regards the date of the pairing-season and the time of shedding the antlers, there appears to be even a still greater amount of variation than is the case with the chital; and it is stated on good authority that stags have been known to retain their antlers for two or more years. It appears, however, that in peninsular India the pairing-season usually takes place in October and November, although in the Himalaya it occurs in the spring. Similarly, while in the former area the antlers are most frequently shed in March, in the latter the shedding-time is deferred for a month later. Usually there is but one fawn at a birth. During the pairing-season sambar assemble in large numbers, and at that time the old stags utter at morning and evening, and sometimes in the night, loud roar- ings, which have been described as a “ metallic-sounding bellow.” Sambar are very tenacious of life, and require a well-placed bullet to bring them to the ground. They are usually either stalked or driven by a line of beaters ; but Sir Samuel Baker, when in Ceylon, was in the habit of hunting them with hounds, and giving the cowp-de-grdce with a knife. Describing his experiences in that country, Sir Samuel writes that “we never drove the jungles with beaters, but simply strolled through the most promising country, either upon ponies or on foot, and took our chance of any game that we might meet. I rarely met sambar in the low country; and when living on the mountains at Newera Ellia, 6200 feet above the sea, shooting was out of the question. Although the interminable forests of that elevated district abounded with these animals, I have never seen one, unless discovered by the hounds. The jungles are thick, and it is impossible to get through them without noise and considerable exertion. The animals of course are alarmed, and retreat before you are near enough to hear their rush. I have often taken my rifle and sallied out before sunrise upon the wild patinas (open ground), where nature rested in profound solitude; but I have never seen a sambar in the open.” The hunting was conducted with a mixed pack of about fourteen couple of hounds of various breeds, which were found better suited to this kind of sport than pure-bred foxhounds; and the pack was always directed to the neighbourhood of a stream, where the scent would be freshest, as the sambar drinks before retiring to the densest depths of the jungle, in order to enjoy its day’s repose. The speed of the sambar is, according to Mr. Blanford, but very moderate; and on the rare DEER. 359 occasions when these deer are found in open country, any good horse which is not overweighted by its rider, ought to have no difficulty in running them down. In the islands of the Malayan region there occur several small sambar-like deer, in regard to which it is difficult to determine whether they indicate races of the ordinary sambar which have been introduced by the natives, and have gradually dwindled in size, or whether they are entitled to rank as distinct species. Such is the Timor deer (C. timorensis), a small, thick- set animal, scarcely half the size of the smaller race of the true sambar; and also the Moluccan deer (C. moluccensis), in which the general build is more slight and graceful. In the Philippine and Ladrone Islands, there occurs another of these small sambar-like deer (CL philippinus), belonging to the variety in which the anterior tines of the antlers are shorter than the posterior. This form is scarcely larger than the under-mentioned hog-deer, but its build is more slender, and the colour a uniform dark brown, save for a pale ring round each eye, and the white on the under-parts of the tail and the inner surface of the thighs. On the other hand, there can be no doubt as to the specific distinctness of Kuhl’s deer (C. kuhlz), from the Bavian Islands between Borneo and Java. This deer, while resembling most of the forms noticed above, in that its fur has the same uniform coloration throughout life, differs in having a skull resembling that of the hog-deer, and displaying the same absence of tusks in the upper jaw. The colour of the fur in this deer is pale brown; but the individual hairs are ringed with alternate tints, instead of having the uniform hue of those of the hog-deer. Very different from all the other members of this group is Prince Alfred's deer (C. alfred), from the Philippines, which resembles the chital in having at all ages and all seasons a spotted coat. This deer stands about 24 feet at the withers; and its colour is a dark chocolate-brown, with about six longitudinal rows of somewhat indistinctly-marked yellowish spots. The antlers are comparatively short, and have the front tine of the terminal fork directed inwardly, while the outer surfaces of the ears are nearly devoid of hairs. The last and smallest representative of this group is the hog- deer, or para (CL porcinus), of India and Burma, which stands only some 24 inches in height at the withers. In build, this species is characterised by the relative shortness of its legs, while the tail is rather long, and there is no mane Allied Species. Hog-Deer. on the neck and throat. The comparatively short antlers are mounted on very long bony pedicles, and after giving off the brow-tine have a nearly straight beam till the small terminal fork, the front branch of which is longer than the hind one. There are no tusks in the upper jaw. In colour, the fur of the para is brownish, with a more or less decided yellowish or reddish tinge; each hair being tipped with white, so as to produce a speckly appearance. The under-parts are paler, and the under surface of the tail and the insides of the ears white. The fur becomes paler in summer, and is then generally marked with light brown or white spots, which may be limited to one or two rows on either side of a dark streak down the back. The young have the whole body spotted, till they attain the age of some six months. The antlers seldom exceed 10 or 12 inches in length. In India the hog-deer is confined to the great Indo-Gangetie plain, where it 360 UNGULATES. ranges from Assam to the Punjab and Sind, and is quite unknown in the peninsula, though a small colony has been introduced into Ceylon. It occurs along the Terai at the foot of the Himalaya; and from Assam its range extends into Burma and Tenasserin. The para swarms on many of the low alluvial plains of India, to which situations it is mainly, if not exclusively, restricted. Here it frequents the grass- jungles of moderate height, avoiding the taller ones which give shelter to the buffalo and rhinoceros. Sometimes, however, they may be met with among trees. As a rule, hog-deer are solitary creatures, and it is but seldom that more than two or three are found together, although several may inhabit one patch of jungle. The pairing-season is said to be in September and October; and the antlers are generally shed in April. The hog-deer is an ungainly animal when moving, and General Kinloch states that both “its English and specific names have been derived from the hog-like manner in which it rushes through the long grass when disturbed; keeping its head low down, and galloping without that bounding action which characterises most deer.”. Hog-deer are generally shot from elephants and afford good sport, although they are difficult to hit, since as a rule the only indication of their presence is a sudden rush in the long grass, in the direction of which the sportsman must fire. General Kinloch says, that “hog-deer may be speared on favourable ground, and give splendid runs; they are very fast, and usually give a much longer chase than a boar. I have heard of instances of their deliberately charging a horse; and with their sharp horns they can inflict a very severe wound.” THE Swamp-DEER Group (Cervus duwvauceli, etc.). The swamp-deer, of which the antlers are figured in the woodcuts on pp. 340 and 353, differs from all the Indian deer hitherto noticed, in that the antlers carry more than three tines. This distinctive character of the swamp-deer has not escaped the notice of the natives of India, by whom it is designated barasingha, that is, “twelve-tined.” This deer is a rather large species, the bucks standing from 3 feet 8 inches to 3 feet 10 inches at the withers. The neck is maned, the tail of moderate length, the muzzle long, and the hair rather fine and rather woolly. The antlers are smooth and somewhat flattened, and give off the brow-tine nearly at right angles to the beam; after which the beam continues without branching for a considerable distance, finally dividing into a fork, of which the two prongs again branch. Generally, as in the figure on p. 353, the inner branch of the main fork has two, and the outer three tines, but the number of points is often much greater, reaching from sixteen to twenty, or even more. In its winter dress the colour of the swamp-deer is yellowish brown above and paler underneath ;. but in summer the upper-parts are reddish brown, generally more or less spotted with white, while the under-parts and the lower surface of the tail are pure white. The young are spotted. Average-sized antlers of the barasingha measure about 30 inches along the curve; but a length of 38 inches has been recorded. Large stags have weighed from 460 to 570 Ibs. (32 stone 12 Ibs. to 40 stone 10 Ibs.). DEER. 36t The swamp-deer is confined to India, where it has a local distribution; being found along the foot of the Himalaya, from Assam to some distance west of the Jumna, and in some districts in the Indo- Gangetic plains, such as the Bengal sandarbans and Rohri in Sind. It is also common in certain portions of Central India, especially in the valley of the Narbada, where its habitat is limited to the area clothed with forests of the sal tree. The swamp-deer, although sometimes found in open forest, generally keeps in the outskirts of the woods, and frequents flat or undulating grass-lands, more or less interspersed with trees. In winter it is gregarious, herds of from thirty to fifty head being frequently met with, while in some districts herds of several hundreds have been observed during September and October. In Assam the bucks are met with singly, with the antlers for the most part still in the velvet, so that the shedding-time is probably, as a rule, not later Distribution. Habits. than February. The swamp-deer is mainly a grazer, and it is said to be much less nocturnal in its habits than the sambar, being not unfrequently seen grazing in the forenoon, and again early in the afternoon. Schomburgk's § Schomburgk’s deer Deer. (C. schomburgki), of Siam, is an allied species, of which the antlers, as shown in the figure on this page, are distinguished by the extreme shortness of the beam below the bifurcation, and the great length of the brow- tine. Each antler usually carries five points; and specimens vary in length from 27 to 30 inches in good examples. An altogether unique form of antler is that of Eld’s deer (C. eldi), as shown in the figure on p. 340. Here the brow-tine curves down over the forehead, so as to form an almost continuous sweep with the beam; the latter being curved at first backwards and outwards, and then slightly forwards, after which it divides into a short fork, of which the two prongs may split up into as many as eight or ten points. The upper surface of the brow-tine often carries a number of short points, and there is very generally a distinct snag at the point where that tine joins the beam. In some cases the upper part of the beam is much flattened. In height this species stands nearly the same as the swamp-deer. In winter the colour of the fur of the bucks is dark brown, tending to black, but in summer it is fawn-coloured, nearly like that Eld’s Deer. HEAD OF SCHOMBURGK’S DEER. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1877.) 362 UNGULATES. of the does at all seasons; the under-parts being pale brown in winter and white in summer. The fawns lose their spots at an early age. In the winter the hair is coarse and very shaggy. Average-sized antlers measure about 40 inches from the tip of the brow-tine along the curve to the extremity; but one specimen of 54, and another of 59 inches have been recorded. Eld’s deer frequents low swampy grounds in Manipur, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cambodia, and the island of Hainan. Mr. Blanford states that they are “usually seen in herds of from ten to fifty or more ; but occasionally much larger numbers are found associating. They may enter the fringe of the forest in places for shade, during the day, but they generally keep in the open plain. In some places in the Lrawadi delta, and in Martaban, they are found in plains, where, during the dry season, no fresh water is procurable. They are frequently seen in swamps, and feed on wild rice and other plants growing in such places.” The period of shedding the antlers varies from June in Manipur to September in Lower Burma. The hinds utter a short barking grunt, while the call of the stags is a more prolonged sound of the same nature. Davip’s DEER (Cervus davidianus). Mantchuria, or some neighbouring region in Northern China, is the habitat of a remarkable deer differing from all other Old World types in the absence of a brow-tine to the antlers. Instead of the brow-tine, each antler has a single very long and nearly straight tine given off just above the beam, and directed backwards ; above which the beam ascends for a considerable distance, and then forks. The normal number of points on each antler is accordingly three, but this may be increased by a splitting of each tine of the fork. It appears that the long back- tine represents the hinder branch of the antler of the swamp-deer, and the terminal fork the front branch of the latter. David’s deer is of about the same size as the swamp-deer, and is clothed with long and rather shaggy hair, while the tail is of unusual length, and also thickly haired. It has been stated that the fawns are uniformly coloured, but this requires confirmation. These deer ave kept in the imperial hunting-park at Pekin, and specimens have been exhibited alive in England, but we have no information as to their habits in the wild state. The largest antlers on record have a length of 32? inches. THE FaLttow DEER Group (Cervus dama, etc.). The fallow deer is the representative of a distinct group of the genus Cervus, characterised by the antlers being rounded at the base, but widening in the upper part into a flattened palmate expansion. In front there is a large brow-antler, forming rather more than a right angle with the beam, above which there is a trez-tine given off at some distance below the commencement of the palmation ; while the hinder edge of the latter carries three or four small sharp snags, of which the lowest is longer and placed considerably below the others, so that it may rank as a distinct back-tine. In height the fallow deer usually stands nearly 3 feet at the withers, and has a small head, large ears, and a relatively long tail. The general colour of the fur is some shade of fawn or yellowish brown, darker on the head and neck, and marked on the body with a number of large white spots. The under-parts, inner sides of the limbs, and the under surface of the tail are white; and there is a dark line running down the back from the nape of the neck to the end of the tail. There is, however, a dark brown variety in which the spots are scarcely distinguish- able, or wanting, and specimens may be seen exhibiting every gradation in colour from pure white nearly to black. The hair is comparatively short and fine, and there is no mane on the neck and throat. The upper jaw has no tusks. Good antlers vary in length from 19 to 27 inches, 28} being the maximum length on record. The fallow deer is a native of Northern Africa and the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and in a wild state is still abundant in Sardinia, Spain, and some of the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. From these countries it has been introduced into Central Europe, where it flourishes well, although needing some protection during the winter in the more northerly regions. At what period this introduction took place is, however, quite uncertain, although in Britain it was evidently many centuries ago. From the occurrence of antlers of the general type of those of the fallow deer in some of the superficial deposits, it has been supposed that this species was really an indigenous British animal. These fossil antlers belong, however, to an extinct although nearly-allied species, known as C. brown, and there is no evidence of the occurrence of fossil ‘remains of the true fallow deer in this country. Bell observes that “fallow deer are gregarious to a great extent, associating in large herds, the bucks apart from the does, except in the pairing-season and - Distribution. early winter, when the sexes consort in company. Most persons must be familiar with their boldness and the confident manner in which they will approach man- _kind, where they are well accustomed to his presence. . . . Like the other species, the fallow deer feeds on herbage. It has been noted that it is especially fond of horse-chestnuts, which the bucks knock down from the branches with their antlers, and this tree is consequently frequently planted in deer-parks. The pairing- season begins in September, and the doe goes eight months with young.” As a general rule but a single fawn is produced at a birth, although there may occasionally be two. The alleged instances of triplets appear to be incorrect. The young male exhibits the first signs of his antlers in his second year, when they make their appearance as simple snags; the animal being then called a pricket. In the fifth year the antlers attain their full development, although some additional small points may be added in the following season. It has been stated that the dark variety of the fallow deer was introduced from Norway by James the First, on account of its hardy constitution. This, however, has been proved to be incorrect by Mr. Harting, who has shown that this breed existed in Windsor Park as far back as the year 1465. The fallow deer of Windsor Park include both the spotted and the brown breeds; but in Epping Forest only the latter occur. Writing of the fallow deer of Epping, Mr. Harting states that they “have held their own, in spite of all difficulties, until the present time, and have strangely 364 UNGULATES. preserved their ancient character in regard to size and colour. Locally they are referred to as ‘the old forest breed,’ and are comparatively small in size, of a uniformly dark brown colour, and with very attenuated antlers—peculiarities which have no doubt been brought about by continued isolation, without the admixture of any fresh stock for many generations. It is remarkable that no individuals of the true fallow colour (7.e. yellow dun) or spotted with white are ever seen in this forest. This in some measure proves the antiquity of the stock, which would otherwise show in their progeny a reversion to one or other of these varieties, which elsewhere are so common. The keepers assert that not only are there no spotted or fallow varieties here, but that they have never observed any spotted fawns, the latter being dark like their parents. If this observation be correct, it is very remarkable; for it is generally supposed that the fawns of all fallow deer are spotted at birth, and that, except in the permanently spotted variety, the spots disappear with age. The attenuation of the antlers is also very noticeable, the palmation being reduced from a hand’s-breadth to about the width of two fingers. There can be no doubt that, from long isolation and continued breeding in and in, the herd has considerably degenerated. . . . At present [1884] the number of fallow deer in Epping Forest is estimated to be about eighty or one hundred head. They do not associate in one herd, but roam about in small parties, keeping to the thickest underwood and most unfrequented parts of the forest.” The venison of the fallow deer is generally considered superior to that of the red deer. Persian Fallow The Persian fallow deer (C. mesopotamicus), from the mountains eB of Luristan, in Mesopotamian Persia, differs from the ordinary kind in that the trez-tine of the antlers is placed nearer to the small brow-tine, and that the main palmation of the beam takes place below instead of above the middle of the length. The two species are, however, very closely allied, and will freely breed together. The Persian species appears to be always spotted. Extinct Irish In this place may be noticed two extinct deer from the superficial ES deposits of Europe, which appear to be nearly related to the fallow deer, although of course it is impossible to tell now whether they had spotted or uniformly-coloured coats. The first and largest of these is the gigantic Irish deer (C. giganteus), often, but incorrectly, spoken of as the Irish elk, in which the widely-palmated antlers were larger and more massive than in any other species. In this magnificent deer the antlers have a short and nearly cylindrical basal portion of the beam, given off almost at right angles to the axis of the skull. Above the burr there is a descending brow-tine () which is flattened and generally forked. As soon as the beam expands it gives off from the front edge a trez-tine (c), and nearly opposite to it, on the hinder edge, a back-tine (h), corresponding to the one similarly situated in the fallow deer. Above these tines the antlers expand to their fullest width, and generally terminate in five or six snags, of which the topmost have a nearly upright direction. In unusually fine examples the antlers of the Irish deer may have a span of over 11 feet from tip to tip, and the height of the animal was fully 6 feet at the shoulder. Although the Irish deer takes its name from the common occurrence of its remains in the bogs of Ireland, it is by no means confined to that country. but is found in the caverns and superficial deposits of England and parts of Scotland, as a330 MO11V4 » DE he 365 well as on the Continent, where its range extends from Italy in the south to Russia’ in the north. That the Irish deer lived within the human period is proved by the occurrence of its remains in association with stone implements. It has, indeed, been considered that the word Schelk, which occurs in the Nibelungenlied of the 13th century, refers to the Irish deer, but Prof. Nehring is of opinion that it more probably means either an elk or a wild stallion. The Irish deer differs considerably from the fallow deer in the form and direction of its antlers, but a connecting link between them is found in Ruft’s ANTLERS OF THE IRISH DEER. (From Nehring.) deer (C. ruff), from the superficial deposits of Germany, which was of somewhat inferior dimensions to the former. In Ruff’s deer the antlers are directed upwards and outwards nearly after the fashion obtaining in the fallow deer, while the plane of the palmated portion is placed in the same longitudinal direction as in the latter. Moreover, the terminal snags are shorter and inclined more inwardly than in the Trish deer, but the flattened and expanded form of the brow-tine indicates a closer connection with the latter. THE MUNTJACS. Genus Cervulus. The small Asiatic deer, commonly known as muntjacs, differ so decidedly from all those hitherto noticed that they are referred to a distinct genus. They are distinguished from all the members of the genus Cervus by their short, simple, two- tined antlers being mounted on pedicles of the skull, which are as long or longer than the antlers themselves, and diverge from the middle line of the lower part of the forehead, where they commence as rib-like bars. From this feature these animals are often spoken of as rib-faced deer. The brow-tine of the antlers is short and directed upwards, while the tip of the undivided beam is more or less inclined inwards. The skull has a very large depression for the reception of the gland below the eye; and the bucks are furnished with long projecting tusks in the upper jaw. The lateral toes are peculiar in that they consist of only the hoofs, without any trace of the bones of the digits themselves. 366 UNGULATES. The muntjacs are confined to India, Burma, and the Malayan region, and evidently indicate a very ancient and generalised type of the Deer family. They appear to be represented in the Pliocene formations of Europe, and are probably nearly related to a still earlier group of extinct European deer, known as Palwomeryx, in which the antlers were either totally wanting, or of very small dimensions. The best known representative of the group is the common Indian muntjac, also known as the barking deer, and in Hindustan as the kakar (Cervulus muntjac). This animal stands from 20 to 22 inches in height at the shoulder; and has fur of a deep chestnut colour, becoming darker on the back, and paler and less brilliant below; the chin and upper part of the throat, as Indian Muntjac. \ Ss SN \ 4 SNUG) Wi \ ii THE INDIAN MUNTJAC well as the hinder portion of the under surface of the body, and the inner sides of the thighs and lower surface of the tail, being white. The face and limbs are brown, and there is a black line on the inner surface of the pedicles of the antlers, extend- ing some distance down the ribs on the face. The antlers are generally only some 3 or 4 inches in length, on pedicles of some 4 or 5 inches, but sometimes reach the length of 5, and, it is said, even 11 inches. The kakar is essentially a forest-dwelling deer, and appears to be restricted to hilly regions. Its range includes suitable districts throughout India, Ceylon, and Burma, whence it extends through the Malay Peninsula to the islands of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Hainan. These deer are solitary creatures, usually found singly or in pairs ; the name of barking deer being derived from their peculiar ery. On Distribution. Habits. DEER. 367 this point General Kinloch observes that many visitors to the various hill-stations of the Himalaya, who may never have seen a kakar, must probably be well acquainted with its voice, which is wonderfully powerful for such a small animal. It is rather difficult to convey a correct idea of it by words, but it may perhaps be best described as a hoarse resonant bark. The cry may frequently be heard in the mornings and evenings, and it is also often uttered when the deer is alarmed, when it hears any loud or unusual sound, or suspects the existence of any danger. Occasionally a kakar will continue to bark, at short intervals, for an hour at a time, and advantage may be taken of his betraying his whereabouts to stalk him. Kakar are adepts at making their way at speed through the most dense Jungle, and run with their head low and their hind-quarters elevated. When running, a peculiar rattling sound is produced by these animals, which is thought to originate in the mouth, although in what manner is still unknown. The bucks, when attacked by dogs, appear to use their tusks, which curve outwards in a_ peculiar manner, as their chief weapons of defence, and are able with them to inflict gashes of considerable depth. Although young kakar are appar- @ ently to be met with at all seasons of the year, the chief pairing-time in Northern India is during the months of January and February ; the fawns, which may be one or two in number, being born in the hes ee z HEAD OF HAIRY-FRONTED MUNTJAC. following June or July. The (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1885.) bucks shed their antlers in May, and their renewal is completed by August. The venison of the kakar is considered superior to that of most of the Indian deer. In regard to the sport afforded by these deer, General Kinloch writes: “I have stalked and shot kakar at various times, and have also had them driven out of cover; many may be found in this manner, but, unless one knows their usual runs, it is difficult to know where to post oneself. Like many other animals, the kakar objects to being driven, and will break back through the beaters in order to make his point. As they probably only give a chance of a snap-shot at short range, it is easier to kill them with a charge of shot than with a rifle-bullet.” Hunting. There are four other species of muntjac, in addition to the common Indian form. Of these, Fea’s muntjace (C. few), from Tenasserim, is rather smaller and darker than the Indian species, with a short tuft of hair between the antlers, and a much shorter tail; the latter appendage being altogether white, save for a narrow streak of black down the middle of its upper surface. Other Species. 368 UNGULATES. The other three species are Chinese. In Eastern Tibet and the neighbourhood of Hangchow there occurs Sclater’s muntjae (C. lacrymans), characterised by the bright yellowish-coloured hair of the head and neck, while that clothing the body and limbs is of a much more sombre hue. The smallest member of the group is Reeves’s muntjae (C. reevesz), from Southern China and Formosa, in which the colour of the whole fur is brighter than in any other species, while the pedicles of the antlers diverge less from one another, and the hollow in the skull for the gland below the eye is of unusually large size. ' Finally, the hairy-fronted muntjae (C. erinifrons), which is perhaps the hand- somest of all and comes from the neighbourhood of Ningpo, is distinguished at a glance by the long tuft of hair on the forehead and top of the head, in which the minute antlers are almost entirely hidden. This species stands about 24 inches in height at the shoulder; and the general colour of its fur is brown. The upper part of the head is, however, of a bright chestnut, which, with the white of the under-parts and lower surface of the tail, forms a striking contrast to the sombre coloration of the body. THE TUFTED DEER. Genus Elaphodus. Nearly related to the muntjacs are two small deer from Chinese territory, of which the one known as Michie’s deer (Hlaphodus michianus) inhabits Kastern MICHIE’S DEER. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.) China, while the other, which may be called the Tibetan tufted deer (1. cephalophus), is from Moupin, in Eastern Tibet. In the males of these deer, as represented in the DEER. 3609 accompanying illustration, the antlers are extremely minute and unbranched, while their supports take the form of long pedicles, which, instead of diverging as in the muntjacs, are convergent. Then, again, the rib-like ridges occurring on the face of the muntjacs are absent, as are likewise some small glands found on the forehead of the latter. Like the muntjacs, the bucks of these two deer are furnished with long tusks in the upper jaw, although their extremities are not turned outwards. In both species the hair is so coarse as to have been compared to small quills; and on the forehead the hair is lengthened so as to form a kind of horseshoe-like crest on the tuft. In Michie’s deer the general colour of the fur is greyish black, each individual hair being white for a considerable distance above its base, and the face and neck uniformly dark grey; while the crest on the forehead and portions of the ears are dark brown. In the Tibetan tufted deer the fur on the head, neck, and fore-quarters is dark brown, each hair being brown above and whitish beneath, while a pure white ring divides the two colours; consequently there is a speckled appearance in the fur of the anterior part of the animal. In the hinder part of the body the white rings on the hairs are absent, and the colour of the fur is consequently uniform dark brown, becoming of a still deeper shade on the feet and the crest on the forehead. The ears have a transverse black bar, with white tips and edges; the under-parts of the body and the lower surface of the tail being likewise white. Michie’s deer is abundant in the reeds bordering the rivers in the neighbour- hood of Ningpo and other parts of Eastern China. THE REINDEER. Genus Rangifer. The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) differs from all other members of the deer- tribe in that the antlers are not borne only by the male, although those of the female are of smaller dimensions; and together with all the deer remaining for notice, it differs from those already described in the structure of the fore-foot. In these, which, with the single exception of the wapiti, are Old World types, the lateral metacarpal bones of the fore-foot, which originally supported the lateral toes, are represented only by two small splints lying on either side of the upper end of the cannon-bone, as shown in the foot of the sheep on p. 370. On the other ‘hand, in the reindeer and the under-mentioned genera, these same lateral metacarpal bones are represented only by their lower extremities, and thus still support the toe-bones of the lateral hoofs, as shown in the figure on the next page. This difference may not, perhaps, appear to be of much significance, but as there are other indications of affinity between the members of the two groups into which the deer family is thereby divided, it is probably of considerable importance in classification. The majority of the deer belonging to the present group are either common to the northern regions of both hemispheres, or are restricted to the New World, the roe and the Chinese water-deer being the only exclusively Old World forms. Reverting to the consideration of the reindeer, we have first to observe that in addition to the presence of antlers in both sexes, the genus is distinguished from VOL. 11.—24 370 UNGULATES. all other deer by the form and position of these appendages. Thus instead of being placed low down on the forehead, the antlers take their origin on the upper part of the skull, immediately over the occipital ridge, and are accordingly far behind the eyes; while as regards form they are distinguished by the great development of the brow-tines in the males, which are more or less laterally compressed, branched, and palmated, and descend to a greater or less degree over the face, so that their lower edge sometimes almost touches the nose. Then, again, there is such an amount of individual variation that scarcely any two reindeer can be found in which the antlers are precisely similar; while frequently the two antlers of the same individual are widely different from one another. The antlers are very long in proportion to the length of the skull, and above the brow-tine, which is also branched and often palmated, after giving off the bez-tine, the narrow beam is continued backwards for some distance, till it bends forward at an angle, usually giving off a small back-tine at the bend. The beam is then continued upwards and forwards vHe Bones or tue till it becomes palmated near the extremity, with a variable LEFT FORE-FOOT OF ynymber of points on its hinder border. In the reindeer of the THE ROEBUCK. (From ._ E On : 3 Dawkins.) New World the antlers exhibit the greatest complexity of structure, the brow-tine of one side becoming enormously developed and greatly palmated, while on the other it is aborted. In build the reindeer is a somewhat heavy animal, with short and rather stout limbs, terminating in large hoofs. The main pair of hoofs, as shown in our figure, are rounded, broad and short, with the intervening cleft very deep and wide; while the lateral hoofs are unusually large and flattened from front to back. In traversing snowfields the two main hoofs spread out sideways, while the lateral pair come in contact with the snow, by which means a large extent of surface is afforded to support the weight. The muzzle of the reindeer differs from that of all the deer hitherto mentioned in being clothed with soft hairs of moderate length. The neck has no distinct mane, but the throat is fringed with long and rather stiff hair. The ears are smaller than in any other deer, and thickly covered on both sides with hair. The hair clothing the body is from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and is somewhat crimped or waved, while beneath this is a coat of woolly under-fur. The general colour of the reindeer is brownish grey, with the face, neck, and throat whitish, and the nose, ears, and limbs brown. There are, however, great individual variations as regards colour, some specimens being nearly or quite white throughout. In general the tail is white, with a tinge of brown at the root and on the upper surface ; and there is a distinct white ring round each fetlock. The hoofs are black, and the antlers UNDER SURFACE OF FOOT OF REINDEER, IDV PIP Bia fit yellowish, wearing white in places. Reindeer fawns are uniformly coloured like the adult. The various races of reindeer differ considerably from one another in respect of height; but the bucks of the larger American variety stand about 44 feet at the withers, and usually weigh some 350 lbs., although unusually fine specimens may reach nearly 400 Ibs. In regard to the length of the antlers, it appears that fine examples vary from 48 to just over 57 inches, although one pair is known in which REINDEER (,); nat. size). the length reaches to upwards of 60 inches. There is great variation in regard to the span of antlers, and the number of points they carry; while it is not unfrequently the case that the longest specimens have by no means the greatest girth. Reindeer inhabit the northern regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and English zoologists are pretty generally agreed that there is but a single species. In America, however, where they are known by the French-Canadian name earibou (a corruption of carrebwuf, literally “square-ox”), it is considered that there are either one or two species distinct from the Old World form. Thus, whereas Mr. Caton regards the smaller North Distribution. 372 UNGULATES. American form, known as the barren-ground caribou, as a distinct species, while he identifies the larger southern kind termed the woodland caribou with R. turandus, other writers, like Dr. Hart Merriam, consider that both the American forms are entitled to rank as distinct species. We shall, however, follow the view that all kinds of reindeer are merely local varieties or races of a single widely spread species. In the Old World reindeer are found nearly as far north as the extreme limits of land, while they extend from Scandinavia in the west to Eastern Siberia. In the Ural region their southern limit reaches in the Kirghiz steppes to about the 52nd parallel of north latitude, and they are still to be met with in the wild state, in the neighbourhood of Orenburg. In European Russia they are found in the forests of the Government of Kazan as far south as latitude 54°; and it is stated that in this district they attain very large dimensions, while the females are without antlers. In Scandinavia wild reindeer are, however, now becoming rare. Domes- ticated reindeer are kept in Siberia, Lapland, and part of Norway, as well as in the northern districts of the Government of Perm, but appear to be unknown in the Orenburg region. They were introduced into Iceland in 1870, where they flourish well, and in 1892 sixteen head were landed in Alaska. The Scandinavian domes- ticated breed, which is chiefly used by the Laps for purposes of draught, is consid- erably smaller than the wild race; but in Siberia there is a tamed breed of larger size, mainly used for riding. The importance of the reimdeer to the Laplander has been so often written of that we may be excused for making any further mention of it. In regard to the northern extension of the Old World reindeer, Baron Nordenskiold observes that although it has not been found in Francis Joseph Land, it occurs at Cape Chelyuskin, as well as in Novaia Zemlia and Spitzbergen, and in the still more northerly Phipps and Parry Islands, which le between the 80th and 81st parallels of north latitude. In some of these desolate regions reindeer are still very numerous, even where, as in Spitzbergen, they are incessantly hunted. Regarding their abundance in the islands last-named, Baron Nordenskiold says that it has been suggested that they immigrate from Novaia Zemlia; but he considers it more probable that if such an immigration does take place, it must be from some unknown Arctic land to the north-north-east. The same writer observes that “the life of the wild reindeer is best known in Spitzbergen. During the summer it betakes itself to the grassy plains in the ice-free valleys of the island; in late autumn it withdraws—according to the walrus- hunter’s statements—to the sea-coast, in order to eat the seaweed that is thrown up on the beach. In winter it goes back to the lichen-clad mountain heights in the interior of the country, where it appears to thrive exceedingly well, though the cold during winter must be excessively severe; for when the reindeer in spring return to the coast they are still very fat, but some weeks afterwards, when the snow has frozen on the surface, and a crust of ice makes it difficult for them to get at the mountain-sides, they become so poor as to be scarcely eatable. In summer, however, they speedily eat themselves back into condition, and in autumn they are so fat that they would certainly take prizes at an exhibition of fat cattle.” Further observations on the mode of life of the reindeer will be deferred till we DEER. 343 come to the American varieties, but it is important that the periodical migrations of these animals which take place in Siberia should be noticed here. Admiral von Wrangel, when in Eastern Siberia, had an opportunity of seeing such migrations on more than one occasion; and he relates that the moving masses might be reckoned to include thousands of individuals, split up into herds of two or three hundred head. On one of these occasions the Admiral states that “two large migrating bodies of reindeer passed at no great distance. They were descending the hills from the north-west, and crossing the plain on their way to the forests, where they spend the winter. Both bodies of deer extended further than the eye could reach, and formed a compact mass narrowing to the front. They moved slowly and majestically along, their broad antlers resembling a moving wood of leafless trees. Each body was led by a deer of unusual size, which my guides assured me was always a female.” These southerly winter migrations of the reindeer are of considerable import- ance in regard to the former occurrence of this animal in Southern Europe; for since its remains are not unfrequently found in association with those of the hippopotamus, we can scarcely assume that in such localities at any rate the climate could have been otherwise than comparatively mild. Accordingly, the most probable hypothesis seems to be that in the Pleistocene period the reindeer, driven by the intense cold of the more northern portions of its habitat, must have travelled so far south during the winter till it reached regions where the rivers were suitable for the habitation of the hippopotamus. At the present day reindeer are unknown in the Old World to the south of a parallel running a little below the southern shore of the Baltic ; it appears, however, that in the time of Cesar they were met with in the Black Forest of Northern Germany, although whether as permanent residents or as winter immigrants, cannot, of course, be now ascertained. In the British Isles, remains of reindeer are com- monly met with in England, Scotland, and Iveland, and it was long considered that in Caithness this deer survived till the middle of the 12th century, although the latest researches tend to discountenance this idea. Reindeer remains are also found over the Continent, occurring as far south as the valleys of the Dordogne and Garonne in France. Turning now to the American reindeer, which, as aforesaid, are characterised by the great development and palmation of one brow- tine of the antlers, and the abortion of the other, we find there are two well-marked varieties. The first and smaller of these is the barren-ground caribou, the R. grenlandicus of those who regard it as a distinct species. This reindeer is found only in the barren Arctic districts lying to the northwards of the forest-region of North America. It is abundant in the desolate regions to the northward of Fort Churchill, whence it extends to the confines of the Arctic Ocean. This form, although much inferior in point of size to the woodland caribou, has larger antlers; and it is mainly on the latter ground that American zoologists urge its right to be reckoned as a distinct species. Although confined in summer to the so-called “ barren-grounds,” this variety of the reindeer makes extensive southerly migrations in autumn, in order to spend the winter in the forest-regions tenanted by the woodland caribou. It appears, however, that even when inhabiting the Caribou. 374 UNGULATES. same districts, the two races invariably remain completely apart from one another, and show no tendency to intermingle. Woodland The larger woodland caribou, of which the dimensions have Caribou. already been mentioned, is an inhabitant of the forest districts lying to the south of the barren northern lands. Mr. Lett states that “it imbhabits Labrador and Northern Canada, and thence may be found south to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland, the northern part of the State of Maine and Lower Canada on both sides of the St. Lawrence, thence westerly in the country north of Quebec to the vicinity of Lake Superior. It never migrates towards the north in summer, as is the habit of the barren-ground caribou, but makes its migration in a southerly direction.” This difference in the direction of the migration of the two varieties is certainly very remarkable; and when taken in conjunction with the difference in the size of their antlers, and their refusal to mingle together, indicates their marked distinctness from one another. ; Mr. Caton says, that the woodland caribou feeds on leaves, Habits. ee : | : ; a it \ 5 Ap grasses, and aquatic plants, but its great resource is lichens. It frequents marshy and swampy grounds more than any other of the Deer family ; for which it is admirably adapted, and where it is well protected from pursuit. In the winter it resorts to the dense forests on higher ground.” Like the European variety, the American reindeer is an animal of great endurance and speed, and can trot faster than most horses. In disposition, the caribou is shy and wary, and to ensure a successful stalk requires all the powers of the sportsman. To hunt these animals in deep snow on foot, or on the open ground with dogs, is said to be mere waste of time, as in the one case the animal, by the aid of its broad hoofs, makes its way over the snow without difficulty, while in the other it easily distances and tires out its pursuers. Woodland caribou migrate in herds of from one hundred to two hundred, or even as many as five hundred head. During these periodical migrations, Mr. Lett says that “they are easily killed in vast numbers by taking advantage of the wind, and shooting them as they pass along. They are also frequently surprised crossing rivers or lakes that intersect their line of march, when they become an easy prey to hunters in canoes. In winter they are often seen upon the ice on inland lakes. On such occasions they ean be easily shot, provided they neither see nor smell the hunter. The instant, however, they catch the scent of their hidden foe, they vanish like a streak of light. I have heard it said by those who have seen them scudding over the ice, like shadows, that in an incredibly short space of time they appeared to the naked eye not larger than rabbits.” Indeed, so swift are they on the ice, that when caribou once set foot on it, the hunter who knows his business immediately gives up the pursuit as hopeless. Solitary caribou are more wary, and consequently more difficult to stalk, than those in a herd. The time when caribou are most easily killed is during the months of March and April, the snow having then a thin cake of ice on the surface, through which the animals are constantly breaking, and are thus run down without much difficulty by hunters on snow-shoes. There appears to be a lack of information as to the breeding-habits both of VOY OI ESR 375 the caribou and of the wild reindeer of the Old World. The pairing-season of the barren-ground caribou is, however, said to be in the winter; while that of the woodland variety is in September. In the case of the latter, the antlers of the bucks are shed in December, while those of the does do not fall until the spring. The fawns are produced in May, and are either one or two in number. Owing to incessant pursuit, in season and out of season, the numbers of the caribou have been greatly reduced in many districts; but, in Newfoundland, these animals are now protected by special laws. THE ELK or MOOSE. Genus Alces. The largest living representative of the Deer family is the somewhat ungainly- looking animal known in Europe as the elk, and in North America as the moose (Alces machlis). This fine animal differs from all other deer in the form and setting-on of the antlers of the male; and it is not improbable that these append- ages have really no connection with those of the true deer, but were independently acquired. In build, the elk is characterised by the length of its limbs, its short neck, very long and flapping ears, and the great length and narrowness of the head, which terminates in a broad overhanging muzzle, completely covered with short fine hair, save for a small triangular spot just below the nostrils. The extremity of the muzzle is flexible, and the eyes are small and sunken. The antlers, instead of emerging from the forehead at an acute angle with its middle line and inclining forwards, as is the case with all living representatives of the genus Cervus, project on either side at right angles to the middle line of the forehead, and in the same plane as its surface. Their basal portion consists of a short, cylindrical beam, without any tine, and beyond this beam they expand into an enormous basin-like palmation. In young animals, and more especially in the Swedish elk, the antlers have their palmated portion divided into a smaller anterior and a larger posterior moiety; but in the adult of the American form these two coalesce into a single palmation, elongated from back to front, and containing a number of short and irregular snags on its outer edge. The antlers of fine specimens may weigh as much as 60 lbs.; and in a head in the possession of Mr. Otho Shaw the antlers have a span of 65 inches, a length along the palmation of 41 inches, and a width across the same of 24 inches, but a span of 66 inches is on record. The antlers do not attain their full dimensions till the animal has attained its ninth yeavr. The skull of the elk differs from that of other deer in the extreme shortness of the nasal bones, and the consequently very large size of the cavity of the nose. The upper molar teeth have very low and broad crowns. The tail is so short that it is scarcely more than a rudiment. The elk carries its short neck nearly horizontally, and therefore somewhat lower than the elevated withers; and it is this feature which so largely contributes to the ungainly and ugly appearance of the animal. The feet have long and o 376 UNGULATES. sharply-pointed hoofs, very different in appearance from those of the reindeer; and the lateral hoofs are relatively large and loosely attached. In the male the hair is long, coarse, and somewhat brittle, and is elongated into a slight mane on the neck, shoulders, and throat; while in colour it varies from very dark brown to yellowish grey. The female is lighter coloured than the male during the winter season. In both sexes the hair is softer and finer in the summer than in the winter; and during the later season an abundant supply of woolly under-fur is developed. Young animals have also brighter-coloured and sleeker coats than aged individuals; and in the latter the fading of the winter coat with the advance of spring is much more noticeable than in the former. The fawns are uniformly coloured like the adults. aaa ee The height of the elk has been much exaggerated, some writers asserting that the male may stand as much as 8 feet at the withers. Mr. Caton observes, however, that it is safe to say that it may attain a height of 6 feet, or occasionally rather more, UNDER SURFACE OF FOOT and we may probably put the extreme limits as not aw exceeding 64 feet. The weight of an average adult male elk is given by the writer last cited as 700 Ibs., but large specimens will reach 900 or 1000, and, it is said, even as much as 1200 lbs. Adult male elk, and occasionally the females, have a curious pendulous appendage on the throat formed by a dilatation of the skin, and covered with long and coarse blackish hairs. This appendage may vary in length from 4 to 10 inches, and is known to the American hunters as the bell; its use is unknown. The elk has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the reindeer, although it does not extend so far north, and is, indeed, limited by the northern extension of trees, being essentially a forest animal. In Europe, although now greatly diminished in numbers, it is found locally in Scandinavia, Eastern Prussia, Lithuania, and parts of Russia, such as the neigh- bourhood of Orenburg, the government forest near Moscow, and the districts bordering the river Samara in Astrakhan. Thence it extends eastwards into the subarctic portions of Siberia, although its extreme limits in this direction are not fully ascertained. A few years ago an elk was shot in Galicia, which had probably wandered from more northern latitudes. In the time of Pallas, elk were also found on the northern slopes of the Caucasus; while Caesar mentions them as inhabiting the Black Forest. During the prehistoric period, their distribution was still more extensive in Europe; and their remains have been found in many parts of England, the most southern point being Walthamstow in Essex. In the still earlier deposits of the Norfolk forest-bed, the species was preceded by the broad-fronted elk (A. latifrons). In North America the range of the elk appears to have extended originally from about the 43rd to the 70th parallel of latitude, its northern limit being marked by the southern border of the so-called barren grounds. Mr. Caton says Distribution. JOY DIDI RG. 2 that elk have been seen as far south as the Ohio, and as far north as the Mackenzie River. Writing in the year 1865, Mr. J. G. Lockhart states that elk were then common over the whole of British America as far north as the barren grounds, although absent from particular localities. Thus they were especially abundant on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, and continued so to Behring Strait, but were unknown on the shores of Hudson Bay in the neighbourhood of York \y We ay? Lay A FEN REN A FAMILY OF ELK (#4 nat, size.) Factory. Although specially protected in Ontario, the elk is, however, now rapidly disappearing from the forests of North America; and this is not to be wondered at, when we learn that some years ago several hundreds of these animals were shot on one occasion in New Brunswick merely for the sake of their hides; their carcases being left to rot on the ground. Elk are still comparatively common in Alaska, but have more or less completely disappeared from certain districts where they were formerly abundant. As far back as 1881, Mr. Caton wrote, that “they have probably entirely ceased their visits to Newfoundland; but 378 UNGULATES. in Labrador many still remain, though gradually retreating thence towards the more secluded and inaccessible portions of the country. From Upper Canada all are gone, and but few remain in Lower Canada, where, fifty years since, they were abundant. What are left have retreated to the great dense forests of the north.” Elk feed more upon the leaves and twigs of trees than upon erass; and their length of limb enables them to pluck such nutri- ment with facility, while the shortness of their necks renders them unfitted for grazing, unless in places where the grass is unusually tall, when they merely pluck the tops. In Northern Europe and Asia birch, willows, aspens, and poplars aftord a large proportion of the leafy food of the elk; but in North America both ever- green and deciduous trees contribute their quota. Various lichens and mosses are, however, also eaten ; but in winter, when the whole country is deeply buried in snow, the elk have to depend solely on twigs and buds of trees. In order to obtain the foliage of saplings which are above their reach, elk in America, at least, have a Habits. curious habit of straddling on either side of the stem with their fore-legs, and then eradually pressing down the tree with the weight of their body. In America elk commence feeding with the first signs of dawn, and continue till sunrise, after which they repose or ruminate till ten or eleven o'clock. From that time they again feed till about two, when they take another period of repose till four or five, and then feed till dusk, when they le down for the night. Mr. Lockhart says that elk “generally le down with their tails to windward, trusting to their senses of hearing and smelling, which are remarkably acute, to warn them of approaching danger from that quarter. They can use their eyes to warn them from danger to leeward, where hearing, and especially smelling, would be of little use. While sleeping or chewing the cud, their ears are in perpetual motion, one backward, the other forward, alternately. They also have the remarkable instinct to make a short turn and sleep below the wind of their fresh track, so that any one falling thereon and following it up is sure to be heard or smelt before he can get within shooting distance.” In summer the favourite resorts of the American elk are in the neighbourhood of swamps, rivers, or lakes, where long grasses which can be easily reached grow in rank abundance. In winter, however, they generally betake themselves to higher grounds, although always those clothed with dense and almost impenetrable forest. When disturbed, the elk, in spite of his great bull, makes off with extreme rapidity and almost perfect silence, even in the thickest cover, always when possible selecting moss-clad and yielding ground over which to make its way. In winter, ellk in America are in the habit of consorting in small parties, often comprising a male, female, and the young of two seasons, and taking up their quarters in what is termed a moose-yard. “The yard,” writes Mr. C. C. Ward, “is situated in some part of the country where there is an abundant growth of young deciduous trees, such as the white birch, poplars, maple, and mountain-ash ; these, together with a few of the coniferous trees, the balsam-fir and juniper, form the staple diet of the moose. Some writers maintain that the bull moose never yards with the female and young, but this is disproved by my own experience as a moose- hunter. . . . I have on many occasions found and killed males occupying the same DEER. 379 yard with the old and young females.” It appears, however, that very old males generally make a yard for themselves, and remain alone throughout the winter. The antlers of the adult elk are shed in America during January, and the new pair attain their full development in August. During the time that the antlers have been in the velvet, the male elk has spent most of his time in the marshes and swamps, feeding on the leaves of the yellow water-lily, and frequently protect- ing himself from the attacks of mosquitoes and other insect torments by standing neck-deep in the water. With the complete development of his antlers, he sallies forth from these retreats to commence calling, and to enter upon a series of com- A MOOSE-YARD. bats with his rivals for the possession of the females. These contests appear to be fully as fierce and determined as those of the red deer; and Mr. Ward records finding in a lake the skulls of two elk, with their antlers inextricably interlocked, which had evidently perished after one of these encounters. The fawns are born in the following May, and are either one or two, or, very exceptionally, three in number. They are of a dark fawn-colour, but, according to Mr. Ward, with a slight dappling. The females, before the birth of the fawns, seek out the most sequestered spots, such as islands in lakes and rivers, and swamps and prairies, which are lable to be overflowed at certain seasons of the year, where they will most likely be free from the attacks of wolves and bears. Some writers aver that at such seasons they likewise endeavour to avoid the males, but this is denied by 380 UNGULATES. Mr. Ward, who believes that the male is never very far away from his consort. Mr. Lockhart says that when the fawns are very young and helpless, “the mother in their defence will even attack man. At such times her appearance reminds one forcibly of a vicious horse. She raises her head, throws back her ears upon her neck, and sniffs or blows like a horse; then she bounds towards her enemy, striking the ground with her fore-feet, and her eyes glittering with rage.” The favourite pace of the elk when in rapid motion is a long swinging trot; and it is said that so long as the animal keeps to this pace it cannot be overtaken by any ordinary horse. If, however, it can be forced into a gallop, the elk soon becomes blown, and ean then be readily ridden down. We have already alluded to the ungainly appearance of the elk; and this un- gainliness is certainly most strongly marked in specimens exhibited alive in menageries or mounted in museums. Mr. Ward states, however, that when seen among his native forests no one can fail to be impressed with the majesty and grandeur of the male elk in all the glory of his spreading antlers. In Sweden and Norway elk are either hunted by being driven or stalked. In the autumn of 1885 the elk in the forest of Huneberg, which had been preserved for thirty-five years, were hunted by a royal party, when fifty-one head were shot; and in 1888 upwards of sixty-six were killed in the same forest. In America there are now three legitimate methods of elk- hunting, namely, stalking or still-hunting, fire-hunting, and calling ; the wholesale slaughter of the animals when imprisoned in their yards by the snows of winter having fortunately been prohibited by the legislature. In the “Far West,” the best season for elk-hunting is during the months of October and November; the first snowfalls occurring in the mountains during the latter month, and the males being then incessantly calling or fighting with their fellows. To be successful in elk-stalking requires the aid of an experienced Indian guide, as very few men of European descent can attain that marvellous skill in tracking which appears to come naturally to the Indian. It appears to be only in the north-eastern districts that the practice of calling with a birch-bark pipe is followed, as the custom is said to be quite unknown in the Rocky Mountains. In regard to the mode of procedure, Mr. Ward says that “the Indian, having selected a favourable position for his purpose, generally on the margin of a lake, heath, or bog, where he can readily conceal himself, puts his birchen trumpet to his mouth, and gives the call of the cow moose in a manner so startling and truthful that only the educated ear of an Indian could detect the counterfeit. If the call is successful, presently the responsive bull moose is heard crashing through the forest, uttering his blood-curdling bellow or roar, and rattling his antlers against the trees in challenge to all rivals.” In other districts the call of the male is imitated by drawing the shoulder-bone of a moose against the dry bark of a young tree, and any male that may be in the neighbourhood advances to answer the challenge of the supposed rival. In the Rocky Mountains the male moose instead of uttering the bellowing call mentioned above, only gives vent to a loud and prolonged kind of whistle, while the female is completely silent. Fire-hunting, or hunting by torchlight, is practised, says Mr. Ward, by ex- hibiting a bright light, formed by burning bunches of birch-bark in places known Hunting. DEER. 381 to be frequented by moose. The brilliant light seems to fascinate the animal, and he will readily approach within range of the rifle. The torch placed in the bow of a canoe is also used as a lure on a lake or ariver, but is attended with considerable danger, as a wounded or enraged moose will not unfrequently upset the canoe. A favourite mode of moose-hunting, when the snow lay very deep on the ground, was by running them down in snow-shoes. Accidents were, however, frequent in this kind of hunting, more especially during the spring, when the snow is covered with a thin crust. At such times, if the hunter happened incautiously to run too near the moose, the animal would turn suddenly, and leaping upon his pursuer trample him under foot. Mr. Lockhart also says that in British America the Indians during the winter were accustomed in deep snow to make a kind of fence of three poles, tied equidistant from each other, a little taller than a man, stretching perhaps for two days’ march between lakes, or a lake and a river, or between two mountains, or in any particular place where the moose were accustomed to pass. Spaces were left vacant here and there in this fence, and in these snares were set, in which the unfortunate animals became entangled. The flesh of the ell, in spite of some coarseness of grain, is generally regarded as forming excellent venison, although it is said to have a slightly musky taste. The large and fleshy nose is, however, esteemed the greatest delicacy, and is reported by those who have had the opportunity of tasting it to be absolutely unrivalled. Elk manage to maintain themselves in fair condition throughout the winter, so that their flesh is eatable when that of the ordinary American deer is so poor and dry as to be unpalatable. THE RoE DEER. Genus Capreolus. The roe deer (Capreolus caprea), while agreeing with the reindeer and the elk in the conformation of the bones of the lower part of the fore-legs, differs entirely from both in the form of its antlers, as well as by its greatly inferior dimensions, being, in fact, one of the smallest representatives of the family. Moreover, whereas the two genera just mentioned have a circumpolar distribution, the roe is strictly confined to the Old World. The roebuck when fully adult stands about 26 inches in height; and has antlers somewhat less than twice the length of the head. These antlers are rough, and have a straight and nearly cylindrical beam, rising for some distance nearly vertically from the skull, and then giving off one forwardly-directed tine from its front edge; after which the beam curves backwards and terminates in a simple fork. The roe’s antler is therefore three-tined like that of the Indian spotted deer, but differs in that instead of having a true brow-tine, the first tine is not given off till about the middle of the entire length. The average length of the antlers is from 8 to 9 inches, but it is said that a pair from Austria have been recorded in which the length was 15 inches. The antlers of the roe are more subject to mal- formations than those of any other species; and they sometimes show a mass of ill-formed tines. 382 UNGULATES. The roe has a relatively short head, with moderate ears, a very small gland below the eye, and the naked portion of the sharp muzzle small and not extending beyond the nostrils. Normally there are no tusks in the upper jaw; and the tail is short and rudimentary. The neck is rather long and slender, and carried high above the level of the back ; and the hmbs are likewise slight and delicately formed. In summer the colour of the fur is reddish brown, but in winter, when it becomes MALE AND FEMALE ROE DEER (yz nat. size). thicker and finer, the tint changes to yellowish grey. There are some black and white markings on the lips, and there is a large patch of white on the buttocks enclosing the tail, while the under-parts and the insides of the limbs are pale yellowish fawn. The fur of the fawns is spotted with white. The weight of a full-grown buck may reach 60 lbs. The common roe is an indigenous inhabitant of the British Isles and the greater part of Europe, extending northwards to the south of Sweden, and southwards to Italy and Spain. In Russia it is confined to the regions Distribution. DEER. 383 of the Caucasus and the Ukraine, and it extends into Western Asia in Persia. Its fossil remains occur in the superficial deposits of England and the Continent ; but at the present day roe deer are found wild within the limits of the British Isles only in Scotland, and in the neighbourhood of the Blackmoor Vale, in Dorset- shire, where they were reintroduced in the early part of the century. In the year 1884 a few head were, however, turned out in Epping Forest; and some are kept in certain English parks. In Turkestan and the mountains separating Russia from China, the place of the ordinary roe is taken by the nearly-allied Tartarian roe (C. pygargus), distinguished by its superior size, the more hairy ears, and the larger white patch on the rump. In Mantchuria there is a third form, of small size, and differing somewhat in coloration from both the others. In Scotland roe deer are found chiefly in the woods, or on the immediately adjacent moors, but never wander far out on the open hills, although they will venture on to the cultivated lands in search of food. They feed in the early morning and towards evening, and generally associate in small Tartarian Roe. Habits. family parties, while they make regular tracks through the woods to their feeding grounds. Their usual food is grass and other herbage, as well as the young shoots of such trees and bushes as they are able to reach. The speed of the roe is not great; but the animal is a great leaper, and, when running, its usual pace is a bounding gallop. The antlers of the adult bucks are shed about the end of the year, and the new ones are generally fully developed by the latter part of February. The pairing-season takes place during July and August, at which time the bucks are exceedingly pugnacious. Scrope relates that in the summer of 1820 two were found dead in a hollow after one of these contests, lying one on the top of the other, with the antlers of the one firmly driven into the shoulder of the other, and vice versd. The fawns are born in the spring, usually early in May; and in Scotland about one doe out of five or six will produce two fawns at a birth in favourable seasons. No account of the roe would be complete without some reference to the extraordinary fact that although the pairing-season takes place in July or August, and the young are not produced till the following May, yet the period of gestation is only five months. The explanation of this appears to be that the ovum lies dormant for some four and a half months, that is until December, after which it develops in the ordinary manner. Certain extinct deer found in the Pliocene deposits of the Continent have been considered to belong to the same genus as the roe. THE CHINESE WATER-DEER. Genus Hydropotes. Among the tall reeds fringing the banks of the Yang-tse-Kiang, there occur numbers of a small deer differing from any of the species hitherto noticed in that while both sexes are totally devoid of antlers, the males are provided with long scimitar-like tusks in the upper jaw, as shown in the figure on the next page. This 384 ONGOLATLES: deer is the Chinese water-deer (Hydropotes inermis), which in both these features resembles the musk-deer, although in other respects it is allied to the more typical representatives of the pre- sent section of the family. The Chinese water-deer is of the approximate dimensions of the Indian muntjac (p. 366); and is a long- bodied and _— short- limbed creature, with lght reddish-brown fur. One of the most remarkable peculi- SKULL OF THE CHINESE WATER-DEER WITH PART OF THE UPPER Jaw cur arities about this small deer ai eo ne on OF THE TUSK. (From Sir V. Brooke, jg that the does produce from Pe Nee rte three to six fawns at a birth. The pelage of the young is faintly marked with white spots, arranged in ill-defined rows. The number of young produced, coupled with the absence of antlers in the bucks, indicates that the Chinese water-deer is in all probability a survivor from a very ancient type of the Deer family. These deer are commonly found on the Yang-tse-Kiang, in parties of two or three. When disturbed, they arch their backs and scud away at a great pace in a series of quick leaps. They are usually killed with buckshot. The resemblance of the skull of the male water-deer to that of the musk-deer, is merely due to both forms being apparently direct descendants of the common ancestral type, from which the more specialised members of the family have been evolved; it being well ascertained that in most or all of the early Tertiary deer the males were devoid of antlers and furnished with long upper tusks. When antlers were developed to their full extent, so as to become efficient weapons of defence, the need for tusks disappeared, and the tusks consequently dwindled or were lost. The muntjacs, in which the antlers are short, present a kind of middle stage of evolution, the tusks having become much smaller than in the Chinese water-deer, though larger than in many species of superior size. THE AMERICAN DEER. Genus Cariacus. With the exception of the wapiti,the reindeer,and the elk, which are either closely allied to, or identical with, Old World types, the whole of the deer of America differ essentially from those of Asia and Europe, and are referred (with the exception of one small species which forms a genus by itself) to a totally distinct genus, Cariacus. These deer resemble the reindeer in the structure of the bones of the lower part of the fore-limb; and also in that in the dry skull the aperture of the nasal passage is completely divided by a longitudinal vertical partition of bone. The latter feature is, indeed, peculiar to the reindeer and the American deer, and serves at once to distinguish their skulls from those of any species of the genus Cervus. DEER. 385 The American deer are, however, still better distinguished from their Old World cousins, by thé characters of their antlers, which are either in the form of simple spikes, or are divided in a fork-like manner, with the anterior prong directed forwards, and no brow-tine. These characteristic features are well shown in the PROFILE VIEWS OF THE ANTLERS OF THE MARSH-DEER (A), THE VIRGINIAN DEER (B), AND THE MULE-DEER (C). accompanying figures, from which it will be seen that while in one case the two prongs of the antler may be nearly equally developed (A), in another the anterior prong (a) may be greatly developed at the expense of the posterior ()), as in the middle figure. It will also be seen that there may be either a large or small sub-basal tine (c) rising from the inner side of the front of the antler, some distance above the burr, and directed upwardly. It was long considered that this sub-basal tine represented the brow-tine of the antlers of the Old World deer, and attempts were made to correlate the other tines of the American deer with those of the genus Cervus. Mr. Allan Gordon Cameron has, however, pointed out that this is a totally erroneous notion; the truth being, that while the members of the genus WOU, 1—25 386 UNGULATES. Cervus have originated in Europe from an early antlerless deer-like creature (Paleomeryx), the representatives of Cariacus have been independently derived in North America from a totally distinct ancestral deer (Blastomeryx), which was likewise unprovided with antlers. And it will accordingly be self-apparent that the antlers of the Old and New World deer are not mutually comparable. Start- ing from the simple spike-like antlers of the brockets of South America, we shall find that there is a transition through a simply-forked antler to the complex type exhibited by the mule-deer ; and it will accordingly be most convenient to commence our notice of these deer with those in which the antlers are simple, and finish with those in which they are most complex. Before proceeding to the various species, it may, however, be added that all THE RED BROCKET (;1, nat. size). the American deer are uniformly coloured above in the adult condition, and that they all have narrow and naked muzzles. The length of the tail is subject to a great amount of specific variation. In addition to the peculiar feature already noticed as distinguishing the hinder aperture of the nasal passage, the skulls of the American deer are characterised by the large dimensions of the unossified space in front of the eye, and the small size of the pit for the reception of the gland. The first group of the American deer is represented by several small species known as brockets, which are confined to the southern half of the continent, and are distinguished by their unbranched spike-like antlers, Brockets. and by the hair on the middle line of the face radiating in all directions from two points, one of which is situated on the crown of the head, and the other just below the eyes. They are further characterised by the large extent of the naked portion of the muzzle, which completely surrounds the nostrils; and likewise by the spotted coat of the fawns. The tail is of medium length; and the upper jaw may or may DEER. 387 not carry tusks. The best known species is the common red brocket (C. rufus)— the one represented in our illustration—of North-Eastern Brazil and Guiana, where it ranges from Surinam to Pernambuco. It is a rather clumsily-built animal, standing 27 inches in height at the withers, and of a uniform reddish brown colour. The nearly allied Brazilian brocket (C. simplicicornis), is a rather smaller species, standing only 21 inches in height, and distinguished by its lighter and more elegant shape, as well as by the more decided brown colour of the fur, especially in the young. This species ranges over the greater part of Brazil, and extends westwards into Colombia. The other two species are the Ecuador brocket (C. rufinus), found in Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Guatemala; and the wood-brocket (C. nemori- vagus), from Surinam and Trinidad, both of which are only 19 inches in height. The former has fur of a full glossy red colour, with the face and legs shaded bluish brown; while the latter differs from all the rest by the pepper-and-salt colour of its hair. Fossil remains of brockets occur in the caverns of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil, which probably belong to species still inhabiting the same districts. Brockets are found either alone or in pairs, and never collect in herds; a male and female apparently associating for life. The does produce usually but a single fawn at a birth, in December or January; and the young are able to follow their mother in from three to five days. The speed of the brockets is considerable, but not enduring, and they can be easily ridden down by a good horse, while, when the cover is not too thick, hounds will generally capture them within half an hour. The Costa Rica deer (C. clavatus), of Central America, is another small species with spike-like antlers, which appears to form a group by itself, connecting the brockets with the succeeding groups. This deer is of a uniform reddish yellow colour, like the Virginian deer ; and differs from the brockets, and agrees with the following groups in that the hair of the face is directed uniformly backwards, while it likewise resembles those that follow in the smaller size of the naked portion of the muzzle, and in the less arched profile of the face. The third group of the genus is represented by two South American species of medium size, which are confined to the Andes, where they are known as guemals. They are distinguished by the antlers forming a single fork, of which the front prong is the longer, and is projected forwards in the manner characteristic of the genus; by the presence of tusks in the upper jaws of both sexes, and also by the uniform coloration of the fawns. Of the two species, the Chilian guemal (C. chilensis) ranges from Santiago to Magellan, but is far more scarce in the northern than the southern portion of this tract; while the Peruvian guemal (C. antisiensis) is a northern form from the highlands of Peru. The pampas, or Guazuti deer (C. campestris), represented in the illustration on the next page, brings us to a fourth group of the genus, confined to South America, and characterised by the antlers being regularly forked, with the hinder prong—and sometimes also the front one—again forking ; while there is no sub-basal snag above the burr. The two species of this group are further characterised by the absence of tusks in the upper jaw, the shortness of the tail, and the uniform coloration of the fawns. They are confined to the eastern Habits. Costa Rica Deer. Guemals. Pampas Deer. 388 UNGULATES. and southern portions of South America ; and do not attain such large dimensions as the members of the next group. The pampas deer is the smaller of the two species, standing about 2} feet at the shoulder; and its range extends from Paraguay and Uruguay through Argen- tina into Northern Patagonia. The antlers (as shown in the profile view in our illustration) are characterised by the great development of the forked posterior tine, at the expense of the unbranched front-tine; the number of points thus being three. The hair is thick, coarse, and glossy; its colour on the upper-parts THE PAMPAS DEER (75 nat. size). being light reddish brown. The lower parts of the flanks, as well as the chin, throat, chest, and a stripe on the limbs, are dusky; while the under-parts, inner sides of the limbs, under side and tip of the tail, and insides of the ears are white. The pampas deer is the largest and most common ruminant in the districts from which it takes its name. It frequents dry and open parts of the country, and is generally found in pairs or small parties, the old bucks being, however, solitary. Mr. Darwin says that “if a person crawling close along the ground, slowly advances towards a herd, the deer frequently, out of curiosity, approach to reconnoitre him. I have by this means killed, from one spot, three out of the same herd. Although so tame and inquisitive, yet when approached on horseback they are exceedingly wary. In this country nobody Habits. DEER. 389 goes on foot, and the deer knows man as its enemy only when he is mounted and armed with the bolas.” The male of the pampas deer possesses an unpleasant and penetrating effluvium, which, as we can personally attest, can be detected at a distance of several miles. During the day these deer generally lie concealed among the tall pampas- grass, coming out to feed at sunset, and continuing throughout the night. Their speed is very great, and it is only by the very best horses they can be ridden down, while even then, if they have any considerable start, they are pretty sure to escape. The fawns are born in the winter and spring, and it does not appear that there is ever more than one at a birth. Both parents aid in protecting their young, and the doe is especially clever in aiding the escape of her fawn, as the following narrative by Mr. Hudson shows. “When the doe with fawn is approached by a horseman,’ writes this observer, “even when accompanied by dogs, she stands perfectly motionless, gazing fixedly at the enemy, the fawn motionless at her side; and suddenly, as if at a preconcerted signal, the fawn rushes directly away from her at its utmost speed; and going to a distance of six hundred to a thousand yards conceals itself in a hollow in the ground, or among the long grass, lying down very close with neck stretched out horizontally, and will thus remain until sought by the dam. When very young, if found in its hiding-place, it will allow itself to be taken, making no further effort to escape. After the fawn has run away, the doe still maintains her statuesque attitude, as if resolved to await the onset, and only when the dogs are close to her side she also rushes away, but invariably in a direction as nearly opposite to that taken by the fawn as possible. At first she runs slowly, with a limping gait, and frequently pausing, as if to entice her enemies on; but as they begin to press her more closely, her speed increases, becoming greater the further she succeeds in leading them from the starting-point.” The alarm-cry of the pampas deer is a low, whistling bark, but this is never uttered when the doe has a fawn by her side. The marsh, or guazu deer (C. palustris) is a somewhat larger a species, found in South Brazil, Paraguay, Rio Grande do Sul, and Uruguay; its westerly range being limited by the Parana River. The antlers of this deer, of which an example is represented in the figure on p. 385, are larger and more complex than those of the pampas-deer, both prongs of the main fork being strongly developed, and each again subdividing; the hinder prong being also generally rather the heavier of the two. In contrast to the pampas- deer, the marsh-deer seeks out swamps and lakes, where it delights to enter the water or wallow in the mud. The last main group of the American deer is typically repre- sented by the well-known Virginian deer (C. virginianus), with its numerous varieties, and includes the largest representatives of the genus, as well as the whole of those found in the northern half of the continent. The group is distinguished by the large size and complexity of the antlers, which differ from those of the other groups by the presence of a larger or smaller sub-basal snag (c of the figure on p. 385), and likewise by the absence of tusks in the upper jaw, and the spotted coat of the fawns. The Virginian deer occurs typically in eastern North America, but the so-called Marsh-Deer. Virginian Deer. 390 UNGULATES. white-tailed deer (C. leucwrus) of the western side of the continent can scarcely be regarded as anything more than a variety, while it is doubtful if the more southern form known as the Mexican deer (C. mexicanus) is really entitled to specitic distinction. Considering all these forms as referable to a single species, the Virginian deer will have a range extending right across the American continent from east to west, and from south to north from Canada to Mexico. The main distinctive characteristic of this species is to be found in the antlers (shown in profile Tpyliy on i Va », VIRGINIAN DEER (;) nat. size). in the figure on p. 385, and from the front in the figure of the entire animal), in which the anterior prong of the main fork shows a great development at the expense of the hinder one. This abortion of the hinder prong is, however, com- pensated by a corresponding growth of the sub-basal snag. These snags, like the main prongs of the antler, are subject to extraordinary abnormal developments, so that the variations which occur in the antlers of the Virginian deer are only paralleled by those found in the reindeer. The tail is long. The summer pelage of the Virginian deer is a bright bay, from which it derives its common local title of red deer, but in winter the coat becomes of a greyer tinge. At all seasons of the DEER. 391 year the throat, a rmg above the muzzle, a spot above and below the eye, portions of the inside of the ear, the inner surfaces of the limbs and the under-parts are, however, white. The upper surface of the tail is dark brown, and even in winter there is a more or less reddish tinge throughout the pelage. In build this deer is the most elegant and graceful of all its compatriots. Its variation in size is so great that it would be useless to give any measurements, although it may be mentioned that unusually fine bucks are said to weigh as much as 200 lbs., and occasionally more. With regard to the variation in size and colour in this, the commonest North American species, Mr. Caton writes that, although in a given neighbourhood there is a great difference in the size of individuals, in widely different localities there is a permanent and constant difference of size. Thus, whereas in the north all the deer are large, as we proceed south there is a progressive diminution, till in Northern Mexico and the neighbourhood of the Gulf of Mexico the deer have so diminished that it is at first difficult to believe that they are specifically identical with their northern representatives. Similarly we find in the mountainous regions of the west an increase in the amount of white on the tail and body, which has given rise to the notion that the so-called white-tailed deer is a distinct species ; but Mr. Caton states that this difference is not constant even among the deer of the west, where many specimens cannot be distinguished from those found in Illinois or Wisconsin. The more northerly race appears, however, to be characterised by the absence of the black markings on the face and tail, which so frequently occur in the southern and eastern portion of the animal’s range. In the Adirondack region of New York Dr. Hart Merriam says that the Virginian deer “is found high upon the mountain-sides, as well as in the lowest valleys and river-bottoms. It frequents alike the densest and most impenetrable thickets and the open beaver-meadows and frontier clearings. From the Ist of May to the Ist of November its food consists of a great variety of herbs, grasses, marsh and aquatic plants, the leaves of many deciduous trees and shrubs, blueberries, blackberries, other fruits that grow within its reach, and the nutritious beech-nut. While snow covers the ground—which it commonly does about half the year—the fare is necessarily restricted, and it is forced to subsist chiefly upon the twigs and buds of low deciduous trees and shrubs, the twigs and foliage of the arbor vite, hemlock, and balsam, and a few mosses and lichens. In winters succeed- ing a good yield of nuts the mast constitutes its staple article of diet, and is obtained by following the beech ridges and pawing up the snow beneath the trees.” Although shy and timid in the extreme, and at first retreating rapidly before the advance of cultivation, these deer soon regain confidence, and come back to their ancient haunts. Their speed is great, and they are excellent and rapid swimmers, even young fawns while still in the spotted coat taking readily to the water. During long-continued deep snow these deer frequently collect together in parties, sometimes of considerable size, and form “ yards,” like the elk. There is considerable variation in the time of changing the grey dress of winter for the red coat of summer, as there is in the date when the antlers of the bucks are shed, these differences being apparently mainly due to the severity or mildness of the winters. The pairing-season, during which the bucks, like those of other deer, are exceedingly pugnacious, lasts from the latter part of October till the beginning Habits. aoe UNGULATES. do of December. The fawns, which are nearly always two in number, are mostly born in May. They retain their white spots till September, when both young and old assume their winter dress. ‘The fawns are easily tamed, if captured sufficiently young. In bucks of the first year the antlers form unbranched spikes, while in the second year they are simply forked, without any branching of the two prongs, although the sub-basal snag makes its appearance at the same time. VIRGINIAN DEER SWIMMING, The most legitimate mode of hunting the Virginian deer is by stalking, but in the south they are frequently pursued by hounds, followed by mounted hunters armed with rifles. In other eases hounds are em- ployed to drive the deer to water or down the paths in the woods, where the sportsmen lie in wait. In summer, when deer are abundant, many are killed by what is termed “jacking”; that is to say, a lantern or some other light is carried, upon seeing which the deer becomes dazzled, and, while standing to gaze, offers a ready shot. Finally, “breasting” is employed, according to Mr. G. B. Grinnell, “where the deer make their home among very high grass, such as is to be found on some of the prairies of the south-west or in the great beds of the dry lakes of Northern and Western Nebraska. Here the thick cane-grass stands seven or eight Hunting. DEER. 393 feet high, and the head of a mounted man is only just visible above the tops. Several huntsmen armed with shot-guns form a line on the leeward side of the space to be hunted over, and ride through it, a little more than a gun-shot apart. The deer that lie in their course are started from the grass, and bound off ahead of the hunters, every now and then showing their backs above the tops of the grass. The horsemen have to shoot from the saddle, and very quickly, to secure their game.” Sometimes these deer are shot from canoes as they swim from island to island. Naked-Eared The naked-eared deer (C. gymnotis) from Colombia and Ecuador Deer. appears to be a distinct species, distinguished from the Virginian deer by the large flapping ears, of which the outer surface is naked, by the extreme narrowness of the head, and the more slender form. The most specialised of all the American deer as regards size and complexity of antlers is the mule-deer (C. macrotis), so called on account of the enormous size of its ears. In this deer the antlers (as shown in a front view in the accompanying figure, and in profile in the figure on p. 385), when compared with those of the Virginian deer, have Mule-Deer. recovered the relative importance of the posterior prong, concomit- antly with a proportionate re- duction of the subbasal snag, and are therefore much more regularly forked “At the same time,” writes Mr. A. G. Cameron, “the main strength of the beam is drawn into the anterior prong, and intermediate forms occur both in this and the last-named species, which bridge the gap between the extremes on either side, and leave no doubt as to their intimate relationship.” In general the front prong is simply forked, Bie ii = \\ : o.16 : f ative + AN while the second divides into three y an all ° * A AASB A CNN or more snags in adult bucks; but a aaa instances occur where the hinder HEAD OF MULE-DEER. prong is unbranched, while in some individuals of the Virginian deer the same prong is divided. The antlers of the second year are simply forked, in the third year the hinder prong is also forked; but the forking of the front prong and the development of the subbasal snag does not take place till the assumption of the fourth set of antlers. In the left antler represented in the figure on p. 385, which is from a head in the collection of Mr. A. G. Cameron, the length of the upper prong is 28, and that of the lower prong 29 inches along the curve, the basal girth being 5? inches; but in the 394 UNGULATES. opposite one the upper prong measures 29 and the lower 27 inches. The extreme span of these antlers is 32 inches. In another head in the same collection the total length of the antlers is 32 inches, with an extreme span of 37 inches. The right antler of this head has an additional tine depending from just below the main fork—an aberration not unfrequently found in the Virginian deer, where it may occur on both sides. In height the mule-deer is fully equal to the Virginian deer, but it is a more stoutly built and much less graceful animal, with proportionately shorter limbs, while the ears are nearly double the dimensions of those of the latter. The tail is short, and quite unlike that of any other deer, being cylindrical, naked below, and covered above with short white hairs, terminating in a long brush of black ones. In summer the coat of the mule-deer is very thin and sparse, and generally of a reddish colour, with a large white patch on the buttocks; but in winter the general colour is steel-grey, the individual hairs being tipped with black. There is much more white on the face than in the Virginian deer. In a variety from California the colour of the pelage is more decidedly red, and there is a black line running along the middle of the upper surface of the tail. Mr. Grinnell states that the mule-deer “is found throughout the greater part of the Missouri River district, and thence westward on the plains, in the Rocky Mountains, and in the Sierra Nevada. It is an inhabitant of rough, broken country, and on the plains is usually only to be found about high buttes, in the bad-lands, or where the country is diversified with rocky ridges, dotted here and there with scattered pines or junipers. Its favourite resorts are the coulées, gulches, and cafions which so often break up the high table-lands of the central plateau of the continent; but it is as often to be found among the green valleys high up on the mountain-sides, or, in summer, among the low trees that grow just below the snow-line. It is to such localities as the last-named that the bucks resort during the summer when they are growing their antlers, and when their thin coat of hair affords them little or no protection against the flies.” It appears that the habitat of this deer has not been very much restricted by advancing civilisation, as it is much less alarmed by the invasion of its haunts than is the wapiti. Instead of running in the even manner of the Virginian deer, mule-deer progress by a series of bounds, all their feet leaving the ground simul- taneously. For a short distance their pace is rapid, but it soon slackens. As in the case of the Virginian deer, the number of fawns produced at a birth is nearly always two. These are born at the end of May or beginning of June, and retain their spots till September. The pairing-season is in September and October. By the hunters in Colorado this deer is commonly spoken of as the black-tail, although that name properly belongs to C. colwmbianus. Black-Tailed The Columbian black-tailed deer (C. columbianus) is a species Pet with a very restricted distribution, being apparently confined to the mountain-ranges bordering the Pacific in the neighbourhood of the Columbia River, and unknown to the eastwards of the Sierra Nevada. This deer is rather smaller than the mule-deer, with relatively smaller ears, but nearly similar antlers. The comparatively short cylindrical tail is black throughout, except for a short strip of about one-fourth the circumference running along the under surface. The general Habits. DEER. 395 colour of the pelage in winter is tawny grey, with white on the under-parts and throat, and the face is grey, with a darker forehead, the legs being dark cinnamon colour. In summer the colour changes to bay. In habits and gait this deer closely resembles the mule-deer, but it is said to occasionally produce as many as three fawns at a birth. Mr. Grinnell states that the black-tail is chiefly found in the deepest recesses of the coniferous forests of the Pacific ranges, and seldom wanders far away from the protection of the woods. Where they have been but little molested, these deer frequently come down to the shore to feed upon a particular kind of seaweed, and during such visits many are killed by the Indians, who paddle stealthily along the shore in their canoes. Habits. THE Pupu DEER. Genus Pudua. The tiny little deer from the Chilian Andes, known as the pudu (Pudua humilis), although allied to the brockets, is so distinct from all others as to necessitate its reference to a separate genus. This deer, which is scarcely larger than a hare, has a rounded head, with rather large ears, between which in the males are a pair of minute spike-like antlers, placed comparatively near together. The fur is of a reddish brown colour, becoming paler on the under-parts. There are no tusks in the upper jaw, and the skull differs from those of all the other American deer except the guemals in that the premaxillary bones, which form the extremity of the muzzle, extend upwards to join the nasal bones covering the cavity of the nose. The ankle-joint ex- mL ‘ Arc HEAD OF THE PUDU DRER. (From Sclater, hibits certain peculiarities of structure unknown Proc. Zool. Soc., 1866.) in any other species. THE MuskK-DEER. Genus Moschus. The musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus) of the Himalaya differs so remarkably in several important points from all other deer that it must certainly be regarded as forming a subfamily by itself, while some authorities consider it entitled to rank as the representative of a distinct family. These peculiarities are chiefly internal. Among the most important is the presence of a gall-bladder to the liver, as in the Ox family, while the brain is much less convoluted than in other deer The absence of antlers in both sexes cannot, however, be taken as a character of more than generic importance, since the same feature occurs in the Chinese water-deer. The musk-deer is a somewhat clumsily built animal, standing about 20 inches 396 UNGULATES. in height at the shoulder, and clothed with peculiarly coarse, brittle, and rather long hair, somewhat resembling pith in structure. In addition to the absence of antlers, the skull is characterised by the presence of tusks, which in the males may be as much as 3 inches in length, and project considerably below the mouth. All the limbs are of considerable length, and the hinder pair are longer than the front ones; the hoofs are narrow and pointed, and the lateral pair unusually large. The ears are very large and the tail is short, terminating in the male in a tuft, but PLE LL TLL AL MALE AND FEMALE MUSK DEER (vs nat. size). hairy throughout in the female. The male has a peculiar sac-like gland in the skin of the abdomen, which yields the musk of commerce. The general colour of the fur is a rich dark brown, more or less speckled and mottled with grey and tawny ; the individual hairs having black tips, beneath which is a ring of white, while for three-quarters of their length they are white at the base. The chin, the inner borders of the ears and the inside of the thighs, and not unfrequently a spot on each side of the throat, are whitish, while the under-parts and the inner surfaces of the limbs are paler than the body. Some individuals are, however, considerably paler than ordinary, while in others there is a more or less marked vellowish tint ; and others, again, are blacker. The young are spotted. So aa The musk-deer is found throughout the Himalaya as far west as Gilgit, and thence extends through Central Asia into Siberia. In DEER. 397 Kansu, on the north-west of China, it is replaced by a nearly allied species (ME. sifanieus). In the Himalaya it is seldom found below elevations of eight thousand feet in summer, and in Sikhim it occurs above twelve thousand feet. Musk-deer are found either in pairs or alone, and in the Kashmir Himalaya are generally met with in the birch-forests above the zone of pines. Sometimes, however, they may be seen at lower levels among thick cover. In habits they have been compared by General Kinloch to hares, and, like these animals, they make a “form,” in which they lie concealed during the day, their feeding-time being in the morning and evening. Musk-deer seem capable of enduring almost any degree of cold, against which the peculiar nature of their thick fur is doubtless a sufficient protection. In early spring they may be seen among the steep birch-forests around Kashmir, when the ground is deeply buried in snow, making their way from tree to tree in search of the young twigs and buds upon which they then chiefly subsist. On such ground they are very active and sure-footed, their large lateral hoofs being apparently adapted to aid them in obtaining a foothold on hard snow-slopes and smooth slippery rocks. General Kinloch states that musk-deer utter a kind of hiss when alarmed, and it is ascertained that when captured they give vent to a series of screams; with these exceptions they appear to be silent, even in the pairing-season. From observations on some musk-deer kept in captivity in Nipal, it appears that the sexes come together in January, and that the fawns are born in June. Usually there is but a single young one at a birth, but occasionally two are produced. The musk, which, as already mentioned, is found in the male Habits. Musk. : ; : : : : alone, when fresh is soft and moist, of a brownish colour, and with a rather unpleasant smell. It soon, however, hardens and dries, and at the same time acquires the all-powerful scent of musk. When removed from the dead animal, the secretion is tied up in a portion of the hairy skin covering the gland, and is then known as a “musk-pod.” Each pod will contain on an average about an ounce of musk,-and in India will fetch some sixteen rupees in the market. meee English sportsmen hunt musk-deer either by walking through the forests they frequent, and carefully examining every ravine and hollow, or by having the jungles driven by natives. On the other hand, the natives themselves capture these little deer in a wholesale manner, which is de- scribed as follows by General Macintyre. “A low fence is made of boughs, ete., along the ridge of a hill, sometimes a mile or more in length. At intervals of 100 or 150 yards are gaps. The musk-deer, crossing the ridge from one valley to another, come across this fence, and, to save themselves the trouble of jumping over it, walk alongside until, seeing a little gap, they try to go through it. But in each gap a noose of strong string is placed on the ground and tied to a stout sapling bent downwards. The noose is so arranged that, when the deer tread inside it, the sapling is loosed and flies back, leaving the noose tied tightly round the animal’s leg. The people visit these fences every two or three days, and secure the deer thus caught, and repair the fences and nooses, which are often carried away or destroyed by larger game.” In spite of the constant persecution to which they are subject, musk-deer are still fairly common in many parts of the Himalaya, where they are known by the name of kastura. CHAPTER XXIV. UNGULATES, —continued. CHEVROTAINS AND CAMELS. Families TRAGULIDA AND CAMELIDZ. Wiru the Deer family we took leave of the last of the two Ruminants—the Pecora of the scientific zoologist—and we now come to two smaller groups of Ungulates, which, although Ruminants in the general sense of that term, yet differ so widely from the Pecora, and also from one another, that they are each regarded as consti- tuting sections of equal value with the latter. These two groups are, firstly, the small deer-like animals commonly known as chevrotains, and, secondly, the camels ; the latter term including not only the true camels of the Old World, but likewise the South American llamas. Both these groups agree with the true Ruminants in having crescent-like (selenodont) molar teeth; but whereas the chevrotains are probably descended from the same ancestral stock as that which gave rise to the deer, it appears that the camels have originated from a totally different stock, and have thus acquired their crescent-like teeth quite independently of the true Ruminants. In addition to forming two distinct families, these two groups have also received names of a superior grade, thus bringing them on to a platform equivalent to that occupied by the Pecora. For the chevrotains the term Tragulina is adopted, while that of Tylopoda is taken for the camels. THE CHEVROTAINS. Family Tragulide. The elegant little creatures known as chevrotains, or mouse-deer, are so like small antlerless deer in general outward appearance, that they are commonly regarded as nearly allied to the musk-deer, near which they were indeed long placed by zoologists. In zoology, as in many other things, outward appearance is, however, very often deceptive; and when the chevrotains are examined anatom- ically they are found to depart very widely from the deer family. Chevrotains agree with the true Ruminants in the absence of any incisor teeth in the upper jaw; and they resemble the musk-deer in the presence of upper tusks, or canine teeth, which in the males attain a considerable length, and project below the mouth. They likewise agree with the true Ruminants in that the canine teeth of the lower jaw resemble the incisors, to the outermost pair of which they are CHEVROTALNS. 399 approximated so as to form a continuous series. When we have added that the three molar teeth and the last premolar tooth in the upper jaw, together with the lower molars, are of a crescent-like type, the resemblances to the true Ruminants cease. In the first place, the three premolar teeth, with the exception of the last in the upper jaw, instead of being crescent-like, have their crowns elongated and narrow, with sharp cutting edges. Then the second, or axis, vertebra of the neck has a simple conical peg (odontoid process) projecting in front, by which it articulates with the first, or atlas, vertebra; whereas in all the true Ruminants the same process is spout-lke. On ex- amining the limbs in the skeleton of a chevrotain, it will be found that the fibula, or smaller bone of the lower leg, is complete, instead of being represented only by its lower end. Moreover, each foot has four complete digits, that is to say, the metacarpal and metatarsal bones, respectively supporting the toes of the fore and hind-feet, are complete, and extend alongside of the cannon-bone from the basal joints of the toes to the wrist and ankle joints; whereas, as we have seen, in the true Ruminants these bones are represented either by their upper or lower extremities txrr rorE- Foor oF THE WATER- alone, or are wanting. Then, again, in one of the CHEVROTAIN (4) AND INDIAN : ¢ E CHEVROTAIN (B). chevrotains the cannon-bone of the fore-limb is Jy ad divided into its two component metacarpal elements ; Pe ene hae re ae while in the other it is wider and less completely Dawkins.) soldered than in the true Ruminants. These differ- ences will be apparent by comparing the figures herewith given, with the one on p-. 213. Finally, instead of the four distinct compartments characteristic of the true Ruminants, the stomach of the chevrotains has but three such chambers. THE TRUE CHEVROTAINS. Genus Tragulus. The chevrotains are divided into two genera, the first of which is Asiatic and the second African. The true or Asiatic chevrotains are represented by five species, of which the range extends from India and Ceylon through the Malayan Archi- pelago to the Philippines. They are characterised by the two median metacarpal bones of the fore-limb being fused into a cannon-bone (B of the figure), and also the small size of the lateral toes. With one exception, they are the smallest of living Ungulates, and much resemble the American Rodents known as agutis in general appearance and habits. Of the five living species of the genus, one is confined to India and Ceylon, while the others are found in the regions to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal. The Indian cheyrotain (Tragulus meminna) differs from all the others in having the body spotted with white, and the whole of the chin and throat uniformly 400 UNGULATES. covered with hair. It is of medium height, standing from 10 to 12 inches at the withers, and weighing from 5 to 6 lbs. In colour, the upper-parts are brown of variable shade, minutely speckled with yellow; while the flanks are spotted with white or buff on a brown ground; the spots being more or less elongated, and often passing into short longitudinal stripes. This chevrotain is found in Southern India and Ceylon at elevations below two thousand feet, extending northwards as far as Orissa on the east coast, and to the Western Ghats near Bombay on the west. The other four species have the upper-parts of the body uniformly coloured, and the skin between the two branches of the lower jaw completely naked and glandular. Of these the largest species is the larger Malayan chevrotain (7. napw), standing 13 inches in height at the shoulder, and characterised by its dark smoky- THE SMALLER MALAYAN CHEVROTAIN (1'z nat. size). grey colour, with the under-parts greyish-white without any rufous or fulvous edging. This species occurs in South Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. The two other Malayan species are rufous either over the whole of the upper- parts or on the flanks and the edges of the white area of the under-parts. Stanley’s chevrotain (7. stanleyanus), from some of the Malayan Islands, is inter- mediate in size between the preceding and following species, and has all the upper- parts bright rufous. On the other hand, the smaller Malayan chevrotain (7° jyavanicus), which is the one represented in our illustration, is the most diminutive member of the group, and is greyish above, with the sides brightening to rufous, and a dark line, which may be nearly black, running along the nape of the neck. The under-parts are whitish, more or less mixed with rufous, but there is generally (as in our illustration) a broad reddish or brown stripe running up the front of the chest. With the exception of the royal antelope (p. 307), this chevrotain is the CHEVROTAINS. 4or smallest of all living Ungulates; it has a very wide geographical distribution, being found in Cambodia, Cochin-China, South Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java,and Borneo. The last species is the Philippine chevrotain (7. nigri- cans), confined to the islands from which it takes its name. Remains of a fossil chevrotain have been discovered in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik Hills at the foot of the Himalaya. All the chevrotains appear to be very similar in their habits. They have a peculiar way of walking in a mincing manner on the extreme tips of their hoofs, which communicates a stiff and rigid appearance to the legs, and has thus given rise to the popular notion that these animals have no joints. Chevrotains lie concealed in grass or jungle, and only venture out to feed in the evenings and mornings. They are timid and shy, but in confinement soon become tame and gentle, and have been known to breed. Writing of the Indian species, Colonel Tickell observes that it “is found throughout the jungly districts of Central India (7.e., Chutia Nagpur), but from its retired habits is not often seen. It never ventures into open country, but keeps among rocks, in the crevices of which it passes the heat of the day, and into which it retires on the approach of anenemy. In these the female brings forth her young (two in number), generally at the close of the rains or the commencement of the cold season. The male keeps with the female during the rutting season (about June or July), but at other times they live solitary.” The smaller Malayan chevrotain, which is very common in the Peninsula, inhabits dense thickets, and produces either one or two fawns at a birth. Habits. THE WATER-CHEVROTAIN. Genus Dorcatheriuwm. The water-chevrotain (Dorcatherium aquaticum) of the West Coast of Africa, is the only surviving representative of a genus which appears to have been widely spread in the Old World during the Pliocene and Miocene epochs of the Tertiary period. Indeed, the genus was originally founded upon the evidence of one of these extinct species, the living form having been subsequently described under the name of Hyomoschus, and it is only recently that zoologists have generally recognised the generic identity of the recent and fossil species. The water-chevrotain is. mainly distinguished from the true chevrotains of Asia by the feet being shorter and stouter, with relatively larger lateral toes, and, above all, by the cireumstance that the two middle metacarpal bones remain com- pletely separate, as shown in the figure on p. 399. The living species is slightly superior in size to the largest of the Asiatic chevrotains, and resembles the Indian representative of the latter in having the body spotted and striped with white. The general colour of the fur is a rich brown, with a large amount of white on the throat and chest, as well as on the under surface of the tail; the upper part of the body is spotted, while the flanks are marked with longitudinal white stripes, which are larger and more continuous than those of the Indian chevrotain. As is the case with so many West African animals, we have but scanty in- formation as to the habits of the water-chevrotain in its native state. It is, however, VOL. 11,—26 402 UNGULATES. generally found near the banks of river and lakes, and its mode of life is said to be much like that of pigs. The water-chevrotain has but three premolar teeth in the lower jaw, but in the somewhat larger species found in the Pliocene and Miocene strata of Europe there were four of these teeth. The species occurring in the Pliocene of the Punjab was of still larger dimensions; and affords one more instance of the intimate connection existing between the Tertiary Mammalian fauna of India and that of Africa at the present day. In its separate metacarpal bones, the water-chevrotain makes a decided approach towards the pigs; and in the Tertiary deposits of Europe and North America there occur numerous small Ungulates, which appear to have connected the chevrotains with the deer. Such is Gelocus, from the lower Miocene of France, in which the middle metacarpal bones were separate, while the metatarsals were fused into a cannon-bone, which has been regarded as the common ancestor of the two families. Prodremothervwm of the upper Eocene of France, has cannon-bones in both limbs; while in the American Hypertragulus both the metacarpals and metatarsals were separate. Extinct Forms. THE CAMELS AND LLAMAS. Family Camelide. The camels of the Old World, and the llamas of the New, form, as already stated, a group of ruminating Ungulates distinguished widely both from the true SKELETON OF THE ARABIAN CAMEL, Ruminants and the chevrotains, and which probably have had a totally distinct origin from more primitive even-toed Ungulates. | CAMELS AND LLAMAS. 403 An important point of distinction is that the front of the upper jaw is furnished with incisor teeth ; it is true, indeed, that in the adult state there is only a single pair of these teeth remaining, but in young animals there are, as in pigs, three pairs. Then, again, both jaws are furnished with tusks or canine teeth; those of the lower jaw being sharply pointed, and separated by an interval from the incisors, instead of resembling the latter and forming with them a continuous series, as we have seen to be the ease in the chevrotains and the true Ruminants. The molar teeth have tall and crescent-shaped crowns, which, however, are not precisely similar to those of the group last-named; and one, or sometimes more, of the premolar teeth generally has a simple pointed crown, like that of a canine, and is not in contact with the other teeth of the cheek-series. These isolated premolar teeth are seen in the figure of the skeleton of the camel, in the gap between the tusks and the other cheek-teeth. The limbs are long, and the thigh is placed nearly vertically, so that the true knee is more detached from the small hind- quarters of the body than is usually the case in Ungulate mamials. The lower portion of the legs is composed of a cannon-hone supporting two toes, without any trace of the lateral. on mae pert toes or their metacarpal bones. The cannon-bone differs, how- FORE-FOOT OF THE ever, from that of the true Ruminants, in that the two pulley-like noe (From surfaces at the lower end, instead of being placed side by side i and furnished with a distinct ridge in the middle of each, are divergent and perfectly smooth. The bones of the first joint of the toes are also longer and more expanded at their lower ends than in the true Ruminants; the second pair being broad and flattened, while the third form mere nodules, quite unlike the symmetrical ones of the latter group. The feet form broad expanded cushion- like pads (from which the group derives its title of Tylopoda), of which the under surface is undivided, while the front shows a division into two toes, each of which bears a broad nail on the upper surface. The ankle-joint differs from that of the true Ruminants in that the two bones lying immediately below the astragalus, remain distinct, whereas in the former they unite into a compound bone, termed the naviculo-cuboid. ) \ / i) PIGS. 425 naked surface at the extremity, in which are situated the nostrils, the dise being supported by an additional separate bone at the extremity of the skull, as shown in our figure. The feet are narrow, and carry four completely-developed toes, of which the hindmost do not touch the ground in walking, while the inner surfaces of the main pair are flattened. The molar teeth are narrow, the last one in both the upper and lower jaw being more or less elongated ; and the large tusks grow continuously ATM ae - Cy throughout life, those of the upper jaw curving up- wards, instead of pointing downwards, after the usual fashion. Swine have large flapping ears, and rather long cylindrical tails, with a tuft at the end. Their iat ea THE LAST RIGHT LOWER MOLAR bodies are more or less sparsely clothed with bristly TOOTH OF A PIG. hairs, and their stomachs are quite simple. Like all unspecialised Ungulates, swine have the neck short and thick, and imperfectly differentiated both from the body and the head, the latter being consequently carried low. The whole of the existing members of the family are restricted to the Old World; and they chiefly frequent damp or swampy districts, and are fond of wallowing in wet mud. THE TRUE PIGs. Genus Sus. The typical representatives of the Pig family, such as the European wild boar, are characterised by having forty-four teeth, among which the last molar in each jaw is greatly elongated, while the thick and short upper tusk is turned sharply upwards, and has a large smooth facet worn on the outer side of its upturned extremity by the abrasion of the inner surface of the extremity of the lower tusk. Consequently, if either tusk happens to be broken, the opposing one continues to grow indefinitely, and, from its curved form, generally pierces some portion of the skull with its tip, thus ultimately leading to the death of the animal which has had the misfortune to meet with an accident of this nature. In addition to the bristly hairs, there is generally a more or less developed woolly under-fur. The skull of the pigs, besides the presence of the additional bone in the snout already mentioned, is remarkable for the great length of the nasal bones, and also for the high elevation of the crest of the occiput, which is generally even more developed than in the specimen figured here. In wild pigs the profile of the face is straight, although in most domesticated races it is more or less concave. Pigs are exceedingly prolific animals; and the young of all the wild species (as shown in our illustration) are marked with light longitudinal stripes, although these markings are very rarely observed in those of domesticated breeds. The distributional area of the genus, before curtailed by human agency, was extensive, comprising the greater part of Europe, Southern, and a portion of Central, Asia, Japan, the islands of the Malayan region, and Africa. The two species inhabiting Africa south of the Sahara Distribution. 426 UNGULATES. and a third from Madagascar, belong, however, to a group distinct from that in- cluding the rest. Domesticated pigs have been turned loose in many parts of the world, such as America, the West Indies, and New Zealand, where they have formed feral races tending to revert more or less completely to the wild type, some even producing striped young. Although some of the species are markedly distinct, the pigs (exclusive of those from Southern Africa) are an exceedingly puzzling group, scarcely any two zoologists being in accord as to the number of existing species. Some of the most important distinctive features are afforded by the cheek-teeth; but as such differences, after all, are but slight, and difficult to recognise, we shall, in the main, confine our attention to some of the better-known species, such as those of Europe and India. European Wild The type of the genus is the European wild pig, or wild boar Boar. (Sus scrofa), ranging over Europe, Northern Africa, and part of Western and Central Asia. In Asia, it is believed by Mr. Blanford to extend into Mesopotamia, Persia, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, while northwards it ranges to the neighbourhood of Yarkand. It was formerly abundant throughout the British Islands, as is attested not only by historical evidence, but also by the abundance of its remains in the peat-mosses and fens; and boar-hunting was a favourite pursuit of our ancestors. Although the exact date of the extermination of wild boars from the British Islands does not appear to be ascertained, Mr. J, E. Harting has shown that they still existed in Oxfordshire in the year 1339, in Suffolk in 1572, and in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, as late as 1593; and it is quite probable that in Scotland, and perhaps in Ireland also, they may have lingered on till a still more recent date. In many parts of the Continent, and especially in the Black Forest, wild boars are still abundant. Indian Wild The Indian wild boar (S. cristatus) is so closely allied to its co European cousin that it is frequently regarded as_ specifically inseparable. It is, however, a somewhat taller animal, with a thinner coat of hair and no under-fur; but it is more especially distinguished by the presence of a crest or mane of long black bristles running from the nape of the neck along the back, and by the more complex structure and larger size of the last molar tooth in each jaw. As regards the latter characteristic, it may be observed that in the European wild boar the hindmost of the three lobes constituting the last lower molar, is not more complex than in the specimen figured on p. 425; but in the Indian species, and more especially in the males, this lobe (the one on the left of the figure) is complicated by the addition of one or more extra tubercles to the hinder extremity, thus making the whole of this tooth considerably longer and more complex. Analogous but less strongly - marked differences may be observed between the corresponding upper teeth of the two species. The usual height of the Indian wild boar varies from 30 to 40 inches at the shoulder, but it is stated that one specimen has been killed standing upwards of 434 inches; while the weight ranges from 200 to considerably over 300 lbs. When extracted from the jaw, the lower tusk of a fine boar will measure somewhere about 8 or 9 inches in length; but specimens measuring 94 and 10 inches have been recorded, and one is said to have been obtained Species. PIGS: 427 which measured upwards of 12 inches. The Indian wild boar is found in suitable spots throughout India, Ceylon, and Burma, and also in the wooded districts of the outer Himalaya, extending into the interior as far as Kashmir. ae Since the habits of all swine are very similar, while those of the Indian wild boar are best known to Englishmen, we may give an account of them in this place. As we have said, pigs generally frequent moist or marshy situations, where there is plenty of cover, and their great characteristic is their habit of turning up the ground with their snouts in search of food, leaving marks by which their presence in a district can be instantly recognised. It is this habit which renders these animals so especially obnoxious to the cultivator. During the day the Indian wild boar makes his lair in any convenient cover, sometimes in tall grass, at others in reeds or sugar-cane, and A **SOUNDER” OF WILD SWINE. at others in bushes or forest, while not unfrequently standing crops other than sugar-cane afford the necessary shelter. In the mornings and evenings he wanders forth in search of food, in cultivated districts devastating the crops, but away from human haunts he depends chiefly upon roots, those of a kind of sedge being especial favourites. Wild pigs will, however, readily feed on the careases of animals and other carrion, while in Assam they are stated to be in the habit of digging out the fish which bury themselves in the mud during the dry season. According to Mr. Blanford, pigs are less nocturnal in their habiis in remote districts than in those where they are much disturbed. While the females and young associate in droves or “ sounders,” usually comprising from ten to a dozen head, and rarely exceeding twenty, the old boars are solitary. The number of young produced at a birth by the European species varies from six to ten, after a gestation of four months; and frequently at least two litters are produced in a year. 428 UNGULATES. The lower tusks of the male wild boar, which project about 3 inches from the jaw, and are kept with edges as sharp as razors by wear against those of the upper jaw, are most formidable weapons, capable of ripping open a horse at a single stroke. Both the European and the Indian species are among the boldest and fiercest of all animals, charging men, horses, or elephants time after time without a moment's hesitation, and in spite of the most desperate wounds. Indeed, the injuries that a wild boar will sustain without loss of life are perfectly marvellous. A correspondent of the Aszam newspaper relates that he once killed an old boar, in the skull of which the broken extremity of the tusk of another BERKSHIRE PIG (4; nat. size), boar was firmly embedded, with its point penetrating into the brain-cavity a short distance behind the left eye. Although the speed of a wild pig is considerable, yet it cannot be maintained for any long distance, and accordingly, either a boar or a sow may be easily over- taken by a well-mounted horseman after a comparatively short run. Both as regards speed and inclination to fight there is, however, considerable local variation among the wild pigs of India; the large heavily-built animal found in Bengal being much more disposed to show fight than the lighter pig of the Punjab, which has a greater turn of speed. In spite of its boldness, the Indian wild boar seldom makes unprovoked attacks ; but when once roused nothing will stop it. An instance is on record of a boar charging, overthrowing, and ripping open a camel; and there are several well-authenticated cases of boars having attacked and killed or beaten off tigers. PIGS. 429 In Germany the European wild boar is hunted with boarhounds ; and when in the highlands of Ceylon Sir Samuel Baker was in the habit of hunting the Indian pig with a pack of dogs, and despatching his quarry single-handed with a hunting-knife. In all parts of India where riding is possible the wild boar is, however, always speared; and the sport of “ pig-sticking,” as it is commonly called, is undoubtedly by far the finest and most exciting of all the many kinds of Indian shikar. One of the best grounds for pig-sticking is the old valley of the Ganges in the neighbourhood of Mirut, locally known as the Khadir. Here “the ground,” writes General Kinloch, “consists of level plains covered with grass and intersected with deep nullas or ravines, some dry, others full of water ; with deep but invisible ditches; holes varying in size, from pits large enough to swallow up horse and rider to others just big enough to admit a horse’s leg; hidden stumps, and tangled bushes; and over this one has to gallop at racing pace.” Falls are of course frequent, although severe accidents are less common than might have been expected. A smaller species of pig inhabits the forests of the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and stands only some 20 inches in height at the shoulder. In addition to its small stature, the Andaman pig (S. andamanensis) is further distinguished by its relatively short tail, the shaggi- ness of the coat, the absence of the crest of long hair on the neck, and, above all, by the relative shortness of the hindmost lobe of the last molar tooth in the lower jaw. The third Indian representative of the genus is the pigmy hog (S. salvanius), of the forests at the foot of the Himalaya in Bhutan, Sikhim, and Nipal. These tiny little pigs are scarcely larger than hares, standing only about 11 inches at the shoulder. They are brown or blackish brown in colour, with small, naked ears, very short tail, and only three pairs of teats in the female instead of the usual six. From the little that is known of the habits of these pigs in the wild state, it appears that they generally live in herds of from five to twenty head in grass-jungle, and that the old boars remain with the sows. Probably the number of young produced at a birth is less than in other pigs. We have now to consider briefly the wild pigs of the islands of the Malayan region and Japan; and it is among these that the greatest uncertainty prevails among zoologists, as to the real number of species discoverable. These pigs may, however, be divided into three groups, of which the first is nearly related to the Indian pig. The best known representative of the first group is the collared pig (S. vittatus) of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, characterised by the white streak running along the sides of the face to the neck, and by the absence of any crest of hair on the back of the neck, and of warts on the face; the last lower molar tooth being large and complex. The white- whiskered Japan pig (S. lewcomystax), as well as the Papuan pig (S. papuensis), and the Formosan pig (S. faévanws) are nearly allied species. The second group is represented by a well-marked species known as the warty pig (S. verrucosus), from Java and Borneo, readily distinguished by the presence of three small warts on each side of the face, the largest of these carrying a number of bristles and being situated just below the eye. The skull in this pig is of ordinary length; while the last lower molar tooth is of medium size and complexity. The Ceram Hunting. Andaman Pig. Pigmy Hog. Malayan Pigs. 430 UNGULATES. pig (S. ceramensis) and the Celebes pig (8. celebensis) belong to this group. Lastly, we have the bearded pig (S. barbatus) of Borneo, which is markedly distinct from all the others, having a fringe of long hairs on the cheeks, an extremely elongated skull (shown in the figure on p. 422), and the last molar tooth in the lower jaw relatively short, and of simple structure. The great elongation of the skull is shown by the circumstance that the first cheek-tooth of the upper jaw is separated by a considerable interval from the tusk, whereas in other species the two are placed close together. Since there is nothing in the habits of these pigs to distinguish them from the Indian wild pig, we may pass on to the consideration of some of the domesticated . Yyy\\h \ Y\\\\\ WQS HARRISON PIG (;'5 nat. size). breeds of swine. It may, however, be mentioned that with the exception of the European wild boar, which ranges into Algeria and the adjacent districts, the only typical representative of the genus found in Africa is the Senaar pig (S. senaar- ensis) of the north-eastern regions of that continent. Much discussion has taken place as to the origin of the numerous domesticated breeds of swine, and very different views on this subject have been expressed by different writers; some urging that certain of the earlier races found in Europe had an eastern origin, while others regard the whole of them as descended directly from the European wild boar. The earliest evidence of the existence of domesticated swine in Europe is afforded by remains found on the sites of the prehistoric lake-dwellings of Switzerland. These were regarded by Professor Riitimeyer, of Basle as indicating two distinct breeds—one nearly allied Domestic Swine. PIGS. 431 to the European wild boar, and the other more resembling some of the Asiatic kinds. The late Professor Rolleston failed, however, to detect evidence of Asiatic affinity in any of the prehistoric swine of Europe, and accordingly came to the conclusion that they were all probably derived from the European wild species, although these might possibly have some crossing with an Asiatic stock. It must be confessed that this view is, at first sight, the most probable; and that the original domesticated races of different parts of the world have been derived from the wild species inhabiting the same districts. This is the opinion of Mr. Blanford, who states that the tame pig of India is doubtless derived from the wild NW. cristatus, with which it probably interbreeds. In modern times, however, there has certainly been a great amount of intercrossing between the various breeds of domestic swine; and many of the races now most esteemed in Europe have a large proportion of Asiatic blood in their veins. The effects of domestication have been very marked on the swine, although the degree of variation from the wild type depends largely upon the amount of care that has been bestowed upon the breed. We have already mentioned that the European domestic breed differs from all wild species by the concave profile of the face; while as a rule domesticated races have uniformly-coloured young. Indeed, whenever the young of domestic swine are striped, a recent crossing with a wild race may not unreasonably be suspected. When domesticated pigs revert to a wild condition, the striping of the young is, however, frequently resumed. Domestication invariably greatly reduces the size of the tusks of the boars, which in some breeds are very small indeed; and in this respect we have a reversion to extinct species of swine, in the earlier forms of which the tusks were but slightly developed. There are also modifications in the form of the hinder part of the skull, in the number of joints in the backbone, and in the length of the intestines. Equally marked differences obtain in the shape of the ears, which in some of the inferior breeds are large, flapping, and pendent, while in the superior breeds they are small and erect. As regards bodily form, we have but to contrast the long- legged, large-headed, and thin-bodied “greyhound pig” of Ireland, with some of the best modern breeds, like the Harrison swine represented on p. 430, to see how enormous is the difference in this respect. Darwin remarks, however, that the observations of Professor Nathusius tend to show “that the peculiar form of the skull and body in the most highly-cultivated races is not characteristic of any one race, but is common to all when improved up to the same standard. Thus the large-bodied, long-eared English breed with a convex back, and the small-bodied, short-eared, Chinese breeds with a concave back, when bred to the same state of perfection, nearly resemble each other in the form of the head and body. This result, it appears, is partly due to similar causes of change acting on the several races, and partly to man breeding the pig for one sole purpose, namely, for the greatest amount of flesh and fat; so that selection has always tended towards one and the same end. With most domestic animals the result of selection has been divergence of character, here it has been convergence.” Domesticated pigs are now found over the greater part of the habitable world ; but while those kept in more northern regions are generally confined more or less closely to the homestead, the races of the warmer parts of the world are allowed to 432 UNGULATES. run more or less fully at liberty. Those kept in confinement are generally larger and fatter, although often more delicate animals, than the breeds which are allowed to roam almost at will; the latter being longer-limbed and thinner than the former, but at the same time bolder and more independent in disposition. In Southern Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, Servia, Turkey, and Spain, the herds of swine are allowed to run in the woods throughout the year, but in less warm districts they have to be taken in and fed during the winter. In the Sierra Nevada of Spain, these herds ascend to an elevation of some nine thousand feet above the sea, and thus become expert climbers. DWARF CHINESE PIG (yz nat. size). The different breeds of European domestic pigs vary so much that it is almost impossible to classify them, and only a few of the more important ones can even be mentioned in this work. Many of the best breeds have been produced by crossing original stocks with the so-called Siamese breed, which is distributed over a great part of the Malayan region, and has been imported into China. This breed (frequently termed S. indicus) is characterised by its small size, cylindrical trunk, hollow back, short limbs, and the approximation of the belly to the ground. The colour is generally black, with the skin externally of a rich copper colour, and the bristles are soft; but there is also a white variety. The ears are small and somewhat erect, and the face is short. According to Mr. D. Low, these pigs “are less hardy and prolific than the native races of Europe, and the females do not yield the same quantity of milk; but they arrive very soon at European Breeds. UPLG Se 433 maturity, they fatten on a small quantity of food, and their flesh is white and delicate.” The native breeds of Britain, according to the same authority, may be divided into those of small size, with erect or semi-erect ears; and those with larger bodies and long pendent ears. Nearly all these have, however, been more or less largely crossed with the Siamese, or, as it is often called, the Chinese breed ; and the general tendency of modern breeding is towards a reduction in size and uniformity in character. Of the smaller kinds, with short erect ears, one of the most distinct is the Highland breed; these pigs being lean, wiry, greyish animals, of great hardihood, roaming over the Scottish moors almost at will, and doing great harm to game and other birds. Near the sea they will feed on molluscs and dead fish, and their flesh, at all times coarse, then acquires a fishy taste. They are also found in the Hebrides and Orkneys. The larger breeds with pendent flapping ears are chiefly characteristic of the lowlands, but few now remain which have not been crossed with foreign blood. In colour they are mostly white, or white spotted with black. They are long in coming to maturity and fatten slowly, but they attain enormous dimensions, and have the advantage of producing large litters, and being excellent mothers. The Yorkshire and Lincolnshire breeds, as well as those of the Eastern counties, are large white pigs, with pendent ears; the Essex breed (which has now been largely crossed with the Chinese) being remarkable for the fineness of the skin and the softness of the bristles. The Hampshire is also a noted breed; while the largest of all is the Rudgwick. One of the most valuable is, however, the Berkshire breed, which is somewhat inferior in point of size. Originally these pigs, as shown in the illustration on p. 428, were generally of a reddish brown colour, with brown or black spots; but by crossing with the Chinese breed, or derivates thereof, the size has been reduced, and the colour changed to black, although, when the crossing has been with the white breed, it is more generally black mixed with white. The original Berkshire, writes Mr. Low, “is still regarded as one of the superior breeds of England, combining size with a sufficient aptitude to fatten, and being fitted for pork and bacon, and it is held to be the hardiest of the more improved races.” The Harrison pig, figured on p. 430, is intended to exhibit one of the best types of fattening breeds : while the white dwarf Chinese pig, represented in the illustration on p. 432, exhibits the greatest diminution in size, coupled with an almost completely cylindrical form of body. It may be observed that although the usual mode of life led by pigs in England is not calculated to develop their intellectual faculties, yet they are by no means deficient in intelligence, and display a remarkable acuteness of scent. Indeed, a pig has been trained to stand to game as steadily as the best-bred pointer. Before taking leave of domesticated swine, we must not omit Masked Swine. : : . . to mention the curious Japanese masked pig, represented in the g, figure on p. 434. This pig, writes Darwin, “has an extraordinary appearance, from its short head, broad forehead, and nose, great fleshy ears and deeply- furrowed skin. Not only is the face furrowed, but thick folds of skin, which are harder than the other parts, almost like the plates on the Indian rhinoceros, VOL. 11.—28 434 ONGULATE'S. hang about the shoulders and rump. It is coloured black, with white feet, and breeds true. That it has long been domesticated, there can be little doubt; and this might have been inferred even from the circumstance that its young are not longitudinally striped.” From a study of its skull, Professor Nathusius regards the masked pig as nearly allied to the Chinese breed ; but, as Darwin remarks, “if this be really the case, it is a wonderful instance of the amount of modification which can be effected under domestication.’ MASKED JAPANESE PIG (,1, nat. size). The African bush-pigs—the Bosch-Varks of the Cape Boers— differ from the typical members of the genus by always having one pair less of cheek-teeth, owing to the absence of the first premolar on each side of the lower jaw, while frequently the corresponding upper tooth is like- wise wanting in the adult. The molar teeth are also distinguished by their simpler structure, the last in the lower jaw having the third lobe much reduced in size. The tusks are scarcely larger than those of domestic pigs, and the snout is unusually elongated. On each side of the face immediately below the eye there is a large swelling, due to the great development of a ridge of bone on the sheath of the upper tusk. The grey bush-pig (S. africanus), ranging from South to Central Africa, has the hair of a greyish brown colour, and no pencils of hair on the ears. It generally frequents thick forest, although occasionally found in thorny bush and among reeds in the river valleys. Mr. EK. H. Drummond says that “the ingulabi, as it is called by the natives, does an immense amount of damage to their sweet potatoes and fields, and has in Bush-Pigs. PIGS. 435 consequence been exterminated in many districts.” Its habits appear to be very similar to those of the ordinary swine. The red bush-pig or river-hog (S. porcus) is a rather smaller species than the last, inhabiting West Africa, and distinguished by the long pencils of hairs with which the ears terminate, and also by the brilliant reddish colour of the hair. As in the last species, the bristles of the neck, back, chin, and throat are elongated into a distinct mane, and the tail terminates in a distinct tuft. The prevailing colour is either a shining brownish red with a tinge of yellow, or ———— = = = = =) THE RED BUSH-PIG. a dark reddish yellow; the forehead, ears, and limbs are, however, blackish, while the mane on the back, part of the margins of the ears, and the tips of their pencils of hair, the eyebrows, and a streak under the eyes and the margins of the cheeks, are white or whitish. The under-parts are whitish grey, and the snout grey. These brilliant contrasts of colour make the red bush-pig decidedly the handsomest member of the Swine family. These pigs are found in large herds, and frequent moist forests and the banks of rivers, while they are oceasionally seen on the mountains. The first living example of this species brought to Europe was exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, 1852, since which date many specimens have been imported into Europe. A third species (S. edwards?) inhabits Madagascavr. Numerous fossil pigs are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene Tertiary deposits of the Old World, which may be referred to the genus Sus, and several of which differ markedly from all existing species; these fossil pigs occurring in Europe, North Africa, India, and China. One of the most remarkable is the titan pig (S. titan) from the Siwalik Hills, at the foot of the Extinct Pigs. 436 UNGULATES. Himalaya. In this monster the length of the skull was 23 inches, against 16 in an average-sized Indian wild pig, so that the height of the animal could not have been much less than that of a fair-sized mule. The same deposits have also yielded remains of an extinct species which did not exceed the living pigmy hog in point of size. Still more noteworthy are Falconer’s pig (S. falconerv) from the Siwalik Hills, and some allied species from the Pleistocene deposits of Southern India and Algeria, which, in the extreme complexity of the lower teeth, approximated to the under-mentioned wart-hogs. The Auvergne pig (S. arvernensis) from the Pliocene of France, is believed, on the other hand, to be related to the African bush-pigs. In most of these extinct species the tusks of the boars, as already mentioned, were relatively small. THE BABIRUSA. Genus Babirusa. The extraordinary development of the tusks in the males of the animal to which the Malays have given the name of Babirusa (meaning pig-deer) is so remarkable as to suggest at first sight the idea of a malformation. The babirusa (Babirusa alfurus), which is an inhabitant of Celebes and Boru, and is the sole representative of its genus, has, indeed, derived its name from these abnormally- developed tusks, which have led the Malays to liken them to the antlers of the deer. In the boars, as is well exhibited in our figure of the skull, the upper tusks, while curving upwards like those of an ordinary wild pig, instead of protruding from the margins of the jaws, arise close together near the middle line of the face, and thence, after being directed upwards for a short distance, sweep backwards, frequently coming into contact with the surface of the forehead, and are then finally directed forwards at the tip. The lower tusks have the same upwards-and-backwards direction as those of the upper jaw, but are frequently less strongly curved, although in other cases the direction of their sweep is not very different from that of the latter. Both pairs of tusks are quite devoid of enamel, and, as there is no abrasion of the one pair against the other, both grow uninterruptedly ; the upper tusks occasionally attaining a length of 143 inches, we believe, exclusive of the portion buried in the socket. In addition to the peculiar conformation of its tusks, the babirusa differs from ordinary pigs in the diminished number of its teeth, of which the total is only thirty-four; the missing teeth comprising the outermost incisors and the first two premolars on each side of both the upper and lower jaws. The molar teeth are characterised by their simple structure and the small development of the third lobe of the last one in each jaw. The babirusa has a nearly naked skin of a dark ashy grey colour, sparsely covered with hair along the line of the back, and thrown into numerous wrinkles. The ears are small, the tail is short and devoid of a terminal tuft, and the back is much arched. The female has small tusks, and only a single pair of teats. The height at the middle of the back is about 42 inches. The young, of which there are either one or two at a birth, are devoid of stripes. PIGS: 437 The peculiar character of the tusks, the reduction in the number of the teeth, and the uniform coloration of the young, indicate that the babirusa is a more specialised creature than the ordinary pigs. At the same time, the simple structure of the molar teeth indicates that it must be directly descended from one of the extinct genera of pigs in which a similar type of dentition obtains. The habits of the babirusa seem to be very similar to those of other wild swine; moist forests, cane-brakes, and the banks of rivers and lakes where abundance of water-plants are to be found, being its favourite resorts. Here these animals collect in larger or smaller herds, sleeping by day and going forth to feed at night. The babirusa is an excellent swimmer, not only entering lakes to feed on water-plants, but likewise traversing small channels of Habits. THE BABIRUSA (% nat. size). the sea separating one island from another. Its gallop is lighter than that of the wild boar. The senses of smell and hearing are very acute in the babirusa, and its grunt is very similar to that of other swine. The young are born in February, and of very small size, and require great attention on the part of the sow. Babirusa are frequently tamed in Celebes, and may be found in the houses of some of the chiefs. The first living examples brought to Europe were a pair exhibited in Paris in the year 1820. Much discussion has arisen as to the use of the tusks of the male babirusa. It has been suggested that they may be for the purpose of protecting the eyes when the animal is rushing through dense forest; but if this were so, as Mr. Wallace points out, how are we to account for the slight develop- ment of these organs in the sows. On the whole, the same observer considers it most probable that the tusks were at one period useful to their owner, and were Use of Tusks. 438 UNGULATES. then kept of moderate size by mutual attrition, but that, for some reason or other, they have become of no benefit to the animal, and have assumed a monstrous growth like that occurring in the lower tusk of a wild boar when the corresponding upper one has been accidentally broken off. The natives of Celebes organise carefully-planned hunts for the capture of the babirusa, an account of one of these being given by Dr. Guillemard in the following words :—“'The animals being driven into a curral, with a V-shaped opening and flanked by netting, we had plenty of time to wait before the sport began, and meanwhile the natives arranged themselves at their posts. One stood at the door of the curral, ready to close it directly any animal rushed in; others took up their places on either side of the wide entrance, while the remainder crouched in front of the long net at intervals of a few yards, each grasping his spear, and hidden from view by a huge Livistonia (a kind of palm) frond. We had not long been settled before a peculiar barking grunt in the distance announced the arrival of the first victim. Every- one was _ instantly motionless, and directly afterwards a dark object dashed up at great speed and buried itself in the net a short way down the — slope. There was a short struggle, and in less than five minutes the captive, a full- grown female babi- rusa, was quietly reposing on her back, with her legs tied together with rattan, and we were once more in ambush for the next comer. We were hardly quiet before the same peculiar sound was heard rapidly approaching, and the next moment a magnificent old boar babirusa rushed past within five yards of us, and plunged into the net between our tree and the entrance to the curral. His long tusks became entangled in the meshes, and the natives ran up to spear him. Just at this moment, however, he broke loose, and, turning on his antagonists, scattered them in all directions. It was a most determined charge, and, as we were unable to fire for fear of hitting some of our own men, it might have proved a serious affair for the native he singled out.” After some trouble the animal was, however, finally despatched with a spear-thrust; but, “even with four spears buried in his body, the old boar died game, striving to the very last to get at his antagonists.” Hunting. SKULL OF BABIRUSA. (From Guillemard’s Cruise of the Marchesa.) } 1 We are indebted to Mr. Murray and the author of the book named for the use of this figure. PIGS. 439 THE WART-HOGS. Genus Phacocherus. As Africa possesses in the red bush-pig the handsomest representative of the Swine family, so in the wart-hogs it presents us with the most hideous members, not only of that group, but of the whole Ungulate order. The wart-hogs, of which there are two nearly allied species, are characterised by the enormous size of their heads, in which the lower part of the face is extremely flat and broad, while below each eye is a huge warty protuberance ZLIAN’S WART-HOG (;4 nat. size). between which and the tusk there are two other of smaller size. The head is likewise distinguished by the great length of the muzzle, and the consequent backward position of the eyes; the hideous physiognomy being completed by the huge tusks with which the jaws of both sexes are armed, those of the upper jaw being considerably longer than those of the lower, or just the reverse of what occurs in the true pigs. This difference in the proportionate length of the upper and lower tusks in the two groups is due to the circumstance that in the wart-hogs the lower pair only bite against the inferior surface of the upper ones, instead of abrading their whole summits. The upper tusks are devoid of enamel except at their tips, 440 ONGULATES. and these small caps are worn away at an early period. They curve in an upward and inward direction, and sometimes project as much as 8} inches from the jaw, having a basal girth of 5 inches. The shorter and more slender lower tusks have a nearly similar curvature, and are coated throughout with enamel. The tusks are not, however, the only peculiarity in the dentition of the wart- hogs. In young animals there are thirty-four teeth, namely, one pair of upper and three pairs of lower incisors, a pair of tusks in each jaw, and six cheek-teeth on each side of the upper, and five in the lower jaw. In the adult, the incisors and anterior cheek-teeth tend, however, to disappear, till in some instances the tusks and the last molars alone remain, thus leaving a total of eight teeth. This paucity in the number of cheek-teeth is compensated, however, by the enormous size and complex structure of the single molar remaining in each jaw. The tooth in question is composed of a number of small elongated cylindrical denticules, closely packed together; its total length from back to front, bemg something over 2 inches, and its height proportionately great, although its width is small. This is, however, only an extreme development of the structure already referred to as occurring in certain extinct species of the genus Sus; and in possessing such a single tooth on each side of the jaws in the adult condition, the wart-hogs may be compared to the elephants. The body in these animals is massive and nearly cylindrical, the ears are small and sharply-pointed, the tail is long and tufted at the tip, and the neck and back are furnished with a mane of long bristly hair, the rest of the body being nearly naked. The young are uniformly coloured. Of the two species, Alian’s wart-hog (Phacocherus africanus) (figured on p. 439) is distributed over a large part of the eastern side of Africa, ranging as far north as Abyssinia. On the other hand, Pallas’s wart- hog (P. pallasi), of which the head is here figured, is confined to South-Eastern Africa. Both species stand about 274 inches at the shoulder. The second is distinguished from the first species by its shorter head, which is more convex be- tween the eyes; and it has also the warts below the latter very long and pen- dent, instead of projecting outwards, while the tusks are more inclined outwards. The mane is also wider and shorter, and there is a greater development of hair on the top of the head and the ears. It has also been considered that it is only this species in which all the teeth, except the tusks and last molars are habitually shed, but this is doubtful. The colour of Pallas’s wart-hog is redder than that of its northern relative. HEAD OF PALLAS’S WART-HOG. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1869.) PIGS. 441 Our accounts of the habits of the wart-hogs are not so full as might be desired, and there is some discrepancy between those given by different observers. The statement made by Heuglin that these animals habitu- ally repose on swampy ground, or even in water, is, however, not borne out by later writers. The northern species is found everywhere in Abyssinia, from the level of the sea at Annesley Bay to heights of nine thousand or ten thousand feet in the highlands of the interior. Mr. Blanford writes, that “its habits are very similar to those of ordinary pigs. It lives amongst bushes or in ravines during the day, and comes out to feed in the evening, still keeping much to bush-jungle. The large males are usually solitary; the younger animals and females live in small herds, apparently not exceeding eight or ten in number. I never saw large ‘sounders, such as are so commonly met with in the case of the Indian hog. It feeds much on roots, which it digs up by means of its huge tusks. It also appears to dig large holes, in which it occasionally lies; these are perhaps intended for the young. Despite its formidable appearance, the Abyssinian wart-hog is a comparatively timid animal, far inferior in courage to the Indian wild hog. Several which I Habits. wounded showed no inclination to charge under circumstances in which an Indian pig would certainly have shown fight. The flesh is savoury, but dry and hard, even in comparatively young animals.” The foregoing opinion of the courage of these animals is confirmed by Sir Samuel Baker, who states that it is but rarely that they ever charge. One kept in confinement at Khartum on one occasion, however, broke out from its cage and deliberately charged at Sir Samuel Baker's party, when its rush was effectually stopped by having a huge rhinoceros horn hurled at its head. When brought to bay by dogs, wart-hogs make a determined stand, and inflict severe injuries on their assailants. If excited, they carry their long tails stuck straight upright. In South-Eastern Africa—where they are known to the natives by the name of Indhlovudawani—wart-hogs, according to Mr. E. H. Drummond, are found on the plains in light thorn-jungles ; and they are abundant in the districts around Mount Kilima-Njaro. In those regions they generally occupy the deserted burrow of an aard-vark, or other animal. Mr. Drummond states that wart-hogs, occupy- ing such burrows, “have a most curious mode of exit when they bolt—a dangerous one if you are not up to it. As they emerge from a hole, they turn a somer- sault on to the back of it, instead of coming straight out like an ordinary animal, and as that is just the spot where one would naturally stand, more than one man has had his legs ripped open before he learnt the wisdom of experience.” The same writer mentions that he has on more than one occasion seen a male wart-hog walk deliberately through a pack of large hounds without taking the slightest notice of them, so long as they refrained from biting. Did, however, one bolder than the rest, venture to come to close quarters, the wart-hog with a sudden jerk would either lay its assailant crippled on the ground, or send it howling away. We have no information as to the breeding-habits of the wart-hogs, but from the number of teats in the female being only four, it may be inferred that but few young are produced at a birth. The young are striped. 442 UNGULATES. THE PECCARIES. Family DICOTYLID®. The peccaries, which are the American representatives of the swine, differ so markedly from the latter that they are regarded as belonging to a separate family, of which there is but a single genus. The most important differences between the two groups are that the upper tusks of the peccaries have their points directed downwards instead of upwards, that their hind-limbs have three instead of four toes, while instead of the simple stomach of the Old World swine, the peccaries have a complex one approaching that of the Ruminants. Peccaries have a total of thirty-eight teeth, that is to say, they have a pair of Ay = WZ THE COLLARED PECCARY AND YOUNG (J nat. size). incisors in the upper jaw, and a premolar on each side of both jaws less than the wild boar. The downwardly-directed upper tusks, which are at first completely covered with enamel, are of small size, with sharp cutting-edges behind; while those of the lower jaw are directed upwards, outwards, and slightly backwards, and are received in notches in the sides of the opposite jaw just in front of the upper tusks. The last molar tooth in each jaw lacks the hind lobe characteristic of the Old World swine (see fig. on p. 421), and the fourth premolar tooth in the upper jaw resembles the first molar in having four tubercles on its crown, instead of only three. In addition to the difference in the number of toes in the hind-feet, the peccaries are further distinguished by the upper ends of the two larger meta- carpal and metatarsal bones being united, so that we have here an approach to the formation of cannon-bones. In this respect, as well as in the complex structure of their stomachs, and the presence of four tubercles on their last upper premolar teeth, the peccaries are clearly one step in advance of their allies of the Old World. PECCARIES. 443 An altogether unique feature in these animals is the presence of a large gland in the middle of the back, from which is secreted in great abundance a most evil- smelling oily substance. In appearance, peccaries are not unlike small hogs but with very slender limbs; they are devoid of any externally visible tails, and their snouts are much elongated and extremely mobile. Their ears are small and pointed; and their bodies are covered with thick bristle-like hairs, elongated into a mane on the neck, and forming a fringe on the throat and hind-quarters. The young are uniformly-coloured, like their parents, and never exceed two in number at a birth. Of the two well-defined species, the collared peecary (Dicotyles tayacw) is the smaller, and has the most northerly habitat, its range extending from Arkansas and Texas to the Rio Negro in Patagonia. This species stands from about 134 to 154 inches in height at the shoulder. The bristly hairs are parti-coloured, and the general hue of the pelage is blackish brown, becoming yellowish brown mingled with white on the flanks. The under-parts are brown, and the upper part of the chest white, while a broad yellowish white stripe runs from the hinder part of the shoulders obliquely downwards to the chest. The white-lipped peccary (D. labiatus) is a rather larger species than the last, its height at the shoulder varying from 15} to nearly 18 inches. It is further distinguished by the presence of a large white spot on the lower jaw, and the white lips; the general colour of the hair being greyish black. There is also a difference in the mane and fringe on the neck of the two species. The range of the white- lipped peccary is comparatively small, including only the region lying between British Honduras and Paraguay. All peccaries are essentially forest-dwelling animals, but whereas the collared peccary is found only singly or in pairs, or in small parties of from eight to ten individuals, the white-lipped species associates in large herds, of which the members may be numbered by scores. Moreover, there is a marked difference in the disposition of the two species, the former being a harmless and inoffensive creature, whereas the other is comparatively fierce, and not unfrequently inflicts severe wounds with its tusks. Indeed, when a herd of these animals is encountered in the forest, the hunter frequently has to seek protection by climbing a tree. Both species frequent only the densest and most extensive forests, dwelling either in the hollows of trees, in burrows excavated by other animals, or among bushes and grass; and in parts of South America they ascend in the mountains to heights of between 3000 and 4000 feet above the sea. The herds or parties are under the leadership of an old boar. Peccaries wander about both during the day and at night; and when food is scarce they make long migrations in search of it. Their chief food consists of fruits and roots; and their teeth and jaws are of such strength as to enable them to crack with ease the hard seeds of palms. In inhabited districts peccaries inflict much damage on growing crops; and, in addition to roots and fruits, they are by no means averse to varying their diet with carrion, worms, or insects. Their flesh is not much esteemed; and it is essential that immediately the animals are killed, the ill-smelling gland on the back should be removed, as otherwise the flesh will become tainted. As a general rule, but a single young one is produced at a birth, two being comparatively rare. Species. Habits. 444 UNGULATES. When taken young, peccaries are easily tamed, although it does not appear that any attempts have been made to establish a domesticated breed. Large numbers of them are destroyed by jaguars and pumas. Fossil remains of peccaries, some belonging to living and others to extinct species, occur in the Pleistocene deposits of both North and South America. In addition to these, certain extinct Pliocene and Miocene hog- like animals seem to indicate the parent-stock from which both the peccaries and the true pigs have been derived. Of these Cherohyus, from North America, comes closest to the peccaries, while the Old World Hyotheriwm, of which two upper molar teeth are figured on p. 421,1is more like the pigs. JLzstriodon is another European type, in which the molars have a pair of transverse ridges instead of four tubercles. Finally Chewropotamus, from the upper Eocene of England and France, connects the type of molar tooth characteristic of the pigs with that of the extinct anthracothere referred to on p. 421. Extinct Types. THE HIPPOPOTAMI. Family HIPPOPOTAMIDZ. Although the Greek term hippopotamus, and its English equivalent river- horse, are etymologically decidedly objectionable ones to denote the animals we have now to describe, yet the former at least is so firmly established in European languages that it would be impossible to attempt to change it. The Dutch term see-kuh, commonly translated sea-cow, but which we think might equally bear the interpretation lake-cow, and a name used by the Arabs which means water-buffalo, are far less objectionable; but a title equivalent to river-swine, which is said to have been conferred on these animals by the ancient Egyptians, is, from a zoological standpoint, far and away the best of all. The common hippopotamus, together with a much smaller species from West Africa, constitute a family by themselves, which is also the last group of the even- toed Ungulates. Hippopotaimi are bulky animals, with round, barrel-like bodies of great length, very short and thick legs, and enormous heads, in which the muzzle is angular and greatly expanded transversely, and has no trace of the terminal dise characteristic of the swine and peccaries. Indeed, the ugly head of a hippopotamus appears as if it were too large and heavy for its owner, since the animal may fre- quently be seen resting its ungainly muzzle on the ground, as though to relieve the neck from the strain of its weight. The portion of the skull in front of the eyes is very much longer than that behind them; and the sockets of the eyes (as seen in our figure of the skeleton) are completely surrounded by a very prominent bony ring, which has an almost tubular form. In the pigs, on the other hand, the socket of the eye is open behind (compare the figure on p. 422). The prominence of these sockets causes the relatively small eyes of the hippopotamus to project far above the level of the forehead. The ears are small and rounded, and the slit-like nostrils are placed rather close together on the highest point of the broad bristly muzzle; while both ears and nostrils alike can be completely closed at the will of the animal. The neck is extremely short and powerful; and the body is so deep, HIPPOPOTAMI. 445 that when the animal is walking on soft mud, the under surface comes in contact with the ground. Disproportionately short for the size of the animal, the tail is laterally compressed from side to side. The short and broad feet are furnished with four well-developed short toes, all of which touch the ground when walking ; and are encased in rounded black hoofs, of which the middle pair have not their inner surfaces flattened; so that the hippopotamus lacks the cloven hoof of the pigs and the Ruminants. The toes of the feet are partially connected by webs. Although there are a number of bristles on the muzzle, and also a few on the sides of the head and neck, as well as at the extremity of the tail, the skin of the hippo- potamus is naked; it is also rather rough and warty, and of enormous thickness. The gigantic mouth of a hippopotamus, when opened to the widest, is one of the ugliest sights imaginable, looking like a huge red cavern, from the edges of which project the enormous tusks and incisor teeth. The tusks, or canines, are the largest of the teeth in the jaws, and are curved backwards in a bold sweep, with SKELETON OF HIPPOPOTAMUS. their extremities obliquely bevelled off by mutual attrition; they grow through- out the life of the animal, and their points are directed downwards. The incisor teeth likewise grow during the whole period of existence, and thereby differ from those of the pigs, which form roots. In the existing species, there are not more than two pairs of these teeth, and whereas those of the upper jaw are directed downwards, the lower ones project forward in advance of the jaw. The sides of the jaws are severally provided with seven cheek-teeth, of which the four premolars have subconical pointed crowns, while the broad molar teeth carry four distinct columns, which, when worn by use, show on their summits well-defined trefoil- shaped surfaces of ivory surrounded by a rim of enamel. A peculiarity in the lower jaw of the hippopotamus is the presence of a hook-like flange at its hinder extremity, as shown in our figure of the skeleton. Summarising the result of the foregoing description, it may be observed that the hippopotami are entitled to rank as a distinct family on account of the following differences from the pigs and pecearies, viz. the broad and expanded muzzle, not terminating in a disc; the subequal size of the hoofs, all of which touch the ground, and the absence of flattening in the opposing surfaces of the middle pair; the 446 UNGULATES. continually-growing incisor teeth; the complete ring of bone round the socket of the eye; and the hook-like flange at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw. Common The common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus anmphibius) is by Hippopotamus. fay the larger of the two living species, and next to the elephant would seem to be the bulkiest of all existing terrestrial Mammals. A male which lived for many years in the London Zoological Society’s Gardens measured 12 feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, the length of the latter appendage being 22 inches, and its total weight was about 4 tons. Sir Samuel Baker states that in an old male measured by himself the length was 14 feet 3 inches from the snout to the end of the tail, the latter being about 9 inches. And the same writer estimates the weight of the hide, when freshly removed, at about 5 ewts. The height at the shoulder is some 8 feet 8 inches. This species is further characterised by having two pairs of incisor teeth in each jaw, the middle lower pair being of far larger dimensions than the others. The general colour of the skin is a slaty copper-brown, tending more to blackish brown on the back and purplish brown beneath. There is, however, considerable sexual and individual variation in this respect; and the hue of the skin also varies according to whether the animal has recently emerged from the water, or whether it is thoroughly dry. Dr. Livingstone says that while the males are of a dark colour, the females are of a yellowish brown; and when hippopotami first leave the water the upper-parts appear brownish blue and the under-parts almost flesh-coloured, but when thoroughly dry the colour of the back is blackish brown or slaty. Sir John Kirk observed in East Africa nearly pure white and also spotted individuals, while in others only the feet were white. In certain cases, however, a more or less distinct reddish, purple, or yellow tinge has been noticed. The largest recorded pair of lower tusks of the hippopotamus have a total length of 314 inches along the curve, and a basal circumference of yast over 9 inches. That the hippopotamus formerly inhabited Lower Egypt is indicated by the occurrence of its remains in the mud of the delta, while this is also confirmed by the frequency with which it is depicted in the ancient frescoes of that country. One of these frescoes preserved in the temple of Edfu shows that the ancient Egyptians were in the habit of harpooning these animals in much the same manner as is now practised on the upper reaches of the Nile. Teeth of the hippopotamus have been dug up at Kalabshi, a short distance above the first cataract; but at the present day the animal is not to be met with north of the neighbourhood of Dongola, in the Sudan, between the second and third cataracts. And even there, according to Sir 8S. Baker, it is comparatively rare, although a certain number take refuge in the wooded islands between Abou Hamed and Berber. Above Khartum, hippopotami are still to be found in large numbers. Generally, it may be stated that at the present day the hippopotamus inhabits most of the African rivers and lakes lying between the 17th parallel of north and the 25th of south latitude; that is to say, in the south it is found in the upper course of the Limpopo. Formerly, however, its distribution embraced the greater part of the Cape Colony. In East, South, and West Africa the hippopotamus comes much nearer to the coast than in the north, and in many districts it is to be found quite close to, or even in the sea itself. On the other hand, in Abyssinia these animals are found dwelling in Lake HIPPOPOTAMI. 447 Tzana-Dembea, at an elevation of over six thousand feet above the sea-level. The existing species is unknown in Madagascar; but from the reference to it in the A FAMILY PARTY OF HIPPOPOTAMI (,), nat. size), Bible, under the name of Behemoth, it is just possible that it may have Palestine within the historic period In the Pleistocene and upper portion of the Pliocene epoch a large hippopotamus inhabited 448 UNGULATES. which appears specifically indistinguishable from the living kind was widely spread over Europe, extending from Italy in the south to England in the north. These fossil hippopotami were, however, of considerably larger dimensions than at least the average of the existing race. In England the range of the animal extended as far north as Yorkshire; and it is a remarkable circumstance that in several English localities remains of the hippopotamus are found lying side by side with those of the reindeer. It has been attempted to explain this association of such southern and northern types by assuming that in the Pleistocene period the summers were very hot and the winters very cold, and that during the summer the hippopotami wandered northwards into regions tenanted in winter by the reindeer. There are, however, difficulties in the way of accepting this explanation, not the least bemg the circumstance that the living African hippopotamus is not a migratory animal. We may, however, be pretty confident that wherever remains of hippopotami are found, there the rivers must have been free from ice throughout at least the greater part of the year. The hippopotamus is more essentially an aquatic animal than any other Ungulate, the greater portion of its time being spent in the water, where its movements are far more rapid and natural than they are on land. As the carcase of a hippopotamus when freshly killed sinks rapidly to the bottom, the specific gravity of the animal when the lungs are inflated with air cannot be Habits. far, if at all, below that of water, and the animal is consequently enabled to stay without difficulty at the bottom of a river or lake, where it can run with ease and speed. Sir S. Baker states that, when undisturbed, the average duration of time during which a hippopotamus remains under water does not exceed five minutes ; but in regions where these animals are much hunted the length of the immersion is often much greater, sometimes extending to as much as ten minutes. The same writer also mentions that when on the upper Nile in a steamer that was travelling about ten knots an hour, it was not till the engineer increased the pace by putting on full steam, they were able to overtake a hippopotamus swimming about a hundred yards in advance of the vessel. When a hippopotamus comes to the surface it generally spouts up a column of water by the violent blowing-out of air through the nostrils, accompanied by a loud snorting noise; but, as we shall again notice, these animals learn caution in these respects when much persecuted. e< ae V\ TINY PNR Hf /) TIN SOS Vie Ni \| ff | rk an SHS, AY NS SS Wi \ \\ RS //) yA WS ~ — SS .\ ae SS >= SS SS Se : = ~ SSS SS SSS SS ENGLISH RACE-HORSE (‘‘ DONCASTER ”’). may be observed that the researches of Dr. Nehring have afforded reason to believe that during part of the Pleistocene period there existed in Western Europe a condition very similar to that now obtaining in the Russian steppes, where wild horses now live. Further evidence of the identity of these Pleistocene horses with the living species is afforded by certain rude drawings incised on fragments of slate, bone, or antler, which have come down to us from the ancient inhabitants of Europe during the later Stone Implement period. These drawings show that the Pleistocene horse was a rather small, heavily-built animal, with a large head, and a rough mane and tail,in all of which respects it agreed with the under-mentioned tarpan or wild horse of the steppes. Dr. Nehring is of opinion that the wild horse of Western Europe was domesti- cated and tamed by the men of the later Stone Implement period at a time when HORSES. 493 a steppe-like conditions still prevailed in those regions; and there can be but little, if any, doubt that the horses used by the ancient Britons and Germans in the time of Cesar were derived from the same native stock. It is, however, probable that the existing domesticated horses of Europe have a twofold origin, and that, while the so-called thorough-bred and halt-bred races have an Asiatic or perhaps partially North African descent, the breeds denominated by the Germans “ cold-blooded ” are derived from the primitive European stock. To how late a date the original wild horses of Western Europe existed as such, cannot now be definitely ascertained. It is true that Strabo relates that wild horses existed in his time in Spain and the Alps, and Pliny speaks of their existence throughout a great part of the north of Europe. The occurrence of these animals in the Ardennes is alluded to by Venantius Fortunatus, and in Italy a reference to them is made by Pope Gregory III. in the year 732. There is also evidence that about the year 1000 the monks of St. Gall were in the habit of using the flesh of wild horses as an article of diet, while so late as 1316 a document alludes to their existence in Westphalia. Moreover, Rosslin, in the year 1593, states that wild horses, which were more shy and difficult to approach than stags, were found in the Vosges, and were captured and tamed by the inhabitants of those districts. In all these cases it is, however, quite probable that these horses were feral rather than truly wild; that is to say, that they were derived from tamed races which had again taken to a wild life. This view is rendered the more probable from the circumstance that, during the historic period the greater part of Western Europe had become a forest-clad region quite different from the open steppes which we have reason to believe were the original home of the horse; but it is not impossible that a certain number of troops of wild horses might have adapted themselves to the changed conditions of their surroundings, and have lived on to the Middle Ages. Although at the present day the tarpan, or wild horse of the steppes, 1s now confined to Central Asia, there is evidence that in the time of Pallas (circa 1760) its range extended westward to the region of the Urals and Volga. This explorer states that at that period the tarpan abounded in the steppes of Tartary and Mongolia, from the Dnieper to the Altai, and thence through- out Central Asia, in small droves seldom exceeding fifty head. The majority are of a reddish grey (dun) or pale grey colour; but from intermixture with individuals which have escaped from captivity, these colours are not invariable. In the pure- bred race, the mane, a streak along the back, and the tail, are reddish brown, while the nose is whitish, and the rest of the muzzle nearly black. They are smaller Tarpan. than the average domestic horse, and have thinner limbs, larger heads, with a convex profile, and longer ears which at their summits are bent backwards in a sickle-like manner. The hoofs are small and cylindrical; and the mane, which extends far on to the forehead and backwards on to the shoulders, is comparatively short, thick, and half-erect. In winter the coat is long, rough, and shaggy ; and the bushy tail rather short. Young colts are easily tamed, but the adults are utterly intractable. Tarpan exhibit wonderful speed, and strenuously avoid the neigh- bourhood of man. They frequent the open steppes, and are never found in forests and mountainous districts. Since the time of Pallas the tarpan has been steadily driven back to the 494 UNGULATES. more remote parts of Central Asia, where it was met with by Colonel Prejevalski. The troops there are under the leadership of an old stallion, and they always move against the wind, with their ears and nostrils alert to detect the least trace of danger. During the winter the tarpan scrapes away the snow with its front hoofs in order to reach the scanty herbage beneath; and its coat at this season becomes so thick as to form a kind of thin fur. It has been frequently stated that tarpan are feral rather than truly wild THE TARPAN (51 nat. size). horses. This opinion is, however, vehemently opposed by Dr. Nehring, who believes that in these animals we have the last survivors of the ancient prehistoric wild horses of Europe, which have been more or less modified by an infusion of domesticated blood through the intermixture of individuals escaped from captivity. If Darwin be right in concluding that the primitive horse was more or less striped, it is possible that this infusion of domesticated blood has led to the nearly uniform coloration of the tarpan. Prejevalski’s It may be mentioned in this place that a wild horse from Central Horse. Asia, described as 4. prejevalskii, has been regarded as indicating HORSES. 495 a distinct species. It is of dun colour, becoming darker on the back, where, how- ever, there is no distinct stripe, and nearly white on the under-parts. Although agreeing in most respects with the horse, it differs by the mane being erect and without a forelock on the forehead, and by the hairs on the tail being confined to the lower half. Sir W. H. Flower suggests that this animal may prove to be a hybrid between the tarpan and the kiang. We have seen that in Europe the horse was probably domesticated during the prehistoric period; and we turn now to the evidence afforded by the Egyptian monuments as to the date of its first use in that ancient country. It appears that no pictorial representations of the animal occur in the frescoes of the so-called old kingdom; and that such are seen for the first time at about the 18th dynasty (1800 or 1900 B.c.), when the reign of the Asiatic Hyksos, or shepherd-kings, who had for so long a period ruled over the valley of the Nile, came to an end. At this period the horse seems to have only been used in war; and it is possible that it may have been introduced by the kings of the 18th dynasty from Syria. Both in Egypt and in Europe it was only at a com- paratively late period that the horse replaced the ox as a beast of draught. In regard to Western Asia, it appears that the horse is of comparatively recent introduction into Arabia, the earliest accounts of the nomads of the Arabian deserts referring only to their possessing camels and asses; while the Arabs in the army of Xerxes are stated to have been mounted on camels. The sculptures of Nineveh show, however, that the war-horse was known at a very early date in Assyria; and it is hence probable that it was from Mesopotamia that the horse was intro- duced at first to the Syrians on the Mediterranean, and from them to the Egyptians in the valley of the Nile. It is a somewhat curious circumstance that in all the Assyrian sculptures in which mounted warriors armed with the bow are depicted, the horse is invariably led by a second horseman, thus suggesting that at this date the Assyrians were by no means such good riders as the Persians and Parthians subsequently became. The Greeks may have derived their war-horses from the same Asiatic stock; and from Greece and Italy these Asiatic horses probably became intermingled with the native breed originally domesticated in Western Europe. From Mesopotamia the horse probably spread westwards as a domesti- cated animal into Persia and India, in neither of which countries is there any Domestication. evidence of the existence of an original wild breed. Apart from the question whether an indigenous species may have still lingered on in Argentina, at the time of the Spanish conquest horses were unknown in at least the greater part of America. When introduced, from Europe, they soon multiplied, and reverted to a semi-wild condition, and In America. spread over large areas of the country, where they now exist in vast numbers in the open plains. Mr. W. H. Hudson states, however, that in certain parts of Patagonia wild horses are unable to exist owing to the number of pumas; and he suggests that it may have been these animals which led to the practical if not total extinction of the indigenous horses of the New World. In the Falkland Islands the horses introduced by the French in 1764 have become thoroughly wild, and have multiplied to a considerable extent, although not so much so as might have been expected. At the time of Darwin’s visit these wild horses were, for 496 INGOLATLES: some unknown reason, restricted to the eastern corner of the island; and their comparatively slow rate of increase is attributed to the wandering neve of the stallions, which compel the mares to accompany them, whether or no the foals are able to follow. These Falkland horses have roan and grey for their predominating colours; and in one part of the island are small and pony-like. The late Prof. Moseley was, however, informed that their small stature in this locality was due to the inferior size of the stock from which they are descended. In the peninsula of Lafonia, where the wild horses of the Falklands are of larger size, Prof. Moseley writes that “the strong and active horses each guard their own herd of mares. They keep the closest watch over them, and if one strays at all, drive her back into the herd by kicking her. The younger horses live in herds apart, but the more vigorous ones are always on the look-out to pick up a mare from the herds of the older ones, and drive her off with them, and they sometimes gather a few mares for a short time and hold them, till they are recap- tured. When they think they are strong enough, they try the strength of the old horses in battle, and eventu- ally each old horse is beaten by some rival and displaced. The fighting is done mainly with the tusks, and front to front, not with the heels. Thus the most active and strongest males are constantly selected naturally for the continuation of the herds.” As in the continent of South America, these wild horses are captured either by the lasso or the bolas. When caught, Moseley states that they “are often broken in by tying them with a raw-hide halter to a post, and leaving them for several days without food or water. After long ineffectual struggles to break’ loose, the animals become con- vinced of the absolute power over them of the halter, and in future become cowed and docile directly a halter or lasso is over their heads. The wild horses, when broken in, are very tame and quiet to ride.” ENGLISH RACE-HORSE (‘‘BEND-OR” by ‘‘ DONCASTER ”). The habits of the wild horses of continental South America appear to be very similar to the above. There they are known by the name of cimarrones; and are captured and tamed by the Gauchos, who generally mount them at once and ride them till they are tired out. The Gaucho rides with a loose rein, and his horse’s head almost at liberty; and so well are the animals broken, that merely pressing HORSES. 497 the part of the reins next to the hand against that side of the neck from which the horse is required to turn is sufficient, without making him feel the bit at all. Feral horses are as abundant in Australia, where they are known as brumbies, as in Southern America. Indeed, so numerous are they in certain districts as to become a positive nuisance to the settlers, by whom they are sometimes shot down in large numbers. Proceeding to the consideration of some of the leading breeds of domesticated horses, we may commence with those known as Barbs and Arabs, which have had such an important share in the production of the modern race-horse. With regard to the Barbs, which take their name from their native region, Barbary, it may be premised that the generality of African horses are distinguished from those of Asia by their long limbs and small girth at the loins, thus resembling the foals of other breeds. They display great powers of enduring hunger and thirst; and are fleet, with a high and graceful action. The Barb comes nearest to this general African type, but displays some variation owing to a crossing with other breeds. Low says that these horses “are about 145 hands high. They are sufficiently deep at the girth, but tucked up in the belly, giving that peculiar greyhound-aspect which is characteristic of this race. Their necks are long and well-formed, their heads moderately fine, the chafron tending to the convex; their shoulders are oblique, and the withers thin and well raised. Their limbs, though thin and delicate, are sinewy; their pasterns are oblique, and the feet well formed. They are gentle and full of spirit; they are somewhat careless in their paces, but distinguished by their graceful action. As compared with the Arabians, they are more swift, but less enduring.” The Arab horse is strictly a product of the country from which it takes its name; and the breed appears to have been derived from horses introduced into Arabia from the Caucasus or Asia Minor somewhere about the Christian era. They resemble in many respects the horses of these regions, “but,” writes Low, “inhabiting a very dry and arid region, their characters have become adapted to these conditions of climate and food. They are more compact than the horses of Barbary, having a rounder body, shorter limbs, with more of sinew, or what is termed bone. Yet they are of the smaller class of horses, very little exceeding, on a medium, 14 hands, or 56 inches in height. As compared with the horses of countries abounding in the grasses, their aspect is lean, their form slender, and their chest narrow. But the slimness of figure of these horses is not inconsistent with muscular force; and their movements are agile, their natural paces swift, and their spirit is unmatched. The power of their delicate limbs is indicated by the well-marked muscles of the fore-arm, and the starting sinews of the leg. The shoulder is sufficiently oblique; the withers are elevated ; the back is moderately short ; and the quarters are good. The head is well formed ; the forehead is broad; the ears are somewhat long, but alert; the eyes full and clear; the veins prominent—the whole rather indicating a happy union of gentle- ness and spirit, than the fiery temper which is commonly associated with the desert horse.” Although not remarkable for great speed, the Arab is pre-eminent for its endurance, hardy constitution, and the scanty fare on which it can exist. On a cold morning in Northern India, when the horses have been picketed round the VOL. Il. —32 Australia. Barbs and Arabs. Arab. 498 UNGULATES. camp during the night, the Arabs will be found with their coats as sleek as if they had just come from a warm stable, while those of other breeds will be all awry. In their native home Arab horses will subsist on the scanty herbage found here and there in the desert, and, in the absence of these, on a little barley, chopped straw, dates, and, in extreme cases, camels’ milk. They drink only at long intervals, and then but scantily ; while their power of making long marches under a scorch- ing sun is unrivalled. The affection with which the Arab treats his horse is too well known to need comment. Teranitrand The horses of the Levant and Persia are more or less closely Persian Horses. related to the Arab, but are often of larger size. Indeed, in Southern Persia the horses are very similar to Arabs, though less delicately formed; but in | ! ity GERMAN HALF-BRED HORSE (4; nat. size). the northern districts they are all larger. The Turkoman horses, which often stand 16 hands in height, are allied to those of Northern Persia. The English The English race-horse, of which examples are represented in the Race-Horse. figures on pp. 492, 496, has been produced by a gradual improvement of the original native breed, which had been going on for several centuries, and subsequently by a large infusion of Eastern and African blood. The present breed is mainly the product of three foreign horses; of which the first was from the Levant, belonging to Capt. Byerly in 1689, and hence called the “ Byerly Turk.” From him was descended “ Herod,” which, as being the most celebrated of this stock, has given the name of the Herod-line to all his descendants. In the reign of Queen Anne the “ Darley Arabian ” (so called from the name of its owner) like- HORSES. 499 wise exerted great influence upon the breed. From him were directly descended “Flying Childers” and “ Bartlett's Childers”; while from the latter was derived “ Kelipse,’ the fastest horse which has ever run on the turf. The horses descended from the latter are designated the Eclipse-line. The third horse was the “ Godolphin Barb,” born about 1724; from whose grandson, “ Matchem,” is derived the name of the third great line of English race-horses. It should be remembered that both “ Herod,” “ Eclipse,” and “ Matchem” were closely related to one another; and it is only the descendants of the breed thus produced to which the term “thorough- bred” applies. The form of the race-horse is designed solely for speed, and cannot be taken as a model of equine beauty; the frequent presence of a “ewe-neck” detracting from perfect symmetry. Neither are such horses safe to ride. They have the broad forehead, brilliant eyes, delicate muzzle, expanded nostrils, and wide throat of the Arab and the Barb; while the body is long and light, with the last rib widely separated from the pelvis. The chest is deep but narrow, thus affording due space for the lungs without making the fore-limbs too wide apart. The obliquity of the shoulder gives full play to the upper part of the leg; while the extreme length of the haunch, and the elongated hind-limbs, with their long sloping pasterns, are essentially adapted for the maximum development of speed. The most common colour is bright bay or brown, with black legs, mane, and tail; but chestnut is not unfrequent. Black and grey are rarer; while dun, roan, or piebald but seldom occur. The English hunter has been produced by infusing the blood of the race-horse with the native races to a larger or smaller degree ; but it does not form an exclusive breed like the racer. Indeed, any good riding- horse may be a hunter. The requisite qualities of the hunter are strength, good action, and the power of enduring fatigue, coupled with a speed second only to that of the race-horse. The neck must be muscular, and the chest of sufficient breadth to indicate strength without being heavy. The long stride of the racer not being needed, the body should be comparatively short and well “ribbed home,” that is to say the last rib should be close to the pelvis. The legs should also be relatively shorter and stouter. In fact, the English hunter may be described as the perfect development of the horse. In Germany the half-bred or three-quarter- bred horse in use as a hunter is commonly known as the 7’rakehner, and is repre- sented in our illustration. From half-bred horses of the hunter type there is a Hunters, etc. complete transition to the ordinary saddle and carriage-horses, which, although formerly with but little or no foreign blood in them, now generally exhibit more or less breeding. The Cleveland bay is the most highly esteemed English carriage- breed; and has been produced by mingling thorough-bred blood with a native horse of stouter build than the one selected as the stock for the hunter. Pe hrewack: With regard to the length a horse can leap, : Chandler's i big jump at Warwick in 1847 is still the subject of occasional discussion. The distance was variously measured; and for a number of years was thought to have been 39 feet, but the editor of the sporting paper in which the record was first published afterwards explained that this was a printer’s error, and that the distance was in reality 37 feet. This in itself is big enough; so big, in fact, that there are many horsemen in England who will regard it as exaggerated. The portion of the 500 UNGULATES. race in which the jump occurred, is reported as follows in a description of the race in Bell’s Life of March 28, 1847 :— This left the lead with “ King of the Valley,” but he refused at the top of the hill, and soon after “ Regalia” caught up with him. They raced together to the brook, with “Chandler” following them. “Chandler's” rider pulled back as they approached it, expecting that “ Regalia” would bring grief to somebody, and when they arrived at it sent the spurs into his horse and followed them with all steam on. Both went into the brook, and while they were there “Chandler,” who was not able to stop, whatever inclination he may have had to do so, made an extra- ordinary jump and cleared the brook, horses and riders together. The account goes to say that “Chandler” won the race with ease. The length of the leap was immediately measured, but there was some doubt as to where the animal had landed, as the ground was soft and a number of hoofprints had been made. Captain Broadley, the rider, said that the distance was 37 feet. This beats the record, so far as known, the best previous record being that of “ Lottery,” who cleared between 33 feet and 34 feet. One of the witnesses of the jump was William Archer, who stated that the distance was 39 feet. The Hon. F. Sawley, a well- known sporting writer in England, was also present, and declared that the tape measured but 34 feet. This is the minimum estimate. Summing up, it may be said that while there is some doubt as to the exact number of feet cleared, “ Chandler’s” performance was an unusual and important one. The same may be said of a horse called “ Proceed,” who is said to have cleared 37 feet while running in a steeplechase about the time of the above event. A horse called “ Culverthan ” is reported to have jumped 33 feet on one occasion, and “ Lather,’ a hunter owned by Lord Ingestre, is said to have jumped 37 feet and 5 inches over a pit. None of these measurements are absolutely authentic. With regard to speed it may be noted that “Flying Childers” ran a distance of 4 miles 1 furlong and 138 yards in seven and a half minutes; but this pace was considerably exceeded by “ Eclipse.” The American trotter is an excellent instance of the results obtained by breeding for a particular end; in this case, extreme speed in trotting. The breed appears to have been produced by the infusion of both Barb and Arab blood on an English stock; and the breeders of the United States strongly controvert the common opinion that the trot is not a natural pace of the horse. The maximum recorded pace of the American trotter up to the year 1885 was one mile in 2 minutes 8? seconds. Shetland and The Shetland Islands have long been famed for the hardihood other Ponies. and docility of their indigenous ponies, the small size of which has already been mentioned (p. 496). These ponies are allowed to run almost wild, with no shelter, and but little food beyond what they can procure for themselves. Their coats are very long and thick, and in winter become matted upon their bodies in a manner calculated to afford them most efficient protection from the inclemency of the climate. They are generally bay or brown in colour, but sometimes blackish, and at others more or less mixed with white. From their agility and cleverness, these ponies are in great request for equestrian exhibitions. The ponies of Scandinavia and Iceland are very similar to those of Shetland; but those of the Orkneys are larger and coarser, and of less pure breed. In the Hebrides there are American Trotter. HORSES. 501 two races of ponies, the one small and long-haired, and the other taller; and there are likewise indigenous breeds in the hilly and forest-districts of several parts of the British mainland. Among the latter may be mentioned the hardy and sure- footed, but coarse and ugly Dartmoor breed; and the smaller long-haired race of Exmoor, which are extremely active, and run nearly wild. The New Forest PERCHERON CART-HORSE (35 nat. size), ponies, again, form a race which although ugly, large-headed, and short-necked, are hardy, sure-footed, and capable of bearing the roughest treatment. Under the title of cart-horses may be included all the heavily- built European breeds which originally contained no admixture of foreign blood, and are specially adapted for heavy draught. In England there are four chief races, known as the English black or Shire horse, the breeds of the north- eastern counties, the Clydesdale, and the Suffolk punch. The old English black or Shire horse was characteristic of the fen-districts and some of the other midland counties from whence it has extended north and south, Cart-Horses. Pee UNGULATES. and it also occurs in the so-called Low Countries and other parts of the Continent. Typically the black horse, as shown in the illustration on p. 489, has a round and massive body, a broad chest, a powerful muscular neck, and short, stout, and long-haired limbs; its physical strength being great, but its speed slight. The size varies considerably ; the larger and most powerful races being produced in the fens. The more modern breed generally has a white star on the forehead, and more or less of the same colour on the feet and legs, and often on the muzzle. Low says that “the main defects of his conformation and temperament are his too great bulk of body, and want of action and mettle. For a pull with a heavy a CLYDESDALE MARE (‘‘ WOODBINE’’).—The property of the Marquis of Londonderry. weight he is admirable; but he steps out short, and is slow in all his motions.” Of recent years the aim of breeders has been to remove these defects. To the north of the Humber the native breeds of cart-horses are of smaller bulk, and generally brown, or still lighter in colour; while they are altogether more active than the black horse. This lighter build appears to be largely due to an infusion of the blood of the higher races among the horses of these districts, which is not wanting even among those employed solely for heavy draught. The Clydesdale breed takes its name from the valley of the Clyde in Lanarkshire; and is supposed to have originated by crossing the black horse of the Low Countries with the native breeds. Clydesdales may be either black, brown, bay, or grey in colour, and usually stand about 16 hands, which is considerably less than the height of the black horse. They are also longer in the body and less weighty, with a compact and museular build, and a characteristic free and long stride. Clydesdale. HORSES. 503 Lastly, we have the well-known Suffolk punch of East Anglia, famed for its steadiness of draught, and the pertinacity with which it will exert itself against a dead pull. The original breed derived its name from the stout and “punchy” form, and was further distinguished by the colour being hight dun or sorrel, sometimes darkening to chestnut, with lighter mane and tail. The height was medium, the pace rather slow, but the power of endurance very great, and the constitution hardy. The form was, however, somewhat ugly, the head being large, with a coarse muzzle, the neck short, and the shoulder low and heavy. On the other hand, the limbs were short, and the back straight, with wide loins and well-developed haunches. The breed, which has of late years been much modified by mixture, is believed to have been introduced from Normandy; and Low is of opinion that its dun or sorrel colour indicates a near affinity with the wild tarpan of the Asiatic steppes. Among well-known Continental breeds, the percheron, repre- sented on p. 501, while somewhat deficient in bulk and _ strength, is remarkable for its energy and pluck. Belgium possesses two distinct original breeds known as the Ardennes breed, from the valley of the Meuse, and the Frisian, from the sea-coast. By crossing there has been produced the Brabancon horse, which although inferior in bulk and strength to the Clydesdale, has more breed and energy. Harnessed to heavy country carts, weighing about 3000 Ibs., they will drag a load of from 6000 to 10,000 Ibs. on the level; and thus vastly exceed in power the original light Ardennes horse, which is fast disappearing. Suffolk Punch. Foreign Breeds. THE ZEBRAS (Lquus zebra, etc.). The three species of zebra, together with the quagga, form a group agreeing in essential character with the asses, but distinguished by their more or less completely striped heads and bodies. In both these groups the mane is erect, and the upper part of the tail is free from long hairs; while there are naked callosities on the fore-limbs only, and the ears are longer, the head relatively larger, and the hoofs narrower than in the horse. The true or mountain zebra (EZ. zebra) is the typical repre- sentative of the striped group, and is essentially an inhabitant of hilly districts. It is the smallest of the three species, standing from 4 feet to 4 feet 2 inches (12 to 124 hands) at the withers, and has relatively long ears and a compara- tively short mane, with the tail but scantily haired. The general ground-colour of the hair is white, while the stripes are black, and the lower part of the face is bright brown. With the exception of the under-parts of the body and the inner sides of the thighs, the whole of the head, body, and limbs, as well as the upper part of the tail, are striped. On the hind-quarters, the dark longitudinal stripe running down the middle of the back is connected with the uppermost of the True Zebra. oblique longitudinal stripes by a series of transverse bars, which are wanting in the next species; and there may be a longitudinal stripe running up the middle of the chest. This species was originally common in the mountains of the Cape Colony, but has now been exterminated except in some of the districts on the east side. Here a few herds remain on the summits of the Zwartberg, Bee UNGULATES. Sneuwberg, and Winterhock ranges, where they are strictly protected by special laws. Burchell’s zebra (4. burchellz), commonly known by the Boers as the quagga, is a rather stouter and taller animal than the last, standing from 4 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 6 imches (13 to 133 hands) at the shoulder. It is further distinguished by its shorter ears, longer and more fully-developed mane, and more thickly-haired tail, as well as by the absence of the transverse bars connecting the stripe on the middle of the back with the uppermost of those Burchell’s Zebra. iS SS BURCHELL’S ZEBRA (;45 nat. size). on the haunches, and likewise by the union of every alternate body-stripe with its fellow on the middle of the under surface of the body. In the typical form (as represented in our illustration) the tail and legs are quite devoid of stripes, but in the so-called Chapman’s zebra, which is only a variety of this species, both may be striped, although the stripes never extend on to the pasterns. The general ground- colour of the hair varies from white to yellowish brown, and the stripes may be dark brown or black. The hoofs are said to be much more like those of a pony than are those of the preceding species. Distribution Burchell’s zebra is a plain-dwelling animal, which never appears and Habits. to have ranged southwards of the Orange River. It now appears to be practically exterminated in the Transvaal, but is still to be met with in numbers