eet ee
inet Son nteich ulate as bint SAA Na rh aces
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Ht)
(a
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——
EN
ONT
W. B. FROSTICK
26 MINSTER PRECINCTS
PETERBOROUGH
a A Oe
7
a
eae Oe -
Pie i O-Y Ad
ter RUnmAEn His bony
>=
a 7
a5 aay a y q
,
oe
ae i ine , ta : ei
Gar oa Senn
i" oe 5
2. ‘
* ta * oa G =) a
‘e a. oe oe wer why oS aaa
. oe hy oa: a oe ie ce oe ve as sat aa iat
ee, oy
a ’ tal 4 ae - fs
B ae “er, :
canes at tea ee aot, Lt a = oe ben
as tip roa 9 eS 5 a 4 i a ote! Ae
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ub
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eae.
an
pei “2 i rn ; Dinosaurs these bony plates
me, metacarpus ; 77, haunch-bone, or ilium; py, pubis; 7s, ischium ; /, hal Jevel. t
thigh-bone, or femur ; ¢7, fi, bones of lower leg, or tibia and fibula; ¢a, attain a development un-
ankle, or tarsus ; mt, metatarsus.—After Marsh. paralleled at the present
day; and in some they are
believed to have occupied the extraordinary position shown in the accompanying
figure.
Still more remarkable differences exist with regard to the form and structure
of the teeth; which, instead of being, as in the two preceding classes, strictly
confined to the borders of the jaws, may be spread over the entire palate.
In spite, however, of this diversity of form, the teeth of Reptiles differ from many
of those of the majority of Mammals in that they are never implanted in the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 5
jaws by two or more roots; while in no cases are their crowns complicated by the
presence of infoldings of enamel. The simplest type of reptilian tooth is in the
form of a cone; such conical teeth being confined to the margins of the jaws,
where, as among crocodiles, they may be implanted in distinct sockets, or, as in
the extinct fish-lizards,
in an open groove. In
other cases, as among
lizards, teeth of the same
general type may be
united by a bony deposit
either to the summit or
to one side of the margin
of the jaw. In place
of the one regular re-
placement, characteris-
ing the anterior teeth of
the majority of Mam- |
mals, the teeth of most il
Reptiles are replaced
; : CONICAL TOOTH OF AN UNDER SURFACE OF SKULL OF AN _ EXTINCT
irregularly and continu- EXTINCT PLESIO- REPTILE (Cyamodus), WITH PAVEMENT - LIKE
ously throughout life ; SAURIAN REPTILE. TEETH ON THE PALATE,
the successional teeth
growing up beneath the bases of those in use, and gradually causing an absorp-
tion of their roots. When teeth are distributed over the whole or a greater
portion of the palate, they generally assume a more or less flattened and bean-
like shape, so as to form a kind of pavement in the mouth, as shown in the
accompanying figure of the under surface of the skull of an extinct reptile.
LEFT SIDE OF THE SKULL OF A BEAKED FLYING DRAGON (3 nat. size).
@, vacuity in front of the eye ; b, socket of the eye; c, occipital spine ; d, angle of lower jaw ; e, extremity of
upper, and e’, of lower jaw ; q, articulation of the skull proper with the lower jaw ; s, point where the two branches
of the lower jaw diverge.—After Marsh.
Between conical and pavement - like teeth there are various intermediate grades,
some of which will be referred to in the sequel. It is, however, by no means
all members of the class that are provided with teeth; the tortoises and turtles
being living examples of the total loss of these organs, and the consequent conver-
6 REPTILES.
sion of the jaws into horn-clad beaks. Certain representatives of the extinct
flying dragons were likewise devoid of teeth; and as in these forms the horn-
covered jaws were long and narrow, the resemblance to the beak of a bird becomes
most marked.
It has already been stated that the vertebrae of Reptiles never articulate by
means of those saddle-shaped surfaces so characteristic of Birds. They present,
however, great diversity of structure in this respect. In some cases, for instance,
as in the fish-lizards, the bodies or central portions of the vertebrae are very short
from front to back, and have concave surfaces
both in front and behind for mutual articula-
tion. In marked contrast to this type is the
LEFT-SIDE VIEW OF A NECK VERTEBRA SIDE AND FRONT VIEWS OF THE BODY OF A VERTEBRA
OF A DINOSAUR. OF A FISH-LIZARD.
6, anterior ball.—After Marsh. a, 6, attachment of ribs.
neck vertebra of a Dinosaur, where the anterior end of the body of each vertebra
forms a convex knob (b), received into a cup at the posterior end of the vertebra
in advance. In other instances, as in the existing crocodiles and lizards, an
arrangement pre-
cisely the reverse
of the last is pre-
sent; that is to
say, the ball is at
the hinder end, and
the cup at the front
of the body of the
vertebra. naga
few lizards and in
all snakes the ver-
FRONT AND BACK VIEWS OF A VERTEBRA OF A SNAKE.
tebre are further
2 indicates the additional articular process, which is received into the cavity 271. complicated by the
development of
additional articular facets, taking the form of wedge-like projections from one
vertebra, which are received into cavern-like excavations in the adjacent one.
' Tt should be mentioned that in this figure only the portion of which d is the extremity corresponds with the
whole of the specimen represented in the other figure on the same line.
CLASSIFICATION. 7
Omitting mention of certain features connected with their osteology, it may
be observed that among those reptiles with four or five toes to each foot, while a
few, such as certain tortoises, have the same number of joints in each toe as
Mammals,—that is to say, two in the first toe, and three in each of the others,—in
the greater majority there is a departure from this simple arrangement. In the
lizards, for instance, the number of joints in the toes (reckoning from the first to
the fifth digit) is 2,3, 4,5, 3 in the fore-limb, and 2, 3, 4, 5, 4 in the hind-limb;
while in crocodiles, where there are but four toes in the latter, the numbers are
respectively 2, 3, 4, 4, 3, and 2,3, 4,4. In this increasing number of joints in the
toes from the first to the fourth, such reptiles approximate to birds.
As regards their soft internal parts, Reptiles are characterised by the low
development of their brains; which, in conjunction with their cold blood, accounts
for the generally sluggish movements of their existing representatives. With the
exception of the crocodiles, Reptiles difter from Birds in that the heart has only
three, in place of four, complete chambers, thus causing the freshly oxygenated
blood returning from the lungs to be mixed with the effete blood which has
traversed the body. Even in crocodiles, where the heart has practically four
chambers, the fresh and effete blood is partially mingled, owing to a communica-
tion between the vessels just outside the heart. Like Birds, Reptiles never have a
midriff completely separating the cavity of the chest from that of the abdomen.
Classification Reptiles having come into existence at an earlier period than
and Distribution.ejther Mammals or Birds, and attaining an enormous development
during epochs when both those groups were but feebly represented, it would be
only natural to expect that they should have suffered to a much greater extent by
the extinction of types with the lapse of time. As a matter of fact this is found
to be the case; the number of existing orders of Reptiles being now but four (of
which one is represented by only one or two species), whereas, if we include the
extinct types, at least nine orders may be recognised. These nine orders, of which
the extinct ones are indicated by asterisks (*) may be named and arranged as
follows, viz. :—
CROCODILES—Crocodilia.
Drnosaurs—Dinosauria.
Frying DraGgons—Ornithosauria.
TORTOISES and TuURTLES—Chelonia.
PLESIOSAURIANS—Plesiosauria.
LIZARDS and SNAKES—Squamaia.
Fisa-Lizarps—Ichthyosauria.
TUATERAS, or BEAKED-LIzZARDS— Rhynchocephala.
*9 | MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILES—Anomodontia.
*
we
.
7 o
ed
Dd
~ED OU
*%
00
Of these groups, by far the most numerously represented at the present day
is the one containing the lizards and snakes, all of which are highly specialised
forms, occupying a position in the class analogous to that held by the perching
birds in the preceding class; the majority being comparatively small or medium-
sized forms. Next in point of numbers come the tortoises and turtles, all of which
are protected by the presence of a bony carapace, and some of which attain very
8 REPTILES:
large dimensions. The third numerical position in the fauna of the present day
is held by the crocodiles, of which there are some twenty-four species, all of
relatively large size, and all more or less aquatic in their habits. The fourth
existing order is now represented only by the lizard-like New Zealand tuateras, of
which there is probably but a single species; although in past times there were
a host of allied forms. Of the five extinct orders the whole, or nearly the whole,
of their representatives ceased to exist with the close of the Secondary period,
that is to say, soon after the deposition of the chalk, and previous to that of the
overlying London clay. During that long period, or “world of reptiles,” the class
attained a development which it never equalled before or since. The Dinosaurs,
which were by far the largest of all land animals, then filled the place now
occupied by Mammals; the flying dragons played the réle of the bats and birds of
the present day; while the marine Plesiosaurs and fish-lizards did duty for whales
and porpoises. Of the mammal-like Reptiles, it will suffice to speak in the sequel.
With regard to the past distribution of the four existing orders, it may be
mentioned that the lizards and snakes, with the exception of two extinct suborders,
are practically unknown before the commencement of the Tertiary period—that is
to say, until after the deposition of the Chalk; hence they may be regarded as
essentially the Reptiles of the present day, when they attain their maximum
development. The tortoises and turtles, although a much more ancient group,
having existed throughout the Secondary period, are, however, still at or about
their zenith. The case is, however, very different with the crocodiles, which were
represented during the Secondary period by a host of forms quite unlike those of
the present day, and probably more numerous in species than their existing
representatives. Many of the extinct crocodiles also exceeded any of the living
forms in point of size. Still more markedly is this diminution noticeable m the
case of the tuateras, in which a solitary survivor represents a once abundant
group.
Owing to the exigencies of space, our remarks on the present distribution of
the class must necessarily be brief. In the first place, it may be observed that
while no existing Reptiles are denizens of the air, only the turtles and sea-snakes
are habitual inhabitants of the ocean. Of the terrestrial and fresh-water forms, it
has been found that the distribution does not coincide very closely with that of
Mammals and Birds, so that the zoological regions into which the globe has been
mapped out from the geographical distribution of the latter scarcely hold good
for Reptiles. This discrepancy may, no doubt, be partly explained by the very
early period at which certain groups of the class, such as crocodiles and tortoises,
spread themselves over the surface of the globe. As regards the dispersive powers
of Reptiles in general, these, according to Dr. Giinther, are but limited. All these
creatures, he writes, “are much specialised in their mode of life and propagation,
and ill-adapted to accommodate themselves to a change of external conditions.
As air-breathing, cold-blooded animals they are unable to withstand prolonged
cold; they are therefore entirely absent in the Arctic and Antarctic zones; and
such as escape the effects of the winter months in temperate zones by passing
them in a _torpid condition in well-sheltered places are not peculiarly
organised forms, but offshoots from those inhabiting warmer climes. The tropical
DISTRIBUTION. | 5
and subtropical zones are the real home of the reptilian type, which there has
reached its greatest development as regards size and variety of forms. In the
north, Chelonians advance only to 50° latitude in the Western and to 56° in the
Eastern Hemisphere; lizards to about 56° in British Columbia, and close to the
Arctic Circle in Europe; while snakes disappear some degrees before the lizards.
Also in the south, lizards extend into higher latitudes than snakes, namely, to the
Straits of Magellan, whilst the latter do not seem to have advanced beyond 40°
south latitude, and Chelonians to 36°.”
Of the various zoological regions into which the globe has been divided, the
Oriental or Indian region, according to the same observer, is characterised by the
number of fresh-water soft-tortoises* and S-necked tortoises,! land-tortoises being
scarce. Crocodiles, inclusive of the characteristic long-necked garials, are numerous,
as are lizards and snakes—especially pythons. Africa is comparatively poorly off
for Reptiles, although characterised by its numerous land-tortoises, soft-tortoises,
and side-necked tortoises ;! the crocodiles being represented only by members of
the typical genus; while lizards and snakes are comparatively numerous. Among
the lizards, monitors, and among the snakes, pythons, are common to the Oriental
and African regions; while half of the exclusively Old World group of chameleons
are African. Madagascar is even more remarkable for the number of its
chameleons; its land and side-necked tortoises are numerous, although soft-
tortoises, as in South America, are absent’; there is one crocodile; and among the
lizards the South American group of iguanas is abundant; while the snakes,
among which none is poisonous, are also of a South American type. In the
warmer parts of the Euro-Asiatic region (exclusive of India, ete.) the reptile fauna
is mainly a mixture of Oriental and African types, although there are some
peculiar forms. The only non-American alligator inhabits Central China. In
the Australian or tropical Pacific region, exclusive of New Zealand, we meet with
one group of land-tortoises, side-necked tortoises, and a crocodile; while amongst
the lizards there are skinks, geckos, monitors, and the so-called agamoids; the
latter occurring in all the regions above mentioned, except Madagascar. Venomous
snakes here outnumber the harmless ones. The Tropical and South American
region is characterised by the presence of land and side-necked tortoises, to the
exclusion of soft-tortoises. Crocodiles and caimans are numerous (the latter being
characteristic); while of the abundant lizards the majority are iguanas, the true
lizards (Lacertidw) of the Old World being replaced by the teiias (Tevide);
snakes are also numerous, among them being rattle-snakes and boas. In the
North American region there are.no caimans, their place being taken by an
alligator ; while fresh-water S-necked tortoises, as well as soft-tortoises, replace the
side-necked tortoises of -the southern half of the continent. The snapping tortoises
(Chelydride) ave also mainly characteristic of this region, although one genus
ranges as far south as Ecuador. As regards its lizards and snakes, this region
presents the same relation to the preceding as is held by Euro-Asia to the Oriental
and African regions. Lastly, New Zealand stands apart from all other countries
in possessing the remarkable tuatera, in addition to which its only reptiles are
skinks and geckos.
i For the explanation of these and other names, the reader must refer to later chapters.
CHaACP TW li ae
CrocoprLes, Dinosaurs, and Frying Dracons,—Orders CRrocopiLtia,
DINOSAURIA, and ORNITHOSAURIA.
THE living crocodiles, among which may be included in a general sense not only
the reptiles to which that name more properly belongs, but likewise those
commonly designated alligators, caimans, and garials, are the only existing
representatives of three orders, which comprise among their members not only
the most highly organised of all Reptiles, and those which approach nearest in
their organisation to Birds, but likewise the largest of all terrestrial Reptiles, as,
indeed, of any land animals. Although these three orders possess many character-
istics in common, it will be more convenient to describe the leading features of
each separately, in the course of which their common attributes will be pointed out.
NZ
7
SKELETON AND ABDOMINAL RIBS OF CROCODILE.
Characteristics Sluggish in disposition, hideous in form, and huge in size,
of Crocodiles. gyocodiles alone among existing Reptiles serve in some measure to
recall the giant Saurians with which the earth was peopled during earlier periods
of its existence. In addition to their large bodily size, crocodiles are characterised
by the lizard-like form of their bodies, which are supported on short limbs, and
carried close to the ground. The long and powerful tail is much compressed from
side to side, so as to be an efficient propeller in swimming; its superficial extent
being increased by a vertical longitudinal crest on its upper surface, this crest
MOVIE
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GENERALVCHARACTERISTICS. a2
o
being formed of a double series of horny lobes in the basal half of the tail, beyond
which it is single. The head terminates in a flattened snout of variable length,
and is attached to the body by a short, although muscular neck; while the bulky
body is much depressed. The toes are more or less webbed. Externally, the back,
tail, and under-parts of these animals are protected by an armour of quadrangular
horny shields of varying size, which are arranged in regular longitudinal and
transverse rows, and are in contact with one another by their edges. In the
region of the back, and sometimes also on the under surface of the body, these
horny shields are underlain by a corresponding series of pitted bony plates. In
the region of the neck, among existing members of the order, these bony plates
are often irregular in form, and vary in number, but on the back they are always
quadrangular and broader than long, with a well-marked longitudinal ridge down
the middle. Such plates form a considerable number of longitudinal rows; each
plate articulating by its edges with those on either side, while those of each
transverse row overlap those immediately behind them. When a bony shield is
developed on the under surface of the body, the number of longitudinal rows of
plates in existing forms is always more than eight; the transverse rows of plates
overlapping and each plate being composed of two distinet pieces united together
by suture. The limbs are provided with five toes in front and four behind; the
three innermost digits in each foot being furnished with claws. In all crocodiles,
whether living or extinct, the conical teeth, which may be of very large size, are
confined to the margins of the jaws, where they are implanted in distinct sockets ;
while those in use are continually being replaced by fresh ones growing from
beneath. These animals are further characterised by their nostrils opening at the
extremity of the snout—which may be either short or long—and by theirears being
covered with movable lids.
Such are some of the leading external features of these reptiles, and although
they would suffice to distinguish them from the living members of the order,
they are insufficient to determine their true affinities. Laying stress upon the
above-mentioned characters of their teeth, the naturalist is accordingly compelled
to resort to the skeleton and soft internal parts for more distinctive characters.
In the skull all crocodiles are characterised by the quadrate-bone (of which the
position is indicated in the figure on p. 2) being firmly united with the adjoining
bones ; while a further distinctive feature is to be found in the presence of two
bony bars on the sides of
the skull behind the socket
for the eye, the uppermost
of these arches being shown
immediately below the
letter 7’ in the accompany-
SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTINCT CROCODILE (Pelagosaurus).
ms figure, while the lower O, socket for the eye ; 7, temporal pit or fossa.
and more slender one forms
the backward continuation of the inferior margin of the eye-socket. The more
anterior ribs (which, as in other Reptiles, are present in the neck as well as in the
chest) generally articulate with the backbone by means of two distinct heads;
and, while collar-bones are wanting, there is a breast-bone and likewise an inter-
14 CROCODILES.
clavicle ; the latter being the median bar seen in the lower figure of the illustration
on p. 10. A further peculiarity is the presence of seven or eight pairs of abdominal
ribs in the wall of the abdomen, which have no connection with the proper ribs,
and have their angle of union directed forwards.!| As regards the soft parts, the
heart differs from that of all other living Reptiles in having four complete chambers,
so that the fresh and impure blood can only mingle by means of a communication
between the great vessels externally to the heart ; while there is also an incomplete
midriff dividing the chest from the abdomen.
In addition to the preceding characters, which are common to all members of
the order, there are certain others found only in the existing forms and some
of their nearest extinct allies. One of the most remarkable of these peculiarities
is the extremely backward position of the aperture of the internal nostrils, which
in the dried skull, as shown on p. 2, 1s situated close up to the occiput, this being
due to the development of special plates by the bones of the palate, which grow
beneath the nasal passage, so as to form a floor to it, and thus completely cut it
off from the cavity of the mouth. As the summit of the windpipe is continued
upwards into this posterior aperture of the nostrils, crocodiles are enabled to
breathe while their mouths are wide open and filled with water. Another dis-
tinctive feature of the group, also shown in the figure just referred to, is that the
socket for the eye communicates freely behind with the lower temporal fossa.
Then, again, all existing members of the order are characterised by the bodies of
the vertebrae having the ball behind and the cup in front; while the ribs of the
chest are provided with hook-like or uncinate processes resembling those of birds.
In the region of the neck the ribs present the peculiarity of having backwardly
projecting and overlapping processes, which effectually prevent these animals from
turning their heads to one side.
nahin Crocodiles are denizens of the tropical and subtropical regions of
the globe, and are found in such latitudes wherever there are rivers
or fresh-water lakes of sufficient size for their mode of life; while one of the
Indian species habitually resorts to the sea-coast, where it has been seen floating at
a considerable distance from the land. All of them are excellent swimmers, and
are mainly propelled when in the water by the aid of their powerful tails; the
limbs being chiefly used when walking at the bottom of the water, or on the shore.
When in repose, crocodiles lie like logs either in the water or on the banks of the
lakes or rivers they inhabit; but when in pursuit of their prey in the water they
move with great speed, while they are also active on land. The young are,
however, decidedly nimbler in their movements than are the adults. Exclusively
carnivorous in the diet, some members of the order feed solely upon fish; while
others, in addition to fish, prey upon the flesh of all animals that come in their
way. Adult crocodiles, writes Dr. Giinther, “attack every large animal which
accidentally approaches them, and in overpowering it the whole of their powerful
organisation is called into requisition. Seizing the victim between their capacious
jaws, and fastening their long, pointed, conical teeth into its flesh, they draw it,
in one moment, by their weight and with a stroke of the tail, below the water and
drown it. Their gullet is, however, much too narrow to allow of the passage of
1 These abdominal ribs, connected together by the ligament, are shown in the figure above referred to.
EPUSIANG GROUP. 15
the entire body of the victim; and their teeth being adapted for seizing and
holding fast only, and not for biting, they are obliged to mangle the carease,
tearing off single pieces by sudden strong jerks.” This rending process is mainly
accomplished by lateral movements of the head and front portion of the body.
Too often, human beings, who incautiously bathe in crocodile-haunted waters, fall
victims to these bloodthirsty reptiles; while there are instances of people being
seized when merely stooping down to dip water from the river’s marge. When
seized, the only way for an unarmed man to escape is, it is said, to thrust his
fingers into the creature’s eyes and endeavour to gouge them out. To a consider-
able extent crocodiles are nocturnal in their habits, and during protracted droughts
many of them at least are accustomed to bury themselves in the mud, where they
become torpid.
As regards their reproduction, crocodiles lay from twenty to sixty eggs, of
the approximate size of those of a goose, and invested with a hard, white shell.
These are deposited in some hollow in the sand of the bank, where, after being
covered to a greater or less depth, they are left to hatch. Whether the parent
always assists in the incubation does not appear certain, although this has been
proved to be the case in Madagascar by Dr. Voeltzkow. In that island the egg-
laying season lasts from the end of August to the end of September; the usual
number of eges in a nest varying from twenty to thirty. The nest is excavated
to a depth of about two feet in the dry white sand; its lateral walls being under-
mined so as to allow the eggs to roll into the cavities thus formed from the
slightly elevated centre. Upon the summit of the completed nest, which is not
noticeable externally, the parent sleeps; and when the young crocodiles are ready
for hatching they utter distinct notes, which are heard by the mother even
through a layer of two feet of sand. Digging down to the eggs, the parent
crocodile lays them open to the air, upon which the young reptiles make their
way out by perforating the shell at one extremity by the aid of a tooth specially
developed for this purpose, the whole process occupying as much as a couple of
hours. When hatched, the young crocodiles are led to the water by their parent,
whose attention they attract by uttering cries, which are, however, of a lower
pitch than those emitted while still in the egg.
EXISTING CROCODILES.
Family CRoCODILIDA.
The whole of the existing members of the order are included
in a single family, which may be subdivided into half a dozen generic
groups. Of these, in some respects the most specialised are the caimans and
alligators, which, although closely allied, are now generally regarded as belonging
to distinct genera. Both caimans and alligators are characterised by their rela-
tively short and broad snouts, in which the edges of the jaws are festooned, and
the nasal bones extend forwards to the aperture of the nostrils,’ while the two
Caimans.
1 This is shown in the figure on p. 2, where the nasals are the paired bones on the upper aspect of the skull, of
which the narrow points just project into the cavity of the nostrils.
16 CROCODILES.
halves of the lower jaw are united in front by a very short bony union. The
stout teeth vary considerably in size in different parts of the jaws; the third and
ninth in the upper jaw, the fourth, and frequently also the first and eleventh, in
the lower, being generally much larger than the others. In these features caimans
and alligators resemble many of the true crocodiles ; from which they are distin-
guished by the circumstance that, as a rule, both the first and the fourth tooth on
each side of the lower jaw are received into pits in the upper jaw, so as to be
invisible externally when the mouth is closed; while the upper teeth bite on the
outer side of the lower ones. Moreover, the number of teeth varies from seventeen
SPECTACLED CAIMAN (7; nat. size).
to twenty on each side of the upper jaw, and from seventeen. to twenty-two in
the lower jaw. Then, again, both these groups are characterised by the very small
size of the upper temporal fosse on the top of the skull, or those marked T in the
figure on p. 13; these fossxe being in some cases completely obliterated. Caimans
are specially distinguished by the aperture of the nostrils not being divided in two
by the nasal bones, by the presence of a strongly developed bony armour on the
inferior surface of the body, and by the bony plates on the upper surface being
articulated together.
Caimans, or jacares, as they are called by the natives of Brazil, are restricted
to Central and South America, where they are represented by five species. Of
these, the largest, and at the same time the best known, is the black or great
CAIMANS. 17
caiman (Caiman niger), from the rivers of tropical South America eastwards of
the Andes, which takes its name from the black of the upper surface of the body,
the under-parts being yellow. This species, which generally attains a length of
about 14 feet, is characterised by its partially bony and flat upper eyelid, by the
presence of upper temporal fossze in the skull, by the number of teeth in each
premaxillary or anterior upper Jawbone being five, and the number of lower teeth
being seventeen or eighteen. Nearly allied, although of much smaller size, are
the broad-nosed caiman (C. latirostris), ranging from the Amazon to the Rio de
la Plata, and the spectacled caiman (C. sclerops), from Central and South America;
both of which have the upper eyelid rugose, with a small horn-like projection,
while in the skull the socket of the eye does not extend so far forwards. Both are
uniformly blackish when adult; but in the former the skull is very wide, and the
number of lower teeth from seventeen to eighteen, while in the latter the skull is
narrower, and the lower teeth vary from eighteen to twenty. The two remaining
species (C. trigonatus and C. palpebrosus) are still smaller, and characterised by
the colour of the upper-parts being yellowish brown, spotted and barred with
black ; while the upper eyelid is completely bony, the skull has no upper temporal
fossa, there are but four teeth in each premaxillary bone, and the number of lower
teeth is from twenty to twenty-two on each side.
On the Amazon and Orinoco, as well as other South American rivers, caimans
are to be met with in myriads, and appear to be very similar in their habits to the
crocodiles of the Old World. Writing of the great caiman—jacare-uassu of the
natives—Bates says that “it grows to a length of eighteen or twenty feet, and
attains an enormous bulk. Like the turtles, the alligator [as he calls it] has its
annual migrations, for it retreats to the interior pools and flooded forests in the
dry season. During the months of high water, therefore, scarcely a single in-
dividual is to be seen in the main river. In the middle part of the Lower Amazon,
about Obydos and Villa Nova, where many of the lakes with their channels of
communication with the trunk stream dry up in the fine months, the alligator
buries itself in the mud and becomes dormant, sleeping till the rainy season returns.
On the Upper Amazon, where the dry season is never excessive, it has not this
habit. It is scarcely exaggerating to say that the waters of the Solimoens are as
well stocked with large alligators as a ditch in England is in summer with tadpoles.”
By the natives of these regions the caiman is at once despised and feared; the
same traveller relating how on one occasion he saw a party boldly enter the water
and pull to shore one of these large reptiles by its tail; while at another time two
medium-sized specimens that had been captured in a net were coolly returned to
the water hard by where a couple of children were playing. ‘Sometimes, however,
they have to pay dearly for such temerity. The Indians of Guiana, according to
Waterton, capture the caiman by means of a baited hook and line, the former
being composed of several pieces of wood, which become fixed in the creature's
jaws. Waterton’s account of his ride on the back of a caiman thus caught is
probably familiar to many of our readers; and we have read of a similar feat being
accomplished elsewhere. The eggs of the great caiman, which are about the size
of those of a turkey, are said to be not unfrequently deposited in a heap of dry
leaves, and are much sought after as food by the natives of Dutch Guiana.
VOL. V.—2
18 CROCODILES.
The early Spanish settlers of South America on meeting with a
gigantic lizard-like reptile naturally applied to it the name of wna
lagarta, which is the Spanish term for a lizard; and this as naturally became in
course of time corrupted into alligator. It would appear, indeed, that this name
was first given to the caiman, to which in strict propriety it should therefore
belong; but now, by the common consent of naturalists, it is taken as the special
designation of the members of the present genus. The alligators, as thus restricted,
are represented by one species from North America, and by a second from the
Yang-tse-Kiang in China; while there is also a third and imperfectly known
species, of which the habitat is as yet undetermined. The alligators differ from
the caimans merely by the forward prolongation of the nasal bones of the skull,
so as to divide the aperture of the nostrils into two equal moieties, by the want
of articulation between the bony plates of the back, and the absence or extreme
thinness of those on the lower surface of the body. Curiously enough, the Chinese
alligator (Alligator sinensis), which is a comparatively small species, is the one
coming nearest in structure to the caimans; this approximation being shown by
the great development of bone in the upper eyelid, and the presence of thin bony
plates on the lower surface of the body. The latter are, however, placed wide
apart, without any mutual articulation or overlapping. In this species the front
toes are free, the number of plates on the neck is usually six, although these may
be reduced to four, while generally there are but six plates in the widest of the
transverse rows on the back. The number of teeth in the upper jaw is seventeen
or eighteen, against eighteen or nineteen in the lower. In colour the upper-parts
are greenish black, speckled and streaked with yellow ; while the under-parts are
greyish. In the much larger Mississippi alligator (A. mississippiensis), of which
the dimensions exceed those of the great caiman, the front toes are webbed, there
are but four plates on the neck, and there are always eight plates in the widest
of the transverse rows of the back. There are nineteen or twenty teeth on each
side of both jaws; and in the adult the colour is dark green or blackish above,
and yellowish below. The range of this species embraces the South-Eastern United
States, from the Rio Grande to North Carolina. The third species (A. helois) is a
small one, distinguished by the slight compression of the tail, which is scarcely
crested,
Our knowledge of the Chinese alligator (which was first made known to science
in 1879) in the living state is mainly or entirely derived from specimens exhibited
in the menageries of Europe; while the accounts of the mode of life of the Missis-
sippi species are by no means so full as is desirable. It appears, however, that the
latter spends the greater part of its time in the water, where its main diet is formed
by fish, although it will seize and drag such sheep, goats, dogs, deer, or horses, that,
while drinking, come within reach of its terrible jaws. During flood-time, when
many of the lowlands are under water, the alligators leave the rivers to feed on
the fish which abound in the flooded districts; returning to their old quarters with
the subsidence of the inundations. To such flooded lowlands, writes Audubon, “in
the early part of the autumn, when the heat of a southern sun has evaporated
much of the water, the squatter, the hunter, the planter, all go in search of sport.
The lakes then are about two feet deep, having a fine sandy bottom, . . . The long,
Alligators,
MELLGARORS. 19
narrow Indian canoe, kept to hunt these lakes, and taken into them during the
freshet, is soon launched ; and the party seated in the bottom is paddled, or poled,
to look for water-game. Then, on a sudden, hundreds of alligators are seen
dispersed all over the lake; their head and all the upper part of their body floating
like a log, and in many instances so resembling one, that it requires to be accus-
tomed to see them to know the distinction. Millions of the large wood-ibis are
seen wading through the water, muddling it up, and striking deadly blows with
MISSISSIPPI ALLIGATOR (;/; nat. size).
their bills on the fish therein. . . . It is then that you see and hear the alligator at
his work; each lake has a spot deeper than the rest, rendered so by these animals
who work at it; and always situated at the lower end of the lake.” By this
means a supply of water is ensured; and in these so-called alligators’ holes the
reptiles may be seen congregating in hundreds. “The fish, that are already dying
by thousands through the insufferable heat and stench of the water, and the
wounds of the different winged enemies constantly in pursuit of them, resort to
the alligators’ hole to receive refreshment, with a hope of finding security also, and
follow down the little current flowing through the connecting sluices; but no! for,
20 CROCODILES.
as the water recedes in the lake, they are here confined. The alligators thrash
them, and devour them whenever they feel hungry, while the ibis destroys all that
make towards the shore. By looking attentively on this spot, you plainly see the
tails of the alligators moving to and fro, splashing, and now and then, when missing
a fish, throwing it up in the air. The hunter marks one of the eyes of the largest
alligators, and as the hair-trigger is touched the alligator dies. Should the ball
strike one inch astray from the eye, the animal flounces, rolls over and over,
beating furiously about him with his tail, frightening all his companions, who sink
immediately ; whilst the fishes, like blades of burnished metal, leap in all directions
out of the water, so terrified are they at this uproar.”
During the pairing-season, which takes place in the spring, the males resort
to the land, and are but seldom seen; while soon after the female deposits her
hard white eggs, which are said at times to be upwards of one hundred in number.
The nest in which the eggs are laid is generally placed among bushes or reeds, at
a distance of fifty or sixty yards from the water's edge; the eggs themselves being
carefully covered with leaves and other vegetable matter. The heat engendered
by the decomposition of the latter, aids in the hatching of the eggs; and when the
young appear, they are conducted to the water by the mother, who has all the
time remained on guard near the nest.
Double-Tusked In the middle and lower Tertiary deposits of both Europe and
Alligators. the United States, the present group was represented by certain
extinct alligators (Diplocynodon) characterised by the presence of a bony armour
on the lower surface of the body, coupled with the circumstance that the fourth
tooth of the lower jaw was generally received into a notch in the side of the skull,
while the third lower tooth was as much enlarged as the fourth. Some of these
double-tusked alligators had short snouts, like their existing allies; but in one
from the London Clay this part of the skull was much produced, as in many
crocodiles.
Stumpy A small and short-nosed crocodile (Osteolemus tetraspis) from
Crocodile. West Africa, in the neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, where it was
discovered by Du Chaillu, presents much the same relationship to the true
crocodiles as is held by the alligators to the caimans. Thus, while the arrange-
ment of the teeth is similar to that obtaining in the true crocodiles, the nasal
bones extend forwards to divide the cavity of the nostrils imto two halves.
Moreover, the upper eyelid is largely bony, while there are detached bony
plates on the lower surface of the body, as well as on the throat. The shield of
the neck is distinct from that of the back, and is composed of two or three pairs
of plates, of which the anterior ones are very. large; while that of the back
comprises seventeen transverse rows of plates, the broadest row including six of
such plates. The ridges on the plates of the neck are strongly marked, but they
become very obscure in the two middle rows of the back. The fore-toes have
only rudimentary webs, although those of the hind-limbs are webbed for about
half their length. With the exception of parts of the head, tail, and back, which
are light brown with black markings, the coloration of the adult is uniform blackish
brown. Young specimens are, however, yellowish brown, spotted with black above,
and with bars of the same on the body and tail; while the lower armour is black
BOE LeROCODILES. 2T
and yellow. Practically nothing is known as to the habits of this peculiar species,
which are, however, probably very similar to those of its allies.
The true crocodiles comprise rather less than a dozen species,
ranging over Africa, Southern Asia, Northern Australia, and Tropical
America. Having no bony armour on the lower surface of the body, they are
distinguished from the caimans and alligators by the interlocking of the upper
and lower teeth, and by the fourth lower tooth being usually received into a notch
on the side of the upper jaw, so as to be partially visible when the mouth is closed,
while the number of teeth varies from seventeen to nineteen on each side of the
True Crocodiles.
STUMPY CROCODILE (,); nat. size).
.
upper jaw, and fifteen in the lower. From the stumpy crocodile they are distin-
guished by the aperture of the nostrils in the skull not being divided by the
forward prolongation of the nasal bones. While some of the species resemble the
alligators in their broad and short snouts, others have elongated, narrow snouts,
approaching those of the garials; but as there is an almost complete gradation
from the one type to the other, this affords no ground for generic distinction,
so that the most that can be done is to arrange them in groups.
Commonly known to the natives of India as the magar, and
misnamed alligator by Anglo-Indians, the Indian crocodile (( ‘rocodilus
palustris) is the best known representative of a group of four species which,
in their broad and short snouts, make the nearest approach to the caimans and
Indian Crocodile.
22 CROCODILES.
alligators. In all these the length of the snout does not exceed one and a half
times its basal width; the bony union between the two branches of the lower jaw
does not extend behind the level of the fourth or fifth tooth; while on the palate
the line of union between the anterior and main jawbones (premaxille and
maxille) extends nearly straight across the skull,as shown in the figure on p. 2.
The Indian crocodile has no bony ridges on the snout, while there are usually four
longitudinal rows of bony plates on the back, and there are five teeth im each
anterior upper jawbone or premaxilla. An allied species (C. robustus) from the
interior of Madagascar, differs by having six longitudinal rows of plates on the
back ; while the Cuban crocodile (C. rhombifer), of Central America, and a nearly
related species (C. moreleti), from Guatemala, are distinguished by having a more
or less distinct oblique ridge in front of the eye.
The habitat of the Indian crocodile includes India, Ceylon, Burma, and the
Malay Peninsula and Islands; its most westerly range being Sind and Baluchistan.
Inhabiting rivers, lakes, and marshes, it appears to be an exclusively fresh-water
species, never venturing into estuaries. As to the dimensions attained by this
species there is some uncertainty, although it is probable that at the present day
specimens seldom grow to the size that was reached before firearms were common.
Nowadays from 12 to 14 feet appears to be a large size for this species, but a
length of 18 feet has been recorded, while skulls in the Calcutta Museum would
seem to indicate still larger individuals. A nearly allied extinct species has left
its remains in the Siwalik Hills of Northern India. Swarming in most of the rivers
and marshes of India, except where the current is too swift, the Indian crocodile
is stated to be less ferocious than the species next mentioned, generally preying
on the smaller animals, and not unfrequently dragging down a wounded or dead
bird before the eyes of the gunner. When the waters they frequent become dried
up, these crocodiles will either travel across country by night to another lake or
river, or bury themselves in the mud.
Estuarine Resembling its compatriot in its pale olive colour, conspicuously
Crocodile. = spotted with black, the estuarine crocodile (C. porosus), of India and
other regions, may be at once distinguished by its longer and more slender snout,
as well as by the presence of only four teeth in each anterior jawbone or pre-
maxilla of the adult. It belongs, indeed, to a group of four species, differmg from
the preceding assemblage in the length of the snout varying from rather more
than one and a half to just over twice its basal width; and also by the line of
union between the anterior and main jawbones running in a V shape up the
palate. The presence of a large ridge running down the skull in front of the
eye serves to distinguish this species not only from all the other members of the
group, but likewise from the Indian crocodile. The present species generally, if
not invariably, inhabits the tidal portions of rivers, from whence it descends into
the sea, where it has been observed floating at considerable distances from land.
These estuarine and partially marine habits will readily account for the wide
geographical distribution of this crocodile, which ranges from India to Australia.
Unknown on the western coast of India, the estuarine crocodile is abundant in the
lower courses of the rivers of Bengal and other parts of the eastern side of India,
as well as in Ceylon and Burma, whence it extends eastwards to Southern China,
TRUEX CROCODILES. 23
Northern Australia, and the islands of the Solomon and Fiji groups. In point of
size it probably surpasses all other species, one specimen being recorded which
reached the enormous length of 33 feet
In correspondence with its gigantic size, this crocodile appears to be one of the
most formidable members of its kind, being exceedingly prone to attack human
beings, more especially in the breeding-season, which takes place during June
and July, when it is stated to attack such small boats as may cross its haunts.
ESTUARINE CROCODILE (z),; nat. size).
Owing to its depredations, these crocodiles are cordially detested as well as
feared by the natives of India, and at Dacca, on the north of the Bay of Bengal,
crocodile-hunting is pursued as a profession. The following account of the pursuit
of one of these monsters which had recently carried off a boy is abridged from a
native newspaper. ° The hunter, having been summoned, moored his canoe hard by
the place where the tragedy had taken place, it being well known that a crocodile
which has been successful in securing a victim will generally remain for some days
about the spot. Soon the crocodile was descried floating on the water, whereupon
the hunter and assistant hid themselves in the canoe, while the son of the former
entered the water, which he commenced to beat with his hands. Catching sight
24 CROCODILES.
of the boy, the crocodile prepared to dive towards him, upon which the boy took
refuge in the canoe. In a moment or so the reptile rose to the surface at the
expected spot, where he was saluted with a couple of harpoons, one of which
secured a firm hold. After a long chase, in which a number of the inhabitants
of the village took part in boats, a second harpoon was safely planted in the head
of the monster, who was finally dragged to shore. When opened, several gold and
silver ornaments—the relics of earlier victims—were found in his stomach. In
Ceylon, according to Sir J. E. Tennent, crocodiles are frequently captured by means
of a hook and line, which are laid over-night in the water, and made fast, in the
native fashion, by a bunch of fine cords. These cords becoming fixed between the
interstices of the creature’s teeth, are safe from being bitten through; and in the
morning the captive is dragged ashore and despatched. It may be added that,
when thus captured, crocodiles emit a disagreeable musky smell, due to the secretion
of a pair of glands in the lower jaw.
Formerly inhabiting the Nile from its mouth to its source, the
Nile crocodile (C. niloticus), from the invasion of its haunts by steam
vessels and the introduction of rifles, has now well-nigh disappeared from Egypt,
even as far back as the year
1870 being but rarely seen
below Beni Hassan, and not
Nile Crocodile.
common till above the second
cataract. In the upper reaches
of the Nile it still exists in
its pristine numbers, whence
its range extends southwards
to the Cape and northwards
to Senegal. The species also
occurs in Madagascar, while it
likewise still lingers in Syria,
in the neighbourhood of the
Zerka, or Crocodile River, near
Ceesarea. Distinguished from
the estuarine crocodile by the
NILE CROCODILE. absence of the ridge in front
of each eye, this species differs
from the other two members of the same group by the want of any ridge on the
middle of the snout or forehead, so that its whole skull is comparatively smooth.
In size it falls but little, if at all short of the estuarine crocodile; although differing
from the latter by the uniformly dark olive colour of the adult.
As the habits of this crocodile do not differ in any important respects from
those of the other members of the genus, they do not require any detailed notice,
although a few words must be devoted to its cult by the ancient Egyptians, among
whom it was known by the name of champsa. By these remarkable people the
crocodile was regarded as the symbol of sunrise—possibly, it has been suggested,
on account of the brightness of its eye, or, perhaps, because that is the first part to
appear when the creature emerges from the water. Among the places where the
TRUE CROCODILES. 25
crocodile was specially reverenced were Thebes and the shores of Lake Moeris, as
well as Ombi, near Syene. At Thebes a crocodile was reared from youth in the
temple, where it was fed with sacred food, adorned with rings and bangles, and
worshipped with divine honours; while after death its mummitied body was care-
fully preserved in the catacombs, where hundreds of embalmed crocodiles are still
to be found. Something analogous to this Egyptian veneration for the crocodile
is to be met with in other countries. Leith-Adams tells us that the Indian
crocodile is reclaimed by certain religious sects in India, being rendered so tame
that it will leave its pond to feed out of its keeper’s hand; while Mrs. R. B. Lee
relates that at Dix Cove, on the north-western coast of Africa, a pair of tame
crocodiles were kept in a pond by priests, dressed in white garments, who fed their
charges with snow-white fowls.
In the Upper Nile the favourite haunts of the crocodiles are sandbanks,
situated in parts of the river where the current is not too strong. There they
may be seen at all hours of the day sleeping with widely opened mouths, in and
out of which the black-backed plover (as mentioned on p. 475 of the preceding
volume) walks with the utmost unconcern. According to Arab accounts, one and
the same crocodile has been known to haunt a single sandbank throughout the
term of a man’s life; thus leading to the conclusion that these creatures must enjoy
a long term of existence, during the whole of which they continue, like other
reptiles, to increase in size. In common with this feature of uninterrupted growth,
all crocodiles are also distinguished by their remarkable tenacity of life; the shots
that prove instantaneously fatal being those that take effect either in the brain
itself or in the spinal cord of the neck. It is true indeed, that a shot through the
shoulder will ultimately cause death; but it allows time for the animal to escape
into the water, where its body immediately sinks. To reach the brain, the
crocodile should be struck immediately behind the aperture of the ear. Although
it is commonly supposed that the bony armour of these reptiles is bullet-proof, this
is quite erroneous; if the plates are struck obliquely, the bullet will, however,
frequently ricochet.
A remarkable instance of boldness and ferocity displayed by a crocodile of
this species is narrated by a correspondent of the Zvmes during a journey to
Mashonaland. On arriving one evening at the banks of the narrow but rocky
Tokwi River, a man named Williams rode in with the intention of crossing.
During the passage his horse was carried by the stream a few yards below the
landing-place, and just as he reached the opposite bank he was seized by the leg
by a crocodile, which dragged him from his horse into the stream. There the
reptile let go its hold, upon which the man managed to crawl on to a small island.
Immediately his companion rode in to his assistance, upon which another very
large crocodile mounted up between him and his horse’s neck, and then slipped
back, making a dreadful wound on his side and in the horse’s neck with its claws
as it did so. The river seemed, indeed, to be absolutely swarming with crocodiles ;
and it was with the greatest difficulty that the unfortunate man Williams, who
ultimately died of his wounds, was brought to bank.
The Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis), inhabiting Siam, Cambodia,
Siam Crocodile. Vont : . : Sed :
and Java, may be distinguished from the preceding species by the
26 CROCODILES.
presence of a longitudinal ridge on the skull between the eyes, although the snout
is smooth. It agrees with the latter in having the anterior bony plates of the neck
well developed, these being usually absent in the estuarine crocodile.
- Sharp-Nosed The last member of this group is the sharp-nosed crocodile
Crocodile. = ((C, americanus) of Central America, which has a longer and sharper
muzzle than any of the preceding, and is further characterised by the presence of
SHARP-NOSED CROCODILE (45 nat. size),
a distinct median ridge running down the snout. There are usually four large
bony plates on the neck, forming a square, with a smaller pair on the sides of the
front ones; while the plates of the back are arranged in fifteen or sixteen trans-
verse rows, and in either four or six longitudinal bands. In the fore-limb the
second and third toes are but slightly webbed, while the outer toes of the hind-
foot are united by larger webs. In coloration the adult is blackish olive above,
and yellowish beneath; while the young are pale olive with black spots. In
addition to being widely distributed in Central America and the adjacent regions,
LOE JCROCODIEES. 27
such as Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Florida, this crocodile is also met with in
the West Indian Islands.
Orinoco Nearly allied to the last, although with a still longer and more
Crocodile. slender snout, is the Orinoco crocodile (CL intermedius), which is
referred by Mr. Boulenger to a third group, characterised by their very slender
and garial-like snouts, of which the length is equal to at least twice the basal
breadth ; and also by the bony union between the two branches of the lower jaw
extending as far back as the sixth, seventh, or eighth tooth, instead of stopping
short at the fifth. In this particular species the snout, which has no ridges, varies
in length from twice to twice and a half the width at the base; while the six bony
plates on the neck are widely separated from those of the back, and are arranged
in a square of four, with a pair on the sides. The colour is olive above and
yellowish beneath, while in both this and the preceding species the length is about
13 feet. The Orinoco crocodile appears to be confined to the river from which it
takes its name and its affluents. The best accounts of the Orinoco and sharp-
nosed crocodile are by Humboldt, who states that these reptiles swarm on the
Apure, where they may often be seen in parties of eight or ten lying on the open
space between the shore of the river and the forest. At the time of his journey
the river was, however, still low, and consequently hundreds of crocodiles were
lying concealed beneath the mud of the adjacent lowlands. In the stomach of one
that was opened were found a half-digested fish and a granite pebble; the latter
having probably been swallowed inadvertently while the animal was groping about
in the mud in search of food. In spite of their comparatively slender jaws, these
crocodiles frequently seize the natives while stooping to draw water from the river.
A large portion of their prey is, however, afforded by the defenceless carpinchos,
which are met with in droves of from fifty to sixty head, and fall victims to the
jaguars on land and to the crocodiles in the water. In their young state—when
only from 7 to 8 inches in length—the crocodiles themselves are, however, devoured
by vultures, who seize them on the shore or in the shallow water. It was curious,
observes Humboldt, to see the address with which the little reptiles defended
themselves for a time against their aggressors. As soon as they perceived the
enemy, they raised themselves on their fore-paws, bent their backs, and lifted up
their heads, opening their wide jaws. They turned continually, though slowly,
towards their assailant to show him their teeth, which, even when the animal had
but recently issued from the egg, were very long and sharp. Often, while the
attention of one of the young crocodiles was wholly engaged by one of the
vultures, another seized the favourable opportunity for an unforeseen attack,
pouncing on the unfortunate reptile by the neck and bearing it off in the air. The
anecdote told by Humboldt of a native of Calabozo being awakened in the middle
of the night by one of these crocodiles suddenly breaking through the mud of the
floor of his hut, beneath which it had retired for the dry season, is probably
familiar to most of our readers.
Long-Nosed Omitting notice of the small Johnston’s crocodile (C. johnston‘),
Crocodile. of North Australia, the last member of the genus is the curious long-
nosed crocodile (C. cataphractus), of West Africa, which forms a kind of connecting
link between the other true crocodiles and the garials. In this species the snout
28 CROCODILES.
is more elongated and slender than in any of its congeners, its length not unfre-
quently exceeding three times its basal width; the bony union between the two
branches of the lower jaw being likewise of unusual length. In form the snout is
convex, and devoid of ridges; while the region of the forehead is remarkable for
its convexity. The great peculiarity about the species is, however, to be found in
the arrangement of the bony plates on the neck, which form two longitudinal rows,
and are partially if not completely continuous with those of the back; a some-
what similar arrangement existing in Johnston’s crocodile. On the back the
LONG-NOSED CROCODILE (,); nat. size).
number of longitudinal rows of shields is six; and the lower parts of the legs, as in
many other crocodiles, are furnished with a jagged horny fringe. In colour the
head is olive spotted with brown; the back and tail have a brownish yellow
ground-colour, with large black spots, while the yellowish white under-parts are
marked with smaller white spots. In length this species reaches some 18 feet.
The long-snouted crocodile is found in the rivers and marshes of West Africa,
from Senegambia to the Gabun, and also occurs farther to the south in the Congo;
its native name being khinh. Not unfrequently found in company with the Nile
crocodile, it inhabits the smaller streams and still waters of the interior, generally
GARIALS. 29
taking up its position in a deep pool protected by an overhanging bank or rock,
and thence sallying forth on its prey, which consists chiefly of fish, frogs, and
aquatic reptiles. The eggs are laid on the bank, where, unlike those of most other
members of the family, they are carefully covered with leaves and herbage. Shy
and timid in its disposition, this crocodile is often captured by the natives for the
sake of its flesh ; which, like that of many of its allies in other regions, is much
esteemed as food. While very abundant in the fresh waters of the interior, this
species likewise haunts the salt-water lagoons of the Guinea Coast; and in the
delta of the Cameruns may be observed lying on the sandbanks bordering the
mangrove swamps, from which, on the approach of a boat, it darts into the water
with surprising celerity. There it often pulls down herons and such other aquatic
birds as may be standing or swimming in the water, sailing up to them with the
silence of a large fish, to which, when in the water, it presents a considerable
resemblance. As in the estuarine and Nile crocodiles, in the adult of this species
the second tooth in the fore jawbone, or premaxilla, disappears, leaving only four
in place of the normal five on each side.
With the very long and slender-snouted crocodile from Borneo,
commonly known as Schlegel’s garial (Rhynchosuchus schlegeli), we
come to the first of two genera, each represented by a single existing Oriental
species, which differ very remarkably from any of those yet noticed. In both
these forms the snout is long and slender, with its teeth-bearing margins nearly
straight, instead of being thrown into more or less well-marked festoons; while
the nasal bones never extend forwards to reach the aperture of the nostrils, from
which they are separated by a considerable interval. Moreover, the bony union
between the two branches of the lower jaw is of great length, extending at least
as far back as the fifteenth tooth; and including a bone which in the other
crocodiles remains entirely separate from the symphysis. In neither do the
teeth attain the large dimensions characteristic of many other members of the
family.
Schlegel’s garial has the shorter snout of the two, its length not exceeding
three and a half times its basal width; but it is especially distinguished by the
circumstance that the nasal bones extend forwards to articulate with the anterior
jawbones, or premaxille. The teeth are twenty or twenty-one in number on each
side of the upper jaw, and eighteen or nineteen in the lower; those on the sides of
the latter being received in pits between the upper ones, and the first, fourth, and
Schlegel’s Garial.
ninth lower teeth being enlarged. The bony plates on the neck and back form a
continuous shield consisting of four longitudinal, and twenty-two transverse rows ;
and while the fore-toes are webbed at the base, the outer ones of the hind-feet have
larger webs. In colour, Schlegel’s garial is olive above, with dark spots or bars;
while its length may be 12 or 14 feet. In habits this species is probably very
similar to the Indian garial. It is important to notice that several fossil repre-
sentatives of this genus occur in the Tertiary deposits of Europe, while it is not
improbable that the genus is also represented in the underlying Cretaceous rocks.
All this is exactly in harmony with what we should naturally have expected to be
the case, seeing that Schlegel’s garial, like the true garial, is evidently a very
generalised member of the family.
30 CROCODILYS.
Probably owing to a clerical error on the part of its first describer
the slender-snouted crocodile known in India by the vernacular
name of garial, is almost always spoken of in Europe as the gavial, while its mis-
spelt name has even been Latinised into Gavialis—an error which some writers
persist in perpetuating. The garial (Garialis gangetica) is readily distinguished
at a glance from all other crocodiles by the exceeding length and slenderness of
Garial.
GANGETIC GARIAL (3; nat. size).
its snout; the length varying from more than five times the basal width in the
young to rather more than three in the adult. This narrow snout gives to the
reptile a decidedly curious appearance; and it is perhaps noteworthy that both
the garial and the gangetie dolphin, which inhabit the same rivers, and probably
feed on the same kind of food, have similarly elongated beak-like snouts, armed
with very similar curved and slender conical teeth; this resemblance being doubt-
less due to adaptation to a similar mode of life. From Schlegel’s garial, the
present species is readily distinguished by the nasal bones being very short, and
GARIALS. 3a
consequently separated by a long interval from the anterior jawbones, or pre-
maxillxe ; while the teeth—twenty-seven to twenty-nine on each side of the upper,
and twenty-five or twenty-six in the lower jaw—are all of nearly uniform size,
and those of the lower jaw are not received into distinct pits. Moreover, the bony
union between the two branches of the lower jaw extends backwards to the
twenty-third or twenty-fourth tooth, whereas in the Bornean species it stops short
at the fourteenth or fifteenth. At its extremity the long and narrow snout
becomes much expanded ; and in the male this expanded extremity is surmounted
by a hollow hump, in the centre of which are placed the nostrils. The bony plates
of the neck form a shield continuous with that of the back, in which the number
of longitudinal rows is four, while there are twenty-one or twenty-two transverse
bands. Externally to the bony shields of the back there occurs on each side a row
of soft plates, which are either smooth, or but slightly keeled. The toes are well
webbed ; and the general colour of the adult is dark olive above; the young being
pale olive, with dark brown spots or bars.
The garial has a somewhat curious geographical distribution, being restricted
to the Indus, Ganges, and Bramaputra, with their larger affluents, together with
the Mahanadi in Orissa, and the Koladyni River in Arakan. Together with certain
tortoises mentioned later on, this reptile is one of the most ancient of living
animals, its fossil remains occurring in the rocks of the Siwalik Hills in Northern
India in association with those of mammals belonging to extinct species and
genera. Attaining a length of fully 20 feet at the present day, and still larger
dimensions during the Pliocene period, the garial subsists solely upon fish, for the
capture of which its elongated narrow jaws, armed with numerous long, curved
teeth, are admirably adapted. There appears, indeed, to be no well authenticated
instance of these reptiles having attacked human beings or the larger mammals ;
and it is perhaps owing to this harmless disposition that they are held sacred in
many parts of India by the Hindus. In accordance with the nature of its prey,
the garial seems to be more thoroughly aquatic in its habits than most of its allies;
the relatively Jong hind-limbs and the rully-webbed toes being features specially
suited to aid in swimming. In the breeding-season the female garial lays about
forty egos in the sand of the river bank, these being deposited in two layers, and
covered to a considerable depth with sand; the two layers being probably laid on
different days. The newly hatched young, which, from the great proportionate
length of their snouts, present a most extraordinary appearance, are very active,
and of a greyish brown colour, with five irregular dark oblique bands on the body,
and nine on the tail.
In addition to those of the existing species, the Siwalik Hills
have yielded remains of several extinct garials, some of which attained
gigantic dimensions; while other species belonging to the living genus have been
obtained from the middle Tertiary rocks of England. Possibly, also, certain fossil
garials from the Cretaceous deposits of the United States should find a place in the
same generic group. Other Cretaceous species are, however, remarkable for the
presence of a vacuity in the skull in front of the eye-socket, in consequence of
which they have been separated as a distinct genus, under the name of Thoracosaurus.
Mention must also be made of an enormous garial from the Siwalik Hills, known
Extinct Garials.
32 CROCODILES.
as Rhamphosuchus, which attained a length of some 50 or 60 feet, and had teeth as
large as those of the biggest crocodile; its upper teeth biting on the outer side of
the lower ones, instead of interlocking with them, as in the living form.
THE EARLIER CROCODILES.
As already mentioned, all the existing crocodiles, together with the species
from the Tertiary formations, constitute a single family, characterised by the
vertebree having a ball in front and a cup behind, and by the internal nostrils
being situated at the hinder end of the skull; as well as by the bony plates of the
back being arranged in at least four longitudinal rows. Although a few species
found in the topmost beds of the underlying Secondary formations approximate in
some respects to the foregoing, the majority of the crocodiles from rocks as old or
older than the Chalk differ very considerably from the existing types. In the first
place, the bodies of their vertebre articulate with one another by slightly hollowed
surfaces at both ends; while, owing to the want of union between the hindmost
bones of the palate beneath the nasal passages, the internal apertures of the nostrils
are situated nearly in the middle of the skull. Then again, when a bony armour
is present, the plates on the back are arranged in only two longitudinal rows;
while those on the lower surface of the body form two distinct shields. It is
remarkable that among these extinct crocodiles some are met with having broad
and short snouts like the modern alligators, while others have long and narrow
snouts like the garials. In the Wealden and Purbeck rocks, underlying the Chalk,
some of these crocodiles, such as the short-snouted Swanage crocodile (Goniopholis),
resembled living types in having the socket of the eye communicating freely with
the lower temporal fossa, although they were distinguished by the plates of the
back articulating together by means of a peg-and-socket arrangement. In still
older formations, such as the Lower Oolites and Lias, there were, however, many
long-snouted crocodiles, such as the steneosaurs (Steneosawrus) and pelagosaurs
(Pelagosaurus), 1 which the socket of the eye is divided from the lower temporal
fossa by a bony bar, as shown in the figure on p. 13. Moreover, in these forms the
upper temporal fossa (7' in the figure cited) was larger than the socket of the eye;
whereas in all living forms the former is much the smaller of the two, and may even
be obliterated. Another group of crocodiles,—the metriorhynchs (Metriorhynchus),
—of the Oxford and Kimeridge Clays, were remarkable in having no bony armour
at all, in which respect they were more specialised than any of their living cousins.
In general, however, the earlier extinct crocodiles, as will be gathered from the
foregoing remarks, were decidedly of a less specialised type than those of the
present day; and as a gradual transition can be traced in these respects from the
oldest to the most recent, the group affords a very interesting instance of progressive
evolution. In the very oldest. of the secondary rocks, namely, the Trias, there occur,
both in Europe and India, certain very remarkable long-snouted reptiles, known as
Parasuchians, which appear in some respects intermediate between crocodiles and
tuateras. Thus, while they resembled the former in the nature of their teeth, bony
armour, ribs, and vertebrae, they approximated to the latter in the structure of the
skull, abdominal ribs, and probably of the collar-bones and interclavicle.
DINOSAUCRS. 33
THE EXTINCT DINOSAURS.
Order DINOSAURIA.
Nearly allied to crocodiles are those remarkable extinct reptiles from the rocks
of the Secondary period, which include amongst their number the most gigantic
of all land animals, and likewise those members of the reptilian class which make
the nearest approximation in their organisation to birds. During that epoch of the
RESTORATION OF THE IGUANODON,
earth’s history in which the Chalk and underlying Oolitic rocks were deposited,
when mammals were represented by a few small forms of lowly type, these strange
reptiles were the dominant animals on land; some progressing in the ordinary
lizard-like manner, while others stalked on their hind-limbs like birds. To give
some idea of the enormous dimensions attained by some of these creatures, 1t may
be mentioned that the thigh-bone of one species measures 64 inches, while the total
VOL. V.—3
34 DINOSAURS.
o)
length of its skeleton is estimated to have been between 60 and 80 feet. On the
other hand, some species were comparatively small, and not more than a couple of
feet in length. Although the whole of these reptiles are markedly distinct from
the crocodiles, yet they agree with them in the general characters of their
skulls, vertebrae, and ribs; but they differ so decidedly from one another that it is
not easy to give a definition of the entire order. They are, indeed, divided into
three well-marked groups, with so many differences between them that in the
opinion of many they are entitled to rank as separate orders; and it will, accord-
ingly, be most convenient to treat these three groups servatim.
Lizard-Footed The most stupendous members of the order are included in a
Group. eroup which may be conveniently designated lizard-footed dinosaurs
g A) s ,
on account of their walking in the ordinary lizard-like manner, and in having five
toes to the feet. The most striking peculiarity of this group is to be found in the
( i PA
N NA)
Ww Su
ne an
i
= =F
= iz
—————4
7
LEFT-SIDE VIEW OF AN IMPERFECT VERTEBRA OF A
LIZARD-FOOTED DINOSAUR. (From the Quart. INNER AND LATERAL VIEWS OF A TOOTH OF
Journ, Geol. Soc., 1893.) A HOPLOSAUR.
circumstance that the vertebree of the neck and back, as shown in the accompany-
ing figure, had large cavities in their sides, which in the living state may have
been filled either with cartilage or with air. These vertebrae resembled those of
existing crocodiles, as described on p. 6,in having a ball at one end and a cup at the
other; but whereas in crocodiles the ball is at the hinder end of the body and the
cup in front, in these dinosaurs precisely the reverse of this arrangement obtained.
As regards their dentition, these reptiles had their teeth implanted in distinet
sockets, like crocodiles; but the teeth themselves, as shown in the accompanying
figure, were of a peculiar spatulate shape, with the outer side convex and the inner
concave. Agreeing in the general structure of their pelvis with crocodiles, these
a
CARNIVOROUS GROUP. 35
dinosaurs were distinguished therefrom by the circumstance that the bone known
as the pubis (p in the figure on p. 3) enters into the composition of the cavity
for the reception of the head of the thigh-bone. The limb-bones are solid
throughout. From the nature of
their teeth, which are often much
worn by use, it may be inferred
that these reptiles were vegetable
feeders; and it is not improbable
that they frequented the margins
of lakes and rivers, where their
inordinately long necks would
enable them to browse with ease
on the various aquatic plants.
That they must have been very
sluggish in their movements and
stupid in their ideas is indicated
by the wonderfully small propor- INNER AND OUTER VIEWS OF A TOOTH OF A PELOROSAUR.
tionate size of their brains. These (From the Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., 1893.)
dinosaurs were common both in
Europe and the United States, the larger forms having been described under the
names of pelorosaurs (Pelorosawrus), atlantosaurs (Atlantosawrus), brontosaurs
(Brontosawrus), and hoplosaurs (Hoplosauwrus); among which the atlantosaurs
appear to have been the most gigantic. They also occur in India, Argentina,
and Madagascar.
Carnivorous The carnivorous dinosaurs, of which the
EB megalosaur (Megalosawrus) is the best known
example, differed from the preceding group in the form of
their teeth, which were compressed and sickle-shaped, with
sharp cutting, and frequently serrated edges. Their limb-
bones also were hollow; while their vertebree were likewise
hollow internally, but had no lateral cavities; and the
pelvis (figured on p. 3), although of the same general
type as in the lizard-footed group, presented important
points of distinction. In place of the short feet of the
last-named group, the carnivorous dinosaurs had elongated
foot - bones, terminating in sharp claws; the number of
functional toes in the hind-foot varying from four to three.
That they habitually walked on the toes of their hind-
limbs, and not (as was the case with the lzard-footed
group) on the whole foot, is evident from the structure of
this part of the skeleton, and from the circumstance that
the fore-limbs were considerably smaller than the hinder
pair, it may be inferred that progression was at least
frequently accomplished by the aid of the latter alone.
Moe te ©The close approximation of the huckle-bone of the ankle to
FOOT OF A CARNIVOROUS aanie .
DINOSAUR. the lower end of the tibia foreshadows the complete
36 DINOSAURS.
amalgamation which takes place between those bones in birds; while in one
remarkable American form the metatarsal bones of the foot were reduced to
three in number, and had nearly the same relationship to
one another and to the bones of the ankle as obtains in
birds. While the megalosaur attained a height, when erect,
of some 15 feet, the little Compsognathus, of the lithographic
limestones of Bavaria, did not stand more than 2 feet; and
there were other equally diminutive forms, both in England
and the United States, in which the whole backbone was so
permeated by air-cavities as to be little more than a mere
THE LEFT HUCKLE-BonE AND Shell of bone.
LOWER END OF TIBIA mhe Bird-Like The whole of the dinosaurs mentioned
OF THE MEGALOSAUR.— G ° . .
Gade, Troup. above agree with one another in possessing a
pelvis approximating to the crocodilian type; that is to say,
the pubis or anterior lower bone of this part of the skeleton is inclined down-
wards and forwards, and thus diverges in the form of an inverted V from the
lia: kis <
ira _
WAM “nnn =
HES
SKELETON OF THE CLAOSAUR, ONE OF THE BIRD-LIKE DINOSAURS (5 nat. size).—After Marsh.
backwardly and downwardly directed ischium, or posterior lower bone, as shown
on the figure on p. 38. On the other hand, in the bird-like dinosaurs the’ main
BIED- LIKE GROOP, 3
bar of the pubis is inclined backwards, parallel to the ischium, while it has
a secondary plate projecting forwards. In this parallelism of the pubis and
ischium these dinosaurs resemble birds (see the figure in Vol. IIT. p. 290), and birds
alone; and from this and other features it is pretty certain that the latter are
derived from reptiles more or less closely allied to this or the preceding group of
dinosaurs; the resemblance in the one case being closest in the structure of the
pelvis, and in the other of the hind-limb. All the bird-like dinosaurs are further
characterised by the presence of a separate chin-bone (pd in the figure on p. 3
at the extremity of the lower jaw; by the
absence of teeth from the front of both
jaws; by the teeth themselves approximat-
ing more or less closely to the type of the
one here represented, and by being fre-
quently not implanted in distinct sockets ;
and likewise by the vertebrae being com-
pletely solid throughout. The typical
representatives of this group are the well-
known iguanodons, originally described on
the evidence of teeth, from the Wealden
rocks of England, but now known by
entire skeletons from the corresponding
deposits of Belgium, which are exhibited in
the museum at Brussels. These reptiles,
which were represented by allied forms in the United States, habitually walked
on their three-toed hind-limbs, the largest individuals attaining a length of some
33 feet. They are characterised by the limb-bones being hollow, by the length
of the metatarsal bones of the foot, by the first digit of the five-toed fore-limb
being converted into a large conical spine, and also by the teeth being of the type
of the one shown in the accompanying figure. Needless to say, animals with
such teeth must have been purely vegetable
feeders, as indeed were all the other members
of this group. The hind - feet terminated in
rather sharp claws, and there was no bony
armour on the body. The iguanodons probably
stalked about among the palm-forests of the
Wealden period, on the leaves and fruit of
which they may be presumed to have in great
part subsisted. In these reptiles the large
flattened and serrated teeth were arranged in each jaw in a single row, but in cer-
tain smaller forms known as trachodons,
which occur in the higher Cretaceous
rocks of both Europe and North America,
there were several rows of teeth in use
OUTER AND LATERAL VIEWS OF A TOOTH OF
THE IGUANODON,
PAVEMENT-LIKE TEETH OF THE TRACHODON.—
After Marsh.
at the same time, the edges of these
teeth being so flattened and fitted to-
. TERMINAL TOE-BONE OF AN ARMOURED
gether that a pavement-like structure pINosauR.—After Marsh.
38 DINOSAURS.
o
resulted. These trachodons were all much inferior in size to the gigantic
iguanodons. The American claosaur (Claosawrus), of which the skeleton is figured
on p. 36, differs from the iguanodons in having the fore-paw of normal structure.
Nearly allied to the iguanodons are the remarkable armoured and horned dinosaurs,
which constitute a subgroup characterised by their solid limb-bones, the presence
of some kind of bony armour, the short foot-bones, frequently terminating in
hoof-like toes, and the
habitually quadrupedal
gait. Commencing in
the British Lias, these
extraordinary reptiles
continued throughout
the Secondary period,
and seem to have at-
tained their maximum
development at the close
of the Cretaceous epoch
in the United States. Of
the armoured forms, the
huge stegosaur of the
English Oxford, and
Kimeridge Clays, and
the corresponding rocks
of the United States, was
characterised by the
possession of large quad-
rangular bones, which
are believed to have been
arranged in a_ vertical
position down the middle
of the back, while the tail
was protected by some
formidable spines, as
shown in the greatly
reduced restoration of
a, nostrils ; 7, brain; h, horn; 7, nasal bones ; py, chin-bone ; 7, extremity ulne oon oa a
of upper jaw.—After Marsh. p-4. Still more strange
were the somewhat later
horned dinosaurs (Ceratops, etc.), of which two views of the skull and a more
reduced restoration of the skeleton are here given. In these extraordinary
creatures the hinder part of the head was provided with a pair of bony horn-
like projections, which were doubtless ensheathed during life with hollow horns,
like those of oxen; and there was also a single horn of variable size on the
nose. ‘The skull was further remarkable for the expansion of its hinder extremity
into a fan-like shield overhanging and protecting the vertebra of the neck. Some
idea of the huge dimensions attained by these dinosaurs will be conveyed by the
UPPER AND SIDE VIEWS OF THE SKULL OF A HORNED DINOSAUR.
‘
i
FIL VING DRAGONS. 39
o
statement that an immature skull of one of the species measures upwards of 6 feet,
while fully adult ones must have been considerably larger. The extraordinarily
small size of the brain of these creatures is indicated in the lower figure of
the skull. Externally the bodies of these dinosaurs were protected by granules
and plates of bones, which,
like those of crocodiles, were
probably overlain with horny
shields. It has yet to be
mentioned that in the horned
dinosaurs, as shown in the
figure of the skeleton, the
posterior bar of the pubis has
disappeared, and only the RESTORATION OF THE SKELETON OF A HORNED DINOSAUR.
front branch r emains, thus pd, chin-bone. Other letters as in the figure on p. 4.—After Marsh.
causing the whole pelvis to
simulate that of the carnivorous group, to which it has no real resemblance.
We have yet to learn the reason why, at the close of the Secondary period,
these mighty dinosaurs, together with the flying dragons which at the same time
tenanted the air, and the fish-lizards and plesiosaurs which peopled the sea, should,
one and all, disappear—and that apparently suddenly—to make way for mammals
and birds, which henceforth became the lords of creation.
DONA ALLO
Gh wie ae
SIN SS
vid
ts
FLYING DRAGONS, OR PTERODACTYLES.
Order ORNITHOSAURIA.,
At the present day bats and birds are the only Vertebrates endued with the
power of true flight, but during the Secondary period, when the former were
unknown and the latter but poorly represented, the place of both was taken by
the flying dragons, or, as they are called, from the structure of their wings,
Pterodactyles. While agreeing with crocodiles in the essential structure of their
skulls and in their two-headed ribs, these curious reptiles have the other portions
of their skeleton more or less specially modified for the purposes of flight. In the
relatively large size of the brain—which is doubtless essential for a flymg animal
—and general bird-like form of the skull, as well as in the keeled breast-bone and
general form of the collar-bones (although these are not welded together into a
furcula), the pterodactyles present a curious similarity to birds. Misled by these
resemblances, some anatomists have, indeed, been induced to consider that the
two groups are nearly related, although a more mistaken notion never existed.
Such resemblances as do exist between the two groups are due, indeed, to that
parallelism in development to which we have already had occasion to call atten-
tion as existing between totally different groups of animals whose mode of life
is similar.
The most distinctive feature of the pterodactyles is to be found in the
modifications of the bones of the fore-limbs for the purpose of supporting a wing,
which took the form of a membranous expansion of skin analogous to that con-
40 FLYING DRAGONS.
stituting the wings of bats. This wing was mainly supported by the great
elongation of the bones of the fifth digit or finger of the fore-limb, as shown in
the accompanying figure of the skeleton, and likewise in the restored representation
of one of these reptiles. The membrane thus supported seems to have extended
backwards along the sides of the body to include the upper portions of the legs,
between which it was extended to embrace the base of the tail in those forms in
which the latter appendage was
fully developed. Moreover, in
the long-tailed species, the
extremity of the tail itself was
provided with a racket-shaped
expansion of membrane, which
may have served the purpose of
a rudder in flight. If it be
asked how the presence of such
membranes is known, it may be
answered that in many of the
specimens of these reptiles en-
tombed in the fine-grained litho-
graphic limestones of Bavaria
the actual impressions of these
membranes have been preserved.
The elongated fifth finger of
the wing had no claw at the
extremity, although the three
middle fingers were thus pro-
vided. With regard to the first
finger, or the one corresponding
to the human thumb, this may
have been represented by the
SKELETON OF A PTERODACTYLE. small splint-like bone seen
The creature is lying on its back, with the head bent to the left depending from the wrist in the
side. a indicates the left pubic bone; the haunch-bone, or illum, 4 f ae r -
being shown on the opposite side. figured skeleton. The hind-
limbs present no special peculiar-
ities, but, as most of the bones of the skeleton were hollow and permeated by air,
like those of birds, we may infer that the lungs were probably also constructed after
the avian fashion. The vertebrae of the neck resembled those of living crocodiles
in having a ball at the hinder end of the body and a cup im front. In general
conformation the skull was remarkably bird-like, the snout being produced into a
beak, which in some cases was provided with teeth, while in others, as shown
in the figure on p. 5, it was toothless, and probably ensheathed during life with
horn. Bird-like features are likewise shown by the large size of the brain-case,
of which the component bones were fused together, and also by the union of the
extremities of the two branches of the lower jaw.
Pterodactyles flourished during the greater part of the Secondary period, dating
from the epoch of the Lias,and continuing to the close of the one during which the
FLYING DRAGONS. 41
Chalk was deposited. They are represented by several well-marked types, which
may be arranged under three family groups. Of these the most specialised forms
are the toothless pterodactyles, or pteranodonts, from the Cretaceous rocks of North
America; some of these toothless members of the order far exceeded any flying
bird in point of size; the estimated span of wing in the largest species being
upwards of five-and-twenty feet. This group may be distinguished not only by the
total absence of teeth, but likewise by the great backward extension of the hinder
extremity of the skull.
In the typical pterodactyles (Pterodactylus. etc.) the Jaws were provided with
—<——_
PaO) Y
>
RESTORATION OF A LONG-TAILED PTERODACTYLE (} nat. size).—After Marsh.
teeth,—which may, however, have been very small in size and few in number,—
while the skull, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 40, was not produced
backwardly, and the tail was reduced to a rudiment. The members of this group,
which are common in the Oolitic rocks of the Continent, vary in size from the
dimensions of a sparrow to those of an eagle. Lastly, we have the long-tailed
pterodactyles (Rhamphorhynchus, etc.), which are likewise of Oolitic and Liassic
age, and are at once distinguished, as shown in the restoration, from the members
of the preceding group by the fully developed tail. These long-tailed species are
evidently the most generalised members of the order; and in the retention of the
tail in the generalised group, and its loss in the more specialised one, the reader
will not fail to notice an exact parallelism between ordinary bats and the more
highly-developed fruit-bats.
CH A PLE Wii,
TorTOISES, TURTLES, AND PLESIOSAURS,—
Orders CHELONIA AND SAUROPTERYGIA.
AMONG all existing reptiles the most easily defined are those commonly known as
tortoises and turtles, and technically as Chelonians, since the presence of a more or
less fully developed bony shell investing the body, and containing within it the
upper portions of the limbs, at once separates them from all other members of the
class. Indeed, so utterly strange is the conformation of these extraordinary
UPPER SHELL OF THE CHAIBASSA TERRAPIN, AND A FOSSIL SPECIMEN OF THE SAME IN WHICH THE HORNY
SHIELDS ARE WANTING.
reptiles, that if they were met with only in the fossil state they would inevitably
be regarded as among the most marvellous of all creatures. Here however, as
elsewhere, the time-honoured proverb holds good, and our very familiarity from
childhood with the common European land - tortoise undoubtedly tends to
render us inappreciative of the marvellous bodily conformation of this group
of reptiles.
Although the presence of a bony shell is of itself sufficient to distinguish the
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 43
group from other living reptiles, it is necessary to add somewhat to this in order
to give a comprehensive definition. As regards the skull, this resembles that of
the crocodiles, in that the quadrate-bone, with which the lower jaw articulates, is
firmly wedged in among the adjacent bones, to which its relations are, however,
somewhat different. Unlike all crocodiles the jaws are, however, entirely devoid
of teeth, and are encased with horn, so as to form a cutting beak, which is invari-
ably short. A further peculiarity in the skull of a tortoise is to be found in the
presence of a greatly developed median spine (sup)
projecting backwards from the hinder region; exter-
nally to which are a pair of shorter processes. In
other respects, the skull is extremely variable, the
sockets of the eyes being sometimes, as in the figure
on p. 47, surrounded by bone, while in other cases
they are open behind. Sometimes, moreover, the bony
roof behind the eye-socket in the figure on p. 47 may
be prolonged backwards so as to cover the whole
of the region marked par in the annexed figure.
There is an equal amount of variation in regard
to the position of the nostrils, which sometimes open
on the palate close behind the beak, while they may
be situated, as in living crocodiles, close to the hinder
extremity of the skull. A most important feature in
the structure of these animals is to be found in the
circumstance that the ribs have but a single head
apiece, and that the more anterior ones articulate at
the junction between two of the vertebrz, so that one portion of the head is
applied to one vertebra and the other portion to the adjacent vertebra. This
forms an important distinction from the whole of the orders treated in the
preceding chapter, in all of which the anterior ribs are provided with two heads,
both of which articulate to the sides of one and the same vertebra. Passing on to
the consideration of the bony shell, we find this to consist of an upper portion
or carapace, shown in the figure at the commencement of the chapter, and of an
UPPER VIEW OF THE SKULL OF THE
SOFT-TORTOISE OF THE GANGES.
inferior portion, covering the lower aspect of the body, which is termed the
plastron. When this shell attains its fullest development, the upper and lower
moieties are completely connected together, as shown in the accompanying figure
of the skeleton of a land-tortoise; but in certain groups the two remain more
-or less separate, and in some cases the lower shell is but very slightly developed.
Moreover, while the carapace is generally immovably welded to the vertebrae of
the back and the ribs, in the so-called leathery turtle it is separate from both.
In its fullest developed form, the shell consists of a series of bones articulating
with one another at their edges by finely denticulated sutures, and thus forming
a continuous whole, capable of increasing in size by growth at the edges of its
component elements. In the carapace, the bones forming the middle of the back
are formed by expansions growing from the spines of the vertebrae, while the large
lateral plates grow upon the ribs, from which they are inseparable. Within the
cavity thus formed are placed the bones of the shoulder and pelvis, to which are
44 TORTOISES AND TURTLES,
respectively articulated the arm-bone and thigh-bone, so that, as shown in the
figure of the skeleton, these bones actually come within the ribs, instead of being
external to them, as in all other living animals. At the fore and hinder extrem-
ities of the shell are left large apertures, through which are protruded the head
and neck, the fore and hind-limbs, and the tail. A large number of tortoises are
able to retract both the
head, limbs, and tail
within the margins of
the shell, the apertures
of which are then filled
up; such portions of the
head and limbs as are
exposed being protected
by horny shields.
With the exception
of the marine leathery
turtles and the fresh-
water soft-tortoises, in
which it is invested merely with a continuous leathery skin, the shell of
Chelonians is covered with a number of horny plates, which, in the adult state at
least, are in contact with one another by their edges. As these horny shields are
very important in determining the different species of tortoises, it is essential to enter
in some detail into their mode of arrangement, and the names by which they are
known. In the carapace of any ordinary tortoise, such as the one represented in
the left-hand figure at the head of the chapter, we shall find that the middle line
of the back, exclusive of the margins, is occupied by a single row of large polygonal
OF TORTOISE IN LONGITUDINAL SECTION,
SKELETO
4
shields, symmetrical in themselves; these shields, which are marked v in the
accompanying diagram, being known as the vertebrals. On either side of this
median series is another row of shields ¢, which are not symmetrical in themselves,
and are termed costals. The extreme margins of the carapace are formed by a
large series of much smaller shields, of which the anterior unpaired one (7) is
termed the nuchal, and the posterior (ca), which may be either single or double,
the caudal. Between the nuchal and the caudal are a series, generally eleven in
number on each side, designated marginals (m). These same marginal shields,
being angulated, pass over the edges of the middle portion of the shell, and thus
cover the sides of the middle of the plastron, or lower shell, as shown in the right-
hand figure of the accompanying diagram. The shields of the plastron proper are
generally arranged in pairs, which may be termed, commencing anteriorly, gulars
(gu), humerals (hu), pectorals (pe), abdominals (ab), femorals ( fe), and anals (an).
In some eases, as will be illustrated in the sequel, the two gulars may, however, be
separated by a single interqular: while, as in the accompanying diagram, there is
frequently an inguinal shield immediately in advance of each notch for the
hind-limbs.
This disposes of the external horny shields; but a few words are necessary
with regard to the bony elements constituting the shell of a tortoise. On stripping
off these horny shields from the carapace of a tortoise, the underlying solid shell, |
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 45
as shown in the right-hand figure at the head of the chapter, will be seen to be
marked by a series of channels corresponding to the borders of these same shields.
If the shell be not that of a very aged animal, there will be seen in addition a
number of finely jagged sutures, marking the divisions between the component
bones; and it will be noticed that in their plan of arrangement, although not in
number, size, or shape, these underlying bones correspond very closely with the
overlying horny shields. Thus, in the middle line of the carapace we have a series
of polygonal plates, symmetrical in themselves, and attached to the summits of the
vertebrae, which are known as newrals; these being clearly indicated in the figure
referred to. In front, the series is completed by a large wuchal plate, having no
connection with the backbone, while behind it terminates in one or two pygals,
DIAGRAM OF THE HORNY PLATES ON A SHELL OF A FRESH-WATER TORTOISE.—Atfter Giinther.
which are likewise perfectly distinct from the vertebre. Externally to the neurals
are placed on either side the eight costal plates, so named from being attached to
the ribs; the inner halves of, these plates being alone visible in the shell figured at
the head of the chapter, which belonged to a rather aged animal. Finally, the
edges of the carapace are formed by the marginal plates, which, like the horny
shields similarly named, are angulated, and form the lateral borders of the middle
portion of the plastron. In the plastron itself, we find its anterior portion formed
by a pair of plates, known as the epiplastrals, corresponding to the collar-bones, or
clavicles, of other Vertebrates; while between or behind these is a single unpaired
entoplastral element, which may be either dagger-shaped or rhomboidal, and which
represents the interclavicle of less specially modified reptiles. The remainder of
the plastron is formed by three pairs of plates, respectively known as the hyo, hypo,
and aiphiplastrals, of which the latter or hindmost are generally more or less
deeply notched or forked. These three elements appear to correspond to the so-
called abdominal ribs of crocodiles; and it will thus be evident that Chelonians have
46 TORTOISES AND LORILES.
no representative of the breast-bone, or sternum, which is so commonly present in
other groups of Vertebrates.
As regards their limbs, the members of this order present a great amount of
variation, some of them, like the land-tortoises, having the feet adapted for walking,
while in the turtles the entire limbs are modified into paddles for swimming. In
some cases, each of the five toes may be furnished with strong, curved claws, but in
others, like the soft-tortoises, only three are thus armed. As a general rule, the
number of joints in the toes of the fore-limb, counting from within outwards, is
2, 3, 3, 3, 8, while in the hind-limb they are more generally 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, although
in a few species the number is the same as in the fore-limb. In both limbs the
number of these joimts may, however, be reduced, but, except among the soft-
tortoises, they are never augmented. Very generally, the surfaces of the limbs,
especially the anterior ones of the front pair, are protected by horny plates of
variable size, which, among the land-tortoises, may be underlaid by nodules of
bone.
In habits the members of the order display as much diversity as in structure ;
some being carnivorous and others herbivorous, while some are marine, others
fresh-water, and others, again, more or less exclusively inhabitants of dry land.
All, however, are fond of water, and even the most strictly terrestrial species can,
we believe, swim. With the exception of the turtles, the eggs are hard-shelled ;
and these are in all cases deposited on land, the turtles resorting to the shore at
certain seasons for this purpose. As regards distribution, tortoises are especially
characteristic of the warmer parts of the globe, only two species inhabiting Europe
and these confined to the more southern parts of the Continent. ‘The various
groups and families are, however, by no means equally distributed over the
different regions of the globe. The side-necked tortoises, for instance, are now
exclusively confined to the Southern Hemisphere, and in Australia are the only
representatives of the order; whereas the S-necked group attains its greatest
development in the opposite half of the world, although represented in many
countries lying to the south of the Equator. The soft river-tortoises, again, are
confined to the waters of Asia, Africa, and North America, being totally unknown
both in South America and in Australasia, Giant land-tortoises within comparatively
recent times have been confined to what are known as oceanic islands, although
they formerly occurred on most of the large continents ; while the smaller members
of the same genus are far more numerous in South Africa than they are in Asia.
Geologically, the order is a very ancient one, being represented throughout the
whole of the Secondary period, and thus commencing at a date when true crocodiles
are not known to have come into existence.
According to our own views of their mutual relationships, the Chelonians may
be divided into three main groups, or suborders, which may be severally designated
S-necked tortoises (including the turtles), side-necked tortoises, and soft-tortoises.
Some writers would, however, remove from the first group the so-called leathery
turtle, to make it the type of a group equal in value to the whole of the other
three, which are thus collectively brigaded under a common title. Adopting the
former arrangement, we commence our survey of the various members of
the order with
LAND-TORTOISES.
THE LAND-TORTOISES AND TERRAPINS.
Family TESTUDINIDZ.
47
The land-tortoises, together with the greater number of the fresh-water
tortoises, or terrapins, of the Northern Hemisphere, as well as their southern
allies, collectively constitute one of several families belonging to the first great
group of the order. From the circumstance that all its
members are so constructed as to be able to withdraw
their heads within the margins of the shell by a bending
of the neck in an S-like manner in a vertical plane, the
group may be conveniently designated S-necked tortoises ;
their scientific designation being Cryptodira. Since, how-
ever, the soft-tortoises likewise retract their heads in a
similar manner, it 1s obvious that this character alone will
not suffice to define the group, and it must accordingly be
supplemented by others. Although the degree of ossifi-
cation of the shell is very variable in the group, the
carapace and plastron being in some cases welded into a
complete box, and in other instances separate, yet there
is invariably a complete series of marginal bones, con-
nected with the ribs; the presence of the full series of
marginals, together with the S-like retraction of the neck,
being sufficient to distinguish the group. AND. TURTLES.
places by following the trail of their footsteps in the dry sand; the same method
being employed by some of the wild tribes of South Africa in the case of the
allied species inhabiting that continent. In the rainy season the elegant tortoise
is, however, extremely active, and wanders about in search of food at all hours of
the day. At the approach of the cold weather these reptiles select a sheltered
spot, where they conceal themselves by thrusting their shells into thick tufts of
bushes or shrubs, in order to be better protected from the cold. There they
remain in a kind of lethargic, although not truly torpid, state, till the hot season,
when they issue out to feed only after sunset and in the early morning.
Specimens kept in captivity were observed to be very fond of plunging into water
ELEGANT TORTOISE (4 nat. size).
during the hot season, where they would remain for half an hour at a time.
They also drank large quanties of water at this period of the year, which they
took by thrusting in their heads and swallowing in a series of gulps. About
November the female lays her eggs in a shallow pit excavated by herself. One of
the aforesaid captive specimens in the course of about two hours “succeeded in
making a hole six inches in depth and four inches in diameter; in this she
immediately deposited her eggs, four in number, filling up the hole again with the
mud she had previously scraped out, and then treading it well in, and stamping
upon it with her hind-feet alternately until it was filled to the surface, when she
bent it down with the whole weight of her body, raising herself behind as high as
JAI QUEUE
YER
> ah
nee =
atin
A
\N
SH)
GIANT TORTOISES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.
LAND-TORTOISES. 55
she could stretch her legs, and suddenly withdrawing them, allowing herself to
drop heavily on the earth, by which means it was speedily beaten flat; and so
smooth and natural did it appear that, had I not detected her in the performance
of her task, I should certainly never have noticed the spot where she had
deposited her eggs. She did not immediately leave the place after finishing her
work, but remained inactive, as if recovering from her fatigues.” In disposition
these tortoises are decidedly pugnacious, this being especially the case with the
males. These combats seemed to be chiefly trials of strength, “one male confronting
the other, with the hind and fore-legs drawn into the shell, and the hind-feet
planted firmly on the ground, and in this manner striving against each other until
one or both became fatigued. This was done chiefly when they wanted to pass
each other in any narrow space; and sometimes if the one could succeed in placing
his shell a little beneath the other, he tilted him over on his back, from which he
had great difficulty in recovering himself; and I have frequently found them
sprawling thus, making desperate efforts with head and feet to throw themselves
back to their natural position, which they were unable to effect unless the ground
chanced to be very uneven, so as to assist them.”
Giese During the Pliocene, or later division of the Tertiary period,
gigantic land-tortoises were, as attested by their petrified remains,
widely distributed over the continents of the world ; species having been obtained
from India, France, and North and South America. The largest of these was the
well-known atlas tortoise (7. atlas) from the Siwalik Hills of Northern India, in
which the length of the shell was about 6 feet; the species itself being apparently
allied to the existing Burmese brown tortoise already referred to. Probably more
or less abundant during the epoch in question, with the advent of the ensuing
Pleistocene epoch giant tortoises seem to have disappeared entirely from the
continental areas, to survive on certain oceanic islands where they were free from
the competition of large animals of higher organisation. Some of these insular
species, like those of Madagascar and Malta, did not apparently survive the
Pleistocene epoch; while in other regions they flourished and multiplied till the
fell presence of man led to their partial or total extermination. At the present
day the few survivors of these monstrous reptiles are being rapidly reduced in
numbers, and unless special means be speedily taken for their preservation, they
will ere long entirely cease to exist. During the historic period the islands where
giant tortoises are known to have existed constitute three distinct groups. ‘Two
of these are situated in the Indian Ocean, and comprise Aldabra, to the north-west
of Madagascar, and the Mascarene Group—including Réunion, Mauritius, and
Rodriguez—lying to the east of the same; while the third or Galapagos Group,
taking its name from the Spanish word for tortoise, is situated in the far distant
South Pacific, off the western coast of South America. During the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, the tortoises are stated to have existed in enormous numbers
in all the above-named islands; but as they afforded a most valuable supply of
food, and could be kept alive on board ship, their numbers were rapidly reduced in
those of the Indian Ocean, and Aldabra is now the only island in that area where
they still exist in a wild state. Many of these tortoises were, however, exported
to the Seychelles, and it is believed, as we shall notice below, that one carried
56 LORTOISES AND TORTLES,
thence to the Mauritius is the only living example of the species that formerly
inhabited Rodriguez. Regarding the abundance of these tortoises in the latter
island, Frangois Leguat, writing in 1691, observes that “there are such plenty of
land-turtles in this isle, that sometimes you see a three thousand of them in a
flock, so that you may go above a hundred paces on their backs.” In Mauritius
they were still abundant in 1740; but about 1761 they were probably scarcer, as
thousands were then imported from Rodriguez as food for the patients in the
hospitals of the Mauritius. The continued exportation,—some ships taking as
many as four hundred at a time,—coupled with the destruction of their eggs and
young, finally led to their extermination in both Mauritius and Rodriguez; this
extirpation having probably taken place early in the present century. The
Réunion tortoise, of which very little is known, seems to have disappeared at a
still earlier date ; while of the Galapagos species, we shall speak later.
The total number of species of giant tortoises known to have existed within
ELEPHANT-TORTOISE.
the historic period is about fourteen ; the whole of which are characterised by their
large size, their long necks, and the uniformly dark brown or black colour of their
shells. They may be divided into four groups, according to their geographical
distribution, each characterised by certain structural peculiarities. The first group
comprises the four Aldabra tortoises, characterised by the presence of a nuchal
shield on the front of the carapace, and the distinctness of the gulars on the front
of the plastron. On the other hand, in the four best known Mascarene species,
constituting the second group, the nuchal shield is wanting, while the two gulars
have coalesced into one; the plastron being characterised by its extreme shortness.
Lastly, the third, or Galapagos group, with six species, presents a condition inter-
mediate between that existing in the two others, the nuchal shield of the
carapace being absent, while the gulars of the plastron remain double. We
proceed to notice some of the species of each group.
The best known of the four species from Aldabra is the elephant-
Aldabra Tortoise. 4 a : A pene . oer.
tortoise (7. elephantina), which differs from the other three in having
LAND-TORTOISES. 57
the horny shields of the carapace concentrically striated, and the plastron of the
adult notched behind. One of the species (7. gigantea) with smooth shields on a
truncated plastron is peculiar in having the caudal shield divided, as in the
Burmese brown tortoise. The elephant-tortoise appears to be one of the largest of
all the species, attaining a length of about 4 feet. At the present day it is very
scarce in its native island, where the few survivors receive a certain amount of
protection from the Government of Mauritius, to which Aldabra belongs. There
are, however, a few individuals living in Mauritius and the Seychelles.
Mascarene Of the Mascarene species, the three species from Mauritius
Tortoises. (7 indica, trisserrata, and inepta), all of which are extinct, are
characterised by the thinness of their carapace, of which the margins are thickened.
The Rodriguez tortoise (7. vosme@r:) has a still thinner carapace, which in the
male does not shelve down in front in the usual manner. Allusion has already
been made to the numbers in which these tortoises existed in Leguat’s time; but
till quite recently it was thought that the species was totally extinct. It appears,
however, that in the Artillery barracks of Port Louis in the Mauritius, there lives
a very ancient tortoise which, in the opinion of Dr. Giinther, is probably of this
species. This tortoise is one of two which were imported into the Mauritius by
the navigator, Captain Marion du Fresne from the Seychelles in 1766; one of
these having been subsequently presented to the London Zoological Gardens in
1832 by Sir C. Colville. The latter weighed 289 lbs., and its shell measured 4 feet
44 inches in length along the curve, and 4 feet 9 inches in width; while in the
Port Louis specimen the circumference of the shell is 9 feet 3 inches, and its height
21 feet. Marion’s tortoise, as the Port Louis example is called, is thus definitely
known to have lived for a hundred and twenty-seven years, and as it was doubtless
of large size when brought from the Seychelles, and since all these tortoises take
an immense time to reach large dimensions, it is highly probable that it is an
actual survivor from the enormous herds that existed in Rodriguez in Leguat’s
time. From a peculiarity in the structure of the hinder vertebra of the neck, it
appears that the tortoises of this species have the power of raising their necks to a
nearly vertical position, which would give them a wide range of vision. This
elevated range of vision would accord well with the account given by Leguat, who
writes concerning these tortoises as follows. “There’s one thing very odd among
them ; they always place sentinels at some distance from their troop, at the four
corners of the camp, to which the sentinels turn their backs, and look with the
eyes, as if they were on the watch.”
Galapagos The various islands of the Galapagos Group, such as Abingdon,
Tortoises. Albemarle, Chatham, Hood, and Charles, are the respective homes of
one or more species of giant tortoise. Of the various species inhabiting these
islands, the blackish tortoise (7. nigrita), which is the one given in the illustration
on p. 54, agrees with two others (7. nigra and T. vicina) in having the horny
shields of the carapace concentrically striated in the adult; the figured species
differing from 7. nigra in having the plastron notched, instead of truncate
behind. In the other three species the shields on the back are smooth, while
the plastron always has its hinder end truncated. In the North Albemarle
tortoise (7. microphyes), the width of the bridge connecting the upper and lower
58 LOR LOMES AND LOREETES:
shells is of considerable length, and the shell itself stout. On the other hand, in
the saddled tortoise (7. ephippium) and the Abingdon tortoise (7. abingdonz) the
same bridge is relatively short, and the shell is remarkable for its thinness; the
carapace being much narrowed anteriorly, where it is so pinched in at the sides as
to have a sharp ridge on the back. In the former of these two species the shell
still retains the usual bony framework, but in the second it is soft and leathery.
Both haye very long necks, which are carried nearly vertically; and in the
Abingdon species the notches in the front end of the shell are so large that ina
front view the animal appears merely to have a kind of mantle thrown over the
body. It is hard to see what can be the object of this softening and atrophy of
the shell; but it is quite clear that it renders the animals very lable to injury, and
thus probably accounts for the fact that none of them have been brought alive to
Europe. The carapace of this species attains a length of 38) inches, and the
weight of one individual was just over 200 lbs.
The best account of the habits of the Galapagos tortoises is one given by
Darwin, regarding the species figured in our engraving, which inhabits, apparently,
most of the islands of the group. These tortoises frequent in preference the high
damp parts, although they likewise live in the lower and arid districts. Very
numerous in individuals, some grow to such a size that it requires six or eight men
to lift them, while they will yield as much as 200 lbs. of meat. “ The old males are
the largest, the females rarely growing to so large a size; the male can be readily
distinguished from the female by the greater length of its tail. The tortoises
which live on those islands where there is no water, or in the lower and arid parts
of the others, feed chiefly on the succulent cactus. Those which frequent the
higher and damp regions eat the leaves of various trees, a kind of berry, which is
acid and austere, and likewise a pale green filamentous lichen, that hangs in tresses
from the boughs of the trees. The tortoise is very fond of water, drinking large
quantities, and wallowing in the mud. The larger islands alone possess springs,
and these are always situated towards the central parts, and at a considerable
height. The tortoises, therefore, which frequent the lower districts, when thirsty,
are obliged to travel from a long distance. Hence, broad and well-beaten paths
branch off in every direction from the wells down to the sea-coast; and the
Spaniards by following them up, first discovered the watering-places. When I
landed at Chatham Island, I could not imagine what animal travelled so methodi-
cally along well-chosen tracks. Near the springs it was a curious spectacle to
behold many of these huge creatures, one set eagerly travelling onwards with
outstretched necks, and another set returning after having drunk their fill.
When the tortoise arrives at the spring, quite regardless of any spectator, he
buries his head in the water above his eyes, and greedily swallows great mouth-
fuls, at the rate of about ten ina minute. The inhabitants say that each animal
stays three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water, and then returns to
the lower country; but they differed respecting the frequency of these visits.”
After mentioning that some tortoises live on islands where the only water they
obtain is that which falls as rain, and also that the inhabitants of the Galapagos
Islands, when overcome with thirst, are in the habit of killing a tortoise and
drinking the water contained in its interior, the writer proceeds as follows :—“'The-
TEIN OF HOGS L4,9, 59
tortoises, when purposely moving towards any point, travel by night and day,
and arrive at their journey’s end much sooner than would be expected. The
inhabitants, from observing marked individuals, consider that they travel a
distance of about eight miles in two or three days. One large tortoise, which I
watched, walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes, that is three hundred
and sixty yards in the hour, or four miles a day,—allowing a little time for it to
eat on the road. During the breeding-season, when the male and female are
together, the male utters a hoarse roar or bellowing, which, it is said, can be heard
at a distance of more than a hundred yards. The female never uses her voice, and
the male only at these times; so that when the people hear this noise, they know
that the two are together. They were at this time (October) laying their eggs.
The female, where the soil is sandy, deposits them together, and covers them up
with sand; but where the ground is rocky, she drops them indiscriminately in any
hole; Mr. Bynoe found seven placed in a fissure. The egg is white and spherical ;
one which I measured was 73 inches in circumference, and therefore larger than a
hen’s egg. The young tortoises, as soon as they are hatched, fall a prey in great
numbers to the carrion-feeding buzzard (Polyborus). The old ones seem generally
to die from accidents, as from falling down precipices; at least, several of the
inhabitants told me that they never found one dead without some evident cause.
The inhabitants believe that these animals are absolutely deaf; certainly they do
not hear a person walking close behind them. I was always amused when over-
taking one of these great monsters, as it was quietly pacing along, to see how
suddenly, the instant I passed, it would draw in its head and legs, and uttering a
deep hiss fall to the ground with a heavy sound, as if struck dead. I frequently
got on their backs, and then giving a few raps on the hinder part of their shells,
they would rise and walk away ;—but I found it difficult to keep my balance.” |
Like their Mascarene allies, the Galapagos tortoises are much esteemed as
food; and in order to see whether they were sufficiently fat to be killed, the
inhabitants were accustomed to make a slit beneath the tail, through which the
interior of the body could be seen. With the usual hardihood of reptiles, the
rejected individuals appear to have recovered completely from this severe
operation. From several of the islands the giant tortoises have already dis-
appeared, and it is much to be feared that they will soon cease to exist throughout
the Galapagos Group. Dr. G. Baur, who visited Albemarle in 1891, reports,
however, that he made a large collection of these reptiles, one specimen weighing
more than 400 Ibs., and its carapace measuring 4 feet in a straight line.
The familiar Grecian tortoise (7. graca) brings us to the sixth
main group of the genus, which comprises seven Old World species of
small or medium size, characterised by the carapace being brown or olive, which
may be either uniform, or spotted with black, or black and yellow; by the gular
shields on the plastron being distinct ; and by the slight prominence and shortness
of the ridge on the palate. The Grecian tortoise belongs to a section of the group
in which the anal or hindermost shields of the plastron meet in the middle line by
a suture of considerable length ; and it is further characterised by the presence of
five claws on the fore-foot. From its nearest allies it may be distinguished by the
fifth vertebral shield of the carapace being much broader than the third; the
Grecian Tortoise.
60 LORTOISES AND TORTLES,
caudal shield being usually double, and there being no large tubercle on the inner
side of the thigh. The shell of this species is moderately vaulted, and not much
expanded behind, while its margins are not serrated. The nuchal shield is very
long and narrow; in the male the divided caudals are much incurved; and the
shields of the back show a strongly-marked concentric striation. In colour, the
shell is bright yellow, with the shields of the carapace spotted and bordered with
black, and a broad band of black running along each side of the plastron. The
length of the shell is about 53 inches. Mainly a South European species, the
Grecian tortoise inhabits the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Italy,
Dalmatia, the Balkan Peninsula, and the Greek Archipelago, while it also occurs in
Syria. The allied but larger Algerian tortoise (7. ibera), in which the shell attains
a length of about 9 inches, may be distinguished by the fifth vertebral shield being
not broader than the third, by the single caudal shield, and the presence of a large
subconical tubercle on the inner
surface of the thigh. In colour,
this species ces from the last
in having the plastron more or
less spotted with black, while
in some examples the carapace
is uniformly brown. Its range
includes North-Western Africa,
Syria, Asia Minor, Trans-
caucasia, and Persia.
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LIZARDS. 107
long process arising from the arches of the vertebrae; from the tortoises, where the
single-headed ribs articulate at the junction between the bodies of two vertebre ;
and from the plesiosaurs, in which the single-headed ribs of the back are articulated
to processes or facets on the arches of the vertebrae. In most of the members of
the order the body of each vertebra has a cup in front and a ball behind, by which
it articulates with the adjacent segments of the column—an arrangement paralleled
among modern crocodiles. In some lizards, and in all snakes, the vertebree, as
shown in the figure on p. 6, have additional surfaces on their arches for mutual
articulation, thus communicating additional flexibility, and at the same time strength
to the backbone.
Another important feature in which the order differs from all
the preceding ones, is the absence of any system of true abdominal
ribs, or of their equivalent, a plastron, on the inferior surface of the body. As
regards the teeth, these differ from those of the orders hitherto considered in that,
instead of being implanted in separate sockets, they are firmly soldered to the bones
of the jaw. In some cases they are attached to the very summit of the jawbones, when
the dentition is said to be acrodont; while in others they are affixed to one of the
side-walls of the free edges of the jaws, the term plewrodont being then employed.
Another divergence from both crocodiles and tortoises is to be found in the vent
opening by a transverse aperture, whereas in the former group it is longitudinal,
and in the latter either circular or longitudinal. Finally, in those forms in which
the bones of the chest attain their fullest development, there is a breast-bone or
sternum, a pair of collar-bones or clavicles, and a median T-shaped interclavicle.
Special The above being the leading characters of the entire order of
Characters of scaled reptiles, it remains to consider how the lizards (Lacertilia) are
lizards. to be distinguished from the other two suborders into which the
existing members of the assemblage are divided. Externally, by far the greater
number of lizards are four-limbed reptiles of a crocodile-like appearance, with the
head, neck, body, and tail well distinguished from one another, and if we had these
alone to deal with, there would be no sort of difficulty in distinguishing between a
lizard and a snake. The matter is, however, somewhat complicated by the circum-
stance that certain lizards, like the familiar slow-worm, lose all external traces of
limbs, and assume an elongated snake-like form, with the head passing imperceptibly
Other Characters.
into the body without the intervention of a distinct neck, and without any external
indication of where the body ends and the tail commences. Externally, such snake-
like lizards are very difficult to distinguish from snakes, but on opening the mouths
of the former it will be found that the tongue cannot be withdrawn into a sheath
at its base, as is always the case with the latter. Further help in discriminating
between the two is afforded by the circumstances that whereas snakes have neither
eyelids nor external ear-openings, both these are usually, although not invariably,
present in the limbless lizards. As additional distinctive features of the present
group, by means of which they can be distinguished both from snakes on the one
hand and from chameleons on the other, the following points may be noticed. In
all lizards the two branches of the lower jaw are united at the chin by means of a
bony suture ; while in all the species furnished with limbs collar-bones are present ;
and when the limbs are absent, some traces of the bones forming what is known
108 LIZARDS.
as the shoulder-girdle persist. In form the tongue is flattened, and, as already
said, cannot be withdrawn into a basal sheath, although such a sheath may be
present. In most of the members of the suborder the upper surface of the body is
clothed with the overlapping scales characteristic of the order in general, these
scales being in some cases underlain by bony plates; but in most geckos the upper
scales are granular, although sometimes juxtaposed.
Numbers and Numerically, lizards are by far the most abundant of all reptiles
Distribution. at the present day, the total number of species not falling far, if at
all, short of one thousand seven hundred, which are arranged under twenty distinct
families. In this abundance at the present day, coupled with. the specialised
features of the greater part of their organisation, lizards may be regarded
as occupying a very similar position in the reptilian class to that held by the
perching birds in the preceding class. With the exception of the polar and sub-
polar zones, lizards are distributed over the whole globe, ranging in some districts
from the level of the sea to the limits of eternal snow, and found alike in fruitful
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SKELETON OF LIZARD.
and barren districts, in the neighbourhood of water, and in the most arid deserts.
Whereas, however, in the colder regions they are poor in species and small in size,
it is in the tropics and subtropical regions that they attain their maximum
development, as regards numbers, bodily size, richness of coloration, and peculiarity
of form.
As regards their distribution over the surface of the globe, lizards present a
most remarkable difference from what obtains among Amphibians (frogs, newts,
ete.), and, to a less degree, among tortoises. For instance, whereas Amphibians,
and to some extent tortoises, have their distributional areas defined equatorially,
such lines of division, in the case of the present group, must be drawn meridionally.
Thus, in the case of Amphibians, one great distributional province includes Europe,
Asia, and North America, and the second embraces the regions lying south of the
Kquator; whereas in the case of lizards one area marked by peculiar forms will
include the Old World and Australia, and the other will comprise the whole of
America. As has already been noticed, the distribution of tortoises approximates
to the former type, all the side-necked group being confined to the Southern
Hemisphere. Again, we find that whereas Tropical Africa is closely related to
HABITS. 10g
Tropical India as regards its Amphibians, while Australia and Africa are near
akin to South America in regard to their tortoises, in respect of lizards there is no
close connection between India and Africa, but an intimate relationship exists
between India and Australia, where members of the same genera occur; while the
Australian lizards are totally unlike their South American cousins. As might have
been expected from their great numerical preponderance at the present day, lizards
appear to be a comparatively modern group, their remains being rare in the lower
Tertiary deposits, while in the Secondary period they are only known by a few
species from the rocks of the Cretaceous epoch. That the group has originated
from the tuateras, which were so abundant in the earlier strata of the Secondary
period, may be regarded as most probable.
Turning to their mode of life, we find that while a few members
of the order resemble crocodiles, in spending the greater portion of
their time in water, visiting the land only for the purposes of feeding, sleeping,
or basking in the sun, by far the great majority of lizards are essentially land-
animals, avoiding even damp situations. Although some inhabit trees, the greater
number dwell either on the ground or among the clefts of rocks; the conformation
of the body generally giving some indication of this diversity of habitat. Among
the land forms, for instance, those with depressed bodies are generally to be found
in open sandy deserts, where they seek shelter either beneath stones or in holes;
whereas such as have the body compressed are more usually dwellers among
bushes or in trees. Those, again, in which the body is more or less cylindrical, are
in the habit of secreting themselves in the clefts of rocks or the chinks of tree-
stems; while the snake-like kinds live on the ground, and those with a more
worm-like form beneath its surface. The movements of the greater number of
species—whether they live on the ground, among rocks, on trees, or on cliffs or
walls—are agile in the extreme; and while the majority run with their bodies
close to the ground, many habitually raise themselves up at times by resting on
their hind-legs and tails, and are able to spring, either on the ground or from
branch to branch, to a considerable distance after their prey. Of the arboreal
species, some make use of their tails to aid in maintaining their hold, while others,
together with cliff- and wall-hunting species, like the geckos, are enabled to run
along the under sides of boughs, or to ascend vertical surfaces by the aid of their
expanded and dise-like feet. The peculiar flying lizard is enabled to take long,
flying leaps, supported by a parachute-like membrane borne by the expanded ribs ;
while all the limbless species move somewhat after the manner of snakes, although
making less use of the extremities of the ribs. The few aquatic forms swim and
dive without the aid of webbed fect; but many other kinds swim well if
thrown into water.
In many cases elegant and graceful in form, although at others rendered more
curious than beautiful by the presence of spines or warts, lizards are pleasing
rather than repulsive animals; and, with the exception of the American heloderms,
none are poisonous, although some will bite sharply. Few lizards possess a distinet
voice, the majority merely uttering a low hiss; some, however, especially among
those whose habits are nocturnal—emit a clear, sharp ery, which has been likened
both to the scream of a frog, and to the chirp of a cricket. Of their senses, the
Habits.
110 LAZARD S:
most acute is doubtless that of sight, next to which probably comes hearing. In
regard to diet, a few lizards are strictly herbivorous, but the great majority are
more or less completely carnivorous; the larger kinds feeding on small mammals,
birds and their eggs, other reptiles, and, more rarely, frogs and fish, as well as
many descriptions of invertebrates. The smaller members of the order, on the
other hand, are restricted mainly or entirely to an invertebrate diet, the great
portion of which consists of insects, worms, and land-molluses. Nearly all drink
by rapidly protruding and withdrawing the tongue; dew affording sufficient
moisture to those living on rock or in trees, while some kinds can exist for long
periods, or even entirely without drinking. The species inhabiting the warmer
regions, save those which are arboreal or aquatic in their habits, pass the hottest
and driest season of the year in a state of torpor; while those in colder regions
regularly hibernate, such hibernation, in the case of some of the species inhabiting
the continent of Europe, lasting for a period of from six to eight months. As
regards their breeding-habits, the majority of lizards lay eggs, which may vary
from two to thirty in number, and have generally a soft and leathery covering,
although sometimes furnished with a hard calcareous shell.
One peculiarity characterising the members of the order cannot be passed
over before concluding these introductory remarks. This is the facility with
which they are enabled to reproduce lost parts, and more especially the tail. As
is well known, in many lizards, when handled, the tail breaks off without any
rough usage, and in all or nearly all it will readily come in two if pulled when the
creature is seeking to escape, this susceptibility to automatic fracture being due to
a cartilaginous band across the middle of each vertebra of the tail in the case of
the common lizard of England. Such missing portion of the tail is speedily
reproduced, it may be double; and whereas among the members of the typical
family of the order, the scaling of the reproduced portion is like the original, in
certain other forms this is by no means always the case. The remarkable circum-
stance about the matter is that when the pattern of the scaling of such a new tail
differs from the original, it always reverts to that characterising a less specialised
and probably ancestral group. It is scarcely necessary to mention that in such
an extensive assemblage as the present, only a comparatively small percentage of
species, or even genera, can be mentioned, and these but briefly.
THE GECKOS.
Family GECKONIDZ.
Few creatures have given rise to a greater amount of fable and legend than
the large group of lizards commonly known as geckos; such legends being probably
due to the nocturnal and domestic habits of these creatures, coupled with the sharp
chirping ery from which they derive their name, and their curiously expanded
dise-like toes. Absolutely innocuous, they have been credited from the earliest
times with ejecting venom from their toes, and of poisoning whatever they crawled
over; while the teeth of one species have been asserted to be capable of leaving
their impression on steel. Indeed, so intense is the dread inspired by these little
GECKOS. ITE
creatures, that in Egypt the lobe-footed, or fan-footed species is commonly termed
abou-burs, or father of leprosy.
Geckos, of which there are some two hundred and eighty species, distributed
over all the warmer parts of the globe, although more numerous in the Indian and
Australian regions than elsewhere, are for the most part small and plumply-built
nocturnal lizards, characterised by their depressed form and dust-lke coloration,
The rather long and more or less flattened head is broad and triangular in shape ;
the large eyes are characterised by the absence of movable lids, and by the pupil
being, except in a few diurnal forms, vertical; while the aperture of the ears is
likewise in the form of an upright slit. Externally, the head is covered with minute
granules, or small scales, and the body is devoid of a bony armour, and in most
cases covered above with granules, and beneath with small overlapping scales. If
we add to the above features that the tongue is either smooth or covered with
villous papillee, and is short or
moderate in length, and not
sheathed at the base, and that
the bodiesof the vertebra articu-
late together by means of cup-
shaped surfaces at both their
extremities, we shall have said
sufficient to distinguish the
geckos from all other members
of the suborder. As regards
their other external characters,
the neck is very short and thick,
the body, although rounded,
markedly depressed, and the
tail, which is generally remark-
ably brittle, usually thick and
of moderate length, with its LOBE-FOOTED GECKO,
basal portion either cylindrical
or laterally compressed, although it may be leaf-like, or even rudimental. In some
cases the tail is known to be prehensile, and it is not improbable that it is
frequently endowed with this power. .The limbs are generally remarkable for
their shortness, and are always provided with five toes each, the tips or sides of
which may be more or less dilated. In those species inhabiting desert regions, the
toes are of normal form, being often nearly cylindrical, and keeled on their lower
surfaces ; but in the great majority of the members of the family, they are expanded
either throughout their length or partially into adhesive dises, of which the under
surface is formed by a series of movable symmetrical plates of variable form, by
the aid of which the creatures are enabled to ascend walls and run across the
ceilings of rooms. In some cases the claws are retractile, either within the plates
of the dises, or into sheaths; while in other instances the toes may be united by
webs, which are not, however, for the purpose of swimming, all the geckos being
land-lizards. The numerous teeth are small, and attached to one side of the
summit of the jaw (pleurodont).
112 LIZARDS.
Lobe-Footed The geckos being so numerous in species, which are arranged
Gecko. under no less than forty-nine genera, it is of course impossible in a
work like the present to do more than notice a few of the better known or more
striking. Among these, one of the most familiar is the little lobe- or fan-footed
gecko (Ptyodactylus lobatus), of Northern Africa, Arabia, and Syria. This is one
of two species belonging to a genus characterised by the toes (as shown in the
TURKISH GECKO (nat. size).
figure on p. 111), being dilated at their summits, where they are furnished inferiorly
with two diverging series of plates; the digits being furnished with claws capable
of retraction within notches in the front of the disc. The upper surface is covered
with granules, among which are some small keeled tubercles; the colour being
greyish or yellowish brown above, with darker and light spots; and below uniform
white. The length is a little over 5 inches.
moe ioe Equally well known is the Turkish gecko (Hemidactylus tur-
cicus), represented in the figure above, which is likewise a small
GECKOS. Ties
species, inhabiting the countries bordering the Mediterranean and Red Seas,
and also found in Sind. It belongs to a group of genera with dilated toes and
compressed claws, and is specially characterised. by the extremities of the toes
being free, the plates on the under surface of the discs arranged in double rows,
and the presence of some large shields on the under surface of the tail. Measuring
not more than 4 inches in length, this species may be distinguished from the other
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European geckos by the body being covered with from fourteen to sixteen
longitudinal rows of warts, of which some are white and the others blackish, and like-
wise by the hue of the upper-parts being greyish brown spotted with flesh-colour.
It is, however, said to be able to change its colour according to circumstances, being
of a shining milky white at night, and dark-coloured during the daytime. The
genus to which it belongs comprises over thirty species, ranging over Southern
Europe and Asia, Africa, Tropical America, and Oceania.
VOL. V.—8
114 LIZARDS.
A larger and more remarkable species is the one represented in
the illustration on p. 113 (Ptychozoum homatocephaluim), which
is the sole member of a genus characterised by the presence of an expansion of
skin along the sides of the body, continued as lobes on the tail, as well as by the
toes being completely webbed, and the inner one devoid of a claw. Attaining a
length of nearly 8 inches, this species has a distinetly ringed tail; its colour above
being greyish or reddish brown, marked with undulating dark brown transverse
bands, and a dark streak extending from the eye to the first of the bands on
the back. This gecko is an inhabitant of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Malay
Fringed Gecko.
Peninsula.
a ee The last member of the family we shall specially notice is the
wall-gecko (Turentola mauritanica), which is the Mediterranean
representative of a small genus ranging from the countries bordering the Mediter-
ranean to West Africa, and including one West Indian species. The genus is
readily recognised by all the toes being dilated, and only the third and fourth
furnished with claws. This species varies from rather less than 5 to somewhat
more than 6 inches in length, of which one-half is formed by the tail. The sides
of the neck and body, as well as the upper surface of the limbs, are ornamented
with conical tubercles; the back carries seven or nine longitudinal rows of larger
and strongly-keeled tubercles; and on the anterior half of the tail the ornamenta-
tion takes the form of knobs with backwardly directed spines. The general colour
of the upper-parts is greyish brown, with more or less distinct hghter and darker
marblings, while a well-marked dark streak passes on each side of the head through
the eye.
ern With the exception of a certain number of species, the geckos, as
already said, are nocturnal in their habits; and many are remarkable
for uttering shrill cries, probably produced by striking the tongue against the
palate, which in some cases are compared to the syllables yecko, checko, or toki, and
in others to the monosyllable toh. A South African sand-gecko is at times stated
to occur in such numbers, and to produce such a din by its ery, as to render a
sojourn in the neighbourhood well-nigh insupportable. As regards their habitat,
geckos are very variable, some frequenting arid deserts, where they, in some
instances, burrow in the sand; others frequent wooded regions, living either among
low bushes or on trees, and concealing themselves during the day beneath stones
or the bark of the stems; others again are found among rocks; while a third
group has elected to ive among human dwellings, where some of its members have
become as fearless and confiding as domesticated animals. Of the arboreal species,
the frilled gecko is peculiar in having a parachute-like expansion of skin, which
is used after the manner of that of the flying squirrels in aiding its owner to take
long leaps from bough to bough. When at rest, the parachute is kept close to the
sides of the body by the aid of its intrinsic muscles; and it is stated that this
species, like several others, has the power of changing its colour according to the
hue of the object in which it is resting. The species frequenting houses may be
divided into those which resort to the interior, and those which are content with
the outside. Of the latter, Sir J. E. Tennent writes that in Ceylon, “as soon as
evening arrives, geckos are to be seen in every house in keen and crafty pursuit.of
GECKOS. TLS
their prey; emerging from the chinks and recesses where they conceal themselves
during the day, to search for insects that then retire to settle for the night. Ina
boudoir, where the ladies of my family spent their evenings, one of these familar
and amusing little creatures had its hiding-place behind a gilt picture-frame.
Punctually as the candles were lighted, it made its appearance on the wall to be
fed with its accustomed crumbs; and, if neglected, it reiterated its sharp quick call
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WALL-GECKOS (nat. size).
of chic, chic, chit, till attended to. It was of a delicate grey colour, tinged with
pink; and having by accident fallen on a work-table, it fled, leaving part of its
tail behind it, which, however, it reproduced within less than a month... . In an
officer's quarters, in the fort at Colombo, a gecko had been taught to come daily to
the dinner-table, and always made its appearance along with the dessert. The
family were absent for some months, during which the house underwent extensive
repairs, the roof having been raised, the walls stucecoed, and the ceilings whitened.
It was naturally surmised that so long a suspension of its accustomed habits would
116 LIZARDS.
have led to the disappearance of the little lizard; but on the return of its old
friends, it made its entrance as usual at their first dinner, the instant the cloth was
removed.” Another Indian observer, Colonel Tytler, writing of these house-geckos
states that although several species “may inhabit the same locality, yet, as a
general rule, they keep separate and aloof from each other; for instance, in a
house the dark cellars may be the resort of one’ species, the roof of another, and
the crevices in the walls may be exclusively occupied by a third species. However,
at night they issue forth in quest of insects, and may be found mixed up together
in the same spot; but on the slightest disturbance, or when they have done feeding,
they return hurriedly to their particular hiding-places.” So far as is known, all
the members of the family agree with the house-geckos in being insectivorous.
With the exception of two peculiar New Zealand species producing living young,
all the geckos appear to lay eggs, which are enclosed in a round and hard shell,
and are generally two in number.
A few peculiar geckos, assigned to three genera, and of which
Hardwicke’s gecko (EKublepharis hardwicke7) is one of the best known
examples, differ from the true geckos in being furnished with movable eyelids, and
also in that their vertebree are articulated together by means of cup-and-ball joints.
Consequently, those eyelid geckos, as they may be termed, form a distinct family—
Eublepharide.
Eyelid Geckos.
THE SCALE-FooTED LIZARDS.
Family PYGOPODIDA.
To the ordinary observer it might well appear that the whole of the snake-like
lizards, or those in which the body has become cylindrical and much elongated,
and the limbs either rudimentary or wanting, would pertain to a single family.
Such, however, is not the view of modern zoologists, who regard many of these
abberrant members of the suborder as having been independently derived from
several groups of fully limbed forms, and thus having but little relationship among
themselves. Of these snake-like groups, one of the most remarkable is that of the
scale-footed lizards of Australia and New Guinea, which form a family comprising
six genera, all characterised by the retention of more or less well-marked rudiments
of the hind-limbs, although the front pair have quite disappeared externally.
According to the opinion of Mr. Boulenger, the scale-foots come nearest to the
geckos, with which they agree in the essential characters of their skull, as they do
in the nature of their tongue, the want of movable eyelids, and the vertical pupil
of the eye; although the latter character, as being variable in the geckos, cannot
be regarded as of much importance. Apart from their external form, they differ
from the geckos and thereby resemble the members of the next family in that the
inner extremities of the collar-bones are not expanded into a loop-shaped form,
while they are peculiar in that the number of bones entering into the composition
of each half of the lower jaw is reduced from six to four. The small and numerous
teeth are closely set, and have generally long, cylindrical shafts, and blunted
summits; although in the genus Lialis they are sharply pointed, swollen at the
base, and backwardly curved, thus resembling those of the monitors. The hinder
AGAMOID_GROUF. 117
limbs are represented externally by a scaly flap, which is most developed in the
genus to which the figured example belongs; the component bones may be felt
more or less distinctly, and the skeleton of the common species shows five toe-bones.
The common scale-foot (Pygopus lepidopus), which attains a length of about
20 inches, and has a tail twice as long as the head and body, is the typical repre-
sentative of the few members of this family. The head is long, pointed at the
snout, and scarcely separated from the body, being covered above with large
symmetrical shields, and on the sides with small scales. The ear has an oblique
oval aperture, and the rudimental immovable eyelids are circular and covered with
minute scales. The cylindrical body is slender and of nearly equal thickness
throughout, the scales on its upper surface, as in that of the long tail, being keeled.
COMMON SCALE-FOOTED LIZARD (2 nat. size).
Larger in males than in females, the limbs have rounded extremities, and are
enveloped in overlapping scales. In general colour, this lizard is coppery grey
above, sometimes marked with three or five longitudinal rows of blackish dots or
elongate spots; the under-parts being marbled grey, with the exception of the
throat, which is white. Found both in Australia and Tasmania, and by no means
uncommon in the warmer northern parts of Victoria, this lizard, like its kin, is
stated to have habits very similar to those of the blind-worm, although accurate
observations on its mode of life are wanting.
THE AGAMOID -LIZARDS.
Family AGAMID&.
The southern and eastern portions of the Old World are the home of a very
extensive family of lizards, comprising thirty genera and over» two. hundred
x
118 TALALRTDDS:
species, which may be conveniently termed agamoids, from the name of the typical
genus. Agreeing with the preceding families in the characters of the tongue, and
in the absence of bony plates beneath the scales, the agamoids resemble the scale-
foots in the characters of their collar-bones; but are distinguished from all their
allies in having teeth of the acrodont type, that is to say, situated on the very
suminit of the edges of the jaws. While the head is covered with small scales,
the small eyes have circular pupils, and well-developed movable eyelids; and the
scales on the back are of the normal overlapping type. The thick tongue is either
completely attached or only slightly free in front, and, at most, has but a very
shallow notch in its tip. The teeth may be generally divided into three series,
comparable as regards position with the incisors, tusks, and molars of mammals ;
the latter being more or less compressed, and frequently furnished with three cusps,
while the tusks, which may be one or two in number on each side, are of relatively
large size in most cases, although occasionally absent. The fore-limbs are always
well developed, and, except in one genus, five-toed. The absence of large
symmetrical horny shields, both on the head and under-parts, is a noteworthy
character of these lizards, many of which develop, either in the males or in both
sexes, ornamental appendages, such as crests or pouches. As a rule, the tail is
long and not brittle, but in only one genus is it prehensile, although in another it
can be curled up at the extremity. The shape of the body is very variable in the
different genera, the terrestrial forms being generally depressed, while those that
are arboreal in their habits are compressed. Although the majority of the species
are insectivorous, some subsist on leaves and fruits, while others prefer a mixed
diet; but neither the nature of their habitat nor their food serve to classify the
agamoids, many of the genera of which are very difficult to distinguish. The
majority of the species appear to lay eggs, only the members of a single genus
being reported to give birth to living young. As regards distribution, agamoids
are found from the south of Europe to the Cape, and eastwards as far as China,
the Malayan Islands, Australia, and Oceania, but are unknown in New Zealand and
Madagascar. Both as regards genera and species, their headquarters is, however,
the Oriental region; Africa possessing only three genera, of which one is confined
to the northern part of the continent, while but four species enter South-Eastern
Europe.
Commonly known as flying dragons, the members of the first
genus of the family are elegant and harmless little creatures to
whom such a title seems inappropriate, and we therefore prefer to substitute the
name of flying lizards—more especially as we have applied the former appellation
to the extinct pterodactyles. These flying lizards, which are represented by
twenty-one species, ranging over the greater part of the Oriental region, are at
once distinguished from all their kindred by the depressed body being provided
with a large wing-like membranous expansion, supported by the elongated
extremities of the six or seven hinder ribs, and capable of being folded up like
a fan. The throat is furnished with a large membranous expansion, on the sides
of which are a smaller pair; and the tail is long and whip-like. The best
known of the species is the Malay flying lizard (Draco volans), which is a rather
common form, and belongs to a group characterised by the nostrils being lateral
Flying Lizards.
AGAMOID GROUF. 119
and directed outwards; this particular species being distinguished by the absence
of a spine above the eye, by the aperture of the ear being smaller than the eye,
and by the inferior surface of the parachute being ornamented with black spots.
In addition to the appendages on the throat, the males have a small crest on the
nape of the neck; while in both sexes the back is covered with irregular, large-
keeled scales, and its sides have a series of still larger scales, which are also keeled.
In length it measures a little over 8 inches. As regards coloration, the upper-
parts are of a brilliant but variable metallic hue, ornamented with small dark
spots and wavy cross bands; between the eyes is a black spot, and a similar
one occurs on the nape; the parachute is orange, with marblings or irregular
erossbands of black; and the throat is mottled with black, its appendage being
orange in the male and bluish in the female. This lizard inhabits the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo; and in the living state is described as being
so superlatively beautiful as to bafHe description.
Essentially arboreal in their habits, the flying lizards generally frequent the
crowns of trees, and as they are comparatively scarce, and seldom descend to
the ground, they are but rarely seen. Describing the habits of the Malayan species,
Cantor says that “as the lizard lies in shade along the trunk of a tree, its colours
at a distance appear like a mixture of brown and grey, and render it scarcely
distinguishable from the bark. There it remains with no signs of life, except the
restless eyes, watching passing insects, which, suddenly expanding its wings, it
seizes with a sometimes considerable, unerring leap. The lizard itself appears to
possess no power of changing its colours.” When excited, the appendages on the
throat are expanded or erected; and the ordinary movements of the creature take
the form of a series of leaps. After commenting on the fact that both flying
lizards and flying lemurs inhabit the same countries, and have very similar modes
of life, Moseley states that, when springing from branch to branch and from tree
to tree, the former pass so rapidly through the air that the expansion of the
parachute almost escapes notice. Some examples kept on board ship were in
the habit of flying from one leg of a table to another. The females appear to
lay three or four oval whitish eggs.
Oriental Among a number of genera, characterised by their more or less
Tree-Lizards. compressed bodies and generally arboreal habits, the numerous tree-
lizards constituting the genus Calotes may be selected for brief mention. These
beautiful lizards belong to a group distinguished from many of their allies by the
aperture of the ear being open, while they are especially characterised by the
absence of any distinct fold of skin across the throat, by the equality in size of
the large keeled scales on the back, and the presence of a large crest on the back
and neck ; the tail being very long and whip-like. One of the best known species
is the variable lizard (C. versicolor), ranging from Baluchistan, India, and Ceylon
to the south of China, an exceedingly handsome lizard of some 16 inches in length,
with a very large crest, but so variable in colour, when alive, as almost to defy
description. It is one of the commonest of the eastern Asiatic lizards, and derives
its name from its power of changing colour, which is especially marked when it
is sitting basking in the sun; the head and neck being often yellow, flecked with
red, the body red, and the limbs and tail black. When irritated, or feeding rapidly,
120 LIZARD SS
an allied species (C. ophiomachus), from India and Ceylon, turns brilliant red over
the head and neck, the body at the same time becoming pale yellow ; hence it
is popularly known as the “ blood-sucker.”
Ceylon Horned Three remarkable lizards from Ceylon, constituting the genus
Lizards. = Ceratophora, and belonging to a group in which the aperture of the
ear is concealed, derive their name from carrying a more or less elongated horn-
like process on the nose, at least in the male sex; the neck and back being devoid
of a crest. One of the species, which attains a length of about 10 inches, has a
horn measuring half an inch. These lizards appear to be very rare, one of the
species being confined to mountain districts.
For want of a distinct English title, we are compelled to designate
the members of the genus Agama collectively by anglicising their
scientific name. Distinguished from all the previously noticed forms and their
allies, with the exception of the flying lizards, by their more or less depressed
bodies, agamas are especially characterised by the exposed aperture of the ear, and
the presence of large callous scales in front of the vent in the males. The crest
on the back is, at most, but small, and may be wanting; while each side of the
throat has a pit, and there is likewise a transverse fold across this part. A sac-
like appendage may or may not occur beneath the throat, and the moderately
long tail may be either cylindrical or slightly compressed. Less important
characters are to be found in the form of the head, which is short and triangular,
very broad behind, and rounded at the muzzle, as well as in the relative length
and slenderness of the limbs. The head is covered above with small, smooth scales ;
those on the back are overlapping and keeled; while on the tail the scales may be
either simply overlapping or arranged in whorls.
The distribution of the genus is somewhat peculiar, impinging on South-Eastern
Kurope, and embracing the greater part of South-Eastern Asia, as well as the whole
of Africa, but excluding India proper, together with Ceylon and Burma, although
including the Punjab, Sind, and the Himalaya. . As indicated by their depressed
bodies, agamas are mainly ground-lizards, generally frequenting barren localities
or rocks, although a few species resort to shrubs. The circular pupil of their eyes
is equally indicative of diurnal habits; and a large number of species are fond of
basking on rocks in the full glare of the sun, In such situations, as in the valleys
around Kashmir, they may be seen in numbers on almost every roadside mass of
rock, where their extreme agility renders them very difficult to capture; the best
method, according to the writer’s experience, when specimens are required for
preservation, being to strike with the lash of a hunting-whip, whereby they are
instantaneously stunned or killed. As regards food, all appear to be insectivorous.
From among rather more than forty representatives of the genus,
three are selected for especial notice. The first of these is the armed
agama (A. armata) of South Africa, which is represented in the figure opposite,
and attains a total length of some 20 inches, of which rather more than 6: are
occupied by the tail. Belonging to the second great group of the genus, or that in
which the occipital or hindmost median scale on the top of the head is enlarged,
this species is characterised by the spinose scales on the back being of unequal size,
by the aperture of the ear being larger than the eye, by the fifth toe: being as long:
True Agamas.
Armed Agama.
AGAMOID GROUP. I2I
as the first, and the third slightly longer than the fourth, as well as by the scales
on the abdomen being keeled. Both sexes have a low crest on the nape of the neck,
whereby the species is distinguished from most of its South African congeners ;
while the males have two rows of twelve thickened horny scales in front of the
vent. Although variable, this handsome lizard is strikingly coloured. Generally
the upper-parts are olive-brown, with the enlarged scales lighter; and there is a
double series of darker blotches along the back; the under surface being lighter,
ARMED AGAMA (2 nat. size).
and the throat marked with dark longitudinal streaks. Known to the natives of
Mozambique by the name of toque, this species appears to feed chiefly‘on beetles,
grasshoppers, and ants.
Very different in general appearance to the last species is the
spinose agama~(A.-colonorum) of West Africa, which is a rather
large form, and said to be the most common reptile met with on the Gold
Coast. It differs from the preceding spécies by the shields on the -back
Spinose Agama.
being of uniform sizé and furnished with spines, as well as in the absence of a
crest. The body is not much depressed, and the sides of the head near the ear, as
well as of the neck, are ornamented with radiating groups of short spines, which
are at least equal to two-thirds the diameter of the ear-opening. From an allied
species (A. rueppelli) it may be distinguished by the seales on the back being very
numerous, and considerably larger than those on the tail; the latter being strongly
keeled and arranged‘ in‘ fairly distinet rings. Attaining a length of rather more
122 LIZARDS.
than 13 inches, this species is noticeable for its brilliant coloration in the lhving
state, although the hues rapidly fade away after death. When alive, the head is
flame-red, the throat spotted with yellow, and the body and limbs a deep steel-blue,
while along the middle of the back there is generally a whitish line. The lower
surface of the basal half of the tail is yellowish, the corresponding upper portion
steely blue, as is the tip, while the remainder is red. Very old specimens have,
however, both surfaces of the base of the tail blue, the remainder of the upper
surface, except a small blue tip, being red. Females are at all ages, much more
soberly coloured. In some spots these agamas are found in swarms, being very
fond of climbing up the mud-walls and mat-roofs of the native huts, at times
basking motionless in the sun, and at others running rapidly about in search of
insects. When approached by a human being, they raise and depress their heads
in a series of nods, which increase in rapidity as the intruder draws near, till,
finally, the creatures lose courage, and disappear, with the speed of lightning,
into some crack or cranny. So brilliant do these gorgeously-coloured lizards
appear, when basking in the midday rays of an African sun, that the observer is
fain to believe he is gazing on some splendid insect rather than a reptile.
Rough-Tailed Belonging to a group of the genus distinguished from the one
Agama. = containing the species described above by the absence of enlargement
of the occipital seale of the head, the rough-tailed agama (A. sted/io), depicted in the
illustration on p. 105, is interesting as being one of the two members of the genus
whose range extends into South-Eastern Europe. Whereas, however, the other
members of the group have the tail more or less ringed, the rough-tailed agama,
together with the second European species (A. ewucasica) and a third (A. microlepis),
are peculiar in that the tail is divided into distinct segments, each composed of a pair
of rings of scales. Growing to nearly a foot in length, the species under con-
sideration is distinguished by its stout body and the moderate degree of depression
of the head; the cheeks of the male being somewhat swollen. The colour of the
upper-parts is olive, spotted with black, and generally with a series of large yellow
or olive spots down the middle of the back; the throat of the male having fine
bluish grey net-like markings. Occurring in Europe, in Turkey, and certain
islands of the Augean Sea, the rough-tailed lizard is distributed over the whole
of Asia Minor, Syria, Northern Arabia, and Egypt, being much more common in
the latter regions than it is in Europe. To the Arabs it is known by the name
of kardun; and it is commonly tamed and kept in captivity by the itinerant
snake-charmers of Egypt. As shy and agile in its movements as its congeners,
it feeds largely on flies and butterflies, which are captured with remarkable address
and agility.
Before taking leave of this extensive genus, it may be mentioned that there is
a third group, agreeing with the last in the small size of the occipital scale of the
head, but distinguished by the absence of rings on the tail; the agile agama (A.
agilis) of Persia being a well-known example. The genus Phrynocephalus of
South-Eastern Europe and Central Asia comprises rather more than a dozen lizards
nearly allied to Agama, but easily distinguished by the concealed aperture of the ear.
Australian Although the swollen callous scales in front of the vent in the
Frilled Lizard. males of the agamas have some resemblance to them, the whole of
AGAMOID .GROUF. £23
the preceding members of the family are characterised by the absence of true
pores on this part of the body or on the thighs. In a second group such pores
are, however, present in both, or in one or other of these situations; and we select
as our first example thereof the remarkable frilled lizard (Chlamydosaurus king?)
of Australia—the solitary representative of its genus. This extraordinary-looking
creature, which attains a length of nearly 32 inches, about 11 of which are taken
up by the tail, is at once recognised by the curious frill-like membranous expansion
surrounding the throat and extending upwards to the sides of the nape. The frill,
which is much more developed in the adult than in the young, has a serrated
margin, and is covered with scales of larger size than those on the back; it
irresistibly reminds one of the frills with which our ancestors were wont to adorn
their throats, and communicates an altogether strange appearance to its owner.
In form, the body of this lizard is shghtly compressed, and although the scales of
the back are strongly keeled there is no distinct crest in this region. The aperture
of the ear is exposed, and the tail is either round or slightly compressed, the latter
condition occurring in the adult male. The general colour of the upper-parts is
pale brown, which may be either uniform or mottled with dark brown, or blackish
mingled with yellow.
The frilled lizard is an inhabitant of Queensland and Northern and North-
Western Australia, as well as some of the islands of Torres Straits ; its fossil remains
occurring in the superficial deposits of the first-named district. Recent observa-
tions show that it inhabits sandy districts, where it walks, with a swinging gait, on
its hind-legs, after the manner of the extinct iguanodon. When frightened, it sits
down on its hind-quarters, raises its fore-quarters and head as high as possible,
strikes its body with its tail, and shows its teeth at the intruder. Although the
creature is perfectly harmless, this attitude has been known to frighten people who
have seen it for the first time; and it probably has the same effect on other enemies.
The frill which, when fully extended, forms a shield concealing the body, limbs,
and tail, is moved by certain special muscles, and is supported by rods of cartilage.
Sail-Tailed Nearly allied to the preceding is the sail-tailed lizard (Lophurus
Lizard. amboinensis), which is likewise the sole member of its genus, and
takes its name from the presence of a tall sail-like crest on the upper surface of
the tail of the adult, which is supported by a great lengthening of the spines of
the vertebree of that region. The body is markedly compressed, the back has a low
erest, and the throat has both longitudinal puckerings and a transverse fold in the
skin, while the aperture of the ear is exposed. In form, the head is short and
thick, the compressed tail is long and powerful, and the legs and feet are also
strong, the toes of the latter being covered inferiorly with small granular scales,
and at the sides, especially externally, with a fringe of large united scales, which
is one of the distinctive features of the genus. The covering of the upper-parts
is in the form of small quadrangular scales, which are keeled on the head and
back. The dentition comprises six small conical teeth in the front of the jaws,
four long tusks, and thirteen cheek-teeth. On the thighs there is a row of pores.
Attaining a length of over a yard, the sail-tailed lizard is of a general olive-brown
colour, becoming greenish on the head and neck, and spotted and marbled with
black ; while an oblique fold in the skin on the front of the shoulder is deep black.
aah LIZARDS.
Originally brought to Europe from Amboyna, this curious lizard is an
inhabitant of the Philippines, Java, Celebes, and the Moluccas; it is arboreal in its
habits, and is generally found in wood or scrub in the neighbourhood of water.
Its food consists of seeds, leaves, flowers, and berries, as well as worms, myriapods,
and other creatures found in damp situations. If frightened, this lizard immedi-
ately dives into the water, and endeavours to conceal itself among the stones at
5
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LD
LZ
oe
i
22H
SAIL-TAILED LIZARD (1 nat. size).
the bottom, where, however, it may be readily captured with a net, or even with:
the hand, as it makes not the slightest attempt at defence. Its eggs are laid in the
sand of the river-banks. By the natives the creature is hunted for the sake of its
flesh, which is white and well-flavoured) and consequently much appreciated.
Thorny-Tailed Quite a different type of tail to that of the last is presented by
_ fuzards. — the thorny-tailed lizards, of which there are seven species, inhabiting.
arid tracts in Northern-Africa’ and South-Western ‘Asia. From the whole of the
foregoing members of the present family, these lizards are sharply distinguished
AGAMOID GROUP. 125
rp)
by the circumstance that the front teeth, instead of being small and conical, are
large, and in the adult united together into one or two broad cutting-teeth,
separated from those of the cheek-series by a gap; while externally they are easily
recognised by their short tails covered with well-defined rings of spiny scales. The
head is remarkably short and rounded; the body, as in most terrestrial members
ARABIAN THORNY-TAILED LIZARD (4 nat. size).
of the family, is much depressed ; and there is no crest along the back. There are
no folds or pouches on the neck, but pores are present both in front of the vent
and on the thighs, and the aperture of the ear is exposed. The Arabian thorny-
tail, or dabb, as it is termed by the Arabs (Uromastix spinipes), is one of the
best known members of the genus, and inhabits Egypt, Crete, and Arabia. It
belongs to a group characterised by the rings of spiny scales on the upper surface
of the tail being in juxtaposition; while, in common with two other species, it
126 LIZARDS.
is specially distinguished by the circumstance that two or more transverse rows
of scales on the lower surface of the tail correspond with one on its upper aspect.
The Arabian species, which attains a length of about 18 inches, differs from its
two nearest allies in the minute size of the scales covering the body, coupled with
the presence of a few scattered somewhat larger tubercular scales on the flanks.
Its colour is either sandy grey, or greenish above, which may be either uniform or
clouded with brown. The ornate thorny-tail (U. ornatus), of Egypt and Syria,
differs from the other three members of the first group in that the scales of the tail
form complete rings, those on the lower surface being as long as those on the upper.
With the exception of one species (U. microlepis) inhabiting Persia, the
members of the first group are confined to Africa, Arabia, and Syria, whereas
the three representatives of the second group are exclusively Asiatic, one (U.
loricatus) being from Persia, the second (U. asnvussz) common to Persia and
Baluchistan, while the third (U. hardwichkev) is an inhabitant of Baluchistan
and Northern India. In the whole of these three Asiatic species the rings
of spiny scales on the upper surface of the tail are separated from one
another by rows of smaller smooth scales. In the Indian thorny - tail the
spines on the tail are small, with the lateral ones the largest; there are no
enlarged tubercular scales on the back; and the front surface of the thigh
is marked by a large black spot. In size this species is much inferior to its
Arabian congener, not exceeding some 11 inches in length. Its colour is either
uniform sandy above, or the same spotted or mottled with a darker, and whitish
beneath, with the aforesaid dark mark on the thigh.
a Conforming in their sombre coloration to the desert regions they
frequent, the thorny-tailed lizards are entirely vegetable-feeders, and
live in burrows, resembling those of the smaller foxes, which are excavated by
themselves. These burrows, which may be as much as 4 feet in length, sometimes
turn almost at right angles to their origina] course, at a depth of a foot or so from
the surface. Generally living solitary or in pairs, these lizards are met with
abundantly in parts of Eastern Persia and the Punjab, and when approached at
once make for their holes. If they sueceed in getting their fore-limbs within
the aperture of their burrows, it is impossible to pull them out, for, as the
writer knows by experience, they will rather suffer their tails to be pulled from
their bodies than let go their hold. They are generally somewhat heavy and
deliberate in the movements, turning their heads from side to side while walking,
but are capable of running with tolerable speed. In the cold season, at anyrate,
they never leave their burrows till the sun is well up; and while in Persia and
India they are commonly found on half-desert gravelly plains scattered over with
low bush, the Arabian species is often met with in the clefts of rocks, whence it
issues forth to bask on the smooth slabs or boulders. According to Brehm, as
many as a dozen of these lizards may occasionally be seen on a single slab of rock.
All the species appear to be timid and gentle in their disposition, rarely, if ever,
attempting to bite when captured. Their food comprises leaves and flowers, dried
fruits, and the seeds of grass, as well as grass itself; but although in the wild state
they seem never to touch animal food, in captivity the Indian species will greedily
devour meal-worms. According to Arab reports, the dabb never by any chance
AGAMOID GROUP. it
~I
drinks, even when water is at hand, and this statement has been confirmed by
modern observers. By the Arabs these lizards are frequently tamed and kept in
captivity; and their flesh, which resembles that of young chicken, is much
relished by them as an article of food. Nothing appears to be known as to their
breeding-habits. All the species thrive well in captivity in Europe. It is not
improbable, according to Canon Tristram, that the reptile mentioned in Leviticus
under the name of tortoise, is really the dabb.
Bante Anion Two nearly allied lizards from East Africa—namely, A poroscelis
Thorny-Tailed princeps from Zanzibar and Somaliland, and A. batilliferws from
Lizards. = Somaliland,—while resembling the members of the preceding genus
in general external characters, differ in the absence of true pores either on the under
surface of the body or on the thighs, and are consequently referred to a distinct
genus. Both appear to be rare, and are of comparatively small size, the first-
named measuring only about 74 inches in length.
. oe Even more strange and uncouth in appearance than the frilled
lizard, is another Australian species commonly known as the moloch
(Moloch horridus), but termed by the settlers the spiny lizard or thorny devil.
This, the last remaining representative of the agamoids, differs from all the other
members of the family in being covered with large conical spines, and in the con-
formation of its mouth and teeth. In all the forms described above the mouth is
large and the teeth of both jaws are erect, but in the moloch the mouth is very small,
and the cheek-teeth of the upper jaw are placed horizontally, with their summits
directed inwardly. About 8 inches in total length, this extraordinary lizard has a
small head, with an extremely short snout, on the summit of which are pierced the
nostrils ; it has a much depressed body, a short and rounded tail, and thick, powerful
limbs armed with strong claws. On each side of the head immediately above the
small eye is a large horn curving outwards and backwards, while there is a smaller
conical spine above the nostril, a second behind the horn over the eye, a third and
larger one in front of each ear, as well as one on each side of the occiput. Between
these spines the upper surface of the head is protected by small granular tubercles ;
while among the spines on the upper surface of the body, limbs, and tail, are
similar granules intermingled with polygonal scales of which the edges are in
apposition. On the back the spines form ten or more longitudinal series, of which
the outermost are the largest. The lower surface of the body has a covering of
rough, and slightly overlapping scales, among which are numerous rounded and
keeled tubercles. In general colour the creature is yellowish, ornamented with
symmetrical chestnut or reddish brown markings defined by darker borders.
Inhabiting Southern and Western Australia, and being not uncommon in
several localities in the neighbourhood of Port Augusta, the moloch is found only
in districts where the soil is dry and sandy. Occasionally two or three may be
observed basking in company on the top of a sandhill; and it is the frequent
habit of this lizard to bury itself in the sand to a small depth below the
surface. Its small eye and general manner indicate pretty clearly that the moloch
is diurnal in its habits, although it may possibly occasionally move about during
the night. Although generally very slow in its movements, it has been known,
when disturbed, to make for a neighbouring hole with considerable speed. In
128 TIL AT OS:
repose it generally rests with the head so raised as to be on the level of the back.
Its chief food appears to be ants, although vegetable substances are sometimes
eaten. The female deposits her eggs in the sand. To a certain degree the moloch
is endued with the power of changing its colour to harmonise with its surround-
ings, such changes taking place very gradually, although not unfrequently. The
most general change is to a uniform sandy slate, or russet colour, when the
ornamental markings almost completely disappear. In spite of its ferocious and
somewhat forbidding appearance, the moloch is a perfectly harmless creature, its
ies
MOLOCH LIZARD (nat. size),
formidable-looking armour being never used for attack. In captivity it is dull
and sluggish, undergoing fasts of a month’s duration without any apparent incon-
venience.
THE IGUANOID LIZARDS.
Family IGUANIDZ.
The extensive family of lizards, of which the well-known iguanas of South
America and the West Indies are the typical representatives, may be regarded as
occupying the same position in America as is filled by the agamoids in the warmer
parts of the Old World. Whereas, however, the agamoids are exclusively denizens
of the Eastern Hemisphere, the iguanoid lizards are not absolutely confined to. the
THE BLACK IGUANA.
IGUANOID GROUP. 129
western half of the globe, two genera occurring in Madagascar, and a third in
the Fiji and Friendly Islands. Although, with these exceptions, the family is
unknown in the Old World, the same perverseness which causes Anglo-Indians to
speak of the Oriental crocodiles as alligators, leads to the monitors of the Old
World being commonly termed iguanas, although few lizards are more unlike
than the members of these two groups, both as regards external and internal
characters. In their general structural features the iguanoids come very close to the
agamoids. Thus in both groups the head is covered with numerous small shields ;
while the back is clothed with scales of different kinds, which are often arranged
in oblique rows. Similarly, the eyes have round pupils and are furnished with
well-developed lids, and the dram of the ear is frequently exposed. Both groups,
again, have two pairs of limbs, which may be relatively longer or shorter in the
different genera, but are each provided with five toes. The length of the tail is
subject to a large amount of variation, although it generally exceeds that of the
head and body. Moreover, the two families resemble one another in the form and
structure of the tongue, which is thick, short, scarcely notched, and generally fixed
to the floor of the mouth throughout its length. When, however, we come to
contrast the teeth of iguanoids with those of agamoids, we find a striking difference
which at once serves to draw a sharp line of distinction between the two families.
As we have already seen, in the latter group the teeth are attached to the very
summits of the bones of the jaws (acrodont), and are commonly differentiated into
front teeth, tusks, and cheek-teeth. In the iguanoids, on the other hand, the tall
and cylindrical teeth are attached by their sides to the outer wall of the jaws in
the so-called pleurodont manner; the whole series being generally more or less
uniform in character, and without any large projecting tusks. In the typical
iguanas the teeth have somewhat diamond-shaped compressed crowns with serrated
edges; and it was from a superficial resemblance to this type of tooth that the
teeth of the great dinosaurian reptile from the English Wealden received the name
of Iguanodon. A few genera, again, have the teeth divided into three lobes, thus
resembling a fleur-de-lis. Many species of the family are further characterised by
having teeth on the pterygoid bones of the palate, while a single genus is one of
the few lizards in which there are teeth on the palatine bones.
The iguanoids, which comprise about three hundred species, arranged in fifty
genera, may be regarded as especially characteristic of South and Central America,
although they extend into the warmer parts of the northern half of that continent,
ranging in the west as far as British Columbia, and in the east to Arkansas
and the Southern United States, while they are also represented in many of the
American islands. Their occurrence in Madagascar (where, as in America,
agamoids are wanting) has been already mentioned, and it is probable that this
remarkable instance of discontinuous distribution may be explained by the
occurrence of fossil remains of species of the family in the upper Eocene rocks
of France, where agamoids seem likewise to have been wanting.
Very variable in external appearance, iguanoids present equal diversity in
their modes of life, and it is not a little curious that, with the exception of the
flying lizard, almost every group of the agamoids finds a parallel, both as regards
structure and habits, in the present family; the two families being thus repre-
VOL. V.—9
130 LIZARDS.
sentative groups. There are, however, certain iguanoids, such as the anolis
lizards and the sea-lizards which have no representatives in the preceding family.
The majority of the iguanoids feed on insects, although some, like the true
iguanas and the sea-lizards, subsist on a vegetable diet, while one genus is stated
to be omnivorous. Only two genera are known to produce living young.
In the forests, groves, and gardens of all the warmer regions of
America live a number of beautiful lizards commonly known by the
name of anolis, which is applied in the Antilles to some members of the group.
The distinctive features of these lizards are the pyramidal form of the head, the
moderately long neck, the presence of a broad and generally brilliantly-coloured
appendage on the throat of the males, the slender body, which may be either com-
Anolis Lizards.
RED-THROATED ANOLIS (nat. size).
pressed, cylindrical, or slightly depressed, the relatively long hind-limbs, the large
feet, in which the toes are of very unequal length, and their middle joints expanded,
with smooth transverse plates on the under surface, and the long, curved, and sharp
claws, which are raised above the level of the expanded joints. The tail is long and
hard, although not prehensile ; the covering of very minute scales on the back and
tail is not unfrequently elevated to form a crest; the cheek-teeth are characterised
by their distinctly tricuspid crowns ; and teeth are generally present on the pterygoid
bones of the palate. Lastly, these lizards possess the power of changing their
colour to even a greater extent than is the case with the chameleons. From
among more than one hundred species belonging to the genus we select for
illustration the red-throated anolis (Anolis carolinensis), which inhabits the
South-Kastern United States and Cuba, and presents the following distinctive
features. The head, which is long, triangular, and depressed, is nearly smooth in
IGUANOID GROUP. 131
o
the young, but in the adult has well-marked frontal ridges, and some large rough
shields on the crown; and the appendage on the throat of the males is relatively
small. The body is not compressed, flat beneath, and not keeled above; the scales
on its upper and lower surfaces being keeled and approaching an hexagonal
form, with their edges either in apposition or slightly overlapping. The tail is
cylindrical and tapering, with some slightly enlarged scales on its upper surface,
and nearly equal to twice the length of the head and body. In the living animal
the colour of the upper surface is brilliant metallic green, and that of the under-
parts silvery white; the appendage on the throat of the males, which is covered
with white scales, is red; there is a large blue eye-like spot above the axil of the
fore-limb; and the region of the tail 1s ornamented with black markings. In
some specimens the green colour passes more or less distinctly into brownish or
brown; and, when excited, the creature is able to change its general hue from
greenish grey, through dark grey and brown of all shades, to the ordinary metallic
green. In length this lizard varies from 54 to nearly 9 inches, according to sex;
fully two-thirds of these dimensions being taken up by the tail.
In Louisiana, Carolina, and Cuba, the red-throated anolis is one of the most
common of lizards, and may be noticed in all suitable spots, such as woods and
garden-hedges, as well as the exteriors, and sometimes also the interiors of
dwelling-houses. Like their congeners, they are, however, to be met with most
abundantly in the deep woods, and then so closely do they assimilate to their
surroundings that their presence, when at rest on a bough, is generally only
revealed by their brilliant eyes. In houses, these lizards exhibit but little fear of
man, running about with the greatest unconcern in search of flies and other
insects; and as, in addition to gnats, flies, butterflies, beetles, and spiders, they kill
and eat wasps, scorpions, and other noxious creatures, their visits are encouraged.
In motion throughout the day, they display extreme activity and speed, both when
hunting among the foliage of trees or on the ground, pouncing upon their insect-
prey like a cat upon a mouse. In the spring, during the breeding-season, the
males display great jealousy of one another, so much so, indeed, that when two
meet, a combat is certain to ensue, and is often continued till one of the combatants
has lost its tail, which appears to be taken as an immediate sign of defeat. During
these battles the appendage on the throat is inflated, and the changes of colour
are more rapid than at any other time. With the advent of summer, these mutual
animosities are, however, forgotten, and these lizards dwell together in perfect
amity, sometimes collecting in large companies. The females of some of the species
are stated to dig a hole for the reception of their few white eggs with their fore-
paws, at the foot of a tree or in some moist spot near a wall, afterwards carefully
covering them with soil to protect them from the sun’s rays. The figured kind is,
however, said to be very careless in regard to the place where its eggs are
deposited ; these being found either on bare sand or rocks, or even in rooms. The
red-throated anolis, like most of its kindred, can be readily tamed, and makes a
most charming pet, which can be without much difficulty transported to Europe.
Writing of a pair which were at one time in his possession, Bell says that “I was
in the habit of feeding them with flies and other insects, and having one day
5
placed in the cage with them a very large garden-spider, one of the lizards darted
132 LIZARDS.
at it, but seized it only by the leg. The spider instantly ran round and round the
creature's mouth, weaving a very thick web round both jaws, and then gave it a
very severe bite in the lip, just as this species of spider usually does with any
large insect it has taken. The lizard was greatly distressed, and I removed the
spider and rubbed off the web, the confinement of which appeared to give it great
annoyance; but in a few days it died, though previously in as perfect health as its
companion. The lizard was evidently unused to the wiles of the British spider.”
The crested anolis (A. cuviert), belonging to a small group, with compressed
and crested bodies and tails, is remarkable for the great extent to which the pouch
on the throat can be inflated,—probably for the purpose of terrifying foes.
Two lizards, respectively from Jamaica and Colombia, differ
from all the species of true anolis in having prehensile tails, in
consequence of which they are referred to a distinct genus—Xiphocercus. In a
third genus, Chamcelolis, the cheek-teeth have smooth and nearly spherical crowns.
The strange form of the members of the present genus of
iguanoids probably suggested to the earlier naturalists the imposition
of the name basilisk,
originally denoted a fabulous snake-lke reptile before whose deadly glance every
living being save the cock perished. Be this as it may, the reptiles now known
as basilisks are large, although perfectly harmless members of the present family,
Allied Genera.
Basilisks.
a term which, as all our readers are doubtless aware,
belonging to a group distinguished from the preceding one by the absence of
dilatation of the toes, and the more or less marked backward prolongation of the
hinder portion of the head. In the presence of a large crest on the upper surface
of the tail, the basilisks recall the sail-tailed lizards in the agamoid group, of
which, indeed, they may be regarded as the representatives in the present family.
As a genus, they are characterised by the head in the adult males being produced
backwards into a large cartilaginous lobe; by the compressed form of the body
and tail, which are covered with small overlapping scales; and by the presence of
a crest on the back and tail in the males, such crests being always supported on
the back by the prolonged spines of the vertebrae, and frequently also in the tail.
Although there is a transverse fold on the throat, the pouch characterising the
anolis lizards is wanting. The long limbs are covered with keeled scales; and the
outer sides of the hind-toes have a much developed lobe of skin. The cheek-teeth
have three-cusped crowns; and teeth are borne on the pterygoid bones. Internally,
the basilisks form an exception to the members of this and the two preceding
families in that the inner extremities of the collar-bones have a loop-like expan-
sion, aS in the geckos; while they differ from the anolis lizards in the absence
of the false abdominal ribs so frequently present in this and the preceding families.
The basilisks are represented by four species from Tropical America, among
which the figured helmeted basilisk (Basiliscus americanus) is the one most
commonly known. It is the largest representative of the genus, attaining a length
of about 31 inches, of which nearly three-quarters is taken up by the tail; and is
one of two species characterised by the great height of the crest of the tail in
the males, which is supported by prolongations of the spines of the vertebrae.
Inhabiting Panama and Costa Rica, it is specially characterised by the undivided
head-crest of the males; while the scales on the under surface of the body.are
IGOANOTD *GROUP. . 133
smooth. The natural colour of the creature is probably green, although specimens
preserved in spirit are olive-brown above, and dirty white beneath. The back is
marked with more or less distinct blackish transverse bands, while a lightish
streak runs from the temple to the neck, and a more defined one from the region of
the eye to the fore-limb. The banded basilisk (B. vittatus), ranging from Mexico
and Ecuador, represents a second group of the genus, in which the tail-crest of the
HELMETED BASILISK (4 nat. size).
males is low, and not supported by bony rays. In this species the scales of the
under surface of the body are keeled, whereas in the allied B. galeatus they are
smooth. In general appearance all the basilisks suggest the idea of lizards upon
whose backs has been grafted a fish’s fin. As regards their habits, all the members
of the genus spend their time either on trees, or bushes, often basking in the sun on
fallen stems, and seldom, if ever, venturing far from the neighbourhood of water.
Most numerous in the vicinity of rivers, basilisks are, indeed, so common in
Guatemala, that the collector has no difficulty in obtaining as many specimens as
134 TAGATED'S.
he may desire, although the rapidity of their movements is so great that some
practice is required to effect their capture. Their food is entirely of a vegetable
nature; and to gather this the basilisks are astir with the first rays of dawn,
while during the heat of the day they prefer to rest among the most leafy boughs.
At the slightest sound, they raise the head, inflate the throat, and elevate the
crest; and as soon as the bright, yellow-irised eye detects the presence of a foe,
the basilisks throw themselves instantaneously into the water above which they
are usually reposing. In swimming, the head and neck are raised, the fore-limbs
serve the part of propellers, while the crested tail acts as a rudder; hence the
common name of “ferrymen” is applied to these lizards. At the end of April or
beginning of May the female lays from twelve to eighteen eggs in some cranny at
the foot of a tree, where they are left for the sun to hatch.
Ridge-Headed Nearly allied to the basilisks are the three species of ridge-headed
Lizards. = Jizards (Corythophanes) of Central America, characterised by the head
being prolonged backwards into a bony, helmet-like projection, while the tail is
devoid of a crest, although the neck and back are provided with a low appendage
of this nature. On the throat there is both a pouch and a transverse fold. The
most interesting of the three species is the one named C. hernandezi, in which the
head is crowned with a helmet-like prolongation so like that of the chameleon that
the creature is commonly spoken of under that name by the Mexicans. Like the
anolis lizards, these reptiles are in the constant habit of changing their somewhat
sombre colours; and it has been observed in a captive specimen that whereas the
patch on the pouch was white during the day, at night it assumed, like the other
light parts of the body, a blackish hue.
While agreeing with the basilisks in having the plates on the
under surface of the toes distinctly keeled, there are a number of
genera in the family distinguished by the absence of any backward prolongation
of the crown of the head. Among these we select for mention the stilted lizards,
specially characterised by the large size of the occipital shield of the head, the
presence of a vacuity in the breast-bone, the small or moderate-sized scales of the
tail, the long and highly curved toes, and the presence of tusk-like teeth in
the jaws. There are but two representatives of the genus, both of which have
a wide distribution in South America. The figured species (Uraniscodon umbra),
which attains a length of about a foot, two-thirds of which are occupied by the
long and cylindrical tail, has a short and frog-like head, raised into curved ridges
over the eyes, with the muzzle very blunt, and the lower jaw longer than the
upper. The skin of the neck is curiously puckered inferiorly, the folds forming
a pair of pouches on the sides, although there is no pouch on the throat. In
form, the body is at most but slightly compressed, with a low and slightly serrated
crest running from the nape down to the back; and the uniform scales of the
back are small and overlapping, and those on the top of the head enlarged. The
long and bent toes are markedly compressed, and are furnished with short but
strong claws. In coloration this species is one of the handsomest of its tribe. The
general ground-colour of the upper-parts is reddish or purplish brown, ornamented
with more or less distinctly defined blackish transverse bars; a broad black band
traverses the fold in front of the shoulder, and may extend across the nape; while
Stilted Lizards.
IGCOANOID, GROUP. 135
o
frequently in front of this band there is a large yellowish orange spot on each side
of the neck. Below, the colour is brownish or yellowish, which may be either
uniform or clouded with brown markings. An inhabitant of the great primeval
forests of South America, the stilted lzard has the power of changing colour,
and is consequently often designated a chameleon. It generally associates in
pairs, dwelling among trees, and its food appears to be entirely of a vegetable
nature. When disturbed, it rushes suddenly up a high branch, where it stands
with outstretched head and neck and widely open eyes, gazing steadily at the
intruder. Should it be unable to escape otherwise, the creature raises its neck still
higher, inflates the neck-pouches, and, with a sharp cry, springs boldly into the air.
There are a very large number of genera, agreeing with those hitherto noticed
STILTED LIZARD (nat. size).
in the absence of pores on the thighs, which the limits of our space prevent us from
even mentioning. We accordingly pass on to the consideration of certain repre-
sentatives of the second great group of the family, in which such pores are present.
Both as regards their fauna and flora, the Galapagos Islands
stand altogether apart from the rest of the world, the greater number
of their animals and plants being absolutely peculiar,—it may be specitically, or it
may be generically—while herbivorous reptiles take the place occupied on the
The Sea-Lizard.
continents of the world by vegetable-eating mammals. In no case, however, is
this faunistic peculiarity more marked than in the occurrence in such a limited
area of two distinct genera of the present family, each represented by a single
species. Remarkable alike for special features connected with their dentition, as
well as for their large bodily size, these two lizards differ widely from the rest
of the family. Whereas, however, the one is a land animal, the other is unique
136 LIZARDS.
among the entire suborder to which it belongs in being a marine creature,
subsisting on seaweeds.
Agreeing with the great majority of that section of the family characterised
by the presence of pores on the thighs in the fourth hind-toe being longer than the
third, the sea-lizard, together with the terrestrial species inhabiting the same islands,
differs from all the rest in that the front teeth resemble those of the cheek-series in
having three-cusped crowns, so that the entire set of teeth is uniform in character.
From its terrestrial ally, the sea-lizard (Amblyrhynchus cristatus) is distinguished
by its much compressed and crested tail, as well as by the presence of an incipient
GALAPAGOS SEA-LIZARD (4 nat. size).
web between the toes. This lizard is the largest member of the family, and attains
a total length of some 53 inches. It is characterised by the compressed form of the
body and tail, and the extremely short and truncated head. A well-marked crest
runs from the nape of the neck to the tip of the tail, and the whole build of the
animal is stout and “chubby.” The throat is devoid of a pouch, although it has
a well-marked transverse fold, and the toes are laterally compressed. In the small
and convex head the nostrils are situated near the end of the muzzle, the eye and
aperture of the ear are alike small, and the upper surface is surmounted by a
number of conical spine-like shields of relatively large size. ‘The investing scales
of the body are small, and although keeled on the back, are smooth below. In the
stoutly-made limbs the toes are rather short, the third one in the hind-foot being
IGUANOID GROUP. 137
strongly serrated on its inner border of its basal joint. The compressed and crested
tail is about equal to one and a half times the length of the head and body, and is
covered with equal-sized keeled scales. In colour this lizard is black or blackish
brown above, with the abdomen and the inner surfaces of the thighs not unfrequently
of a dirty white. In the young state, however, the upper-parts are brown with
paler spots, and more or less distinctly marked dark crossbars on the back. In
weight, full-grown examples reach as much as 20 lbs.
The sea-lizard is extremely common on the rocky coasts of the various islands
of the Galapagos Group, but is seldom found more than some ten yards from the
shore. Of its habits Darwin writes that “this lizard swims with perfect ease and
quickness by a serpentine movement of its body and flattened tail—the legs being
motionless and closely collapsed on its sides. A seaman on board sank one, with a
heavy weight attached to it, thinking thus to kill it directly ; but when, an hour
afterwards, he drew up the line, it was quite active. Their limbs and strong claws
are admirably adapted for crawling over the rugged and fissured masses of lava,
which everywhere form the coast. In such situations, a group of six or seven of
these hideous reptiles may oftentimes be seen on the black rocks, a few feet above
the surf, basking in the sun with outstretched legs.” After mentioning that the
stomachs of several examples that were examined contained finely minced seaweed,
and also observing that the droves seen swimming out to sea were doubtless in
search of food of this nature, the same author proceeds to state that, when frightened,
these lizards absolutely refuse to enter the water. “ Hence,” he continues, “it is
easy to drive these lizards down to any little point overhanging the sea, where they
will sooner allow a person to catch hold of their tails than enter the water. They
do not seem to have any notion of biting, but when much frightened they squirt a
drop of fluid from each nostril. I threw one several times as far as I could into a
deep pool left by the retiring tide, but it invariably returned in a direct line to the
spot where I stood. It swam near the bottom, with a very graceful and rapid
movement, and occasionally aided itself over the uneven ground with its feet. As
soon as it arrived near the edge, but still being under water, it tried to conceal
itself in the tufts of seaweed, or it entered some crevice. As soon as it thought the
danger was past, it crawled out on the dry rocks, and shuffled away as quickly as
it could. I several times caught the same lizard by driving it down to a point, and,
though possessed of such perfect powers of diving and swimming, nothing would
induce it to enter the water; and as often as I threw it in, it returned in the manner
above described. Perhaps this singular piece of apparent stupidity may be accounted
for by the circumstance that this reptile has no enemy whatever on shore, whereas
at sea it must often fall a prey to the numerous sharks.” Later observers have
borne testimony to the extraordinary numbers in which the sea-lizards are to be
met with in the Galapagos, and likewise as to their food consisting mainly of broad-
leaved sea-leaves.
Galapagos Although originally included in the same genus as its aquatic
Land-Lizards. cousin, there seems no doubt that the land-lizard of the Galapagos
(Conolophus subcristatus) is entitled to stand as the representative of a distinct
generic group; the nearly cylindrical tail and perfectly free toes being distinctive
characters which cannot well be overlooked. Not reaching within some 11 inches
138 LIZARDS.
of the dimensions attained by the last, this lizard is likewise a stoutly - built
creature, with the rather small head slightly longer than broad, the body some-
what depressed, a slight spiny crest on the nape, continued as a low ridge
on the back, and the scales of the latter small and keeled, while the slightly
larger ones on the lower surface are smooth. Although devoid of a pouch,
and with but a very slight transverse fold, the throat is strongly plicate
longitudinally, and is covered with minute granules. The stout limbs terminate in
very short toes, of which the third in the hind-foot is serrated on the inner margin
GALAPAGOS LAND-LIZARD (+ nat. size).
of its basal joint. On the thigh the pores are arranged in a long series, and vary
from seventeen to twenty-one in number. In length the tail scarcely exceeds the
head and body, while in form it is slightly compressed, having a low ridge
superiorly, and being covered with small keeled scales of uniform size. In general
colour the creature is dark brown, with the head and under-parts lighter.
These lizards are confined to the central islands of the Galapagos Group, such
as Albemarle and James Islands, where they are found in great numbers in the
low barren districts near the coasts, although also met with in the elevated damp
regions of the interior. On James Island Darwin found them so numerous, that
it was difficult to obtain a spot free from their burrows on which to pitch a tent.
Attaining a weight of from 10 to 15 Ibs. these lizards are lazy and sluggish
in their movements, crawling slowly along with their bellies and tails dragging on
IGUANOID GROUP. ie
the ground, and often stopping for a minute or two to doze with closed eyes, and
the hind-limbs stretched out on the arid soil. According to Darwin’s account,
“they inhabit burrows, which they sometimes make between fragments of lava,
but more generally on level patches of the soft sandstone-like tufa. The holes do
not appear to be very deep, and they enter the ground at a small angle; so that
when walking over these lizard-warrens, the soil is constantly giving way, much
to the annoyance of the tired walker. This animal, when making its burrow,
works alternately the opposite sides of its body. One front-leg for a short time
scratches up the soil, and throws it towards the hind-foot, which is well placed so
as to heave it beyond the mouth of the hole. That side of the body being tired,
the other takes up the task, and so on alternately .... They feed by day, and
do not wander far from their burrows; if frightened, they rush to them with a
most awkward gait. Except when running downhill, they cannot move very
fast, apparently from the lateral position of their legs) They are not at all
timorous; when attentively watching anyone, they curl their tails, and, raising
themselves on their front-legs, nod their heads vertically, with a quick movement,
and try to look very fierce; but in reality they are not so at all; if one just stamps
on the ground, down go their tails, and off they shuffle as quickly as they can.”
If worried with a stick, these lizards will bite it severely ; and when two are held
together on the ground, they will fight and bite till blood flows. “The individuals,
and they are the greater number, which inhabit the lower country, can scarcely
taste a drop of water throughout the year; but they consume much of the
succulent cactus, the branches of which are occasionally broken off by the wind.
I several times threw a piece to two or three of them when together; and it was
amusing enough to see them trying to seize and carry it away in their mouths,
like so many hungry dogs with a bone.” They also eat the leaves of several trees,
more especially of an acacia, to obtain which they ascend the low stunted trees, on
the boughs of which they may often be observed quietly feeding. The females lay
large eggs of an elongated form in their burrows; both these and the flesh of the
lizards themselves being eaten by the inhabitants of the Galapagos.
The true iguanas, of which there are two closely-allied species
from Tropical America and the West Indies, differ from the two pre-
ceding genera in that the edges of the crowns of the cheek-teeth are serrated, while
the front teeth are simply conical. The distinctive features of the iguanas are to be
found in the long and much compressed body, the large four-sided head, covered above
with enlarged scales, the short neck, powerful limbs, long-toed feet, and the much
elongated tail, upon which the scales are uniform and keeled. The throat is
furnished with a large non-dilatable appendage, in front of which is a crest of large
True Iguanas.
compressed scales; and a continuous crest of long spines runs from the nape along
the back, and is continued as a ridge on the tail. The scales on the back are small,
equal, and keeled; the neck has some scattered large conical or bluntly-keeled
tubercles, and there are also some large tubercular scales on the sides of the throat,
more especially one below the aperture of the ear; while on the under-parts the
scales are either smooth or slightly keeled. The pores on the thighs are numerous,
and, in addition to those in the margins of the jaws, there are teeth on the pterygoid
bones of the palate. The common iguana (Jguana tuberculata) attains a length
140 LIZARDS:
of as much asa yard and a half, two-thirds of which are occupied by the tail. The
general colour is green or greenish, becoming lighter on the under-parts ; but the
upper surface may be either uniform, or variegated with darker brownish bands,
the flanks usually having light-edged vertical dark bars, while the tail has more
or less distinct dark rings. There is frequently a whitish band in front of the
arm, and some of the large tubercular scales on the sides of the throat and neck
are often light-coloured.
Both species of iguanas, of which there are several varieties, are essentially
arboreal lizards, generally frequenting those regions of the forests where the trees
overhang the water. Here they move with great agility, climbing or springing
from bough to bough, while the harmony of their coloration to their surroundings
renders them well-nigh invisible. Towards evening they not unfrequently descend
to the ground to feed; but, when frightened, immediately rush to the topmost
boughs of the trees, or plunge headlong into deep water. In the latter element
they are, indeed, perfectly at home, and swim strongly and swiftly, with their limbs
closely applied to their bodies, and impelled by their powerful tails. They are
likewise expert divers, frequently remaining for a considerable time below the
surface; their activity in the water being such that they are able to avoid all
enemies save crocodiles and caimans. Their chief food consists of leaves, flowers
and berries, although they will also eat insects; the numbers of small worms
sometimes found in their stomachs having probably been swallowed accidentally.
Generally seeking to escape at once from human beings, iguanas when unable to
flee show fight, erecting their heads and assuming a fierce aspect, while at close
quarters they bite savagely and administer severe blows with their powerful tails.
The female deposits from eight to seventeen eggs in a hole dug in sandy soil, but
as several individuals will not unfrequently lay together, as many as ten dozen
egos may be found in a single nest. In spite of their somewhat repulsive appear-
ance, iguanas are hunted for the sake of their flesh, which is white in colour and
delicate in flavour, and is said to resemble the breast of a chicken. The eggs also,
which consist almost entirely of yolk, are highly esteemed as articles of diet.
Iguanas are generally captured by means of nooses, which are thrown over their
heads as they repose on the branches. The much smaller horned iguana (Meto-
poceros cornutus), of San Domingo, constitutes a separate genus, distinguished by
the presence of an inflatable pouch on the throat.
Ring-Tailed The West-Indian ring-tailed iguana (Cyclura carinata) is selected
Iguana. torepresent a group of genera distinguished from the foregoing by
the crowns of the cheek-teeth being three-cusped or simply conical. While four
of these genera—among which is the Fijian iguana (Brachylophus fasciatus)—
are characterised by the shortness of the row of pores on the thigh, the present
species is one of those in which they form a long series; and it is further char-
acterised by the presence of a serrated crest down the back and tail, and also
of a pouch and slight transverse fold on the throat. The head is large, swollen
below the ears, and furnished with enlarged scales on the snout; while the body
and tail are compressed, the body being covered with small scales. The species
derives its name from the rings of keeled scales which form regular segments on
the sides of the tail; each segment being composed of from three to five series of
IGUANOTD, GROUF-. 141
small scales, and a single series of larger and somewhat spinous ones. The toes
are compressed, and covered below with keeled plates. In total length this iguana
reaches about 48 inches; and its general colour is green or dark olive, speckled
with darker and lighter, and frequently marked with blackish transverse bands.
The ring-tailed iguana is a somewhat local species, occurring most abundantly in
Jamaica, on the limestone mountains in the neighbourhood of Kingston Harbour
and Goat Island, but also met with on the low grounds lying between the coast
ranges and the higher mountains of the interior, where hollow trees occur. Shy
and retiring in their habits, the creatures live in pairs, and display no great partiality
RING-TAILED IGUANA (} nat. size).
for water, although, on occasion, they can swim as well as the true iguanas. They
feed mainly or entirely on grass, and when disturbed in grazing, these reptiles
rush back to the trees with extraordinary speed, sometimes taking great leaps like
a frog, although their movements are generally deliberate and slow. If unable to
escape, they show fight in much the same way as the true iguanas. The breeding-
habits of this species do not appear to be known, although the females of the allied
black iguana (Ctenosaura acanthura) of California are in the habit of laying in
company, like the true iguanas. The ring-tailed iguana exhales a peculiarly dis-
agreeable smell, which is stated to be so objectionable as to cause even the ants to
forsake a room into which one of these creatures is brought. For this reason its
flesh is uneatable, although that of the black iguana is highly esteemed.
142 TIALAR DS.
See We have not hitherto mentioned that the vertebrae of the
iguanoid lizards differ from those of the agamoids and most other
members of the suborder in being furnished with additional articular facets like
those of snakes. Vertebre of this peculiar type occur in the upper Eocene rocks
of England and the Continent, and have been provisionally assigned to the typical
genus Zguana, although it is more likely that they indicate an extinct genus.
Somewhat similar vertebrae from the corresponding strata of the United States
have been described under the name of Jguanavus.
The last and at the same time the most peculiar members of the
present family are the horned lizards of North America and Mexico,
which may be regarded as the representatives of the moloch lizard among the
agamoids. From their short, rounded heads, abbreviated bodies, and shortened
Horned Lizards.
HORNED LIZARD (3 nat. size).
tails, coupled with a general batrachian appearance, these lizards are commonly
termed toads in America, the popular name of the figured species (Phrynosoma
cornutun) being the Californian toad. Strange, not to say ugly, in appearance,
these lizards are at once distinguished from all their allies by the presence of
several bony spines projecting from the back of the shortened head, and of tubercles
or spines scattered among the ordinary scales of the body. In form, the body is
broad and depressed, without any crest down the back; and the tail is very
thick at the base, and never longer than the body. The limbs are rather long,
with pores on the thighs, and keeled plates on the lower surfaces of the toes.
From most other members of the family these lizards are further distinguished
by the absence of teeth on the palate. Of the twelve species of the genus the
best known is the common horned toad, herewith figured, which has the tail longer
than the head, distinct spines on the back, and the drum of the ear naked. Its
general appearance is even more than superficially toad-like, the head being as
GIRDLED LIZARDS. 143
a
broad as long, and the body remarkable for its extreme plumpness. Measuring a
little over 5 inches in length, this species is rather handsomely coloured. Above,
the ground-colour is greyish or brownish, with a more or less well-marked light
stripe down the back, and dark brown spots at the bases of the larger spines;
while there are likewise markings of the same colour on the nape and head.
Beneath, the hue is yellowish, with or without a few small brown spots. In two
species of the genus (e.g. P. tawrus) the tail does not exceed the head in length.
The common species is found locally in sandy districts both on the plains and
mountains, and is in some places abundant, although from its coloration frequently
escaping notice. In spite of its somewhat formidable appearance, it is a harmless
creature, not attempting to bite even when captured. Lacking the protrusive
tongue of the chameleon, and being debarred by its clumsy form from running
fast, the horned lizard is unable to capture the swifter insects, and consequently
preys upon sand-haunting beetles, whose speed is inferior to its own; such prey
being generally captured in the evening, and the creature lying passive on the
sand during the day. Some species of horned lizards are remarkable as being
the only members of the family, save one other genus, which produce living
young; the number of young being in some instances as many as twenty-four.
Always small feeders, these lizards are capable of undergoing long fasts with
impunity ; and as they are habituated to a dry atmosphere, and probably never
drink, they may be sent packed in wadding long distances by post.
The most remarkable peculiarity connected with these lizards is their habit of
ejecting jets of blood from the eyes, apparently as a means of defence. The
following letter from Mr. V. Bailey, written from California, in 1891, describes the
phenomenon as first observed by him: “I caught a horned toad to-day that very
much surprised Dr. Fisher and myself by squirting blood from its eyes. It was
on smooth ground, and not in brush or weeds. I caught it with my hand, and
just got my fingers on its tail as it ran. On taking it in my hand, a little jet of
blood spurted from one eye, a distance of fifteen inches, and spattered on my
shoulder. Turning it over to examine the eye, another stream spurted from the
other eye. This he did four or five times from both eyes, until my hands, clothes,
and gun were sprinkled over with fine drops of bright red blood. I put it in a
bag, and carried it to camp, where, about four hours later, I showed it to Dr.
Fisher, when it spurted three more streams from its eyes.” The phenomenon has
been subsequently observed in other specimens.
THE GIRDLED LIZARDS.
Family ZONURIDZ.
Omitting mention of a family represented only by one genus (XYenosawrus) and
one species from Mexico, the next group for consideration is that of the girdled
lizards, from Tropical and South Africa, and Madagascar, of which there are four
genera. These lizards, which may be either snake-like in form, or provided with
four fully-developed limbs, differ from all those hitherto described, with the
exception of certain geckos, in having the temporal fosse of the skull roofed over
144 LIZARDS.
with bone; while they are further characterised by a fold covered with small
scales running along the sides of the body and marking off the upper from the
under-parts. The tongue is simple, with its anterior moiety not extensile, and its
tip either rounded, or but slightly notched; while there are well-developed eyelids,
and the drum of the ear is exposed. The back is either clothed with large shield-
like, and mostly keeled scales, arranged in well-marked transverse zones, or, more
rarely, with granules; the head having large, regular shields. As regards their
teeth, these lizards conform to the pleurodont type, each tooth having its base
widely open. Resembling in many respects the Iguanoids, from which they are
distinguished by the ossifications in the skull, these lizards also approach the
members of the next family, from which they differ by their simple tongues, the
CAPE GIRDLE-TAILED LIZARD (nat. size. )
hollow bases of the teeth, and the structure of the bony plates underlying the
scales, when such are present. In the South African snake-like genus (Chame-
saurda), the fore-limbs are wanting, and the hind-pair rudimental, while the tail is
of extraordinary length. All the members of the family appear to be carnivorous.
Girdle-Tailed We take as our special example of this small family one of the
lizard. members of the South African girdle-tailed lizards (Zonurus), a
genus represented by seven species. These lizards differ from the other three
genera in having the scales of the back underlain by bony plates of simple
structure; and, resembling in appearance the rough-tailed lizard among the
agamoids, they have a flattened triangular head, and a tail of moderate
length. On the upper surface the neck and back are covered with large quad-
rangular shield-lke scales, while beneath there are large flat shields; the limbs
bearing keeled overlapping shields, and the tail being protected with whorls of
SNAKE-LIKE LIZARDS. 145
spinous scales. The teeth are small, and the rounded tongue is scarcely notched.
The figured species (Z. cordylus), which attains a length of rather less than 8
inches, generally has the back and tail of a dirty orange colour; the head and
feet of a lighter yellow, and the under-parts white; although there are consider-
able variations from this normal coloration. All the members of the genus inhabit
rocky districts, and prefer those where there are ledges, upon which they run in
search of food or warmth. They are excellent climbers, and far from easy to catch,
often leaving their tails with their would-be captors.
THE SNAKE-LIKE LIZARDS.
Family ANGUIDA.
Nearly allied to the preceding family is a small group of lizards of variable
bodily form, typified by the common English blind-worm. Rigid in their bodies,
and having large symmetrical bony shields on the top of their heads, these lizards
resemble the girdle-lizards in the presence of bony plates beneath the overlapping
scales, and also in that the temporal fossz of the skull are roofed over with bone.
They differ, however, in that the bony plates beneath the scales are permeated by :
series of radiating or irregularly arranged canals; and also in the conformation of
the tongue. The latter is composed of two distinct portions, namely, a thick basal
half, covered with villose papillee, and a smaller thin terminal moiety coated with
seale-like papillz, which is extensile, and capable of partial withdrawal into a sheath
formed by a transverse fold at the front of the basal half. As regards their denti-
tion, some forms have tubercular or conical teeth attached to the sides of the walls
of the jaws in the typical pleurodont manner; but in the blind-worms the teeth are
long, curved, loosely attached fangs, very like those of serpents. Instead of hollow-
ing out the bases of the old teeth, as in the preceding family, the new ones grow
up beneath them; and there may or may not be teeth on the bones of the palate.
Some of the members of the family agree with the preceding in having a longi-
tudinal fold along the sides of the body, while in others it is absent; and there is
a similar variation in external form, some genera having fully developed five-toed
limbs, while in others all external traces of these appendages have disappeared. In
regard to the covering of the head, it should specially be noticed that there is a
large occipital shield at its hinder extremity. All the species differ from the
majority of lizards in changing their skin in a single piece, like most snakes.
With the exception of some species of the American genus Gerrhonotus, which
ascend low bushes, all these lizards live on the ground; and the whole of them are
carnivorous, the larger species preying on reptiles and other vertebrates, and the
smaller kinds on inseets, spiders, slugs, and worms. While the blind-worms produce
living young, the others lay eggs. Containing seven genera and some forty-five
species, this family is most numerously represented in Central America and the
West Indies, a few species occurring in North and South America, two in Europe,
and one in the Himalaya and Burma; all the forms with functional limbs being
American. From limitations of space, our notice of the family will be confined to
two of the snake-like genera.
VOL. V.—10
146 TATARDSS.
The typical representative of this genus of snake-like lizards
(Ophisauwrus apus) was first discovered by Pallas in the wooded
valleys of the steppes bordering the Volga, where it is known, in common with
true snakes, by the name of scheltopusik, a term which may be conveniently
‘applied to all the members. The species was subsequently discovered in other
parts of Russia, as well as in Hungary, Istria, Dalmatia, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria,
Persia, Transcaucasia, Transylvania, and Turkestan, while it is replaced in Morocco
by a more brilliantly coloured variety. Four other species are also known, which
extend the range of the genus to North-Eastern India, Burma, and North America.
Agreeing with the American four-limbed genus Gerrhonotus in the presence of a
fold along the sides of the body, and the more or less conical teeth, the scheltopusiks
are distinguished by their moderately elongated snake-like form, and the absence
of functional limbs; the European species alone having the hinder-pair represented
by minute rudiments on the
sides of the vent. These crea-
tures are covered with squared
scales, arranged in straight
longitudinal and __ transverse
series; and they are furnished
with teeth on the pterygoids,
and in certain cases on some
of the other bones of the palate.
The European species, which, in
addition to rudiments of hind-
limbs, is distinguished by an
aperture to the ear, attains a
length of rather more than a
yard, of which about two-thirds
are occupied by the tail. - The
arrangement of the shields on
the head is very much the same as in the blind-worm; and the general colour is
brown, becoming lighter on the lower surface. The young are, however, olive-
grey, with wavy dark brown crossbands on the back, and bars on the sides of the
head. Dwelling among the dense underwood of thickly - wooded valleys, the
scheltopusik harmonises so closely in colour with its surroundings, that it can
only with difficulty be detected, as it glides away among the dead leaves and
sticks at the approach of a footstep. Although as free from venom as ordinary
lizards, it is frequently mistaken for a snake, and then meets the fate which so
often, under similar circumstances, befalls the blind-worm. Preying largely upon
mice and voles, and not even hesitating to attack and kill the deadly viper, the
scheltopusik is, however, a fierce and active creature, gliding swiftly and suddenly
upon its victims among the moss and leaves of the woods. It also subsists largely
upon snails; and is further reported to eat the eggs and young of birds. Its eggs
are laid under thick bushes and leaves. The scheltopusik is believed to be a
long-lived animal, the natives of the countries it inhabits stating that its full
period of existence is from forty to sixty years. Fossil scheltopusiks occur in
Scheltopusiks.
COMMON SCHELTOPUSIK.
SIVATE-LIKE, LIZARDS. 147
the Miocene deposits of Germany, some of which belong to an extinct genus
(Propseudopus).
The want of a lateral fold along the body distinguishes the
blind-worm, or slow-worm (Angus fragilis), in common with the
remaining members of the family, from the scheltopusiks; the blind-worm being
further distinguished from the other genera devoid of this fold by the absence of
all external trace of limbs, and the fang-like form of its cheek-teeth. The
appearance of the blind-worm, which, by the way, is the sole representative of its
genus, is so well known as not to call for much description. It may be observed,
however, that the scales are rounded in form, and arranged on the back in a
quincuncial pattern, while on the sides they are disposed in transverse rows; the
Blind-Worm.
THE BLIND-WORM (2 nat. size).
ears are usually covered with integument; and the palate is toothless. Attaining
a length of from 10 to 12, or even 14, inches, of which at least half is oceupied
by the tail, the blind-worm is of almost equal thickness throughout, although
tapering slightly at the tail. The head is short and small; the eyes, although
minute, are bright and piercing; and the tongue is but slightly notched. In
the immature state the upper-parts are silvery, with a dark line down the middle
of the back, while the sides and under-parts are blackish. The markings, however,
often disappear in the adult, or may be replaced by dark dots, the upper surface
becoming at the same time brown or bronzy. The range of the species includes
Europe, Western Asia, and Algeria.
Gentle and inoffensive in its habits, and rarely attempting to bite even when
rudely handled, the blind-worm is commonly regarded as one of the most noxious
of reptiles) When captured, it usually contracts its muscles so forcibly as to
148 LIZARDS:
become perfectly rigid, in which state it easily breaks if bent or struck, thus giving
origin to its Latin name. Generally frequenting woods, heaths, and commons, the
blind-worm is one of the hardiest of British reptiles, making its appearance in the
spring at an earlier date than any other kind. According to Bell, “it retires in
the autumn under masses of decayed wood or leaves, or into soft, dry soil, where it
is covered with heath or brushwood, and penetrates to a considerable depth in such
situations by means of its smooth, rounded muzzle and polished body.” It feeds
chiefly upon slugs, supplemented by various insects and worms. In June or July
the female produces from seven to twelve or thirteen living young, which are
active almost immediately after birth, and soon learn to feed by themselves. Like
other viviparous reptiles, the female is much given to basking in the sun during
the period of pregnancy, in order that its heat may aid in developing the eggs
contained in her body.
THE Porsonous LIZARDS.
Family HELODERM ATID.
Two conspicuously coloured lizards, ranging from the isthmus of Tehuantepec
in Central America as far north as New Mexico and Arizona, stand alone in the sub-
order in being poisonous, their bite, in certain cases at least, being sufficiently severe
to produce very serious symptoms even on human beings, while smaller animals
are soon killed thereby. These two species are the Mexican poisonous lizard
(Heloderma horridum) of Western Mexico, and the Arizona poisonous lizard (H.
suspectum) from New Mexico and Arizona; the former being known in its native
country by the name of silatica. Nearly allied to the blind-worm, which they
resemble in the general structure of their tongue and teeth, although distinguished
by certain peculiarities in the conformation of the skull, and by the upper surface
being covered with small granular tubercles, externally they are characterised by
the depressed head, the plump, rounded body, the tolerably long cylindrical tail,
the rather short limbs, in which the third and fourth toes are longer than the
others, the exposed drum of the ear, and the transverse arrangement of the rows
of tubercles on the upper surface. The curved and fang-like teeth are but loosely
attached to the jaws, and have grooves in front and behind for the transmission
of the poison; while there are also teeth on the palate. Beneath, the body and tail
are covered with squared scales. In length, the figured species measures rather
less than 20 inches, while the other is somewhat larger. The former has a yellowish
or orange ground-colour, marked with a dark network on the head and body, and
with blackish rings on the tail. Among the reddish sand, intermixed with dark
pebbles, in which these lizards delight to nestle, this coloration, coupled with the
granular nature of the skin, appears to be protective.
Inhabiting dry regions from the western side of the Cordillera to the Pacitic,
and apparently never entering water, the poisonous lizards are nocturnal in their
habits, lying during the day hidden among the vegetation in a listless state, and
issuing forth at evening. Their movements are at all times deliberate; and as
these lizards are most commonly met with in the wet season, being but seldom
seen during the dry months from November to June, it is probable that they are
MONITORS. 149
torpid during part of the latter period. Their food comprises insects, worms,
myriapods, and small frogs, as well as the eggs of iguanas. Regarding the effects
of their bite, Sir J. Fayrer writes that he once saw two guinea-pigs bitten by
one of these lizards. “The bites were viciously inflicted, and the lizard did not
really relinquish its hold. Blood was drawn, the teeth being deeply inserted.
Both guinea-pigs were affected; the bitten limb was dragged, and appeared
partially paralysed. There were twitchings of the body generally; but these may
not have been due to the poison, but to agitation and fear.” Both the unfortunate
rodents died in the course of the day. Another of these lizards once bit its
ARIZONA POISONOUS LIZARD (4 nat. size).
owner, who was incautiously handling it, with very severe effects, which did not,
however, prove fatal. The poison is secreted in special glands situated near the
roots of the teeth.
THE MONITORS.
Family VARANID.
No better instance of the essential difference in the distribution of lizards as
compared with tortoises is afforded than by those lizards commonly known as
monitors. The tortoises of Australia, as we have already seen, belong to a different
suborder from those of India, while there are no genera common to Australia and
Africa. The monitors, all of which are included in the single genus Varanus, are,
150 LIZARDS.
however, common to the three countries named, while one species actually ranges
from India to Australia. That this widespread generic distribution is not a feature
of the present epoch is proved by the occurrence of fossil monitors in both the two
latter countries; whereas we have no evidence that they possessed genera of tortoises
in common. Before proceeding further, it is well to mention that the Egyptian
representative of the group is known to the natives by the name of ouaran, which
appears to be the Arabic term for lizards in general. Transliterated as waran, this
word has been confused with the German warnen, to warn, whence these reptiles
have been termed warn-eidechsen, or warning lizards; this, again, having been
translated into monitors—a name which, however erroneous in origin, is too well
established to be superseded.
The monitors are distinguished from all the lizards hitherto described by the
long and deeply-forked tongue, which is capable of being protruded far in front of
the lips, and is furnished at the base with a sheath, into which it can be withdrawn,
as in snakes. © Including the largest members of the suborder, monitors are further
characterised by the long body, the broad, uncrested back, the well-developed, five-
toed limbs, and the long tail, which is very frequently markedly compressed. The
head is covered with small polygonal scales; the eyelids are well developed; the
opening of the ear is distinct; and the head is covered with small scales. In the
skull we may notice alike the absence of a bony roof over the temporal fossee, and
of teeth on the palate; while it is further remarkable for the union of the two
nasal bones into a single ossification. The teeth are large and pointed, with ex-
panded bases fixed to the sides of the jaws. On the back the scales are rounded
and bordered by rings of minute granules, so that they do not overlap; while in
the under surface we find the squared scales arranged in cross rows. Pores are
absent both on the under surface of the thigh and in front of the vent. A peculiarity
of the group is the presence of an imperfect midriff, found elsewhere among reptiles
alone in the crocodiles. Monitors inhabit Africa, Southern Asia, Oceania, Papua,
and Australia, and are represented by nearly thirty living species, the largest of
which attains a length a little short of 7 feet. A fossil species from Northern India
was, however, probably 12 feet long, while one from Australia could not have fallen
much, if at all, short of 30 feet. The group is an isolated one, without near relation-
ship to any other family.
The genus may be divided into four distinct sections, the first of which is
represented solely by the desert-monitor (V. griseus) of North-Western Africa and
South-Western Asia, extending from Arabia and the Caspian to North-Western
India. This species differs from all the rest in that the nostrils are in the form of
oblique shits, while the tail, except sometimes near its tip, is cylindrical. Attaining
a length of 4 feet 2 inches, and inhabiting the deserts of North-Western India, and
thence westwards through Southern Asia to the Caspian and North Africa, it takes
its name from its greyish yellow colour, which may be relieved by brown crossbars
on the back and tail, and streaks of the same hue along the sides of the neck; the
young always having yellow spots and dark bars. In accordance with its sombre
coloration, this species is an inhabitant of sandy deserts. A far handsomer lizard
than the last is the Cape monitor (V. albigularis) of Southern and South-Eastern
Africa, where it is commonly known to the Boers as the “adder.” It is the first
MONITORS. 151
representative of the second group of the genus, in which, while the nostrils are in
the form of oblique slits, the tail is compressed and keeled. Belonging to a sub-
group characterised by the smooth scales of the abdomen, it is further distinguished
by the absence of large (supraocular) scales above the eyes, by the nostril being
three times as far from the snout as from the eye, and by the small size of the
seales. It is slightly inferior in size to the last, and has the upper-parts greyish
brown, banded and spotted with yellow, and the under-parts yellowish. It
A
Ne
\
N
AY
Sy
CAPE MONITOR (4 nat. size).
generally frequents cliffs, or low rocky hills, in the interstices of which it delights
to hide, coming out to bask on the flat surfaces. Gray’s monitor (V. gray?) is an
example of a second subgroup in which the abdominal scales are keeled. In the
third great group, of which we take as our first example the water-monitor (V.
salvator), represented in the coloured Plate, round or oval nostrils are accompanied
by a compressed tail. In the species in question there is a series of transversely
elongated scales above the eyes, the oval nostril is situated as far from the eye as
from the tip of the snout, there are more than eighty transverse rows of scales be-
152 LIZARDS.
tween the fold on the throat and the groin, and the scales on the nape are not
larger than those of the back. This fine species, which ranges from India through
the Malayan region and China to Australia, attains a length of nearly 7 feet, and
is the largest of the genus. In colour it is dark brown or blackish above, with
yellow rings; the snout being generally lighter, with transverse black bars, and a
dark band, bordered by a yellow one, running backwards from the eye; the under
surface being uniformly yellow. The water-monitor frequents marshy localities,
being often found on trees overhanging rivers, and taking readily to the water,
either fresh or salt. The last species that we notice is the well-known Nile
monitor (V. niloticus), whose range extends all over Africa except a portion of the
north-western regions. Belonging to the same great group as the last, it represents
a second subgroup distinguished by the equality in the size of the scales above
the eyes; while it is distinguished from its alles by the nostril being rather nearer
the tip of the eye than the snout. In size it is somewhat larger than the desert
monitor. The colour of the adult is brownish or greenish grey, with darker
reticulate markings, and more or less distinct yellowish eye-like spots on the back
and limbs; while beneath it is yellowish, crossed by some dark bands. This
species is likewise found in the neighbourhood of water, generally building itself
a nest among the bushes on the banks, especially of those streams that dry up in
the hot season. The Papuan monitor (V. prasinus) of New Guinea and the islands
of Torres Straits, may be cited as an example of the fourth group of the genus,
in which, while the nostrils are round, the tail is nearly or quite cylindrical.
Retin As will be gathered from the foregoing, the monitors present
considerable diversity of habitat, although the majority prefer
the neighbourhood of water. The Papuan species is, however, believed to be
arboreal. All are carnivorous in their diet, feeding on frogs, snakes, the smaller
mammals and birds, as well as the eggs of both birds and reptiles, especially
crocodiles. Their movements are extremely rapid, both on land and in water;
and many a sportsman in his first day’s snipe-shooting in the rice-fields around
Calcutta has been startled by the sudden rush of the common Indian species
(V. bengalensis) as it darts among the herbage close to his feet. Those species in
which the tail is the most compressed are the best swimmers; this appendage
serving as a powerful propeller in the water, and being also used as a weapon of
offence on land. In order to enable them to remain under water for some time, the
nostrils are expanded into large cavities within the snout; and when the apertures
are closed these pouches serve as reservoirs of air. Writing of the great water-
monitor, Cantor says that it is “very numerous in hilly and marshy localities of
the Malayan Peninsula. It is commonly during the day observed in the branches
of trees overhanging rivers, preying upon birds and their eggs and smaller lizards,
and when disturbed it throws itself from a considerable height into the water. It
will courageously defend itself with teeth and claws and by strokes of the tail.
The lowest castes of Hindus capture these lizards commonly by digging them out
of their burrows on the banks of rivers, for the sake of their flesh.” Professor V.
Ball gives the following account of a meeting with a lizard of the same species in
the Nicobars :—* As I did not care to shoot him, though I wanted to capture him, I
threw stones at him, whereupon he hissed and lashed his tail in a manner that.
GREAVED LIZARDS. 153
might prove alarming to anyone not knowing the harmless nature of the beast. As
I was pressing him into a corner, he made a rush into the waves, but returned,
apparently not liking the surf. Just as I thought he could not escape, he made a
sudden dart into the water, dived through the surf, and disappeared.”
From observations made on specimens in captivity, it appears that these
lizards eat eggs by taking them in their mouths, raising their heads, and then
breaking the shells, so that the contents are allowed to run down their throats.
Although but little is ascertained regarding their breeding-habits, monitors are
known to lay white, soft-shelled eggs, which are deposited sometimes in the nests
of white ants. As many as twenty-four eggs, of a couple of inches in length, have
been taken from the body of a single female. By the Burmese these eges are
much relished as articles of food, and command a higher price in the market
than hens’ eggs.
THE GREAVED LIZARDS.
Family TzmDz.
in America the place of the true lizards of the Old World is taken by a nearly
allied group which may be termed the greaved lizards, some of which rival the
smaller monitors in size. In common with the remaining members of the
suborder, these lizards are distinguished from all the foregoing by their tongues,
which are slit at the tip and frequently shaped like an arrow-head, being either
covered with overlapping scale-like papille, or marked by oblique folds. In all,
the head is covered with large symmetrical shields, very different from the small
scales of the monitors. They further differ by the collar-bones being dilated, and
often loop-shaped at their inner extremities.
The greaved lizards are specially characterised by the absence of a bony roof
to the temporal fossze of the skull, and by the shields of the head being completely
free from the underlying bones; while there are no bony plates on the body. On
the body and tail the scales are arranged in transverse rows. The teeth, although
very variable, differ from those of the true lizards of the Old World in not being
hollow at the base; the replacing teeth being developed in small sockets at the
roots of those in use. In some cases these teeth, which may be either pointed or
of a flattened crushing type, are placed near the summits of the jaws, and in others
somewhat on the side, so that the dentition is intermediate between the typical
acrodont and pleurodont modifications; the front teeth are always conical. On
the palate teeth are but seldom present, and, if developed, are small. The long
tongue, which is frequently retractile within a sheath, is generally covered with
overlapping scales; the drum of the ear is exposed; and the eyes are generally
furnished with lids. The majority of the forms resemble the true lizards in
general appearance, although in some the number of toes is reduced to four. In
others, however, the limbs take the form of mere stumps, while the hind pair may
be wanting, in which case there is a near approach to the amphisbeenas.
The greaved lizards comprise over a hundred species, arranged in thirty-five
genera, which are distributed over the warmer parts of America, although most
numerous in the equatorial regions. Various in their habitat, some frequent dry,
154 TTLARD,S:
sandy plains, others dwell among the herbage of meadows, while others prefer
woods, and a few are partially or wholly subterranean; these latter either taking
possession of some empty hole, or digging one for themselves. In their general
mode of hfe they resemble the monitors and true lizards, although some are more
like the amphisbenas. They are generally swift and active in their movements;
and the larger kinds are thoroughly carnivorous, subsisting not only on insects,
THE TEJU (} nat. size).
worms, slugs, and snails, but likewise hunting such of the smaller vertebrates as
they are able to overcome. Most species deposit their eggs in the hollow stems, or
among the roots of trees. A few of the larger species are hunted for the sake of
their flesh, which is stated to be tender and well-fAlavoured.
One of the largest and best known representatives of the family
is the lizard variously termed the teju, teguexin, or jacuaru
(Tupinambis tequexin), which ranges over a large portion of South America and
the West Indies, and belongs to a genus comprising three species. These lizards
The Teju.
GREAVED LIZARDS. 155
may be recognised by the tail being round at the root and slightly compressed
near the middle, the double fold of skin on the neck, the uniform scales of the
back, the rather small squared shields of the under surface of the body, which are
arranged in more than twenty rows, the want of teeth on the palate, the com-
pressed tricuspid cheek-teeth of the young, and the long tongue, which is of nearly
equal width throughout, and sheathed at the base. In old individuals the crowns
of the cheek-teeth become obtuse. The teju, which attains a length of about a
yard, is a bulky and strikingly coloured lizard. Above, the ground-colour is olive,
upon which are markings and bands of black, and more or less distinct rows of
SURINAM AMEIVA (4 nat. size).
lighter spots; while the under surface is yellowish, with interrupted black bars ;
the lines of division between the shields of the head being black.
Ranging from Guiana to Uruguay, the teju is said by Bates to be very
common in the forests of the Amazon, where it may be observed in numbers
during the midday stillness scampering, apparently in sport, over the dead
leaves; while in other districts it haunts sugar-plantations. Although frequently
found in the neighbourhood of water, it apparently never enters it; and
generally dwells in wide-mouthed holes situated beneath the roots of trees. Shy
and retiring to a degree in inhabited districts, when driven into a corner it shows
fight, hissing at and striking with its muscular tail the dogs employed in its
pursuit. When sitting, the head is generally raised, while the forked tongue is
in constant motion. Its diet comprises such living creatures as it can capture,
156 LIZARDS.
together with eggs. The female lays from fifty to sixty hard-shelled eggs about
the size of those of a pigeon, generally placed in the hillocks of white ants.
The dracena (Dracena guianensis), of the Guianas and Amazonia, is a
somewhat smaller lizard, distinguished by its compressed and doubly-keeled tail,
the intermixture of keeled tubercles among the scales of the back, and the
extremely broad crowns of the cheek-teeth.
Breeds 8 Our second figured representative of the family is the Surinam
ameiva (Ameiva surinamensis), belonging to a genus of nearly
twenty species distributed over Central and South America, where they take the
place occupied by the true lizards in the Old World. They are distinguished by
their round, keelless tails, the presence of less than twenty rows of large smooth
scales on the under surface of the body, and the compressed two- or three-cusped
cheek-teeth. The tongue can be withdrawn into a sheath. The figured species,
which is found over South America as far as Nicaragua, attains a length of from
15 to 20 inches, and is very variable in coloration. The young are olive-brown,
with darker markings or white dots, and a black, white-edged band running along
the side of the body and extending on to the tail; these bands generally disappear-
ing with age, although sometimes retained in the females. In the adult the upper
surface is usually greenish, with some black and a few white spots; while the
under-parts are greenish white, spotted with black on the sides. Ameivas are
generally found in dry districts—more especially near the coasts, and in their
general habits are not very different from the teju, usually living in holes, among
old wood, or the herbage of gardens.
THE AMPHISBANAS.
Family AMPHISB ANID.
Among the most remarkable of all lizards are those whose typical repre-
sentatives have the power of moving equally well either backwards or forwards,
from whence they derive the name by which the group is now commonly
designated. Very nearly related to the preceding family, through those members
of the latter with aborted limbs, the amphisbeenas are distinguished by the simple
and degraded characters of the skull, in which all the arches have been lost,
and the two premaxillary bones are fused into one. All are adapted to a purely
subterranean existence, and have long, worm-like bodies, devoid, except in one
species, of any external trace of limbs; while even the bones of the shoulder and
pelvis are more or less rudimental. The eyes are concealed beneath the skin; the
mouth is small, and frequently inferior in position; and the ear is completely
wanting. Although the head is covered with large symmetrical shields, the skin
of the body is divided into squared segments forming regular rings, like those of
worms; from which character the group is sometimes spoken of as the ringed
lizards. In all the tail is short. The large teeth are few in number, and fixed
either to the inner or upper edges of the jaws.
The amphisbzenas, which are arranged in eleven genera, including between
sixty and seventy species, are most numerously represented in America south of
AMPHISBA NAS. iS 9
the Tropic of Cancer, although also occurring in the West Indies, while Africa
possesses over twenty species, and four are found in the Mediterranean area. Of
their habits, Mr. Boulenger observes that all the members of this family are
burrowers, and may live in ants’ nests. They bore narrow galleries in the earth,
in which they are able to progress backwards as well as forwards. On the ground
they progress in a straight line by slight vertical undulations, not by lateral
movements, as in other limbless reptiles; and the tail of many species appears to
be more or less prehensile. The food of these lizards consists of small insects and
worms. As regards their breeding-habits, it is only known that one species lays
eggs, which are deposited in ants’ nests. The marked resemblance of these lizards
to earth-worms is a most curious instance of the similarity produced in the external
HANDED AMPHISB-ENA (nat. size),
form of different groups of animals by adaptation to similar modes of life; the
remarkable feature in this case being the occurrence of this resemblance in
creatures so widely sundered from one another, as are worms and amphisbeenas.
Fossil members of the family have been discovered in the Tertiary rocks of North
America.
Handed The one member of the family which exhibits evidence of its
Amphisbena. relationship to less specialised lizards in the retention of rudimentary
fore-limbs is the handed amphisbena (Chirotes caniculatus), of Mexico and
California ; this being one of the two species found on the continent of America to
the north of the Tropie of Cancer. This creature, which attains a length of about
7 inches, and is of a brownish flesh-colour, is distinguished by the presence of
a pair of small depressed fore-limbs, placed close to the head, to which they are
about equal in length; each of these being provided with four well-developed and
clawed toes, of which the outermost is the shortest.
158 LIZARDS.
Typical The typical members of the family constitute a genus (Amphis-
Amphisbenas. boenm) common to Tropical America and Africa, and represented by
nearly thirty species. Belonging, like the last genus, to the group in which the
teeth are attached to the inner edges of the jaws, these limbless amphisbeenas are
specially characterised by the anterior body-rings not being enlarged, by the
laterally placed nostrils being pierced in a special nasal shield, by the rounded or
slightly compressed snout, the obtuse, cylindrical tail, and the presence of pores in
front of the vent. The figured species (A. fuliginosa) is a well-known kind from
Tropical America and the West Indies, deriving its name from its pied skin, and
attaining a length of about 18 inches. Writing of the habits of a member of the
genus, Bates observes that their “ peculiar form, added to their habit of wriggling
backwards as well as forwards, has given rise to the fable that they have two
heads, one at each extremity. They are extremely sluggish in their motions, and
live habitually in the subterranean chambers of the saiiba ant; only coming out
SPOTTED AMPHISBHENA (2 nat. size).
of their abodes occasionally in the night-time. The natives call the amphisbzena
the mai das saiibas, or mother of the saiibas, and believe it to be poisonous,
although it is perfectly harmless. It is one of the many curious animals which
have become the subject of mythical stories with the natives. They say the ants
treat it with great affection, and that if the snake be taken away from a nest the
satibas will forsake the spot. I once took one quite whole out of the body of a
young jararaca [a poisonous snake], whose body was so distended with its contents
that the skin was stretched out to a film over the contained amphisbena. I was,
unfortunately, not able to ascertain the exact relation which subsists between
these curious reptiles and the saiiba ants. I believe, however, that they feed upon
the saiibas, for I once found the remains of ants in the stomach of one of them.”
THE TRUE LIZARDS.
Family LACERTIDA.
The true lizards, constituting the typical representatives of the suborder, form
a large family, with seventeen genera, distributed over Europe, Asia, and Africa _
LRG, LIZARDS. 159
(exclusive of Madagascar), but most abundant in Africa, and comparatively rare in
the Oriental countries. Taking the place in the Old World occupied in the New
by the greaved lizards, these reptiles are readily distinguished from the latter by
the temporal fossa of the skull being roofed over with bone (as shown in the figure
of the skeleton on p. 108), and likewise by the shields of the head being firmly
attached to the underlying bones, as well as by the union of the two premaxillary
bones, the latter feature being common to this family and the amphisbeenas. All
of them have well-developed limbs, each furnished with five toes, the body plump,
and separated by a well-marked neck from the head, the tail long and brittle, the
drum of the ear exposed, and the eyelids distinct and generally freely mobile. The
skin contains no bony plates; the scales of the back are either overlapping or in
apposition ; while those of the under surface are generally larger, and arranged in
longitudinal and transverse rows. The teeth are always attached to the sides of
the edges of the jaws (pleurodont), and differ from those of the grooved lizards in
their hollow bases; those of the cheek-series having two- or three-cusped crowns.
The flat and scaled tongue is of considerable length, and cleft both in front and
behind, so as to assume the form of an arrow-head. As a rule, pores are present
on the hinder surface of the thigh.
Out of about one hundred species of true lizards, two are found in the British
Islands, where, with the exception of the blind-worm, they are the only represent-
atives of the suborder; but many others inhabit Southern Europe. Lizards of
this family are veritably creatures of the sun, delighting to bask in its rays on
some warm sandy bank, wall, or rock, and retiring to their holes and crannies in
cloudy or rainy weather. The more powerful and bright is the sun, the more
active, indeed, do these reptiles become, since most of them are dull and listless in
the mornings and evenings, and only wake to full activity in the midday glare.
Over the greater part of Europe they begin to spend a large portion of their time
in their holes, and with the commencement of October retire for their winter sleep,
from which they do not awake till spring is well advanced. Comparatively rare
in Northern Europe, in the south of the continent lizards are common enough to
form an attractive feature in the landscape, their burnished metallic green and
bronzy scales flashing in the sunlight on every wall, and in every road and path.
The darting movements of these pretty reptiles, as they are in pursuit of the flies
and other small insects which constitute their chief prey, are familiar to all.
While the majority lay eggs, the viviparous lizard produces living young.
Sere ra The pearly lizard (Lacerta ocellata) of Southern Europe, which
is also represented by a variety in Algeria, may be taken as our first
-example of the typical genus Lacerta, of which there are over twenty species,
inhabiting Europe, North and West Asia, Africa north of the Sahara, and the
Atlantic islands. The members of this group, which may be collectively designated
collared lizards, are distinguished by the following features. The body is cylindrical
or slightly depressed ; the head pyramidal, with upright sides; the neck not very
well defined; and the tail cylindrical, tapering, and long. The throat is furnished
with a well-marked collar of enlarged scales; the scales on the back are smaller
than those on the tail, and are at most but slightly overlapping; while the shields
of the under surface are squared, and slightly overlapping. The rounded or com-
160 LAZLARKDS:
pressed toes have either smooth, tuberculated, or indistinctly keeled pads on the lower
surface, while the thighs have pores. In common with several other genera, the
nostrils are placed close to the so-called labial scales, from which they are separated
at most by a narrow rim; and if there be a transparent disc in the lower eyelid,
it is smaller than the eye. Among the most beautifully coloured members of
the suborder the pearly lizard, which attains a length of from 16 to 23 inches,
claims a foremost place. Belonging to a large group of the genus, in which the
edge of the throat-collar is strongly serrated, this species agrees with certain other
members of the genus in its smooth tail, and in the seales on the sides of the body
not being smaller than those on the back. As special characters of the species, it
may be noted that the scales are smaller than in the allied forms; and that there
are not less than seventy scales round the middle of the body, eight or ten of which
belong to the under surface. The head is very large in the male, and characterised
by the great width of its hindmost, or occipital, median shield. In colour, the
upper-parts are either green, with black dots or network, or blackish olive with
yellowish netting; the sides are marked with a row of about a dozen eye-like blue
spots; while the under surface is uniform greenish yellow. The olive-coloured
young are, however, dotted all over with white, or pearly-blue, black-edged spots.
Common in Spain, and also occurring in the south of France and North-
Western Italy, or wherever the olive-tree grows, the pearly lizard is generally to
be met with in the neighbourhood of hollow trees, frequently ascending some
distance up their trunks, or even climbing among the branches. The males are
somewhat quarrelsome, and the females lay from six to ten eggs, generally
deposited in a hollow olive-tree.
ee Teery Another well - known European species 1S the green lizard
(L. viridis), attaining a length of about 12 inches in Germany, but
in the more southern portions of its habitat measuring as much as 17 inches;
fuliy two-thirds of this length being occupied by the long tail. Having not more
than sixty-six scales round the middle of the body, this lizard is distinguished by
the general presence of two small superimposed scales behind each nostril, the
small size and triangular form of the occipital shield, and the arrangement of the
abdominal scales in six longitudinal rows; the collar being serrated. Usually the
nostrils are in contact with the front or rostral shield of the head; and in the
female and young the foot is longer than the head. As regards colour, the males,
which may be distinguished from the females by the larger and higher head, the
thickened root of the tail, stouter hind-limbs, and generally superior size, are some
shade of green-olive, passing below into yellow. Black dots, passing into large
spots, generally adorn the upper surface, whereas the under-parts, save for a blue
patch on the chin and throat, are uniform. The females, in which the blue on the
throat is less constantly present, have a more brownish tinge, with the sides
ornamented with black-bordered yellowish spots. The young are generally leather-
brown in colour, with one or two yellow side-stripes. Both sexes vary, however,
considerably according to age ; and southern specimens are more brilliantly coloured
than those from the north.
The green lizard is an inhabitant of the countries lying to the east and north
of the Mediterranean, and thence extending eastwards to Persia. Very common in
LAO PLL LAT DS. 161
Portugal and Spain, where it is represented by a variety, it extends in France as
far north as Paris, but it is unknown in Sardinia. In place of resorting, like the
pearly lizard, to trees, this species is usually found on the ground, more especially
in districts where the subsoil is rocky, ranging from the sea-level to a height of
some three thousand feet, and being equally at home on the plains or among the
mountains, in stony or sandy districts, on bare rocks, or among thick bush. As
rapid as lightning in its movements, it feeds chiefly upon large insects and their
larvee, together with slugs and worms; living in grassy districts almost entirely upon
grasshoppers, and at times attacking smaller species of its own tribe. In Switzer-
land and Germany the female usually deposits her eight to eleven white eggs
‘, Sih
r Z
LN RN
NA
GREEN LIZARDS (g nat. size).
during June, these being hatched in the course of a month or so; and it is
generally during the breeding-season that the blue on the throat is assumed by
this sex.
The third European representative of the genus is the much
smaller sand-, or hedge-lizard (LZ. agilis), which is a more northern
form, ranging into the British Islands and Scandinavia. Usually not more than
8 inches in length, although occasionally measuring nearly 10, this lizard may be
recognised by its short, thick, and blunt-snouted head, and by the tail being
considerably less than twice the length of the head and body. Never having more
than fifty-eight scales round the middle of the body, it is further distinguished by
the rostral shield of the head being separated by a small interval from the nostrils,
VOL. V.—II
Sand-Lizard.
162 LIZARDS.
by the trapezoidal shape of the small occipital shield, by the absence of the row of
small granules which occur between the shields of the eyelids (supraoculars) and
eyebrows (supraciliaries) in the green and wall-lizards, and by the foot being not
longer than the head. Although there is great variation in this respect, the
general colour of the male is greenish, and that of the female grey or brown; the
crown of the head, a streak down the back, and the tail being mostly brown, while
the chin and under-parts are greenish or yellowish. The streak down the back,
and in the females also the sides, are marked by rows of white spots, which are
sometimes large and eye-like; and the under surface is marked with black. Some
individuals, especially males, closely approach the green lizard in coloration.
The range of the sand-lizard embraces North, Central, and Eastern Europe,
and extends eastwards to Western Siberia and Asiatic Russia. In England it is
generally found on sandy heaths, where it may often be seen running across the
open paths with a speed less rapid than that of the more common viviparous
species. It is more timid and less easily tamed than the green lizard, generally
pining and refusing to feed in captivity. According to Bell, the female lays her
eggs, to the number of twelve or fourteen, in hollows in the sand, which she
excavates for the purpose, and having covered them carefully with sand, she
leaves them to be hatched by the solar heat.
Viviparous. A still smaller, and at the same time a more slightly built
Lizard. = species is the common English viviparous lizard (LZ. vivipara), which
varies in length from 6 to just over 7 inches in length. It has larger scales than
the last, which are not more than forty-five round the middle of the body, and the
foot generally exceeds the head in length; granules being absent above the eyes.
The absence of teeth on the palate is another feature in which this species differs
from the sand-lizard. The colour of the adult is brown, yellowish, or reddish,
ornamented with small dark and lght spots, and often with a dark streak down
the back, and another, edged with yellowish, on each side. Jn the male, the under
surface 1s orange or vermilion, spotted with black; and in the female, pale orange
or yellow, sparsely spotted with black, or uniform. The young are nearly black,
and this hue occasionally persists. Unknown to the south of the Alps, the
viviparous, or, as it is sometimes called, mountain-lizard, is spread over the greater
part of North and Central Europe, and the whole of Northern Asia, as far as
Amurland, ranging in the Alps to a height of nearly ten thousand feet. At this
elevation it is, however, dormant for fully three-quarters of the year, being active
for only two or three months. In Britain it extends to Scotland, and is one of
the few reptiles found in Ireland. Generally similar in its habits to its allies, it
is more fond of water, and is a good swimmer, usually frequenting heaths and
banks. “Its movements,’ writes Bell, “are beautifully graceful as well as rapid;
it comes out of its hiding-place during the warm parts of the day from the early
spring till autumn has far advanced, basking in the sun, and turning its head
with a sudden motion, if an insect comes within its view, and, darting like
lightning upon its prey, it seizes it with its little sharp teeth, and speedily
swallows it.” Unlike its kin, this species produces living young, varying from
three to six in number, which are active as soon as born, and remain in the
company of their parent for some time.
WALIC SIZ ARDS:
iO IAA KDS. 163
o
The last representative of the typical genus that we shall notice
is the beautiful wall-lizard (L. mwralis), of which a group is depicted
in our coloured Plate. This southern species, which inhabits the countries
bordering both sides of the Mediterranean, and extends eastwards into Persia,
belongs to a group in which the edge of the collar on the neck is even or but
slightly serrated, and the scales of the back are granular. Attaining in Germany
a length of from 7 to 7} inches, but reaching from 8 to 9} inches in Italy, this
species has a series of granules between the shields above the eyes, while the scales
of the abdomen are arranged in six (rarely eight) rows, and those on the upper
surface of the leg are larger than those on the back; and there is but a single
Wall-Lizard.
7
Was
VIVIPAROUS LIZARD (nat. size.)
(postnasal) scale behind each nostril. In colour the wall-lizard presents such an
astonishing variation, that it is almost impossible to give any general description.
In German examples the ground-colour of the back is, however, often brown or
grey, with bronze-green reflections in sunlight, upon which are blackish streaks,
marblings, and spots; while the flanks have a row of blue spots; and the under-
parts vary from milk-white to copper-red, frequently variegated by spots or
marblings. In Southern Europe these lizards may be seen basking on almost every
wall, old building, or face of rock, where they delight all beholders with their
activity and tameness. “Scarcely two,” writes Leith-Adams, “are marked alike:
the brightness and variety of their hues are most beautiful and attractive, and, like
the chameleon, they change colour with the coruscations of sunshine, but, of
164 | LIZARDS.
course, not to the same extent. During an excursion to the islet of Filfla, on the
southern coast of Malta, in the month of June, I was surprised to find that all the
lizards on the rock were of a beautiful bronze-black, and so much tamer than their
agile brethren on the mainland. Many individuals were so tame that they
scrambled about our feet, and fed on the refuse of our luncheon.” Whereas in the
Southern Tyrol these lizards remain active till December, and reappear by the
ALGERIAN KEELED LIZARDS (? nat. size).
middle of February, in Germany their winter sleep is considerably longer. Like
its congeners, this species has an exceedingly brittle tail; and it was observed
some years that on a certain road in Madeira all the lizards belonging to a nearly
allied species (LZ. dugesi) were without tails. The circumstance was explained
by the spot being the favourite resort of the midshipmen landing from the ships
visiting the island, who amused themselves by knocking off the lizards’ tails.
The members of the genus Lacerta, as we have seen, are
Keeled Lizards, :
characterised by the presence of a well-marked collar on the neck, by
TRUE LIZARDS. 165
the scales of the back being smaller than those on the tail, and by the toes being
without fringes on their sides, or keels on their soles. An allied genus—Algiroides
—represented by three species from the eastern coast of the Adriatic, Greece,
Sardinia, and Corsica,—difters by the strongly overlapping scales of the back being
nearly as large as those of the tail. On the other hand, four species inhabiting
South-Western Europe and the opposite coast of Africa constitute a third genus—
— Psammodromus—in which the collar is indistinct or wanting, the toes are not
fringed, though generally more or less distinctly keeled inferiorly, while the over-
lapping scales of the back bear strong keels. Among these the Spanish keeled
lizard, or sand-runner (P. hispanicus), retains a trace of a collar and has strongly
keeled soles; whereas in the Algerian keeled lizard (P. algirus) the collar is
COMMON FRINGE-TOED LIZARDS (nat. size),
wanting, and the soles are at most but feebly keeled. The figured species, which
inhabits not only North-Western Africa, but likewise Portugal, Spain, and the
south of France, reaches nearly 10} inches in length, and has a tail almost twice as
long as the head and body. It is specially distinguished by the scales of the
abdomen being of nearly equal width and arranged in six rows, as well as by the
presence of from thirty to thirty-six scales round the middle of the body. In
colour, this lizard is bronzy-green above, with one or two golden, dark-edged
streaks along the side; the male being ornamented with a pale blue eye-like
spot above the shoulder, sometimes followed by one or two behind, while the
under-parts are whitish. Abundant in Algeria and the neighbourhood of Mont-
pellier this lizard is found in the former region both in hedges and on limestone
rocks, whereas in France it frequents hedges alone. Preferring dry, open, and
166 LIZARDS.
warm districts, and thriving well in captivity, it presents nothing specially note-
worthy as regards its habits.
Fringe-Toed The fringe-toed lizards (Acanthodactylus), of which there are
Lizards. ten species ranging from Southern Spain and Portugal, and Northern
Africa through South-Western Asia to the Punjab, differ from the preceding group
by the toes being both fringed on the sides and keeled below; a more or less
distinct collar occurring on the throat. On the head, the occipital shield is
wanting, and the nostrils are pierced between two nasal and one labial shields.
Pores are present on the thigh, and the tail is nearly cylindrical. The common
fringe-toed lizard (A. vulgaris) is a species of from 4} to 4} inches in length,
agreeing with most of its kindred in having the hinder scales of the back but little
enlarged, and specially characterised by the strong keeling of the scales on the
upper surface of the tail, and the slight pectination of the toes. It is represented
by two varieties, one occurring in Spain and Portugal, and rarely in the south of
France, characterised by the smooth or slightly keeled scales of the back, and an
African form in which these scales are very strongly keeled, and the coloration is
brighter. The colour of the adult is greyish or brownish, with faint longitudinal
series of light and dark spots and lines, and sometimes eye-like blue spots on the
flanks; the young being longitudinally streaked with black and white, and having
white spots on the limbs. All these lizards inhabit dry sandy districts, and are
remarkably shy in their habits, seldom venturing forth from their retreats except
when the sun is shining brightly.
THE SKINK TRIBE.
Family SCLINCIDZ.
The preceding family is connected with the one we have now to consider by a
small group of five African genera constituting the family Gerrhosawride, which,
while resembling the true lizards in having but a single premaxillary bone and
the presence of pores on the thigh, agree with the skinks in possessing bony plates
of peculiar structure beneath the scales. The skink tribe, taking their title from
the lizard commonly known by that name, are a very numerous family, comprising
upwards of twenty-five genera and nearly four hundred species, and presenting
great variety of bodily form, some kinds being four-limbed, while others are more
or less completely snake-like. Agreeing with the true lizards in the characters of
the tongue and teeth, as well as in the roofing-over of the temporal fossze by bone,
the skinks differ in having two distinct premaxillary bones in the skull, in the
presence of bony plates traversed by symmetrical tubules beneath the scales, and
in the invariable absence of the pores which are generally present in the thighs of
the Lacertide. The limbs, when present, are relatively short, and in some cases
are reduced to two, and in others absent; the number of toes is very variable,
even among the members of a single genus; the short and scaly tongue is free,
and but slightly notched in front; and the drum of the ear is generally covered
with scales. The eyes have round pupils, and well-developed and generally mobile
lids, the lower one of which has a large transparent window. The teeth, which:
SLATS PIA B LE, 167
are attached to the sides of the jaws, may have either conical, bicuspid, or broad
and spheroidal crowns (Ziliqua). The head is covered by large symmetrical
shields, among which an unpaired occipital is generally wanting; and the over-
lapping scales of the body are generally subhexagonal in form and arranged in
a quincuncial manner. Worldwide in distribution, the skink tribe are most
numerously represented in Australia, Oceania, the Oriental region, and. Africa,
while very few occur in South America, and there are not many in North America
and Europe. Although their habits are not fully known, it appears that, with the
exception of two genera, they bring forth living young, varying from two to ten
in number. The majority are terrestrial, a few only being able to climb, while
none are aquatic. They sedulously avoid the neighbourhood of water, frequenting
STUMP-TAILED LIZARDS (} nat. size).
dry situations, and more especially those where the soil is sandy with an admixture
of pebbles or fragments of rock. Moreover, they generally possess the faculty—
rare among lizards—of burrowing in the ground with the dexterity, if not with
the power, of moles. From this habit the group is sometimes spoken of as the
burrowing lizards; and it may be remarked that their spindle-shaped bodies,
covered with highly polished seales, their short legs, and frequently abbreviated
tail, as well as the transparent window in the lower eyelid, are all features specially
adapted for such a mode of life. From among the numerous genera, the limits of
our space render it necessary to confine our remarks to four, which are selected as
examples of very divergent types.
Stump-Tailed Described as far back as the year 1699, the stump-tailed lizard
Lizard. = (Trachysaurus rugosus), of Australia, is the sole representative of
168 LIZARDS.
one of the most remarkable genera in the entire suborder. With a short,
pyramidal depressed head of great width, a short but distinet neck, a long, thick,
and flattened body, and a very wide and stumpy tail, the creature is clothed with
an armour of rough, thick, brown scales, which give it very much the appearance
of a living pine-cone. On the lower surface, the scales are smooth and much.
smaller, The small and stout limbs are widely separated, and terminate in five
short toes, each provided with strong curved claws. In length this strange reptile
measures about 14 inches, and its colour above is brown with spots or irregular
bands of yellow, while beneath it is yellowish, with brown spots, marblings, or
longitudinal and transverse streaks. The cheek-teeth have subconical crowns.
Beyond the fact that it is a burrower, scarcely anything appears to be known of
the habits of the stump-tailed lizard in a wild state, although many observations
have been made on captive specimens. In the latter state it is slow and lethargic
EUROPEAN SNAKE-EYED LIZARD (nat. size),
in its movements, creeping about with the abdomen pressed to the ground. Its
chief food consists of worms and insects, although fruit and vegetables are
occasionally eaten; and that it can endure long fasts is proved by an example
which only ate two or three flies during the voyage from Australia.
Snake-Eyed Very different in appearance to the last is the lizard (Ablepharus
Lizards. = pannonicus) represented in the accompanying illustration, which
belongs to a genus containing a number of small species distributed over Australia,
South-Western Asia, South-Eastern Europe, and Tropical and South America, one
of which (A. boutonz) ranges irregularly over the hotter parts of both the Eastern
and Western Hemispheres. These lizards differ from all their kin in having no
movable eyelids, their place being taken by a transparent disc of skin stretched
over the eye after the manner of snakes. In this genus the ear may be either
open or concealed by scales; and while some of the species have well-developed
limbs, in others they are more or less aborted, the number of toes being also
highly variable. The figured species, which ranges in Europe from Hungary to.
SKINK TRIBE. 169
Greece, and is also spread over Asia Minor, Syria, and Northern Arabia, measures
only 4 inches in length, of which fully half is occupied by the tail. Its general
colour above is bronzy olive, becoming darker on the sides, and with a_ blackish
light-edged streak passing through the eye along each side of the body; while the
under-parts are greenish. The European species is found alike on slopes covered
with short grass or in sandy spots, and does not appear to be a burrower. Feeding
on small insects and worms, it does not generally venture forth from its lurking-
places till four or five o'clock in the afternoon, and retires before night. In
common with the other members of its genus, it differs from the majority of its
family in laying eggs.
While both the genera above-mentioned belong to a group
characterised by the palatine bones meeting in the middle of the
palate, the true skinks indicate a second and smaller group in which those bones
True Skinks.
COMMON SKINK (2 nat, size).
are separated from one another. Skinks are neatly made, somewhat short-tailed
lizards, with short limbs provided with five toes serrated on their sides. The
tail is conical, the head and snout wedge-shaped, the ear more or less concealed,
while the nostrils are pierced between an upper and a lower nasal shield. Of
the nine species of the genus, which range from North Africa through Arabia
and Persia to Sind, the most familiar is the common skink (Scincus officinalis),
of the Sahara and Red Sea littoral. This species, which attains a length of
34 inches, has smooth, shining, rounded scales of great breadth, and is of a
yellowish or brownish colour above, with each scale marked by small brown
and whitish spots and streaks, and the sides of the body often ornamented
with dark transverse bands; the under-parts being uniformly whitish. Not
uncommon in Egypt, and abundant in the Algerian and Tunisian Sahara, the
common skink derives its specific name from having been extensively employed
170 LIZARDS.
in medicine as an infallible remedy for almost every disease under the sun; its
reputation as a healing agent stall surviving among the Arabs, by whom the flesh
of the creature is used both as a drug and as an article of food. The exclusive
haunts of the skink are sandy districts, where it generally moves in a slow and
deliberate manner, and when frightened buries itself in the soil instead of
attempting to seek safety in flight. Indeed, the celerity with which the reptile
sinks into the sand is described as being little short of marvellous, suggesting the
idea of its escaping into some hole already existing rather than of excavating a
fresh burrow for itself, such a burrow not unfrequently extending to the depth of
several feet. During the daytime the skink, if quietly approached, may be
observed quietly reposing in the sun by the side of one of the small hillocks or
ridges raised in the sand at the base of trees by the wind; and from such a state
of idleness it is only roused by the approach of a beetle or a fly, upon which it
darts with unerring aim. In spite of its strong teeth or claws, when captured, the
skink never makes any attempts to defend itself, beyond struggling vigorously.
Of its breeding-habits, little or nothing definite appears to be known. According
to Canon Tristram, the flesh of a few well-broiled skinks forms a dish not to be
despised even by a European palate.
Under the title of Chalkis, the ancient Greeks designated a
remarkable snake-like lizard inhabiting Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily,
as well as Algeria and Tunis, which was known to the Romans by the name
of Seps; the latter being in allusion to the poisonous properties with which
this perfectly harmless reptile was supposed to be endowed. The “seps”
(Chalcides tridactylus) is the typical representative of a genus of some twelve
species belonging to the present family, which exhibit a most interesting example
of the gradual degradation of limbs, some species having five toes to each foot,
while in others, as the figured example, the number of digits is reduced to three ;
and in one kind the limbs are represented merely by undivided rudiments.
The bronze lizards, as the members of the genus may be collectively termed,
belong to an assemblage of genera differing from all those already noticed in
that the nostrils are pierced either in or close to the terminal rostral shield of
the skull, instead of being more or less widely separated therefrom. In the case of
the present genus the nostrils are situated in notches cut in the hinder border of
the shield in question; while the body is greatly elongated, and the limbs are
either short or rudimental. The figured kind is one of two species with three-
toed limbs, and attains a length of 134 inches, of which about half is occupied by
the tail. In colour it is olive or bronzy above, and may be either uniform, or
marked with an even number of darker and lighter longitudinal streaks. In the
south of France, Spain, and Portugal, it is replaced by the smaller striped bronze
lizard (C0. lineatus), in which the body is marked with nine or eleven longitudinal
stripes. The range of the whole genus embraces Southern Europe, Northern Africa,
and South-Western Asia, from Syria and Arabia to Sind.
The three-toed bronze lizard much resembles the blind-worm in general
appearance and habits, frequenting damp places, where abundance of its favourite
worms, snails, slugs, insects, and spiders are to be met with. Here it moves with a
wriggling serpentine motion similar to that of the blind-worm, which it hkewise
Bronze Lizards.
CHAM ALEONS. 1
resembles in producing living young and in retiring into a burrow for its winter
sleep. When not feeding, the creature, like most of its kind, delights to bask on
sandy spots in the full glare of the sun. The “seps” was believed to inflict death
on cattle by biting them during the night, its bite fillmg their veins with eorrup-
tion; and in consequence of this belief the unfortunate creature is still persecuted
with the same hatred as is the blind-worm in some parts of England.
THREE-TOED BRONZE LIZARD (nat. size).
The two remaining families (Anelytropide and Dibanide) are
represented by worm-like burrowing lizards allied to the skinks (of
which they may be regarded as degraded types), but with no bony plates beneath
the scales, no external ear-openings, and eyes concealed beneath the skin. The
former family is represented by three genera, of which two are African, and the
third is from Mexico; while of the latter there is but a single genus, with one
species from Papua, the Moluccas and Celebes, and a second from the Nicobars.
Other Families.
THE CHAMAELEONS.
SuporpDER Rhiptoglossa.
With the skinks and their allies we took leave of the last of the reptiles which,
in the zoological sense, are included under the title of lizards, and we now come
to the second subordinal group, represented by those strange creatures known
as chameleons. From the lizards proper these reptiles are at once distinguished
by their worm-like extensile tongues, which are club-shaped and viscous at the
extremity, and are capable of being protruded with the rapidity of lightning to a
distance of from four to six inches in front of the mouth. Hence the name of
worm-tongued lizards has been suggested for the group. Internally, the chameleons
differ from all lizards provided with well-developed limbs in having no collar-bones
L72 CHAMAELEONS.
(clavicles); while there are likewise certain distinctive features in connection with
the skull, into the consideration of which it will be unnecessary to enter in this
work. Another important feature by which these reptiles differ from lizards is
the structure of the feet, in which the toes are divided into two opposing branches,
thus forming grasping organs of great power. In the fore-foot the inner branch
of the foot includes three, and the outer two toes, in the hind-foot precisely the
reverse arrangement obtains; and from this peculiar hand-like structure of the
foot,—which, by the way, recalls the feet of the parrots and many Picarian birds,
—the chameleons have been spoken of as four-handed lizards. Yet another
peculiarity in the structure of these reptiles is presented by the eye, which is in
the form of a very large and prominent globe covered by a thick granular lid, in
the centre of which is a minute perforation for the pupil. The deliberate way in
which a chameleon rolls round one of these extraordinary eyes until it has focused
it on the fly about to be caught by the tongue is familiar to most of our readers.
The foregoing are the essential features by which the chameleons are dis-
tinguished from the lizards proper; those remaining for mention not being such as
would be regarded by zoologists as of subordinal importance. Among these may be
noticed the triangular helmet-like form generally assumed by the hinder part of
the head, which often has three longitudinal ridges, connected together posteriorly
by a cross-ridge, all of which are ornamented with tubercles. The teeth, which are
small, triangular, and compressed, are placed on the summits of the jaws in the
acrodont fashion, none being present on the palate. The body is much compressed,
and the neck short; the slender hmbs are so much elongated as to raise the body
high above the ground in a manner different from ordinary lizards; the tail is
long and prehensile, thus acting as a fifth hand; and in place of scales, the head
and body are covered with tubercles or shagreen-like granules. The larger species
attain a length of some 15 inches; but the dwarf chameleon of Madagascar
(Brookesia nanus) is less than 24 inches in length.
The chameleons include close on fifty species, all of which are comprised in
the single family Chamcleontide, and by far the greater majority in the typical
genus Chameleon. Indeed, of the two aberrant genera, Brookesia is represented
by three species from Madagascar, while Rhanvpholeon comprises two tropical
African kinds. The true home of the group is Africa and Madagascar, together
with the neighbouring islands, each of these areas comprising nearly half of the
known species. ‘The common chameleon (CL vulgaris) is, however, found on the
African and Asiatic coasts of the Mediterranean, entering Europe in Andalusia;
while a second species inhabits the Isle of Socotra, a third Southern Arabia, and a
fourth India and Ceylon.
Evidently extremely specialised creatures, chameleons stand
altogether apart from the lizards, not only as regards their anatomical
structure, but likewise in their power of moving one eye independently of the other,
in the enormous extensibility and protrusive power of their tongues, and in their
slow and deliberate movements. According, however, to those who have had the
opportunity of observing them in their native haunts, chameleons do not move
quite so slowly as in confinement, where they take half a minute in determining
which limb to move, or on which bough to replace it. Passing the whole of their,
Habits.
CHAMALLEONS.
Bete”:
9 > oe
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CHAMALEONS. 173
lives in trees, like most of their Malagasy compatriots, the lemurs, chameleons are
chiefly found only in regions where foliage is abundant, and where the fall of rain
or dew is sufficient to supply them with the amount of moisture they need. Conse-
quently, they are most numerously represented in coast districts and islands. A
few, however, frequent such parts of desert regions as come under the influence of
the sea moisture, and support a more or less scanty vegetation. Needless to say,
all the species live on insects, and more especially flies of various kinds, which are
caught by the viscid secretion of the tip of the protrusile tongue.
Being utterly defenceless creatures, and having a large number of enemies,
chameleons depend entirely upon their resemblance to their environment for
protection ; and for this end they have the power of changing colour, although not,
apparently, to such an extent as is the case with some lizards of the genus Calotes.
At night they appear generally to be of a whitish yellow hue, but with the first
dawn of day assume the dark green colour characteristic of most of the species,
which exactly assimilates to the surrounding leaves, and continues to grow brighter
and brighter with advancing day. When resting on a bough, or when captured
in the hand, the colour changes, however, to brown; this change in the latter case
taking place with exceeding rapidity, and the skin sometimes becoming nearly
black, with the disappearance of all the bright marking. This change, according
to Miss C. C. Hopley, is due to anger; the creature at the same time emitting a
sound something between a hiss and the chirp or squeak of a very young bird, and
trying to bite its captor. “ Meanwhile, it is all impatience to ascend, no matter
where, so that it climbs upwards. Up, up, always up; it may be your dress, or
whatever is near. It seems to think it can be safe only at the top of something.
And yet they are not found invariably on the upper branches of their bush, though
generally rather high. Released from the hand, its anger soon subsides, so does
the dark hue, and the creature assumes the tint of the surface on which it is placed,
greyish, reddish, darker or lighter, green or yellow, as may be.” Several individuals
are not unfrequently met with on the same bush, where they cling tightly to the
stems among the crowded leaves, being alike difficult to detect and to detach, and
always exhibiting their displeasure at being disturbed by the aforesaid hissing
sound, Absolutely still they remain, continues the writer just quoted, hour after
hour, the only evidence of life about them being that revolving little globe of an
eye, with its pupil turning as,an axis, now up, now down, forwards or backwards,
while its owner clings motionless as death. In repose, the long tongue is folded
up within the dilatable skin of the chin, where it has a special sheath for its
reception ; but it can be darted out with such speed as to take a fly at a distance
of fully six inches. Although the majority of the species lay eggs, the pigmy
chameleon (C. pumilus) of the Cape, together with five nearly allied African
species, produce living young, which may be as many as eleven in number. In
confinement chameleons quickly become tame, and, if allowed to rest in peace, after
a few days cease to bite and hiss when handled, and soon venture to take a fly
from their owner’s hand.
CHA Poli Re V-
ScaLep REprTites,—Order SquamaTa—continued ; THE SNAKES,—
Suborder OpHIpIA.
Distinctive ORIGINALLY regarded as representing a distinct ordinal group of
Characters and the Reptilian class, the snakes are now generally considered to form
Structure. merely a suborder of the great assemblage of reptiles which includes
both lizards and chameleons: and from their close structural resemblance to the
limbless lizards there can be no doubt that the more modern view is the true one.
As a matter of fact, it is by no means easy to draw a satisfactory distinction be-
tween lizards and snakes; and such characters as naturalists rely on for their
differentiation are mainly such as are due to adaptation to the special needs of the
latter group. Agreeing with lizards in their external covering of scales, snakes are
characterised by their exceedingly elongated and slender bodily conformation ; the
head, which is generally more or less flattened, being often not defined from the
body by a distinctly marked neck, while external limbs are wanting, and the body
passes posteriorly by imperceptible degrees into the tail. Occasionally, however,
external vestiges of the hind-limbs may persist, in the form of a pair of small spur-
like processes near the vent; and internally there may be traces not only of the
pelvis, but likewise of the thigh-bone, or femur. None of these characters will,
however, serve to distinguish snakes from the limbless lizards; and it is there-
fore necessary to point out how the two groups may be separated. The most
characteristic peculiarity of snakes, as distinct from lizards, is the absence of a
solid union between the two branches of the lower jaw, which are connected
at the chin merely by an elastic igament; this arrangement permitting of the
separation of the two halves of the jaw, and thus allowing the mouth to be dilated
so as to be capable of swallowing prey of much larger dimensions than the normal
width of its aperture. In addition to this arrangement, in the majority of snakes the
bones of the upper jaw and palate are likewise movable, thus further increasing
the capacity of the gape. From the great majority of lizards snakes are, of course,
widely distinguished by the absence of functional limbs ; while from the compara-
tively few limbless representatives of the same suborder, they differ in having
the tongue completely retractile within a basal sheath, as well as by the presence
of additional articulations to the vertebrae, which are described below. Moreover,
none of the limbless lizards have the large shields on the inferior surface charac-
terismg the majority of snakes, while most of them possess eyelids and an
external aperture to the ear.
No snake has movable eyelids; that portion of the skin representing the lids
extending as a convex transparent dise across the eye, and covering it as a watch-
DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 175
glass covers the face of a watch. When a snake changes its skin, which it does
several times during the year, the discs over the eyes peel off with the rest, and
appear as lenses in the dry slough. Equally characteristic is the absence of any
external aperture of the ear; a peculiarity which has given rise to the scriptural
expression of the deaf adder stopping its ears. Resembling that of lizards in its
flattened form, the tongue of snakes is narrow and smooth, and terminates in a
fork formed by two long thread-like points, while at its base it is inserted into a
sheath from which it can be protruded at will. The head, although not very large,
is generally wider than the body, from which, as already said, it is but seldom
separated by a recognisable neck, and is usually oval or triangular in shape, with
a more or less well-marked depression. Near the sides of its extremity, and some-
times at the very tip, are situated the nostrils; while posteriorly the gape in some
cases extends almost to the back of the head. Superiorly, as well as on its under-
surface, the head is generally covered with a number of large symmetrical shields,
INFERIOR, LATERAL, AND SUPERIOR VIEWS OF THE HEAD OF A SNAKE.
r, rostral shield ; /, anterior and posterior frontal do.; v, interparietal do.; s, supraocular do.; 0, parietal do.;
mn, nasal do.; 7, loreal do.; a, preocular do.; p, postocular do.; ww, upper labial do.; ¢¢1, temporal do.; m, mental
do.; **, lower labial do ; cc, chin-shields.—-After Giinther,
having their edges in apposition, and varying in relative size in the different
groups. Although the blind snakes have a uniform cuirass of polished scales all
round the body, while some of the sea-snakes also have the scales of the under-
parts similar to those of the back, in the great majority of the order the under
surface of the body is protected by large transverse shields, extending completely
across it from side to side. These broad shields often extend as far backwards as
the termination of the body proper; while at the commencement of the tail, and
thence backwards to the extremity, they are replaced by a double row. These
large inferior shields take an important part in the progression of snakes on land,
and hence we see why they are wanting in the marine forms.
In all snakes the number of joints in the backbone is very large; and each
of these, with the exception of a few near the extremity of the tail, is provided
with a pair of rather long, slender, and curved ribs, the extremities of which
correspond to the large inferior shields of the body in the species where these
are present. Superiorly the ribs, as shown in the figure on p. 104, articulate by a
176 SNAKES.
single head with a facet on the side of each vertebra, in the same manner as in
lizards. Only certain groups of lizards have the vertebree with the additional
articular facets on the front and back surfaces known as zygantra and zygo-
sphenes, but in snakes (as shown in the figure below) these are invariably
present; and it is owing to this complicated system of articulation that a snake
is able to make the wonderful foldings and contortions characteristic of its kind
without fear of dislocating its spine. It may be added that no snake has any
trace of a breast-bone, nor any vestige of a pectoral arch, there being no rudiments
of either blade-bone, coracoid, or collar-bone. When progressing on a firm surface,
an ordinary snake, in common with the limbless lizards, walks entirely by the aid
of its ribs, which are but very loosely articulated to the vertebra, and thus readily
admit of a large amount of motion. In describing their mode of progression, Dr.
Giinther remarks that “although the motions of snakes are in general very quick,
and may be adapted to every variation of ground over which they move, yet all
aa —
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SKELETON OF SNAKE,
the varieties of their locomotion are founded on the following simple process.
When a part of their body has found some projection of the ground which affords
it a point of support, the ribs, alternately of one and the other side, are drawn
more closely together, thereby producing alternate bends of the body on the
corresponding side. The hinder portion of the body being drawn after, some part
of it finds another support on the rough ground or a projection, and the anterior
bends being stretched in a straight line the front part of the body is propelled in
consequence. During this peculiar kind of locomotion, the numerous broad shields
of the belly are of great advantage, as, by means of the free edges of those shields,
they are enabled to catch the smallest projections on the ground, which may be
used as points of support. Snakes are not able to move over a perfectly smooth
surface.” It may be added that a snake is only able to move by lateral undulations
of its body in a horizontal plane; and that the pictures often seen in which these
reptiles are depicted as advancing with the folds of the body placed in a vertical
plane are altogether erroneous. In conformity with their elongated bodies, the
GENERAL CHARACTERS. 177
internal organs of snakes are long and narrow; and it is remarkable that, as a
rule, only one of the lungs is developed.
Resembling the other members of the order to which they
belong in that their teeth are never implanted in distinct sockets or
grooves, snakes exhibit some considerable degree of variation with regard to the
number and structure of their teeth. In the ordinary harmless forms there are
generally two rows of short, slender, and sharply-pointed teeth in the upper jaw,
the innermost of which are attached to the bones of the palate, while the lower
jaw carries only a single row of such weapons. One or two of the outer row of
upper teeth, either at the front or back of the series, may, however, be enlarged
beyond the rest, and grooved or tubular; and it is probable that all snakes with
such a dental armature are more or less venomous. Some most deadly poisonous
serpents have, on the other hand, a type of dentition of their own; and there is
no doubt that all snakes with teeth of this nature are extremely venomous. In
such snakes the forepart of the very short maxillary bone of each side of the
upper jaw is armed with an elongated tubular tooth, which ordinarily lies nearly
flat on the surface of the palate, but can be erected, by a peculiar mechanism of
the bones, when the jaws are opened. Although in this group the poison-fangs
are always tubular, in some of the other venomous serpents they are merely grooved
for the conveyance of the venom from the secreting gland; but there is a transition
between the two types, as the closed tube is formed merely by the edges of the groove
being elevated until they unite in the middle line. In poisonous snakes, on each
side of the upper jaw, below and behind the eye, is situated the poison-gland—
merely an ultra-development of an ordinary salivary gland; these glands in some
cases being so developed as to extend far back along the sides of the body. The
gland is overlain by a layer of muscles, for the purpose of forcing the secretion
Teeth.
into the tooth (the base of which is always open) when required; this action
always taking place when the snake opens its mouth to bite. The poison then
flows along the channel or tube of the tooth, and is discharged at its extremity into
the wound. Considerable force is used in the emission of the poison, as, when a
snake is irritated, the fluid may be seen to spirt for some distance from its point of
discharge. In some of the less specialised poisonous snakes, the venom-tooth,
which has an open channel, is not greatly longer than the others, and is placed
nearly vertically when the mouth is closed. Although the poison-teeth are
commonly regarded as purely defensive weapons, their chief use is for the de-
struction of the prey of their owners, which is always killed before being swallowed.
The venom-tooth of the more specialised poisonous snakes is exceedingly likely to
be broken off during use; but to take its place there are always several others
lying on the gum behind it in different stages of development.
Harmless and Poi- Before the doctrine of parallelism in development received from
sonous Snakes. naturalists the attention it undoubtedly merits, snakes were generally
divided into harmless and poisonous groups; but since we have become better
acquainted with that important factor in evolution, it has been recognised that
such a distinction is a purely artificial one, and has nothing to do with real affinity.
Certain groups of snakes, such as the members of the viper family, may, however,
be wholly poisonous; while in other groups, such as the typical snakes, some
VOL. V.—12
178 SNAKES.
species may be venomous and others innocuous. Many attempts have been made
to draw up a list of characters by means of which the harmless members of the
suborder can be distinguished at a glance from those which are hurtful. On this
point Mr. Boulenger writes “that there is no sure method of distinguishing the
two kinds of external characters; except, of course, by a knowledge of the various
forms. And even then, a cursory examination is not always sufficient, since there
is, in some cases, a striking resemblance between snakes of totally different affinities,
by which even specialists may at first be deceived. In short, nothing but an
examination of the dentition can afford positive information as to the poisonous
or non-poisonous nature of an unknown snake.”
Geologically speaking, snakes are a comparatively modern group,
being scarcely known below the lowest portion of the Eocene division
of the Tertiary period, although one or two forms have been described from the
underlying Cretaceous rocks, and one has recently been recorded from the Gault of
Portugal—a formation underlying the Chalk. It is noteworthy that one of the
North American lower Eocene snakes has the additional articular facets of the
vertebree but very imperfectly developed; and there can be little or no doubt but
that the whole group is an offshoot from the lizards. From the commencement of
the Tertiary period, the group seems to have gone on steadily increasing in
numbers; and it is now represented by some fifteen hundred species, ranging all
over the world except New Zealand. Snakes are, however, much more abundant
in the moist tropical regions of the globe than in colder regions, and it is there only
that they attain their maximum development in point of size. India and the
Malayan countries, where there are representatives of the whole of the nine families
into which the suborder is divided, are the home of a greater number of both
genera and species of snakes than any other part of the world, Tree-snakes are
very common in this region; while the gigantic pythons are shared by it in
common with Africa. The proportion of poisonous to innocuous species is likewise
very high in the Oriental region, and has been estimated at about one in ten.
Africa has scarcely half the number of snakes found in the Oriental region ; and
it is noteworthy that the forms inhabiting Madagascar have but little in common
with those of the mainland; the so-called lycodonts, which are so common in
Africa, being unknown in Madagascar, while some of the forms from that island
are closely allied to South American types. Whereas pit-vipers are absent, an
especial feature of Africa is the number of typical ‘vipers which inhabit that
country ; and Australia, which differs so remarkably from India in its tortoises,
possesses snakes (and likewise lizards) closely allied to African forms. Next
to the Oriental region, tropical America is richest in ophidians, although
the number of generic types is not so great. The proportion of poisonous species
is, however, high, and has been estimated at as much as one in eight. In Southern
Argentina and Patagonia snakes become scarce. Unlike its chelonians, the snakes
of North America present a resemblance to those of Central America. Indeed,
a feature of the whole of America is the absence .of typical vipers, and the
abundance of pit-vipers, although several genera of the latter are common to Asia.
Kurope and Northern Asia are comparatively poor in snakes, but (next to Africa)
are characterised by the number of typical vipers and colubrine water-snakes.
Distribution.
HABITS. 179
Although a few members of the suborder subsist on eggs, snakes
as a rule capture and devour living animals, which are in all cases
swallowed whole, as these reptiles have no apparatus for rending or masticating
their food. And it is in order that they may be able to swallow larger animals
than would otherwise be possible, that they have the power of dilating their jaws
in the manner already indicated. Not only can the jaws be thus enlarged, but the
throat and stomach are capable of dilatation, owing to the circumstance that
the lower ends of the ribs, from the absence of a breast-bone, are quite free; and
in swallowing, a snake seems gradually to draw itself over the object to be devoured.
The majority of snakes devour their prey alive, and a frog may be seen struggling
in the stomach of a common English water-snake long after it has been swallowed.
Other snakes, however, kill their prey either by striking it with their poison-teeth,
after the manner of the vipers, or by encircling and smothering it in the folds of the
body, like the boas. Although the process of digestion is very rapid, snakes feed
but seldom; and it has been asserted that two or three frogs are sufficient to supply
the needs of the English water-snake for a whole year. All snakes drink much,
water being absolutely essential to their existence.
As might have been expected from their numbers, snakes exhibit great
diversity in their modes of life; and while those of the tropical regions remain
active throughout the year (unless they lie by during periods of drought) the
species inhabiting colder regions hibernate during the winter. The most remark-
able diversity from the ordinary mode of ophidian life is displayed by the blind-
snakes, which lead a completely subterranean existence, very seldom making their
appearance above the surface. The great majority of serpents are terrestrial in
their habits, seldom entering the water or climbing trees; and these ground-
snakes, as they may be called, are characterised by their cylindrical form and the
width of the shields on the inferior surface of the body. Tree-snakes, on
the other hand, which are mostly remarkable for their brilliant coloration, lead
an almost completely arboreal life. Frequently they have the body very slender,
or the shields on its under surface may be keeled in order to afford a firmer hold
in climbing; while in other instances the tail is prehensile. It is among this
group that the egg-eating species are found. Then, again, we have freshwater-
snakes, which swim and dive with facility in the waters of rivers and lakes, where
they spend a large portion of their time, feeding on such aquatic creatures as they
can capture therein. As a rule, these snakes are distinguished by having the
nostrils placed at the top of the muzzle, and likewise by the tapering form of the
tail. Lastly we have the sea-snakes, which, while having the nostrils situated as
in the last group, are distinguished by the lateral compression of their tails. In
all cases extremely poisonous, these snakes are almost entirely pelagic in their
mode of life, and seldom approach the land, although in one genus the shields
on the under surface of the body are sufficiently developed to admit of terrestrial
progression.
By far the greater majority of the members of the suborder lay eggs, of an
oblong form and enclosed in soft leathery shells, which are hatched by the natural
heat of the places where they are deposited. The pythons, however, mcubate
their eggs, and at such periods develop a temperature a few degrees ahove that
Habits.
180 SNAKES.
of the surrounding air. On the other hand, both in the freshwater- and sea-snakes
the eggs are retained within the body of the mother until they are hatched.
THE BLIND-SNAKES.
Families 7 YPHLOPIDA and GLAUCONIIDZ.
The blind-snakes, which are now arranged under two families, are small,
worm-like creatures, with cylindrical bodies and short heads and tails, entirely
adapted for a subterranean burrowing life. Lacking the large inferior transverse
shields, characterising ordinary snakes, the blind-snakes have the body and tail
covered on all sides with round overlapping scales of equal size on both the upper
and lower surfaces; while there are large shields on the forepart of the head, one
of which on each side covers the rudimentary eye. The cleft of the mouth, which
is very small, is placed on the lower surface of the head, and the jaws admit of
scarcely any dilatation. An important point of difference from all the other
members of the suborder is that teeth are absent in either the upper or lower jaws,
while in all cases larger or smaller vestiges of the pelvis remain. The most
important distinction is, however, to be found in the palate of the dried skull,
which differs from that of all other snakes in lacking the so-called transverse or
transpalatine bone, which connects the pterygoid or hindmost bone of the palate
with the posterior extremity of the jawbone or maxilla. In the first, or typical
family of the blind-snakes, the upper jaw, which is but loosely attached to the
rest of the skull, is furnished with teeth, while the lower jaw is toothless;
the pelvis being represented merely by a single bone on each side. On the other
hand, in the second family (Glaucontide) while the lower jaw is devoid of teeth,
there are a few teeth in the upper one, the pelvis being represented by a pair of
bones on each side, of which the two anterior ones meet in the middle line. As
regards their origin, it seems probable that the blind-snakes have little or no near
relationship with the other members of the suborder to which they belong.
The typical blind-snakes, or those belonging to the first of the two families,
are inhabitants of all the warmer regions of the globe, and are represented by
nearly a hundred species arranged under three genera. By far the greater number
of these species belong to the genus T’yphlops, which has a distribution coextensive
with that of the family; the other two genera, namely, Helminthophis with five
species, and Typhlophis with one, being confined to Central and South America.
The second family contains only the single genus, Glawconia, of which there are
nearly thirty species, foundin America, Africa, and South-Western Asia. Very little
has been recorded in regard to the habits of these curious snakes, although it is
ascertained that they lay eggs, which are few in number, large in size, and elongate
in form. Although they generally remain in their subterranean burrows, in
showery weather these snakes not unfrequently come to the surface for a short
time. The remains taken from their stomachs show that they feed largely upon
millipedes and ants, and they probably also consume the larve of many insects.
Captive specimens have been observed to drink freely. The European blind-snake
(Typhlops vermicularis) is an inhabitant of Greece and several of the adjacent
islands, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia Petreea, and the Caucasus as far as Transcaspia.
PYTHONS AND BOAS. 181
THE PYTHONS AND BOAS.
Family Bor.
Including the largest of living snakes, this family is now regarded as being
the most generalised of the entire suborder (exclusive of the blind - snakes), all
the others presenting such characters as would admit of their having taken
origin from ancestral types belonging to the one under consideration. In
common with the remaining families, the boas and pythons differ essentially
INDIAN PYTHON CRUSHING ITS PREY (7% nat. size).
from the blind-snakes in that both jaws are fully toothed, and likewise in the
presence of a transverse bone to the palate. The characters specially dis-
tinguishing the present from the other families of the suborder are, un-
fortunately, largely derived from the structure of the skull, and therefore
require some degree of anatomical knowledge for their proper appreciation, while
they cannot be described without the use of a considerable number of technical
terms. It may be mentioned, however, that the lower jaw has on the inner side
of each branch a thin bone known as the coronoid; while on the top of the skull
the prefrontal bones, which lie on the outer side of the forepart of the frontals,
articulate with the nasal bones, or those roofing the front of the cavity of the nose.
In the hinder part of each side of the skull lies a large bone, termed the supra-
182 SNAKES.
temporal, from which is suspended the quadrate-bone for the articulation of the
lower jaw; while a further important characteristic is to be found in the presence
of vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs, the latter usually taking the form of a
claw-like spur situated on either side of the vent. The family, which contains
a very large number of genera and species, has an extensive geographical dis-
tribution, being represented in South-Eastern Europe, Central and Southern Asia,
Africa, Australia, the West Indies, Western North America, and Central and South
America; it is thus essentially characteristic of the warmer regions of the globe.
Pythons belonging to extinct genera lived on the Continent and in England
during the earlier part of the Tertiary period.
The large snakes to which the term python properly belongs are
the typical representatives of the first of the two subfamilies into
which the Boide are divided; the essential feature of this subfamily (Pythonine)
being the presence on the upper aspect of the skull of a supraorbital bone lying on
each side of the frontal bones, and forming the upper border of the socket of the
eye. Agreeing with three other less important genera in the presence of teeth in
the premaxille or anterior upper jawbones, and also in generally having two rows
of shields on the under surface of the tail, the pythons are specially characterised by
the distinctly prehensile tail, and likewise by the presence of deep pits in the rostral
and anterior upper labial shields of the head. As minor characteristics, it may be
mentioned that the teeth, none of which are grooved, gradually decrease in size
from the front to the back of the jaws; while the eye is of moderate size, with a
vertical pupil. The head is distinct from the neck, and has the extremity of the
snout covered with large shields, while its hinder portion may be overlain either
with symmetrical shields, or with small scales; and each nostril is placed in a
half-divided nasal shield, separated from its fellow on the opposite side by a pair
of internasal shields, The body in these snakes is more or less compressed, while
the scales on the upper surface and sides are small and smooth; and the prehensile
tail is of moderate length, or short, with the whole or greater part of the inferior
shields arranged in two rows.
True Pythons.
Distribution and Pythons, or, as they are frequently termed, rock-snakes, are
Habits. represented by nine species, and range over tropical and South
Africa, South-Eastern Asia, and Australasia. With the exception of the American
anaconda, some of the pythons are the largest of all snakes, and although there
has been much exaggeration in this respect, it is now ascertained that the
Indian python (Python molwrus), represented in the figure on p. 181, occasionally
attains a length of 30 feet, while the West African python (P. seb) is stated to
reach 23 feet. It is, however, but seldom that pythons of more than from 15 to 20
feet in length are met with, and these are sufficiently formidable creatures, since
they have a circumference as large as a man’s thigh, and easily kill such animals
as small deer, full-grown sheep, and dogs of considerable size. They are, however,
unable, according to Dr. Giinther, to devour animals of larger dimensions than a
half-grown sheep. A python destroys its victim in much the same manner as do
many of the smaller snakes, gradually smothering it by throwing over it coil after
coil of its body. In swallowing, writes Dr. Giinther, pythons “always commence
with the head [as shown in the figure of the African species], and as they live
EYERHONS AND BOAS. 183
o
entirely on mammals and birds, the hairs and feathers.offer a considerable impedi-
ment to the passage down the throat. The process of deglutition is, therefore, slow,
but it would be much slower except for the great quantity of saliva discharged
over the body of the victim. During the time of digestion, especially when the
prey has been a somewhat large animal, the snake becomes very lazy; it moves
itself slowly when disturbed, or defends itself with little vigour when attacked.
VA =
yy Y WLE
YY
AFRICAN PYTHON SWALLOWING A BIRD (4 nat. size).
At any other time the rock-snakes will fiercely defend themselves when they
perceive that no retreat is left to them. Although individuals kept in captivity.
become tamer, the apparent tameness of specimens brought to Europe is much
more a state of torpidity caused by the climate than an actual alteration of their
naturally fierce temper.” In their general habits snakes of this genus are
nocturnal, and they generally live on or among trees in the neighbourhood of
water, frequently swimming in the water. The reticulated python (P. reticulatus)
of Burma and the Malayan Archipelago, which attains a length of some 16 feet,
184 SNAKES.
not unfrequently takes up its abode in buildings, whence it issues forth at night
to capture such prey as it can find.
It had long been reported by travellers in India that pythons incubated their
egos, and although such reports were received with incredulity, their truth was
established in 1841, when an African python in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, laid
fifteen eggs on the 6th of May, which she subsequently proceeded to incubate.
When first laid, the eggs, which were completely separate, were soft, oval, and
ashy grey, but they soon assumed a rounder form, and a clear white tint, at the
same time hardening. The parent collected them into a cone-shaped pile, around
which she rolled herself in such a manner as to conceal the whole number, with
her head forming the summit of the cone. For upwards of six-and-tifty days this
position was maintained without movement, except when persons attempted to
touch the eggs. On July the 2nd, the shell of one of the eggs split, revealing a
fully-formed python within ; and on the next day the little creature came forth into
the world. During the four succeeding days, eight more snakes made their appear-
ance, but the rest of the eggs were spoilt. In from ten days to a fortnight the
young pythons changed their skins, after which they caught and devoured some
live sparrows, seizing and smothering them in the manner in which full-grown
individuals destroy prey of larger size.
Species of According to Mr. Boulenger, the number of species of python is
Python. nine, which may be divided into two groups, according as to whether
the number of pairs of shields on the lower surface of the tail exceeds or falls short
of fifty. The former group may be further subdivided into two sections, according
as to whether the number of scales in a row round the thickest part of the body
varies from thirty-nine to sixty, or from sixty-one to ninety-three. The first
representative of the former of these subgroups is the Australian diamond-snake
(P. spilotis), represented in the illustration on p. 185, which is characterised by the
crown of the head being covered with scales or small irregular shields, and the
presence of pits on two or three of the upper labial shields of the snout. This
snake, which was formerly referred to a genus apart (Morelia), is an inhabitant of
New Guinea and Australia, and is of comparatively small size, attaining a total
length of only about 64 feet; its coloration being extremely variable. The variety
in which the skin is most spotted was long regarded as a distinct species, under
the name of the carpet-snake. The other two members of this group are the
amethystine python (P. amethystinus) and the Timor python (P. timorensis), both
distinguished by the presence of large symmetrical shields on the crown of the
head, and by four upper labial shields being pitted. The former, which grows to
a length of about 11 feet, ranges from the Moluccas and Timor to New Guinea,
New Ireland, New Britain, and the North of Queensland; while the latter is
restricted to the islands of Timor and Flores. The second subgroup, or the one
with from sixty-one to ninety-three scales round the body, includes three species,
of which the Malayan reticulated python (P. reticulatus) has from sixty-nine to
seventy-nine scales in a row, and four upper labials with pits. This species, which
ranges from Burma and the Nicobar Islands to the Malayan region and Siam, is
one of the largest of the genus, occasionally reaching upwards of 30 feet in length.
In colour, it is light yellowish or brown above, ornamented with large circular
PYTHONS AND BOAS. 185
rhomboidal, or X-shaped dark markings; while the head has a median black line,
and the under-parts are yellowish, with small brown spots on the sides. It is,
however, subject to considerable variation, a specimen from Siam in the London
Zoological Gardens showing bright yellow lines on the sides. Young specimens
show three longitudinal rows of light spots with black edges along the back,
Somewhat smaller is the African python (P. seb), of tropical and South Africa,
which attains a length of about 23 feet, and has from eighty-one to ninety-three
scales in a row on the thickest part of the body, and only two of the labial shields
AUSTRALIAN DIAMOND-SNAKE (4 nat. size).
pitted. This species occurs typically in West Africa, from which region came the
specimen represented in the illustration on p. 183 in the act of swallowing a bird;
and it was long considered that the South African python or Natal rock-snake was
a distinct species. Its colour is pale brown above, with dark brown, black-edged,
and more or less wavy crossbars, usually connected by an interrupted or continuous
dark stripe running along each side of the back ; while the sides are marked with
large black spots and small dots. On the top of the head is a large triangular dark
brown blotch, which is bordered on each side by a light stripe commencing above the
nostril at the end of the muzzle, and passing above the eye; and there is a dark
stripe on each side of the head, and a somewhat triangular blotch beneath each eye.
186 SNAKES.
The upper surface of the tail has a longitudinal light stripe bordered on each side
by a dark one; and the under-parts are spotted and dotted with dark brown. In
India, Ceylon, the south of China, the Malay Peninsula, and Java, the last-named
species is replaced by the Indian python (P. molwrus), represented in the illustra-
tion on p. 181, in the act of strangling a chevrotain. While agreeing with the last
in having only two of the labial shields pitted, it differs in having from sixty-one
to seventy-five scales in a row, and likewise in that the rostral shield is broader
than long, instead of with these two diameters equal. In colour, this python is
greyish-brown or yellowish above, with a series of large elongated squared reddish
brown black-edged spots down the middle of the back, flanked by a series of
smaller ones. The head and nape of the neck have a spear-shaped brown mark ;
and a brown band runs on each side of the head through the eye, while there is a
vertical one of this colour beneath the latter. The under-parts are yellowish, with
the sides spotted with brown, Known in India by the name of adjiga, this python
ranges through Peninsular India, Rajputana, and Bengal, to the foot of the Himalaya,
and is not uncommon; but in Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula, and Java, it is rare.
It does not commonly exceed about 12 feet in length.
The three remaining species of the genus form the second main group, in
which there are less than fifty pairs of shields on the lower surface of the tail; the
number of shields in a row at the thickest part of the body varying from fifty-
three to sixty-three, and neither of the species being of very large size. The
best known of the three is the royal python (P. regius), of Senegambia and Sierra
Leone, which is generally represented in the collection of the London Zoological
Gardens; the other two being the rare Anchieta’s python (P. anchvete), of
Benguela, and the Sumatran python (P. cwrtus).
The subfamily of the Pythonine is represented by six other
genera, Which demand merely a brief reference; the first three of
these agreeing with the typical genus in the presence of teeth in the premaxillary
bones, while in the remainder that portion of the upper jaw is toothless. From the
pythons the first three genera may be distinguished by the tail being but very
slightly, if at all prehensile, and by the rostral shield of the head being either
devoid of pits, or with only very shallow ones. The first genus (Loxocemus), as
represented by a single comparatively small Mexican species (LZ. bicolor), has
no pits in the labial shields, no loreal shield, and the nostril situated in a single
nasal shield. Mardoa boa, of New Island, alone represents the second genus, and
may be distinguished by the presence of pits in the lower labial shields, and by the
laterally placed nostril being situated between two nasal shields. On the other
hand, the third genus, Liasis, is represented by several species ranging from Flores
and Timor to Papua and the north of Australia, and may be distinguished from
the second by the nostril being placed more superiorly in a half-divided nasal
shield. Finally, three genera in which the anterior jawbones, or premaxille, are
toothless are Chondropython, with one Papuan species; Aspidites, represented by
two species from the north of Australia; and Calabaria, with a single West
African representative. The interest attaching to these snakes is the connection
which they form between the pythons and the boas. Thus while the two first
differ from the typical pythons and resemble the boas in the presence of teeth on
Allied Genera.
PVTHONS AND BOAS. 187
the palate, the second and third likewise agree with the latter in having the
shields on the lower surface of the tail mostly or entirely single; the tail itself
being but slightly, if at all prehensile.
The tree-boas of tropical America may be taken as examples of
the second subfamily (Bowne) of the assemblage of snakes under
consideration. The members of this subfamily can be distinguished from the
preceding group solely by the absence of a supraorbital bone on the upper surface
of the skull above the socket of each eye. They further difter from all the
pythons, with the exception of two of the three genera last mentioned, in having
Tree-Boas.
STREAKED TREE-BOA (4 nat. size).
teeth on the palate; and, with the exception of the whole three of the connecting
genera, in the absence of teeth in the anterior upper jawbones, or premaxille.
Moreover, the boas and their allies further differ from the typical pythons in
having the shields on the lower surface of the tail for the most part single,
thereby agreeing with the genera Aspidites and Calabaria; and thus showing
that the small group to which the two latter belong forms such a close connection
between the pythons and boas as to preclude their reference to separate families.
In common with the majority of the thirteen genera, into which the
subfamily is divided, the tree-boas are characterised by having the head distinctly
defined from the neck, and the tail more or less prehensile. They are specially
distinguished by the anterior teeth being much larger than the hinder ones; by
188 SNAKES.
the smooth scales of the body ; by the presence of shields on the head; and by the
labial shields being either devoid of pits or with only shallow ones. In form
the body is more or less compressed, and the tail either moderate or long; while
the eye is of medium size with a vertical pupil; and the shields on the head may
be either small and irregular, or large and symmetrical.
These snakes are represented by nine species, the largest of which is the pale-
DOG-HEADED TREE-BOA (} nat, size).
headed tree-boa (Epicrates angulifer) of Cuba, attaming a length of about T feet;
another well-known species being the streaked tree-boa (#. striatus), from San
Domingo and the Bahamas. The thick-necked tree-boa (#. cenchris), must,
however, be mentioned, its habitat ranging from Costa Rica to the northern
districts of Peru and Brazil. The figured species, which attains a length of about
5 feet, is either pale brown above with dark olive-brown spots separated by
narrow intervals from one another, or brown with wavy or zigzag yellowish
crossbands, not unfrequently margined with blackish brown. Each side of the
PYTHONS AND BOAS. 189
head usually has a more or less distinct streak behind the eye; while the under-
parts are pale olive or yellowish, more or less spotted with brown or black.
Dog-Headed Closely allied to the last, the five species of the genus Corallus
Tree-Boa. are distinguished by having deep pits in the labial shields of both
the upper and lower lips. The body is compressed, with small smooth scales, and
the prehensile tail is either short or more or less elongated. This genus has a
somewhat remarkable distribution, four of its representatives being inhabitants
of tropical America, while the fifth (C. madagascariensis), which is distinguished
from the rest by the shortness of its tail, is restricted to Madagascar. The
dog-headed tree-boa (CL canimus) is a native of the Guianas and Brazil, and
usually attains a length of some 5 feet, although it may be considerably larger.
It belongs to a group of two American species distinguished from the other kinds
inhabiting the same countries by the relatively shorter tail, which has only from
sixty-four to eighty-two shields on its inferior surface; whereas in the true
tree-boa (C. hortulanus), and another species, there are at least a hundred of
these shields. The species here figured is specially characterised by having the
scales arranged in sixty-one or seventy-one rows, and by the number of shields on
the under surface of the body ranging from one hundred and eighty-eight to two
hundred and nineteen, while those on the tail vary from sixty-four to seventy-nine.
In colour this snake is decidedly handsome, the upper-parts of the adult being
bright green, ornamented with irregular spots and crossbars of white, and the
under-parts bright yellow. In the young the ground-colour is yellowish, and the
white markings are edged with dark green or purplish black. Most abundant
in the neighbourhood of the Amazons, this species becomes more rare in Guiana,
while southwards it likewise diminishes in numbers in lower Brazil. Feeding
principally upon birds, the dog-headed boa is an excellent swimmer, and has been
observed both in the Rio Negro and in the salt-water of the beautiful harbour
of Rio de Janeiro. Although it frequently visits the huts of the Brazilian negroes
in search of prey, it does not appear that this snake ever voluntarily attacks
human beings. If, however, it is driven to bay and unable to escape, it is capable
of inflicting very severe bites with its long front teeth, such wounds being
difficult to heal.
Keeled A third genus of tree-boas (Hnygrus) is distinguished from both
Tree-Boas. the preceding by the scales having distinct keels; the labial shields
of the head being devoid of pits, and the tail short and prehensile, with a single
row of shields on its inferior surface. This genus is represented by four species
inhabiting the Moluccas, the Papuan region, and Polynesia.
This gigantic snake is the sole member of a group of several
genera, distinguished from the tree-boas by the teeth gradually
decreasing in size from the front to the back of the jaws without any marked
enlargement of those in the fore-part. Merely mentioning the allied tropical
American genera, T’rachyboa, Ungalia, andUngaliophis, the first and last of which
are each represented only by a single species, we may observe that the anaconda
is specially distinguished as a genus by the large size of the rostral shield of
Anaconda,
the head, behind which one pair of the nasals come in contact with one another
in the middle line, and by the very small size of the smooth scales of the body.
190 SNAKES.
The head is markedly distinct from the neck; the nostrils are directed upwards
and placed between three pairs of nasal shields, of which the hindmost are those
which meet in the middle line; the small eye has the pupil vertical; the body
THE HOME OF THE ANACONDA,
is cylindrical; and the tail is short and slightly prehensile, with a single row of
shields inferiorly. In colour the anaconda is greyish brown or olive above, with
either one or two series of large blackish transverse spots, and a single or double
PYTHONS AND, BOAS. 191
row of lateral eye-like spots having whitish centres and blackish rims. The
upper part of the head is dark, and divided by a black streak terminating in a
point on the muzzle, from the lighter cheeks ; while another oblique black streak
runs on each side behind the eye; the under-parts being whitish with blackish spots.
The anaconda (Huneces murinus) is an inhabitant of the Guianas, Brazil, and
North-Eastern Peru, and is essentially an inhabitant of tropical forest regions. That
it is the largest of all living snakes there can be little doubt, but the precise limits
of size to which it may occasionally attain cannot be ascertained. A. stuffed
example in the British Museum has a total length of 29 feet, and the species is
commonly stated to reach 33 feet, while, if native reports are to be trusted,
individuals of much larger size are occasionally met with. Although naturalists
are generally indisposed to credit the existence of monsters of 40 feet, or even
more, we confess that personally we are unable to share their incredulity, as it is
very improbable that the largest specimens have come under European observation.
From all accounts, it appears that the anaconda generally spends more of its time
in the water than on land, frequently floating down rivers with the current,
and at other times lurking in quiet pools with only its head raised above the
surface of the water. In such situations, or resting on rocks, stranded tree trunks,
or sandbanks, it lies in wait for its prey. It, however, frequently leaves the
water to pass a longer or shorter period on shore, when it may be found either
in trees, among rocks, or even on hot sand; and it appears that when in a tree
this snake will often dart down its head from a considerable height to seize a
passing peccary or other animal. Bates tells us that the anaconda will occasionally
seize human beings, and this statement is fully confirmed by other observers. In
Brazil, where water is abundant throughout the year, this snake is active at all
seasons, although it is stated to display the most activity during the hot months
of December, January, and February. In other districts, however, according to
Humboldt, during the dry season, it is in the habit of burying itself deep in the mud
of the dried-up rivers, where it is sometimes disinterred by the natives in a torpid
condition. Very little is known with regard to the breeding-habits of the anaconda.
Since, however, females have several times been killed, containing eggs with embryos
far advanced inside them, it would seem that the young are born alive. When they
first make their appearance in the world, the young are reported to take to the
water, although they soon leave it to pass a large portion of their time in trees.
Long supposed to be exclusively a tropical and South American
group, the true boas are common to the hotter regions of America
and Madagascar. From the anaconda, the boas may be distinguished by the
whole of the nasal shields being separated in the middle line by small scales. The
body may be either cylindrical or slightly compressed ; and the short and more or
less prehensile tail may have either the whole or a portion of the shields on its
lower surface arranged in a single series. In America the genus is represented
by five species, two of which range as far south as the inland districts of upper
Argentina. All species are characterised by having the loreal region of the head
covered either with a single small shield or with small scales, and by the number of
rows of shields on the under surface of the tail ranging from forty-five to sixty-nine.
On the other hand, in the Malagasy boas (Boa madagascariensis and dumerilt)
True Boas.
192 SNAKES.
there are several shields on the same region of the head, while the number of rows
of shields beneath the tail is only from twenty to forty-one. The best known re-
presentative of the genus is the common boa, or boa-constrictor (B. constrictor),
which ranges in South America from Venezuela to upper Argentina. At times
reaching as much as 12 feet in length, it has the muzzle slightly prominent in the
adult, although obliquely truncated in the immature state. In general colour it is
pale brown on the upper-parts, with from fifteen to twenty dark brown crossbars,
which expand inferiorly, sometimes to such an extent as to become connected on
COMMON BOA (} nat. size).
the sides of the body, and thus to surround oval or elliptical spots of the hght ground-
colour; the expanded portion of each bar having a light longitudinal line. On the
sides are a series of large light-centred dark brown spots, most of which alternate
with the crossbars; and on the tail all the markings become relatively larger, of a
brick-red colour, margined with black, and separated by yellowish intervals. From
the muzzle to the nape runs a dark brown median streak, widening posteriorly, where
it may be looped; another bar of the same colour passes on each side of the head
through the eye, while there is a third below the latter, and the lips are marked
by such bars; the rostral shield of the snout being also ornamented with a crescentic
blackish mark. The under-parts are yellowish, with spots and dots, or merely dots,
of black. The whole tone of coloration is dull, sombre, and adapted to harmonise
with the shades of brown, black, and yellow on the bark of tropical forest trees. _
SAND-SNAKES. 193
Could we but see the boa during the night in the depths of its native forests
—at which time alone it is thoroughly active—we should doubtless obtain a very
different idea of the creature than that which we gather from the inspection in the
daytime of the lethargic specimens in menageries. Lying coiled on the branch of
some large tree, with its head projecting ready to be darted on its prey with the
rapidity of lightning, the boa is generally unobserved by the passing traveller
unless it happens to make a dart at an unfortunate dog belonging to his party.
Feeding generally on such mammals as agutis, pacas, rats, and mice, which are
destroyed in the manner from whence is derived its trivial name, the boa, when it
attains unusually large dimensions, is also capable of killing deer and large dogs ;
while it is always ready for such birds as it can capture, and does not disdain,
when in captivity, a meal of eggs. The stories of its killing adult human beings
and horses are, however, mere fabrications, Nothing is known of the breeding-
habits of this snake and its kindred in a wild state; but from observations made
on specimens in captivity, it appears that the eggs are generally hatched within
the body of the parent, although one instance is on record where young and eggs
were produced simultaneously. To European palates, snakes would probably be
highly unacceptable as food, however temptingly they might be dressed; but in
Eastern South America, the flesh of the boa is regarded as a most dainty dish,
while its fat is reputed to be highly efficacious in the healing of various diseases.
The skin is used to ornament saddles and bridles, and for other decorative purposes.
None of the other members of the genus attain dimensions equal to those of the
common boa, the Malagasy species being the smallest of all.
Keel-Scaled The last representative of the section of the subfamily in which
Boa. the head is well defined from the neck, and the tail more or less
prehensile, is the keel-scaled boa (Casarea dussumierr), of Round Island, near
Mauritius, distinguished as a genus by the keeling of the scales, and the long tail ;
its other general characters being similar to those of the true boas, except that the
nasal shields of the head are separated by a pair of internasals. This snake, which
attains a length of about 4 feet, and has a prominent and obliquely truncated
muzzle, is either uniform pale brown above, or brown with two dark stripes and a
lateral series of small spots down the body, a dark streak on each side of the head
through the eye, and the under-parts either plain yellow or yellow spotted with
black, the under side of the tail always having such spots.
The snakes of this genus, together with those of three allied
genera, which are the remaining members of the family, may be
distinguished at a glance from the boas and their allies by the gradual passage of
the head into the body without any constriction at the neck; while they are
further characterised by the tail being, at most, only slightly prehensile. From
Sand-Snakes.
their allies, the sand-snakes are distinguished by the small scales being either
smooth or singly keeled, and by the head being covered with small shields, of
which the rostral is enlarged. The eye is small, and sometimes minute, with a
vertical pupil; while the body is cylindrical; and the very short tail, which is
frequently without any power of prehension, has a single row of shields on its
lower surface. These snakes are represented by seven species, with a geographical
distribution including Northern and Eastern Africa, and Southern and Central
VOL. V.—13
194 SVMAKES.
Asia, as well as a part of the extreme south-west of Europe. The best known
species is the Egyptian sand-snake (Hryx jaculus), which has a length of about
2 feet, and is an inhabitant of the Ionian Islands, Greece, South-Western and
Central Asia, and the north of Africa. In colour it is very variable, the upper-
parts being in some examples pale greyish, reddish, or yellowish brown, ornamented
either with dark brown or blackish transverse blotches or alternating spots, while
in other cases the general colour is brown with pale spots. A dark streak runs
from each eye to the angle of the mouth; the under-parts are either uniform
white, or white with blackish dots; and there is a more or less distinct dark
EGYPTIAN SAND-SNAKE (4 nat. size).
streak along each side of the tail. This species is exceeded in size by the Indian
sand-snake (#. johni), which attains a length of over a yard, and inhabits the
plains of North-Western, Central, and Southern India. This snake is generally
banded, but the young may be of a uniform pale coral-red colour. Although
resembling the boas in being nocturnal, these snakes are quite different in their
mode of life, inhabiting open sandy plains, and feeding on small mammals, lizards,
and worms. In search of their prey they frequently enter holes and crevices
among rocks, and they will also burrow in the sand. They are perfectly harmless,
and generally make no attempt to bite; but they are somewhat unsatisfactory
creatures in captivity, owing to their habit of lying concealed among the gravel
CYLINDER-SNAKES. 195
of their cage. The Indian species is frequently carried about by snake-charmers,
who are in the habit of mutilating the short tail so as to make it look like a
head; whence arises the legend of two-headed snakes. A second Indian species
(Z. conicus) was formerly referred to a ‘separate genus (Gongylophis), on account
of having a series of keeled scales between the eyes.
Of the remaining members of the family, Lichanura, with one
Californian species, differs from the sand-snakes by the smaller size
of the rostral shield, which is longer than wide; while Charina, which is likewise
Californian, has the head covered with large shields. On the other hand, Bolieria,
as represented by a single species from Round Island, near Mauritius, differs from
all the other members of the group in having three or four keels on the scales, the
muzzle being covered with large shields.
Extinct Python- In this place may be noticed certain gigantic snakes from the
like Snakes. ower and middle Eocene rocks of Europe, described under the name
of Palwophis, and represented by closely allied, if not generieally identical forms
in the corresponding strata of North America. Equal in size to those of the largest
pythons, the vertebree differ from the latter (shown in the figure on p. 18) by the
much greater height of the upper or neural spine, which has not the backwardly-
directed process at its summit characterising the pythons. From the shape of
these vertebree, it is pretty certain that these snakes had compressed bodies like
the modern sea-snakes, while from the nature of the deposits in which their remains
occur, there can be little doubt that they were marine in their habits. Whether
they were really allied to the pythons and boas may be doubtful, but in any case
it is probable that they indicate a separate family.
Allied Genera.
THE CYLINDER-SNAKES.
Family JZ YsuD/.
Agreeing with the pythons and boas in the retention of vestiges of the hind-
limbs, the small group of cylinder-snakes appears to form a connecting link
between the two former and the under-mentioned family of shield-tailed snakes ;
their essential point of distinction from the preceding being that the supra-
temporal bone of the skull is of small size, and included in the walls of the brain-
case, instead of standing out as a support for the quadrate-bone, which is much
shorter than in the boas and pythons. Teeth are present on the palate as well as
in the jaws; and the vestiges of the hind-limb usually take the form of a spur on
each side of the vent. In general appearance, and in the arrangement of the
sealing, these snakes approximate to the boas; while as regards the structure of the
skull they are intermediate between them and the next family. The distribution
of the group is remarkable, being restricted to Ceylon and South-Eastern Asia in
the Eastern, and to Tropical America in the Western Hemisphere. Three genera,
of which two have one species, while the third has three, represent the family.
Coral Cylinder- The single representative of the typical genus of the family is
Snake. the beautiful coral eylinder-snake (/lysia scytale), inhabiting the
Guianas and Upper Amazonia, and attaining a length of something over 24 feet.
196 SNAKES.
The distinctive features of the genus are the presence of two teeth in the anterior
upper jawbones, or premaxillee, and the eye being situated in the middle of an
ocular shield. The colour is a splendid coral-red, ornamented with black rings, or
incomplete ring-like black bands. From the little that is known concerning its
habits, it appears that this snake is sluggish in its movements, and never wanders
far from its retreat, which is situated under the roots of a tree or in a hole or cleft
in the ground. It feeds on insects and blind-snakes, and produces living young.
The true cylinder-snakes, as typically represented by the red
snake (Cylindrophis rufus), ditter from the preceding by the absence
of teeth in the anterior upper jawbones, and likewise by the eye not being
included in any of the head-shields. This genus has three representatives, and is
distributed over Ceylon and South-Eastern Asia to the eastwards of the Bay of
Red Snake.
CORAL CYLINDER-SNAKE (4 nat. size).
Bengal; the common red snake ranging from Burma and Cochin-China to the
Malayan region. This snake, which attains a length of about 24 feet, is either brown
or black above, with or without light alternating crossbars; the under-parts being
either white with black transverse bars or spots, or black with white bands; while
the under surface of the tail is of a brilliant vermilion hue. All the snakes of
this genus are burrowing reptiles, seldom showing themselves above the surface of
the ground, and feeding on insects, worms, and the smaller mammals. In common
with their allies, they have the body covered with polished, rounded scales, which
(in conformity with their burrowing habits) are scarcely larger on the upper
than on the lower aspect, although becoming wider on the inferior surface of
the tail.
The third genus of the group (Anomalochilus), represented by a single species
from Sumatra, differs from the preceding in the absence of a groove on the chin. °
See) ALLS. 197
THE SHIELD-TAILS.
Family UROPELTIDZ.
The snakes of this family, while agreeing with the boas and pythons in the
structure of the lower jaw, are sharply distinguished by the loss of all traces of the
limbs, and likewise by the complete disappearance of the supratemporal bone in
the skull. By Mr. Boulenger they are regarded as directly descended from the
preceding family of the suborder. The skull is remarkable for the firm union of
its constituent bones; and although both jaws are toothed, the teeth are small and
feeble, and very rarely present on the palate. Externally these snakes are charac-
terised by their cylindrical bodies; short, narrow heads, which pass imperceptibly
into the neck; and by the
extremely short, truncated, or
shghtly tapering tail, which
generally ends in a_ rough,
naked disc, although in one
genus it is covered with keeled
scales. On the body the scales
are small and polished, those
on the lower surface being
always somewhat larger than
those above; the eye is minute,
and the cleft of the mouth
comparatively small, and in-
capable of much dilatation.
These snakes are repre-
sented by upwards of seven
genera, some of which com- A SHIELD-TAILED SNAKE.
prise a large number of species,
and are restricted to Ceylon and the mountains of Peninsular India. They are
purely burrowing creatures, generally living in soft earth, at a depth of several
feet, and consequently but seldom seen unless specially searched for. They are
frequently dug up in the cultivation of tea and coffee plantations, and may be
found beneath logs and stones. On the mountains these earth-snakes, as they
are frequently called, may be met with in the open grass-lands; and during the
rainy season they not unfrequently leave their burrows to travel some distance
on the surface. Of relatively small size, many of them are beautifully coloured
with red and yellow, while those that are black display an iridescence like that
of some of the smooth-sealed skinks among the lizards. The food of these reptiles
appears to consist solely of earth-worms; and the eggs are hatched before quitting
the body of the parent. There is a legend current among the natives of India to
the effect that every time a cobra bites it loses a joint of its tail, and eventually
acquires a head like that of a toad: and Sir J. E. Tennent was of opinion that
this fable was based on the shield-tailed snakes, in which the jaws have lost the
great power of dilatation so characteristic of serpents in general.
198 SNAKES.
THE COLUBRINE SNAKES.
Family COLUBRID,
The skulls of the remaining snakes are markedly distinguished from those
of the foregoing by the total absence in the lower jaw of the bone known as the
coronoid; while in all cases a supratemporal is present on the upper surface of the
skull. The present family, which includes by far the great majority of the species
of the suborder, and comprises both harmless and noxious kinds, is specially
distinguished from those to be mentioned later on by the circumstance that in
the skull the upper jawbone, or maxilla, is fixed in a horizontal position, and
also that the pterygoids reach either to the quadrate-bone or the lower jaw.
Before coming to the Colubrine family it should, however, be mentioned
that there is one remarkable snake (Xenopeltis wnicolor), from South-Eastern
Asia, retaining in the structure of its skull traces of affinities with the boas and
pythons. This affinity is displayed by the fact that the prefrontal bone, which
lies immediately behind the nasal aperture of each side, is of large size, and
extends forwards and inwards to articulate with the nasal bone in the same
manner as the boas. Accordingly, this snake is regarded as the representative of
a distinct family (Yenopeltide), which is considered to have originated from the
Boide quite independently of the Colubrines.
From Xenopeltis the Colubrines are distinguished by the small size of the
prefrontal bone of each side, which articulates merely to the outer front angle of
the frontal bone without any contact with the nasal bone. In such a large group
it is highly important to have some means of division into subgroups of higher
value than genera; and, according to the modern classification, three such serial
divisions may be indicated by the characters of the teeth. The first and most
primitive of these series, which may be termed the solid-toothed colubrines
(Aglypha), is characterised by the whole of the teeth being solid, without any
trace of grooves, all its representatives being harmless, On the other hand, in the
second series or hind-fanged colubrines (Opisthoglypha), one or more of the hinder
teeth of the upper jaw are grooved; while in the third series or front-fanged
colubrines (Proteroglypha) the front teeth of the upper jaw are grooved or tubular.
Of the last series the whole of the members are poisonous, while many of those
of the second are noxious in a minor degree, All these three sections contain
species adapted to particular modes of life, so that we may have two or three
snakes which, while externally very similar, are only distantly allied to one another.
The Javan wart-snake (Acrochordus javanicus) may be taken
as a well-known representative of the first, or acrochordine subfamily
of the solid-toothed colubrines, which includes only five genera, distributed over
South-Eastern Asia and Central America. Unfortunately, the characters distin-
guishing this subfamily from the next are connected with the bones of the skull,
and cannot therefore be verified without dissection, but in the study of snakes,
according to the modern system, the student must accustom himself to such
difficulties. The essential feature of the skull in the present group is the pro-
duction of the postfrontal bone above the cavity of the eye; while, as a secondary
Wart-Snakes.
COLUBRINE GROUP. 199
feature, the scales of the body overlap one another but very slightly, if at all.
The Javan wart-snake, which is the sole representative of the genus, is characterised
by the absence of lower shields, by the head being covered with uniform granules,
and by the very slight compression of the body. The head is rather short and
broad, with the muzzle wider than long, and the small eyes directed forwards ;
while the nostrils are placed close together on the tip of the muzzle. The nearly
cylindrical tail is short and prehensile. The colour is brown above and yellowish
on the sides; the young having large irregular dark brown spots, which coalesce
into bands on the back, and gradually tend to disappear in the adult. In size
this snake may measure upwards of 8 feet. It is distributed over the Malay
Peninsula, Java, and New Guinea; and, although it has been stated to be
terrestrial, modern observations indicate that it is essentially aquatic, seldom
JAVAN WART-SNAKE (3 nat. size).
even leaving the water, and feeding upon fish and frogs. A female in the
possession of Cantor gave birth to twenty-seven young ones in less than half
an hour, which were active and bit fiercely as soon as they came into the world.
An allied genus, represented by a single species (Chersydrus granulatus),
ranging from Southern India to New Guinea, differs by the marked compression
of the body and tail, and thus closely resembles the sea-snakes of the front-fanged
series of the family, and likewise resembles them in habits, frequenting the
mouths of rivers and the coast from Southern India to New Guinea, and being
often found far out at sea. It produces living young, and subsists on fish. A
third Oriental genus, likewise known merely by one species (Xenodermus
javanicus), has large shields on the under surface. In the other two genera
Stoliczkaia from India, and Nothopsis from Central America—not only are there
lower shields, but the granules on the head are replaced by large shields.
200 SS VAIKGES.
The large group of water-snakes bring us to the second and
by far the largest subfamily of the solid-toothed colubrines, which
is known as the Colubrinw, and is distinguished from the preceding group by the
supratemporal bone not being produced over the region above the socket of the
Water-Snakes.
eye; while the scales are usually overlapping, and teeth are present throughout
the entire length of the upper and lower jaws. The water-snakes belong to a
large assemblage of genera of the subfamily characterised by the circumstance
that in the skeleton of the backbone inferior projections or spines are present
throughout its length, the vertebrae in the hinder region of the body having
these spines represented by a more or less well-developed crest or tubercle.
From their allies, the water-snakes are distinguished by having the hinder upper
teeth larger than those in front, the equality in the size of the lower teeth, the
rather large size of the eye, in which the pupil is round, the presence of a pair
of internasal shields between the nostrils, the regular longitudinal series formed
by the scales throughout the body, and by the teeth in each hinder upper jaw-
bone varying in number from eighteen to forty, and forming a continuous series.
Represented by over forty species, the water-snakes have an almost cosmo-
politan distribution, although they are unknown in South America, while in
Africa south of the Sahara they are less abundant than in other regions, and in
Australia they occur only in the northern districts. Dr. Giinther writes that the
typical water-snakes “are easily recognised by their stoutish cylindrical body,
keeled scales, flat head covered with regular shields, wide cleft of the mouth, and
numerous teeth, the strongest of which are at the hinder end of the maxillary
bone. They frequent the neighbourhood of fresh water, and feed on aquatic
animals—frogs, toads, and fishes. They do not overpower or kill their prey by
throwing a coil of the body round it, but, having seized it, they at once commence
to swallow it. They are excellent swimmers, but more frequently live near water
than in it, in agreement with which habit, the position of their nostrils is not on
the upper surface of the head, as in the true freshwater snakes, but on the side.”
The best known and at the same time the typical representative
of the group is the common ringed snake (Tropidonotus natriz),
inhabiting Europe, Algeria, and West and Central Asia, and attaining a maximum
length of 63 feet. Belonging to a group of the genus in which the number of
teeth in the hinder upper jawbone does not exceed thirty, this snake has a single
anterior temporal shield on the head, usually seven upper labial shields, of which
the third and fourth enter the aperture of the eye, and from one hundred and fifty-
seven to one hundred and ninety shields on the lower surface of the body. The
eye is of moderate size, and most of the scales are strongly keeled. The colour
is usually grey, olive, or brown above, with spots or narrow transverse bands; the
labial shields being white or yellowish, with their dividing lines black; while
the under-parts are mottled black-and-white or grey. There are, however, several
variations as regards the coloration of the neck. In the ordinary variety, for
instance, there is a white, yellow, or orange collar, usually divided in the middle,
behind which is a broad black collar; the latter being sometimes alone present.
In another variety, mostly from the south of Europe, the collar is altogether
wanting, or reduced to a small black patch on each side of the nape; while in the
Ringed Snake.
COLUB RINE (GROOGP. 201
south-eastern race the collar, although well marked, is divided in the middle, and
there is a yellowish streak along each side of the back.
In England the ringed snake is one of the most common reptiles, inhabiting
woods, heaths, and hedges, especially where water is abundant. Although its chief
food consists of frogs, it also preys upon voles, mice, young birds, and fish, and is
stated occasionally to consume eggs. When a frog is pursued by one of these
snakes, it seems paralysed with fear, and, instead of making any effort to escape,
sits still and gives vent to a shrill ery never heard at any other time. Generally
the frog is seized by the hind-leg, and gradually swallowed by the snake without
its position being changed. On this point Bell observes that “when a frog is in
the progress of being swallowed in this manner, as soon as the snake’s jaws have
reached the body, the other hind-leg becomes turned forwards, and as the body
RINGED SNAKE SEIZING ITS PREY (3 nat. size).
gradually disappears, the three legs and head are seen standing forwards out of
the snake’s mouth in a very singular manner. Should the snake, however, have
taken the frog by the middle of the body, it invariably turns it by several
movements of the jaws, until the head is directed towards the throat of the snake,
and it is then swallowed head-foremost.” As a rule, the frog remains alive during
the swallowing process, and it may sometimes be heard to croak when buried in
the stomach of its captor, while instances are on record where a frog has returned
after being thus entombed. When swimming, the ringed snake carries its head
and neck raised above the surface of the water. The skin, as in the case of other
serpents, is shed several times during the year, and is drawn off turned inside out,
so that the lenses covering the eye appear concave instead of convex. Previous
to changing its coat, the reptile becomes almost if not completely blind, and
evidently ill at ease, and the change is accomplished by the old skin bursting at
202 SNAKES.
the neck, and being pulled off by the owner wriggling its body between brushwood
or dense herbage. Some sixteen to twenty eggs are annually deposited by the
female of the ringed snake, these being attached together by a viscid substance.
Although they are sometimes hatched solely by the heat of the sun, at other times
the process of development is hastened by their being placed in a heap of decaying
vegetable matter or manure. When the cold of autumn makes itself felt, this
species retires for the winter, passing its time in a state of torpor ensconced in
some hole in a hedge-bank, under the roots of trees, or some such place, where it
VIPERINE AND TESSELATED SNAKES (2 nat. size).
remains till awakened by the returning warmth of spring. Not unfrequently
several snakes occupy the same hole for the winter, and occasionally a considerable
number have been found coiled up together in a mass.
oaselated and The preceding species, as already said, belongs to the typical
Viperine Snakes. section of the genus, in which the teeth of the hinder upper jawbone
do not exceed thirty in number, and are gradually enlarged towards the hinder
end of the series, while the eyes and nostrils are lateral, and the internasal shields
broadly truncated in front. As examples of the second section, in which, while the
number and characters of the teeth are similar, the small eyes and nostrils are
directed upwards and outwards, and the internasal shields usually much narrowed
COLOUEIANE 1GKOUFP. 203
in front, we select the tesselated snake (7. tesselatus) and the nearly allied viperine
snake (7. viperinus), both of which are found in Kurope, the former being a more
southerly type than the latter, and extending eastwards into South-Western and
Central Asia. The tesselated snake, which\never grows quite so large as the
common ringed species, is olive or olive-grey above, and may be either uniformly
coloured, or marked with dark spots, usually arranged quincuncially, on the back.
The nape of the neck is ornamented with a dark chevron; the upper labial shields
are yellowish, with dark lines of division between them; and the under-parts are
either yellow or red mottled and marbled with black, or almost wholly black.
The viperine snake is rather smaller, having the upper surface grey, brown, or
reddish, with a zigzag black band down the back, and a row of yellow-centred
KEEL-TAILED SNAKE (4 nat. size).
black spots down each side. There is a more or less distinctly marked oblique
dark band on each side of the top of the head, and another on the nape of the neck :
while the labials and under-parts are coloured like those of the tesselated snake.
The general habits of both these species are very similar to those of the ringed
snake; but in spring they are more generally found concealed in pairs beneath
stones, and only take to the water in the summer. As other well-known North
American representatives of the genus, we may refer to the garter-snake (7.
ordinatus) and moccasin-snake (7. fasciatus); the former belonging to the first,
and the latter to the second section. As an example of the third section, in which
the last two or third upper teeth are suddenly enlarged, the Indian long-banded
snake may be mentioned.
Oblique-Eyed Among the genera belonging to this section the only other that
Snake. our space admits of even mentioning is the one containing the
204 SNAKES.
numerous species of oblique-eyed snakes. Generally having a smaller eye than the
water-snakes, the members of this genus are distinguished by having only a single
inter-nasal shield; the nostril being placed in a half-divided nasal shield, while the
teeth of the lower jaw are of nearly equal size, and the scales lack the pits
characterising those of an allied genus. There are from eighteen to twenty-five
teeth in the hinder upper jawbone; the head is, at most, but shghtly distinct from
the neck; the body is cylindrical; and the tail, which has two rows of shields
] *] f} 3 @ ey =) 1
beneath, is of moderate length, the scales being usually striated and keeled. The
venus is represented by eleven species, some of which are found in the New World,
‘= . . .
while others inhabit South-Eastern Asia, and others Tropical Africa.
The keel-tailed snake (Helicops carinicauda), inhabits Brazil. It attains a
JAVAN PIGMY SNAKE (nat. size).
length of between 3 and 4 feet; and is characterised by having the scales on the
back of the head smooth, and those on the body keeled and arranged in nineteen
rows, the frontal shields being nearly or quite as long as the parietals, while there
are from one hundred and twenty-six to one hundred and fifty-five shields on the
lower surface of the body. The general colour is dark olive-brown above, with four
more or less distinctly defined blackish stripes, and a yellow stripe along the two
lower rows of scales; on the under-parts the ground-colour is yellow or red, with
black spots or stripes on the body, and a black stripe on the tail. In the neighbour-
hood of the Rio Grande do Sul this species is one of the commonest of snakes; and
while its general habits appear to be very similar to those of the water-snakes,
like all the other members of its genus, it produces living young.
The snakes we have now to consider, while still belonging to the
Pigmy Snakes. ‘ 7 : 5 ; “mM :
typical subfamily of the solid-toothed series, differ from the foregoing
COLOBIANE' GROOGLP. 205
in that inferior spines are developed only in the vertebre of the anterior half of
the backbone, and are further characterised by the nasal bones being fully as large
as the prefrontals. The preceding group are more or less aquatic in their habits.
but those of the present assemblage are terrestrial or arboreal. The pigmy snakes
have the hinder borders of the shields on the lower surface of the body entire.
the front lower teeth larger than the hinder ones, the eyes relatively small, and
no internasal or temporal shields on the head. The head is not distinct from the
neck, each nostril is pierced in a very small nasal shield, the body is cylindrical
with the smooth scales arranged in thirteen rows, and there are two rows of shields
on the lower aspect of the tail.
These snakes are represented by some thirty species, their headquarters being
the islands of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. The figured species (Calamaria linnw?)
is from Java. They are all of small size, frequently not exceeding a foot in length ;
and they are in the habit of hiding themselves among stones, beneath fallen tree-
trunks, or in grass. Their small dimensions, together with the relatively narrow
cleft of the mouth, and a want of dilatibility in the throat and body, indicate that they
do not prey upon other reptiles. Gentle and harmless themselves, these snakes are
often attacked and killed by craits and other venomous members of their own tribe.
On account of the well-known European smooth snake (Coronella
levis) being included among them, we mention as a second genus of
this group the sling-snakes, of which there are about twenty known species ranging
over Europe, Western Asia, Africa, and America, while one (C. brachywra) occurs in
India. They belong to a group of genera in which the whole of the lower teeth are
nearly equal in length; while they are specially distinguished by the presence of
from twelve to twenty teeth in the hinder upper jawbone, which increase in size
towards the back of the series. The head is short, and scarcely distinct from the
neck ; the eye being rather small, with a round pupil, and the head-shields normal.
The body is cylindrical, and covered with smooth scales arranged in from fifteen
Sling-Snakes.
to twenty-five rows, and furnished with pits at their tips; the tail is of moderate
length; and whereas the shields on the inferior aspect of the body are rounded,
those beneath the tail are arranged in a double series.
The smooth snake, which attains a length of about 25 inches, is very variable
in coloration, but the ground-colour of the upper-parts is generally brown. The
most distinctive features are a large dark spot on the neck, often extending intc
a stripe, and two rows of dark brown spots arranged in pairs, and running down
the body; there is also a dark stripe passing through the eye and the side of the
neck, while the under-parts are either steely blue, or reddish yellow and white, in
some cases spotted with black. This snake is found over the greater part of
Europe, and is occasionally met with in some of the southern counties of England.
Although now and then found in damp or swampy localities, it frequents dry stony
places where there is plenty of sunshine, resorting sometimes to old stone bridges
and heaps of building material. Like its congeners, this snake is chiefly terrestrial
in its habits; in disposition it is fierce, and its prey consists of other snakes and
lizards. In the end of August or beginning of September the smooth-snake lays
from three to thirteen eggs, which are so far developed that the included young
almost immediately break the shells and escape.
206 SNAKES.
Nearly allied to the preceding are the ophidians which (from
Fierce Snakes. : F j 4 ;
their German name zorischlangen) we may term fierce snakes; these
demanding special notice on account of their having several representatives in
Southern Europe. From the preceding genus they may be distinguished by the
more slender form of the body, and the presence on the head of one or more sub-
oculars below the preocular shield; while the arrangement of the longitudinal rows
of scales in odd numbers differentiates'them from an allied genus. The number of
teeth in the hinder upper jawbone varies from twelve to twenty; the head is long
and distinct from the neck, with the eye of moderate size or large, and its pupil
THE DARK GREEN SNAKE (2 nat. size).
round. The body is elongated and eylindrical, with the smooth or slightly keeled
and pitted scales arranged in from fifteen to thirty-one rows. On the lower surface
of the body the shields are rounded, or obtusely keeled on the sides; and the long
tail has two inferior rows of shields. The fierce snakes are represented by some
twenty species, ranging over Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa; several of them
occurring on the Continent, although none are met with in the British Islands.
Their headquarters may be considered to be the countries surrounding the Mediter-
ranean basin. Deriving their name from the fierce and bold demeanour of the
majority of their representatives, these snakes are terrestrial or partially arboreal
in their habits, and feed chiefly on small mammals and birds. Of the European
forms, a well-known example is the dark green snake (Zamenis gemonensis),
COLOUBRINE GROCP. 207
inhabiting Hungary and the Mediterranean countries, and extending as far north
as the south of Switzerland; while in the east it is represented by a variety known
as the Balkan snake, which attains a larger size than the typical form. These
snakes are distinguished from their allies by the regular arrangement of the shields
on the head, and the presence of two preorbital shields, of which the lower is small
and placed in the line of the labials; and they are further characterised by the
relative shortness of the tail, which scarcely reaches a fourth of the total length.
The smooth scales are arranged in from seventeen to nineteen rows. The ordinary
form may attain a length of about 4 feet, but is generally smaller. In ground-
colour the head and nape are greyish yellow, the back and tail greenish, and the
under-parts yellow, upon them being black markings, which, while irregular above,
form regular oblique bars inferiorly, and in the hinder part of the body are
arranged in longitudinal stripes which continue to the end of the tail. In some
specimens, however, the ground-colour of the upper-parts is a beautiful yellowish
green, while on the lower surface it is canary-yellow ; in a third variety the whole
upper surface is uniform olive-brown, and in some cases it is completely black, the
under surface of the body being grey, with a steely blue lustre on the sides and the
whole of the under-parts. This snake is very abundant in Italy, and may be met
with in most gardens in the neighbourhood of Rome. Its habits vary to a certain
extent according to locality; and while in the Russian steppes it frequents the
hottest and driest spots, in Dalmatia and the Tyrol it is found in sunny, although
by no means dry situations, either in woods or among old buildings.
The other European species is the horseshoe snake (Z. hippo-
crepis), common both to Southern Europe and Northern Africa, and
represented in the lower figure of the illustration on p. 208. From its allies it
is distinguished by the presence of a series of small suborbital shields beneath
Horseshoe Snake.
the eye, which completely separate it from the upper labials, by the divided
anal shields, the presence of from twenty-five to twenty-nine longitudinal rows of
scales on the body, and likewise by the constancy of the coloration. Measuring
nearly 6 feet in length, this handsome snake has the ground-colour of the upper-
parts varying from greenish or greyish yellow through orange to reddish brown.
As a rule, the head is marked by a dark oblique band between the eyes, behind
which is a second band, convex in front, and reaching to the neck, and a third
marked with light spots, so that a horseshoe pattern is formed between the spots
and bands. On the back runs a row of yellow-edged dark oval patches, which
tend to unite towards the hinder extremity; and on each side of this are a series
of smaller spots, beneath which, again, are more upright dark marks, extending
downwards to the lower surface. As the upper dark patches are very large, the
ground-colour is generally reduced to a series of rings, forming a very regular and
pretty pattern. ‘The under-parts are yellow or orange-red, spotted with black.
Here also must be mentioned the Indian rat-snake (Z. mucosus),
now included in this genus, although formerly referred to the next.
It is a large species, attaining a length of 6 feet or more. In colour it is brown
above, frequently with more or less distinctly defined black erossbands on the
hinder-part of the body and tail; the under surface being yellowish, often with
black edges to the shields of the hinder-part of the body and tail. The range of
Rat-Snake.
208 SLVAIGE'S:
this well-known species extends from India to Java. Common everywhere in
India, and feeding on mammals, birds, and frogs, the rat-snake derives its name
from its habit of entering houses in search of rats and mice. Like its allies, it is
fierce and always ready to bite; and old specimens brought to Europe never become
tame. When irritated, it utters a peculiar sound, which has been compared to that
produced by gently striking a tuning-fork. A smaller allied Indian species (Z.
corrus) differs by having the scales arranged in fifteen, instead of seventeen rows.
Nearly allied to the preceding are the American running snakes,
ees of whieh! the pantherine snake (Ptyas pantherinus) is a familiar
and handsome example. From the last genus the running snakes are chiefly
BLACK-MARKED AND HORSESHOE SNAKES (1 nat. size).
distinguished by their teeth and the larger size of the eyes. They are all large
and powerful reptiles, with cylindrical body, clearly defined head, large eyes,
regularly tapering tail, which is at least equal to a fourth of the total length, the
scales smooth and arranged in from fifteen to seventeen rows, normally-arranged
head-shields, unkeeled inferior shields, and about twenty-one equal-sized teeth in
the hinder upper jawbone. The pantherine snake, which is an inhabitant of the
hottest regions of the Guianas and Eastern Brazil, and is especially common in the
neighbourhood of Rio de Janeiro, is characterised by having fifteen rows of scales
on the body, the lack of the small lower preorbital shield, and its general form and
coloration ; its length being as much as 7 feet. The ground-colour is yellowish
erey on the upper-parts; on the front of the head are three dark crossbars, while ©
two broad longitudinal stripes run along the hinder part of the head and neck:
COLUBRINE GROUP. 209
the ornamentation of the back takes the form of.a row of large greyish brown
black-edged spots, which are lozenge-shaped on the neck, but further back become
irregular, and confluent with two lateral rows of spots. The yellowish white
shields of the edges of the jaws have black lines of division, and behind each eye
a blackish brown streak runs to the angle of the mouth. This snake frequents
swampy situations well covered with trees and bushes, and is remarkably swift
and active in its movements. In its general habits it appears to resemble the
ringed snake, feeding almost entirely on frogs and fish.
The typical representatives of the family are the climbing snakes,
of which there are a large number of species, distributed over the
great part of Europe, Asia, and North and Tropical America. Agreeing with the
preceding genus in having the teeth in the hinder upper jawbone of nearly equal
size, the climbing snakes have from twelve to twenty-two of these teeth, the
teeth of the lower jaw being likewise subequal; and they are further specially
distinguished by having the scales of the body arranged in from fifteen to thirty-
five longitudinal rows, and furnished with pits at their extremities, those in the
middle line of the back not being larger than the others. The long head is well
defined from the neck, with a moderate-sized eye, of which the pupil is circular,
and the shields normally arranged; the elongated body is slightly compressed, with
its scales either smooth or keeled ; and whereas the shields on the lower surface of the
body usually have a more or less well-marked keel on the side, those of the tail
are arranged in a double row. All these snakes are fierce in their disposition, and
while all can climb well, some are almost entirely arboreal; others again, frequent
the neighbourhood of water, and are good swimmers. The food of all consists of
small mammals and birds. Formerly the chain-snake (Coronella getula), of the
United States, common in the neighbourhood of New York, and attaining a length
of about 5 feet, was included in this genus, but is now referred to Coronella. The
dark ground-colour, which varies in tint from reddish brown to blackish brown and
even black, shows on the upper surface a number of yellow crossbands, which on
the lower part of the sides unite with similar longitudinal stripes, and thus form a
regular light-coloured chain extending to the very tip of the tail. The shields on
the top of the head are deep chocolate-brown, with a few yellow spots; the labial
shields are dusky or yellowish white, bordered with blackish brown, and the under-
parts dirty yellowish white marbled with brown.
Among the European representatives of the genus, the yellow, or A¢sculapian
snake (Coluber longissimus) is recognised by thesmall head,imperfectly distinguished
from the neck, and rounded at the muzzle, as well as by the stout body, rounded tail,
and the nature of the scaling. On the head there is no small preorbital shield, and
of the eight upper labials the fourth and fifth enter the circle of the eye; the body
has from twenty-one to twenty-three rows of smooth scales, and the anal shield is
divided. Generally, the upper surface is brownish yellow, with a tinge of grey,
and the lower aspect whitish, the hinder-part of the head having a yellow spot;
while the back and sides are marked with small whitish dots, which in some places
are very distinctly defined, and assume the form of the letter X. There is, however,
Climbing Snakes.
‘ great individual variation in colour, and a dark and a light variety may be
recognised. In the south of Europe, where it attains a length of about 4 feet,
VOL. V.—14
210 SNAKES.
this snake prefers rocky, or at least stony districts abundantly covered with
bushes; but, in Schlangenbad, the only German locality where it is found in
any numbers, old walls are its favourite resorts. As it feeds chiefly on voles
and mice, it is a decided benefactor to the agriculturist and gardener. It also
consumes, however, a certain number of lizards, as well as such birds as it can
contrive to capture, and occasionally plunders a nest and sucks the eggs. It is
WEY
'
1
1p
{
\
\\
ZESCULAPIAN SNAKE (4 naf. size.)
very fond of climbing bushes, and low boughs or stumps of trees, as represented
in our illustration; and in thick forests will go from bough to bough, and then
from tree to tree without descending to the ground. Indeed, it is such an adept in
climbing, that it frequently captures swift-running lizards on the stems of trees.
Another South European species is the four-lined, or leopard-snake (C. leopar-
dinus). Remarkable for the beauty of its coloration, which, however, is subject to
great individual variation, this snake attains a length of about a yard, and differs
from all its congeners in the absence of a lower preocular shield on the head, and the
COLOBIINE “GROOFP. 211
presence of eight upper labial shields, of which the fourth and fifth enter the circle
of the eye. There are from twenty-five to twenty-seven longitudinal rows of
scales in the thickest part of the body, and the anal shield is divided. Of the
numerous variations, there are two which are most constant, the first being the
typical but rare four-lined race. In this form the ground-colour is brownish grey,
upon which are usually four black longitudinal stripes, here and there interrupted ;
although these are sometimes replaced by two dark or blood-red lines. On the
sides are small blackish spots ; the under surface of the head and forepart of the
body is either yellowish white or bright yellow, but each under-shield is marked ~
with four or five irregular blackish spots, which become so large posteriorly that
the whole surface appears steel-blue, the yellow only showing on the edges of the
shields. In the second variety, or leopard-snake, the ground-colour is mahogany-
LEOPARD-SNAKE,
red, mottled on the upper surface with blood-red black-edged spots, which may
either be arranged in two rows, or coalesce into transverse bands; while on each
side there is a row of smaller, blackish, crescentic spots alternating with those of
the back. The range of this species is bounded to the west by the mountains of
Southern Italy and Sicily, and to the east by Asia; both varieties occurring to-
gether in most districts between these limits, although in Greece and Dalmatia only
the leopard-snake is known.
Among the largest of European ophidians is the four-rayed snake (C. quatuor-
radiatus), which attains a length of between 6 and 7 feet, and is of an olive-brown
or flesh-coloured hue above, often marked with a pair of longitudinal blackish
brown stripes, a black line running from the eye to the mouth, and the under-
parts being straw-yellow. There are, however, many variations from this typical
coloration ; some specimens being entirely black, while the young generally have
black crossbands on the head, three rows of large brown spots on the back, the
212 SNAKES.
sides likewise spotted, and the under-parts with a blackish steel-grey tinge. The
distinctive specific characters are the presence of a small preorbital shield on the
head; the arrangement of the scales of the middle of the body in from twenty-three
to twenty-five longitudinal rows—these scales being smooth in the young but
strongly keeled in the adult—and the divided anal shield. The distributional area of
this snake includes the whole of Southern and South-Eastern Europe, from Lower
Italy and Dalmatia to Turkey, as well as Greece and the adjacent islands, and extends
to the interior of Asia Minor; but there is some doubt whether the species occurs
in the Caucasian region. All observers are in accord that the four-rayed snake
FOUR-RAYED SNAKE (j nat. size).
is not only harmless but useful, since it destroys rats, mice, voles, and smaller
snakes. It also preys upon moles, lizards, and small birds.
Black-Marked Another European species of the family is the black-marked
Snake. snake (Coluber scalaris), which belongs to a separate group charac-
terised by the following features. The rostral shield of the head is of a large size,
convex, and pointed in front, while it extends backwards between the prefrontal
shields, where it terminates in a point. The tail is relatively shorter than in the
typical group. The black-marked snake, formerly separated as Rhinechis,
and represented in the upper figure of the illustration on p. 208 has the
cylindrical body relatively thick, the tail short and blunted, and the flattened head
broad behind and sharp in front. The body-scales, which are arranged in from
twenty-five to twenty-nine rows, are long, four-sided, and smooth; the shields on
the under surface of the body are bent at the edges; while those beneath the tail form
a double series. As regards colour, there is much variation; the ground-colour
varying from bright grey or greenish grey, through reddish or yellowish brown, to
olive or reddish yellow; while the markings of the head often take the form of a
COLUBRINE. GROUP. 213
perpendicular black streak through the eye, and another from the eye to the mouth;
the neck having a dark crossband, and a row of similar spots running down the
back, beneath which are another series of smaller ones, followed inferiorly by ¢
third and fourth row. With age these spots tend gradually to disappear, till finally
there remain only two dark brown or blackish rows running from the neck to the
tip of the tail. In length this snake measures rather more than 4 feet. Every-
where rare, the black-marked snake seems to be confined to Spain and the opposite
parts of Africa. While resembling the climbing snakes in the general nature of
its food, it also preys upon grasshoppers ; and it will follow voles and mice into
their burrows. A good climber, it is stated to be more rapid in its movements
than any other of the European snakes ; and its keenness of vision is remarkable.
SIPO, OR BRAZILIAN WOOD-SNAKE (+ nat. size).
= aed Whereas the preceding members of the family only climb trees in
search of food the American wood-snakes are purely arboreal forms,
especially adapted by their coloration to such a mode of life. Although they
resemble the climbing snakes in possessing equal-sized solid teeth, they differ in the
larger eye, which may be of very great size, their distinctly compressed and more
slender body, and the small number of its longitudinal rows of scales, which does
not exceed from ten to twelve. The five known species are inhabitants of the West
Indies and the forest districts of Central and South America, all being characterised
by their more or less uniform olive-green coloration. In the forests of Brazil, the
Guianas and Venezuela, as well as in the Lesser Antilles, lives the sipo, or Brazilian
214 SNAKES.
wood-snake (Herpetodryas carimatus), which we select as a well-known example of
the genus. Frequently attaining a length of about 7 feet, and remarkably beautiful
in coloration, this snake generally has the upper-parts of a bright verditer or olive-
green, shot with a tinge of brown on the back, while the under-parts are greenish
or bright yellow; the greenish hue prevailing in the middle of the body, and the
yellow elsewhere. ‘Throughout there is a shimmering play of colours of all shades
of green passing into metallic brown; while the middle line of the back has a
brighter longitudinal streak, frequently bordered on each side by a darker band,
In the West Indies this species undergoes a remarkable change of hue, becoming
blackish brown or black above, with the under-parts steel-grey ; the upper lip and
edges of the jaws alone preserving the original yellowish green. The scales are
arranged in twelve rows, and are mostly smooth, although the two middle rows on
the back are keeled; the eye being of very large size. Next to the coral-snake,
the sipo is the most abundant of Brazilian ophidians, and may be met with both
on sandy jungle-clad ground close to the shore at Rio de Janeiro and Cape Frio,
where specimens of upwards of 10 feet in length have been observed. In addition
to sandy localities it also frequents swampy spots near the sea. In its movements
it is so rapid that, when startled, it seems to disappear like a flash of lightning.
It feeds largely upon frogs, as well as upon lizards and young birds, and lays
only five eggs, which are remarkable for their cylindrical and slender form.
In the Old World and Australia the wood-snakes are replaced by
the solid-toothed tree-snakes, forming the genera Dendrophis and
Dendrelaphis; both of which are distinguished from all the preceding types by
having the hinder border of each of the shields on the lower surface of the body
with a notch on each side, corresponding to a suture-like lateral keel; the scales of
the body being arranged in from thirteen to fifteen rows. While in the first-named
of the two genera all the teeth in the hinder upper jawbone are approximately
equal in length, and the row of scales in the middle line of the back larger than the
others, in the second genus the foremost teeth in the hinder upper jawbone are
enlarged, but the middle row of scales on the back are similar to the rest. All
these snakes have large eyes, and elongated and often compressed bodies, and
their general coloration is some shade of green or olive, often with a bronzy tinge ;
their habits being mostly arboreal. Of Dendrophis nine species are known,
ranging from India to Australia; while Dendrelaphis is represented by five species
ranging from India and the Malayan region to the Philippines.
Egg-Eating The last representative of the solid-toothed series of the Colubrines
Snake. that we have space to mention is the curious little egg-eating snake
(Dasypeltis scabra), of South Africa, which represents a subfamily (Dasypeltine)
by itself. The essential character of the subfamily is the rudimental condition of
the dentition, the front of both the lower jaw and upper jaws being devoid of teeth.
To compensate for this lack of ordinary teeth, the egg-eating snake is, however,
provided with a series of about thirty of what may be termed throat-teeth ; these
being the lower spines of the vertebra, which project into the cesophagus, and are
tipped with enamel. The scales are strongly keeled. This little snake is about a
couple of feet in length, and has a body not much thicker than a man’s finger.
Although it lives in trees, and feeds on the eggs of small birds, it will when pressed
Tree-Snakes
COLUBRINE GROUP. 215
by hunger descend to the ground and rob hens’ nests. That such a tiny creature
should be able to swallow a hen’s egg seems incredible, but nevertheless a specimen
has been taken with the egg actually within its jaws, and the whole head so
swollen as to render the mouth incapable of being closed; while an example
in the London Zoological Gardens swallowed pigeons’ eggs without any apparent
difficulty. When swallowed, the egg is split longitudinally by the row of teeth in
the throat, and the whole of the contents secured. After being thus broken, the
two halves of the shell, generally fitted into one another, are rejected.
The pale snakes, or, as they are called in Brazil, the moon-snakes,
may be taken as our first representatives of the second of the three
great parallel series into which the Colubrine family is divided. This back-fanged
series, or Opisthoglossa, is characterised by having one or more pairs of the hinder
Moon-Snakes.
CROWNED MOON-SNAKE (2 nat. size).
upper teeth longitudinally grooved, and thus capable of acting as poison-fangs.
Many of these snakes are indeed extremely venomous, their bite being capable of
producing death in a few minutes. They are divided into two subfamilies, of which
the first, or Dipsadine, are characterised by the lateral position of the nostrils;
and they are either terrestrial or arboreal in their habits, while their distribution
is world-wide. .
Belonging to the first of the two subfamilies, the moon-snakes are characterised
by the slender and somewhat compressed form of the body; the flattened head,
which is but imperfectly differentiated from the neck, is broad behind and narrow
in front, although somewhat pointed at the muzzle; while the upper jaw projects
considerably over the lower. The scales, moreover, are smooth; both the anal
shield, and the shields on the lower surface of the tail are single; and the eye,
as in most of the other members of the subfamily, has the pupil vertical. The
216 SWVAKES.
few representatives of the moon-snakes are confined to South America; the
species here figured (Scytale coronatum) being an inhabitant of the eastern side
of that continent. In size this snake is comparatively small, measuring only
about 2 feet in length; its distinctive characteristic being that on the hinder
portion of the body, or anterior part of the tail, the middle row of scales are not
greatly enlarged. In young individuals the ground-colour is red, with a dark
brown cireular spot on the back of the head, another on the crown, and a ring on
the neck, behind which are smaller spots of the same colour. With age the colour
darkens, and the markings disappear, till in the adult the upper surface is black,
and the lower side white. Very common in the neighbourhood of Bahia, this
snake, like the other members of the subfamily, is almost exclusively nocturnal ;
and its food consists solely of lizards. Although their fangs are large, it appears
that these reptiles never attack human beings.
CAT-SNAKE (4 nat. size).
As one of the few European representatives of the group under
consideration, reference may be made to the so-called cat-snake
(Tarbophis vivax), which is the sole member of its genus. It is characterised by
its spindle-shaped body, the clear distinction between the flattened head and the
neck, the relatively short tail, and the small size of the eyes. In place of a lower
preocular shield, the elongated loreal extends backwards to the eye, so as to come
in contact with the upper preocular; this arrangement being unknown in any other
Cat-Snake.
Kuropean snake. In the lower jaw the front teeth are much longer and more bent
than those which follow ; while the fangs in the hinder part of the upper jaw are
also elongated and much curved. Sometimes reaching a little over a yard in length
this snake is of a dirty brownish yellow or grey ground-colour, with small black
COLOUBLINE, GROUP. 217
dots and a chestnut-brown spot on the shields of the head, while the neck has a large
blackish or reddish brown patch, and rows of smaller spots of the same colour
ornament the back. There is also a dark band from the eye to the corner of the
mouth; each side of the body has a row of small spots; and the under-parts are
whitish with a brown marbling. The cat-snake ranges from the shores of the
Adriatic to the neighbourhood of the Black and Caspian Seas, and Africa as far south
as 45° N. It inhabits rocky and sunny spots, and feeds mainly if not exclusively
on lizards. Although slower than the water-snakes, its movements are more rapid
than those of the vipers. The virulence of its poison is shown by the circumstance
that a lizard bitten by one of these snakes died in a minute and a half.
Nocturnal Tree- The tropical regions of the Old World are the home of the typical
Snakes. cenus (Dipsas) of the subfamily, which is characterised by the
long and compressed body and tail, the sharp distinction of the head from the neck,
the moderate or large size of the eye, with its vertical pupil, and the normal
arrangement of the shields on the head, in which the hinder nasal is more or less
markedly hollowed. The number of teeth in the hinder upper jawbone varies from
ten to twelve, the two or three hinder pair being elongated and grooved; while in
the lower jaw the front teeth are the largest. The scales on the body are arranged
in from seventeen to twenty-seven longitudinal rows, those of the middle row of
the back being larger than the rest ; and the medium-sized or long tail has its inferior
shields in two rows. ‘These snakes are represented by about twenty species,
inhabiting Southern Asia, New Guinea, Northern Asia, and Africa. The majority
are inhabitants of forests or scrub-jungle, and are almost entirely arboreal ; but a
few are terrestrial, and frequent open country. Many of these snakes attain a
length of 6 or 7 feet, and their prevalent ground-colours are brown and _ black.
The Indian forms at least are purely nocturnal, and their food consists of mammals,
birds, and, more rarely, lizards, and occasionally birds’ eggs. It is noteworthy that
some species prey entirely on mammals, while others confine their attention to
birds. Eight species of the genus are recorded from India, Ceylon, and Burma ;
while a well-known Malayan form is the ularburong (Dipsas dendrophila).
Back-Fanged These snakes are represented by two important genera, of which
Tree-Snakes. P)ilodryas is mainly characteristic of the tropical parts of America,
although it also occurs in the West Indies and Madagascar; while the whip-snakes
(Dryophis) are confined to India and the Malay countries. In the American genus
the hinder fangs are not very large, being not double the height of the solid teeth
in front of them. The body and tail are elongated and more or less compressed,
the eyes large, and the smooth or keeled scales arranged in from seventeen to
twenty-one rows; while the prevailing colour is green. The genus is represented
by some fifteen species, among which the green snake (P. viridissimus) is a well-
known form. This species attains a length of nearly three feet, and has upwards
of two hundred shields on the lower surface of the body.
In the Indian whip-snakes the teeth in the posterior upper jawbone vary in
number from twelve to fifteen, one or two near the middle being much enlarged
and fang-like. After these comes an interval devoid of teeth, and at the hinder-
end of the jaw the two last teeth are grooved. In the lower jaw the third or
fourth tooth is enlarged and fang-like ; those in the hinder-part of the series being
218 SWVAKES.
small and uniform. The head is long, and markedly distinct from the neck ; and the
eye rather small, with a horizontal pupil. The scales investing the elongated and
compressed body are smooth and without pits, and arranged in fifteen oblique rows,
those down the middle of the back being slightly enlarged. The shields on the
under surface of the body are rounded, and those beneath the tail form two
rows. Deriving their name of whip-snakes from the extreme elongation and
slenderness of the body and tail these serpents move awkwardly enough on a flat
surface, although when coiling and climbing among the branches of trees their rapid
movements are graceful in the extreme. While retaining their hold by means of a
few coils of the tail thrown round a branch, the length of their body enables them
with ease to reach another at a considerable distance, or to dart forth their head in
order to seize any hapless bird or lizard that may be within striking distance.
Sharp-Nosed Nearly allied to the preceding are the sharp-nosed snakes
Snakes. = (Qrybelis), of which seven species inhabit Central and South America,
while the eighth is found in Central and Western Africa. These have small
heads, with the snout narrow and elongated, and the rostral shield projecting
considerably beyond the lower jaw. The neck is thin and slender, the body
greatly elongated and laterally compressed, and the long and thin tail tapering to
a fine point. The upper jaw carries seventeen solid teeth of nearly equal size, and
four large fangs. In appearance and habits these snakes closely resemble the
whip-snakes.
Oriental Fresh- Brief reference must be made here to a group of nine genera of
Water Snakes. aquatic snakes from India, Burma,China, New Guinea, North Australia,
and the adjacent countries, which constitute a second subfamily (Homalopsine) in
the hind-fanged series. From the preceding subfamily they may be readily dis-
tinguished by the position of the nostrils on the upper surface of the muzzle; while
they are further differentiated by their thoroughly aquatic habits. It will be
unnecessary to particularise the various genera; but it may be mentioned that the
typical genus, Homalopsis, belongs to a group in which the two nasal shields of the
head are in contact; and that in a second group, as represented by Cantoria, they
are separated by an internasal shield. Most of these snakes are of small size, few of
them exceeding a yard in length, while many are considerably smaller. Although
mainly fresh-water snakes, seldom coming to shore, a few members of the group
enter the sea. Many of them are furnished with prehensile tails, by means of
which they attach themselves to convenient objects; and the majority feed
exclusively on fish, though a few prefer crustaceans. Their young are produced
alive in the water.
The beautiful but venomous coral-snake (laps corallinus) is the
best known representative of a genus which brings us to the third
and last series of the great family under consideration. All the members of this
front-fanged series (Proteroglypha) are characterised by having the front teeth of
the hinder upper jawbone, or maxilla, grooved, and the posterior ones simple and
solid. These snakes are all poisonous; and they are divided into two subfamilies,
according to their habits and the conformation of the tail. In the first, or Elapine
subfamily (Hiapine) the tail is cylindrical; the snakes themselves being either
terrestrial or arboreal in their mode of life. These Elapine snakes are distributed
Coral-Snake.
COLUBRINE GROUP. 219
in larger or smaller numbers over Asia, Africa, and America, and are especially
abundant in Australia, where they form by far the greater moiety of the ophidian
fauna, All of them—doubtless on account of the immunity from attack conferred
by their poisonous character—are remarkable for the beauty of their coloration.
The coral-snake and its allies constitute a genus well represented in the
warmer regions of America, but also occurring sparingly in South Africa. They
are small, although rather long and plump serpents, with the body cylindrical, the
head flattened and scarcely differentiated from the neck, and the tail short. The
small eye has a circular pupil, the mouth is narrow, and the jaws admit of but
slight dilatation. Superiorly, the body is clothed with equal-sized, smooth scales,
arranged in fifteen rows; while inferiorly the body-shields are rounded, the anal
CORAL-SNAKE (% nat. size).
one being undivided, and the shields beneath the tail arranged in a double series.
Behind the fangs, the teeth are all small. One of the handsomest members of a
beautiful group is the coral-snake, which inhabits a large part of South America,
and also occurs in the West Indies. Attaining a length of from 2 feet to 2} feet,
this snake has its ground-colour a brilliant cinnabar-red, with a special lustre on
the under-parts. On the body this red colour is divided into sections of equal
length by broad black rings, bordered by more or less distinct greenish white
margins; all the red and greenish portions showing black spots on the tips of the
scales. The front of the head, as far back as the hinder end of the frontal shields,
is bluish black; at the back of the parietal shields there commences a greenish
white crossband, running behind the eye, and occupying the whole of the lower
jaw; and after this comes a black neck-ring, followed by one of the red spaces of
the body. Asa rule, instead of being red, the tail has alternations of black and
whitish rings, with its tip whitish. The coral-snake is generally met with in
220 SNAKES.
forests, the neighbourhood of human dwellings it strictly avoids. Somewhat slow
in its movements, it is unable to climb trees; and its food consists of other snakes,
lizards, insects, and centipedes.
Resplendent In Asia the place of the coral-snake and its allies is taken by a
Adders. oroup of nearly allied species which may be collectively termed
resplendent adders. From the last genus these are distinguished by the presence
of a distinct groove along the whole of the front surface of the upper fangs, and
also by the scales being arranged in thirteen rows. None of the teeth behind the
fangs are solid, and the shields on the head (among which the loreal is wanting)
are of large size. A further difference from the American genus is to be found in
the presence of postfrontal bones in the skull. These adders, which are mostly
LONG-GLANDED SNAKE AND MASKED ADDER (% nat. size).
less than 3 feet in length, are represented by seven species, spread over the Oriental
region, Southern China, and Japan. The masked adder (Callophis macclelland?),
which attains a length of 26 inches, and ranges from Nipal to the south of China,
is generally reddish brown above, with regular black, light-edged transverse rings
placed at equal distances from one another; the under-parts being yellowish with
black crossbands or squarish spots. The resplendent adders resemble the coral-
snake in the slowness of their movements, and their inability to ascend trees; their
favourite resorts being hilly districts. They closely resemble the harmless snakes
of the genus Calamaria, upon the different species of which they chiefly feed.
Long-Glanded Closely allied to the preceding are two snakes from Burma and
Snakes. the Malayan region which merely differ in that the poison-glands,
instead of being confined to the back part of the head, extend along each side of
the body for about a third of its total length, gradually thickening till they end in
front of the heart in club-shaped expansions. The heart being thrown further
COLUBRINE GROUF. 2
ty
Lo
back in the body than ordinary, these snakes may be recognised externally by the
thickening of that region. The figured species (Adeniophis intestinalis) is an
extremely elongated and slender snake, inhabiting Burma and the Malayan Islands,
and attaining a length of 2 feet. It is generally brown above with a yellowish
black-edged line running down the middle of the back, and a nearly similar one on
each side of the body ; the under-parts being banded with yellow and black.
Although the native name crait applies properly only to a single
member (Bungarus ceruleus) of this genus, it may be conveniently
extended to include the whole of the eight species, which range from India to the
south of China, five occurring in India and Ceylon. Closely connected with the
Craits.
BANDED ADDER, OR RAJ-SAMP (1 nat. size).
resplendent snakes by the genus Hemibungarus, in which a solid tooth is present
behind the fangs, the craits have from one to three small solid teeth behind these ;
and the smooth scales are arranged in thirteen or fifteen rows, with the middle row
of the back larger than the others. The head resembles that of the last genus in
being imperfectly distinguished from the neck, as well as in the size and number of
its shields; while the small eye has a similar round pupil. The tail is of moderate
length, or short, with the shields on its lower surface arranged in either a double
or single series. The banded adder (B. fasciatus) belongs to a group in which
the shields on the lower surface of the body are very large, and broader than long ;
those of the tail being arranged in a single series. The species is distinguished
by the presence of a distinct ridge along the back, by the obtuse extremity of
the tail, and by the front temporal shield of the head being scarcely longer than
222 SNAKES.
deep; these three features distinguish it from the blue adder or crait (B. cwruleus)
and the nearly allied Ceylon crait (B. ceylonicus). The banded adder, or raj-samp
(king-snake), ranges from Bengal to Java, and commonly measures about 4 feet
in length, although it grows to 6 feet. In colour it is bright yellow, with
black rings equal to or exceeding in length the light interspaces ; while on the head
a black band commences between the eyes and widens towards the nape of the
neck ; the tip of the muzzle being brown. The crait is of a dark, almost steel-blue
black, or chocolate-brown, colour, with narrow white crossbars, streaks, or rings of
white; the under surface being of a dark livid hue, or whitish or yellowish. It
inhabits the whole of India, but is not so large as the raj-samp, which is probably
as poisonous, though it does not come much into contact with human beings, and
is, therefore, a less terrible destroyer of life. The crait frequently insinuates itself
into houses, where it conceals itself in bathrooms, verandahs, cupboards, or between
the bars of shutters; while an instance is on record where one was discovered
coiled up beneath the pillow of a palki in which a lady had made a night’s journey.
Next to the cobra, the crait is credited with killing more human beings in India
than any other snake.
The name “cobra de capello,” or hooded snake, was applied by
the Portuguese in Ceylon to the common Indian representative of a
genus of deadly serpents distinguished from the craits by their power of inflating
the neck, and likewise by the scales in the middle of the back not being larger
than the rest. By Europeans these snakes are now generally known by the name
of cobras. Agreeing with the craits in having the fangs furnished with a complete
groove on the front surface, and likewise by the presence of from one to three
solid teeth behind them, the cobras have the head distinet from the neck, and
covered with large shields, among which the loreal is wanting; the eye being rather
small, with a round pupil. The body is cylindrical, with the smooth scales disposed
in fifteen or more oblique rows; while the tail is of moderate length, with its
inferior shields in either a single or a double series. The dilatation of the neck,
which always takes place when they are excited and about to strike, at once serves
to distinguish the cobras from all other snakes. Cobras are confined to Africa and
Southern Asia, and are represented by six or seven species, two of which are found
in India and a third in Java and Borneo, the others being African. Of the Indian
forms, by far the most abundant is the common or true cobra (Naia tripudians),
which is known to the natives of India as the kala nag or kala samp (black snake).
Distinguished by having no large shields on the head behind the parietals, and by
the whole of the shields on the under surface of the tail being arranged in a double
series, this snake is a very variable species as regards coloration, some examples
having a dark spectacle-like mark on the back of the hood, while others have only
a single eye-like spot, and others, again, have no mark at all in this region. In
regard to coloration, Mr. Boulenger remarks that the hue of the upper-parts may
be greyish brown or black, with or without a spectacle—or loop-shaped black
light-edged marking on the neck—or with light spots or crossbands on the body ;
while beneath it varies from whitish, through brownish, to blackish, sometimes.
with black crossbars on the fore-part of the body. Occasionally attaining a length
of a few inches over 6 feet, while an instance is on record where a specimen
Cobras.
COLULRINE “GROCF. 223
measured upwards of 7 feet 3 inches, this cobra is distributed over the whole of
India and Ceylon, ranging westwards through Afghanistan to the Caspian, and to
the east to the Malayan region, and the south of China. The other Indian species,
or giant cobra (NV. bungarus), is a larger snake, distinguished by the presence of a
pair of large shields on the head behind the parietals, while the shields beneath the
tail usually form only a single series. When adult, its colour is yellowish or brown,
SS \Wa\N XA /
AN JX L /
YOUNG GIANT COBRA OR HAMADRYAD (+ nat. size).
with more or less distinctly marked dark crossbands; but young specimens are
usually black, with yellow rings on the body and bars on the head, and in some
instances there are light spots on the upper surface, and the inferior shields are
whitish with black margins. In size, the giant cobra is known to measure as much
as 13 feet, and probably grows larger. Fiercer than the common species, this
cobra is fortunately far less abundant; its range extending from India through
Burma and Siam to the Malayan region and the Philippines. Another species is
the asp or Egyptian cobra (N. hate), which is widely spread over Africa, and
224 SNAKES.
presents great variations in colour. Somewhat exceeding in size the true cobra,
the asp is distinguished by the sixth upper labial shield of the head much
exceeding the others in length, and uniting with the temporal, so as to form a large
plate, which anteriorly comes in contact with the postocular shield. In most
Egyptian examples the colour of the upper-parts is uniformly straw-yellow, while
the under-parts are light yellow ;, but there may be dark crossbands on the under
surface of the region of the neck, which sometimes unite into a patch. The straw-
colour may, however, shade into blackish brown and occasionally the hues may be
brighter.
Our account of the habits of these snakes will be mainly confined
to the common Indian species, and since these have been specially
studied by Sir J. Fayrer we shall paraphrase or quote from his writings. Although
y b s
frequently seen in motion during the day, cobras are most active during the night ;
and they feed chiefly on small mammals, birds’ eggs, frogs, fish, and even insects.
ny J ? tolole) int d
The giant cobra subsists, however, almost entirely on other snakes; and the other
Habits.
species will occasionally rob hens’ nests, swallowing the eggs whole. In captivity,
cobras will live weeks and even months without tasting food of any kind or
touching water. Although essentially terrestrial, they will readily enter water, in
which they swim well; while they occasionally climb trees in search of food, and
are often found, more especially during the rainy season, in old buildings and walls,
or in wood-stacks and heaps of rubbish. It is when collected in such situations
that they are most commonly trodden upon by the natives—and more frequently
at might than at other times—with the well-known fatal results. These snakes
lay from eighteen to twenty-five oval eggs about the size of those of a pigeon.
Ascending to a height of some eight thousand feet in the Himalaya, the common
cobra “is equally dreaded and fatal wherever met with; fortunately it is not
naturally aggressive, unless provoked, at which times its aspect is most alarming.
Raising the anterior third or more of its body, and expanding its hood, with a loud
hissing, 1t draws back its head prepared to strike, and, when it does so, darts its
head forwards, and either scratches, or seizes and imbeds its fangs in the object of
attack. If the grasp be complete and the fangs imbedded in the flesh, dangerous
and often fatal effects result; but if the fangs only inflict a seratch, or if the snake
be weak or exhausted, the same great danger is not incurred. If the poison enter
a large vein and be quickly carried into the circulation, death is very rapid; men
having been known to perish from cobra-bite within half an hour. The largest
and strongest as well as the smallest and weakest creatures succumb; but, fortun-
ately, all who are bitten do not die. In the first place, some human beings, as well
as lower animals, have greater tolerance than others of this or of other poisons—a
result, doubtless, of idiosynerasy or varying degrees of nervous energy which
enables one to resist that to which another would yield; or a wound may have
been inflicted and yet but little of the poison inoculated ; or, in the third place, the
snake may be weak or sickly, or it may have been exhausted by recent biting, and
thus have become temporarily deprived of the power of inflicting a deadly wound.
But when a cobra in the full possession of its powers bites, and injects the poison
into man or beast, it is almost surely fatal, and all the remedies vaunted as infallible
antidotes are futile.”
COLUBRINE GROUP. 225
Among the deadliest of Australian snakes is the purplish
death-adder (Pseudechis porphyriaca), alone representing a genus
characterised by the great elongation and slenderness of the cylindrical body, the
sharply pointed tail, the small head, imperfectly differentiated from the neck and
clothed with large shields, the smooth scales, arranged in from seventeen to twenty-
three rows, the divided anal shield, and the arrangement of the shields on the
Death-Adders.
SHORT DEATH-ADDER, AND SPINE-TAILED DEATH-ADDER (} nat. size).
under surface of the tail at first in a single, and posteriorly in a double series.
Behind the fangs are one or two solid teeth in the upper jaw; the pupil of the eye
is round; and the neck cannot be dilated. This snake, which grows to a length of
about seven feet, is very variable in coloration. Generally, however, the colour of
the back varies from a shining purplish black to dark olive-brown, the under-
parts being red, and the sides carmine; but the latter colours not occupying the
centres of the scales, which are black, as are the hinder borders of the shields of
the under surface. Generally known to the settlers by the name of the black
VOL. V.—15
226 SNAKES.
snake, this reptile is dreaded alike by natives and Europeans, although, fortunately,
it nearly always endeavours to escape when discovered. ‘The short death-adder
(Hoplicephalus curtus), represented in the upper figure of the illustration
on p. 225, is selected as a well-known example of a second Australian genus,
which includes a large number of species. Closely resembling the harmless snakes
in general appearance, these death-adders are distinguished from the other members
of this group by the presence in the upper jaw of a row of small, curved, solid
teeth behind the fangs. The head is unsymmetrically four-sided, flattened, and
rounded at the muzzle, the body massive, and the tail either moderate or short.
The smooth and equal-sized scales are arranged in from fifteen to twenty-one rows,
those on the middle of the back not being larger than the rest; and there is but
a single row of shields on the under surface of the tail. All these species are
peculiar in the group for producing living young. The figured species, which
varies from 3 to 4 feet in length, has a short tail, and nineteen rows of scales.
Although very variable as regards coloration, the head is generally uniform black,
the body olive-colour, with broad brown or black crossbands, the hinder-part of
the body and the upper surface of the tail uniformly blackish, and the whole
of the under-parts light yellow. Some specimens have, however, no dark bands
on the back. The spine-tailed death-adder (Acanthopis antarcticus), depicted in
the lower figure of the illustration, represents a genus easily recognised by the
horny appendage with which the tail terminates; the middle row of scales in
the fore-part of the body being more or less distinctly keeled. In addition to
Australia and New Guinea, this snake also inhabits the Eastern Moluccas, as well
as Ceram and Amboyna. It feeds chiefly upon frogs and young birds and is
regarded by Europeans as most deadly, although the natives believe that no one
ever dies from a death-adder’s bite.
The sea-snakes are now considered to represent merely a sub-
family (Hydrophiine) of the front-fanged Colubrines. From the
preceding subfamily they are distinguished, not only by their marine habits,
but likewise by their strongly compressed and oar-shaped tails, in the skeleton of
which both the superior and inferior spines of the vertebree are very strongly
developed. With the exception of the broad-tailed sea-snakes, which form a kind
of transition between the present and preceding subfamilies, these snakes never
leave the water; and the inferior surface of the body and tail is either covered
with scales similar to those on the upper-parts, or, if shields are present, they are
of small size. All are very poisonous, and produce living young. Their head-
quarters are the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the tropical districts of the
Western Pacific, their range extending from the Persian Gulf to New Guinea
and Northern Australia. The parti-coloured sea-snake has, however, a more
extensive distribution, ranging from the western coast of Africa to the western
shores of Tropical America, and extending as far north as Japan and Mantchuria,
and as far south as New Zealand. All of them have relatively small heads, jaws,
and fangs; and while in some cases the body is short and thick, in others it is very
thick only in the region of the tail, and elsewhere disproportionately elongated
and attenuated. Always varied, the coloration is often brilliant and beautiful ;
and the oar-like form of the tail and hinder-part of the body is obviously: an
Sea-Snakes.
SEA-SNAKES. 2
NO
~~
adaptation to an aquatic life. Living in the sea, or in tidal waters, their move-
ments in the clear blue water are agile and elegant; but when thrown ashore,
as frequently happens, the majority are helpless. Their food consists of fish and
such other creatures as they can capture in the sea. In parts of the Bay of Bengal,
sea-snakes are sometimes seen congregating in large shoals. The group is divided
into nine genera, no less than six of which are represented in Indian waters.
Broad-Tailed The broad-tailed sea-snakes, of which there are three species.
Sea-Snakes. constituting the genus Platurus, in general appearance closely
resemble some of the craits, especially as regards the shape of the skull and the
scaling of the head and body, but are distinguished by the compression and depth
BANDED SEA-SNAKE (4 nat. size).
of the tail. In the upper jaw, which is very short, there is in the maxilla of each
side a pair of large grooved fangs, followed by a single very small solid tooth.
The arrangement of the shields of the head is normal, each nostril being pierced in
a laterally-placed nasal; the scales on the body are smooth and overlapping, and
the inferior surface is covered with large shields. Of the three species, the banded
sea-snake (P. laticaudatus) is distinguished by the absence of a keel on the lower
surface of the hinder-part of the body, and also of an unpaired shield on the
muzzle; the scales being arranged in nineteen rows. In colour, it 1s olive above
and yellowish beneath, with black rings fully equal in width to the light inter-
spaces. Attaining a length of a little over a yard, this species ranges from the
Bay of Bengal and the China Sea to Polynesia. An allied but larger species
228 SNAKES.
(P. colubrinus), with the same distribution, is distinguished by the presence of an
unpaired shield on the head, and the arrangement of the scales in from twenty-one
to twenty-five rows; while the third species (P. schistorhynchus), from the China
Sea and Western Pacific, differs in having a keel along the hinder half of the
lower surface of the body. That the broad-tailed sea-snakes are the direct
descendants of terrestrial forms allied to the craits, is proved by their retention of
large inferior shields, and by their habits. Not only are these snakes frequently
found at some distance from water, but in Sumatra a specimen was captured
nearly a day’s march inland.
Parti-Coloured In common with all the other members of the subfamily, the
Sea-Snake. parti-coloured sea-snake (Hydrus platyurus) has the nostrils placed
on the upper surface of the muzzle; and the under surface of the body and tail
BLACK-BANDED SEA-SNAKE (3 nat. size).
in this species are scaled like the rest, although in some of the genera traces of
enlarged shields still persist. In the skull, the maxilla is considerably longer than
the transverse bone, and carries a pair of short fangs, followed, after an interval,
by seven or eight solid teeth; the muzzle is elongated; the head-shields are large,
the nasals being in contact with one another; and the scales on the relatively
short body hexagonal in form and with their edges in apposition. This snake
attains a length of a yard; and in colour is either yellowish with symmetrical
black transverse bands or spots, or uniformly black above, and yellow, with or
without black spots below; the yellow tail being ornamented with either black
spots or bars. It is the sole representative of its genus, and has a wider dis-
tribution than any other member of the group, ranging over the whole of the
Indian Ocean and the tropical and subtropical portions of the Pacific. The
tpyical sea-snakes, forming the large genus Hydrophis, differ in having from seven
VIPERINE GROUP. 229
to eighteen solid teeth in the maxilla, by the longer body, on the anterior part of
which the scales are imbricating, and by the presence of more or less distinct small
shields on the lower surface.
Black-Banded The black-banded sea-snake (Distira cyanocincta) may be taken
Sea-Snake. ag an example of another large genus differing from the preceding in
that the fangs are followed in the maxilla by from four to ten solid teeth with
their front surface grooved. In these snakes the body is more or less elongated,
and generally has the scales on its front portion slightly overlapping, while the
under surface carries small shields. The figured species, which grows to a length
of 6 feet, is of a greenish olive above, with black transverse bars or rings, which
are sometimes connected by a longitudinal stripe on the under surface. This
snake ranges from the Persian Gulf to the Malay Archipelago and Japan, and is
one of the most abundant in the Indian seas.
There are several points in which the sea-snakes differ from their land cousins
as regards habits, in addition to those already noticed. In the first place, the skin
is changed piecemeal, instead of entire; the casting taking place at very frequent
intervals. Moreover, the tongue is very short, and only the extreme tips of its
two extremities are exserted through small notches on either side of the rostral
shield of the head, which is prolonged downwards so as to close the mouth.
When, however, these snakes are cast ashore and almost blinded by the unaccus-
tomed light, the tongue is used in the ordinary manner as a feeler.
THE VIPERS.
Family VIPERIDZ.
Omitting mention of the small and unimportant family of harmless snakes
known as blunt-heads (Amblycephalide), represented by two Oriental and two
tropical American genera, we pass to the viper family, which includes the
whole of the remaining members of the suborder. The distinction between a
colubrine and viperine snake is that in the latter the maxillee or hinder upper jaw-
bones are capable of being erected in a vertical plane at right angles to the
transverse bones, while in form they are short and thick, and they always carry
a single pair of large tubular fangs. All vipers are poisonous, and, so far as
known, produce living young; while they are more or less nocturnal and terrestrial
in their habits, although a few ascend trees. The thick body, the flat and often
triangular head, the short and stumpy tail, the reduction of the maxillary teeth to
a single pair of fangs, and the vertical pupil of the eye, are all features dis-
tinguishing vipers as a whole from the poisonous colubrines; but, as already
mentioned, it is frequently necessary to examine the structure of the skull itself
before any particular snake can be assigned to its proper serial position. That
the vipers form a highly specialised group is self-evident; and Mr. Boulenger
believes them to be descended from the hind-fanged colubrines. The family is
divided into two groups, namely, the typical vipers of the Old World, which
attain their maximum development in Africa, and the American and Asiatic
pit-vipers.
230 SNAKES.
Our first representatives of the Old World vipers (Viperine)
are the true vipers, which form a genus with some twenty species,
ranging over Africa (exclusive of Madagascar), Europe, and a large portion of Asia,
one of them reaching India. In common with the other members of the subfamily,
they have no pit in the loreal shield of the head; while they are specially dis-
tinguished by the upper surface of the head being covered either with scales or
small shields, and by the keeled scales of the body running in straight longitudinal
rows, which vary in number from twenty-one to thirty-eight; and likewise by the
double row of shields beneath the tail.
The common viper (Vipera verus), which is happily the only
British poisonous snake, is one of the smallest representatives of the
genus, and is distinguished by the mixture of scales and shields on the head (three
of the latter being larger than the rest), and the general presence of only a single
row of scales between the eye and the upper labial shields beneath. In colour and
markings the common viper is extremely variable; but as a rule a dark zigzag
stripe runs down the whole length of the middle of the back. With regard to
coloration, in some specimens the ground-colour is nearly olive, in others a deep
rich brown, and in others a dirty brownish yellow; while a mark between the
eyes, a spot on each side of the hinder part of the head, the above-mentioned zigzag
line formed of confluent quadrangular spots on the back, and a row of small
irregular triangular spots on each side of the body, are of a darker hue than the
ground-colour, and are frequently nearly black. In some examples the under-
parts are lead-colour, with lighter or darker spots, while in others they are almost
wholly black. Bell records a specimen in which the ground-colour was nearly
white and the markings black; and in one variety the ground-colour is brick-red,
with ferruginous markings; while in a second the under-parts acquire a more or
True Vipers.
Common Viper.
less marked blue tinge; and in a third the whole skin, with the exception of that
beneath the jaw and throat is black, the usual markings being visible in certain
lights. The average length of the common viper is about 10 inches. Its geo-
graphical distribution is greater than that of any other European snake, extending
from Portugal eastwards to the Island of Saghalien, while northwards it reaches
to the Arctic Circle, and southwards to Central Spain.
In South-Western Europe the common viper is replaced or
accompanied by a closely-allied form which may be called the
southern viper (V. aspis), regarded by some writers as a distinct species, and by
others as a mere variety. As it was doubtless to this snake that the Latin term
Vivipara was applied, German writers restrict the name viper to the southern
Southern Viper.
form, and use the term Avreuzotter for the common viper. In the latter
the front of the upper surface of the head is covered with three distinct small
shields, but in the southern form it is clothed only with smooth or slightly ridged
scales, among which seldom more than a single polygonal roundish one can be
regarded as representing a frontal shield; moreover, instead of the single row of
small scales generally separating the eye of the common viper from the upper
labial shields, the southern form always has two such rows. There is likewise a
difference in the shape of the muzzle in the two forms. The southern viper may
be considered characteristic of the Mediterranean countries, occurring in North
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VIPERINE GROCE. 235
Africa as well as in Europe. It is noteworthy that in the borderland of the
distributional areas of the two forms, such as Northern Spain and Italy, it is
difficult to say to which of the two any specimen may belong.
More numerous in Scotland than the ringed snake, but, like it, unknown in
Ireland, the common viper generally frequents heaths, dry woods, and sandy banks.
Although its bite produces severe effects, it is seldom, unless the sufferer be very
young or in ill-health, that death ensues. During the winter months, vipers
generally hibernate in small parties for the sake of mutual warmth, several being
often found twined together in a torpid condition.
LONG-NOSED, OR SAND-VIPER (3 nat. size).
Long-Nosed Another well-known poisonous European snake is the long-
Vaper. nosed, or sand-viper (V. ammodytes), easily recognised by the
presence of a soft horny appendage at the end of the nose, covered with scales,
and not unlike a conical wart in appearance. It is also distinguished from the
common viper by the absence of any large shield, except the supraoculars, on the
top of the head; although in coloration the two species are very similar. In size
it is the largest European representative of the group, attaining a length in some
rare instances of just over a yard. The sand-viper ranges from Italy to Armenia.
In Carinthia it is the commonest of snakes, while in the Tyrol it is local, but
abundant in the south of Hungary and Dalmatia. Mainly nocturnal, it is much
more commonly found in hilly than in level districts, ascending in the mountains
234 SNAKES.
to a height of between three thousand and four thousand feet. Except during
the pairing-season, when it is found in couples, it is a solitary creature, subsisting
on other snakes, mice, voles, birds, and lizards.
As being one of the deadliest of Indian snakes, we may take
as our next example of the genus the beautiful Russell’s viper
(V. russellz), of India, Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. From the other viper inhabiting
Kashmir, this species may be distinguished by having the rostral shield of the
head as long as broad, and the scales on the body arranged in from twenty-seven
to thirty-one rows. Sometimes known as the chain-viper, this snake attains a
Russell's Viper.
RUSSELL’S VIPER (} nat. size).
length of 4 feet. Its ground-colour is pale brown, with three longitudinal series
of black light-edged rings, sometimes replaced by faint dark spots; the lower-
parts being yellowish white, either with or without small crescentic black spots.
In young specimens, as shown in our illustration, the black rings on the upper-
parts surround dark reddish brown spots, which in the middle series are in contact
with one another. Sir J. Fayrer regards this snake as being, next to the cobra,
the most dangerous in India, stating that fowls bitten by it sometimes expire
in less than a minute. “It is nocturnal in its habits, is sluggish, and does not
readily strike unless irritated, when it bites with great fury; it hisses fiercely and
strikes with vigour. Its long movable fangs are very prominent objects, and with
them it is capable of inflicting deep as well as poisoned wounds. When disturbed,
VIPERINE GROUF. 235
its loud hissing is calculated to warn those who approach it, and it does not
appear to cause many human deaths, although it may be that its misdeeds are
sometimes ascribed to the cobra. This viper is said to frequently kill cattle while
grazing, by biting them about the nose or mouth. In proof of its sluggish nature,
there is a well-authenticated tale of a young person having picked one up, and,
mistaking it for an innocent snake, carried it home; its true character being only
discovered when it bit a dog.”
In Africa the place of Russell’s viper is taken by the dreaded
puff-adder (V. arietans), which occasionally attains a length of 6 feet.
It is the only member of the genus in which the unusually small nostrils open
Puff-Adder.
THE PUFF-ADDER (+ nat. size).
upwards near the extremity of the muzzle; and it is further distinguished by
having a supranasal shield, covered, like the region of the brow, with upright
horny scales or spines. In appearance most hideous and repulsive, this snake has
the large and flattened head triangular in shape, very broad and blunt at the
muzzle, and sharply defined from the body, the latter being thick and almost
triangular in section. Both head and body are covered with keeled overlapping
scales, differing from one another only in size, and arranged on the body in from
thirty-one to thirty-three longitudinal rows, and forming three or four series
between the eyes and the upper labials. The coloration and marking vary to a
certain extent individually; but there is a great change in the brightness of the
tints immediately after the changing of the skin. The puff-adder is spread over
236 SNAKES.
re)
nearly the whole of Africa, and is everywhere dreaded from its deadly nature.
Inhabiting dry and sandy places, it derives its name from its habit, when angry or
alarmed, of drawing in a full breath and causing the body to swell visibly, Then
the air is allowed to escape gradually, producing as it does so a prolonged sighing
or blowing sound which continues till the lungs are emptied, this process being
repeated so long as the provocation lasts. Usually this reptile les half-hidden in
the sand, with its head fully exposed, and when approached merely rises without
attempting to escape, and so virulent is its bite that even horses have been known
to die within a few hours after being struck. The poison is used by the bushmen
for their arrows, to the tips of which it is made to adhere by being mingled with
the viscid juice of the amaryllis.
HORNED VIPERS IN THE SAND (3 nat. size).
Next to the southern viper, or asp, no serpent was more feared
by the ancients than the Egyptian cerastes, or horned viper (Cerastes
cornutus). As a genus, the two species are characterised by the small crescentic
nostrils situated on the sides of the muzzle, the presence in the male, and some-
times in the female, of a pair of scale-covered, horn-like processes above the eyes,
the arrangement of the scales of the body in oblique rows, and the short keels on
the scales, which stop short of their tips) The common horned viper may be
immediately recognised as an inhabitant of desert places from the general sombre
and mottled tone of its coloration, which is so admirably adapted to such surround-
ings. Usually attaining a length of about 2 feet, it is of a light brownish ground-
Horned Vipers.
VIPERINE GROUP. ae
o
colour, more or less tinged with yellow, upon which are six longitudinal rows
of circular or quadrangular dark markings, increasing in size from the middle
of the back towards the sides. Beneath the eyes runs a dark brown band, while
the middle of the head is marked by a light brownish yellow streak, dividing
posteriorly, and uniting on the sides of the neck with another stripe coming from
the chin. The scales surrounding the mouth are a bright sandy yellow, the
shields on the under surface being also either bright yellow or whitish. The
scales of the body are arranged in from twenty-nine to thirty-three rows; the anal
shield is single, while the shields beneath the tail form a double series. The range
of this snake includes Northern Africa, East of Morocco, as well as Kordofan and
Arabia; the second species being likewise North African. Canon Tristram writes
that the usual habit of the horned viper is “to coil itself on the sand, where it
basks in the impress of a camel’s footmark, and thence suddenly to dart out on
—
THE EJA, OR DESERT SAW-VIPER (2 nat. size).
any passing animal. So great is the terror which its sight inspires in horses,
that I have known mine, when I was riding in the Sahara, suddenly start and rear,
trembling and perspiring in every limb, and no persuasion would induce him to
proceed. I was quite unable to account for his terror, until I noticed a cerastes
coiled up in a depression two or three paces in front, with its basilisk eyes steadily
fixed on us, and no doubt preparing for a spring as the horse passed.” According
to Bruce, this snake, when about to attack, moves rapidly forward with a
sideways motion, unlike that of any other serpent. Attacking when quite
unprovoked, the horned viper is more dreaded than any other North African
snake, men frequently dying from its bite within half an hour. Its food consists
of desert-haunting rodents, together with lizards, and perhaps birds.
Desert Saw- While agreeing with the horned vipers in having the lateral
Vipers. §_body-scales arranged in oblique rows, the present genus may be dis-
tinguished by its two species having but a single series of shields beneath the tail,
238 SNAKES.
as well as by the absence of horns. The upper surface of the head is covered with
scales, and the keeled scales of the body form from twenty-five to thirty-five rows.
The common desert saw-viper, or, as it is called in Egypt, eja (Hchis carinata),
attains a length of about 2 feet; and has the keels on the lateral scales of the body
strongly serrated. In colour it varies from pale buff to greyish, reddish, or pale
brown on the upper-parts, with three series of whitish spots edged with dark
brown, in addition to which there may be a dark brown zigzag band along each
side, while the head is ornamented with a cross or arrowhead mark; and the
under-parts are whitish, either with or without brown dots. This species inhabits
the desert regions of Northern Africa, South-Western Asia, and India, being
replaced in Arabia and Palestine by &. colorata.
The most remarkable peculiarity of this viper (which, however, it may possess
in common with the horned vipers, since the scales of the latter have a similar
structure) is its power of making a curious, prolonged, almost hissing sound,
produced by rubbing the folds of the sides of the body one against another, when
the serrated lateral scales grate together. That this is the true cause of the
sound may be proved by twisting the body of a dead specimen, and thus causing
friction between the scales. Sir J. Fayrer writes that this species is a very fierce
and vicious viper; it throws itself into an attitude of defence and offence, coiled
up like a spring, rustling its carinated scales as it moves one fold of the body
against another. It is aggressive, and does not wait to be attacked before darting
its head and body at its enemy, the mouth wide open, and the long fangs
vibrating, thus presenting a most menacing appearance. It is very poisonous,
and there can be little doubt that it destroys many human lives, as men are
much more exposed to contact with this species than with Russell's viper.
The dreaded rattle-snakes of the New World are our first repre-
sentatives of the subfamily of pit-vipers (Crotalinw), which, are
common to Asia and America, and are characterised by the presence between
the nostril and the eye of a deep pit in each loreal shield, the physiological
significance of which is still unknown. All have triangular broad heads, and
short thick bodies. The Asiatic representatives of the group are less deadly
serpents than their American relatives; while the only vestige of the rattle of
the latter to be found in the former is a small horny spine at the end of the tail
of one species. Many of the Indian species are arboreal in their habits; their
coloration assimilating to that of the foliage and boughs among which they
dwell. As regards their geographical distribution, pit-vipers present a curious
similarity to bears and deer; and since they are most abundant in the Oriental
region, and also more numerous in North than in South America, Mr. Wallace is
of opinion that the group originated in the Indo-Chinese countries, and thence
spread north-eastwards to North America, and so onward to the southern half of
the New World, which area, having been the last to receive the group, has not
had time, in spite of its extreme fitness for reptilian life, to allow it to attain its
full development.
The rattle-snakes are sufficiently distinguished from their allies by the
jomted horny appendage at the end of the tail from which they derive their name.
In the young rattle-snake the tail terminates in a somewhat nail-like “ button,”
Rattle-Snakes.
VIPERINE GROUP. 239
which in a perfect rattle remains at the tip, the various rings, which may reach to
twenty or more in number, being gradually interpolated between this and the
scaly portion of the tail. More or less symmetrical in form, the rattle is composed
of hollow, horny rings, somewhat like quill i substance, which are interlocked
with one another, and are yet so elastic as to allow of a considerable amount of
motion between them. The various rings do not appear to be formed with any
regularity, sometimes several being added in a single year, while at other seasons
but one is developed; neither does there seem to be any relation between the
growth of the rattle and the changing of the skin. That very large rattles must,
however, belong to old snakes, is obvious ; and that this is really the case is shown
by the circumstance that at the present day rattles with twenty rings are very
COMMON RATTLE-SNAKE (+ nat. size).
seldom met with, since with the advance of cultivation it is only rarely that these
noxious reptiles are suffered to attain their full age. The body is thick, and,
for poisonous snakes, somewhat long; and the poison-glands attain very large
dimensions.
Common Since the rattle-snakes are extremely variable in coloration,
Rattle-Snake. yeliance has to a great extent to be placed on the arrangement of the
shields covering the fore-part of the head in the discrimination of the species. In
the common rattle-snake (Crotalus durissus) of North America, the distinctive
character is the presence of only two pairs of large shields between the large
supraocular and rostral shields; these paired shields being separated by a series
of small ones in the middle line. Of these shields, behind the large triangular
rostral comes the four-sided anterior pair, representing the anterior frontals, while
to each of the latter further back joins a larger oval shield which must be regarded
240 SNAKES.
as a lateral remnant of the hinder frontal. The space between the two last-named
shields is occupied by a series of small shields, of which the front ones are the
largest; and between the supraocular shields commence the long keeled scales
covering the body, where they are arranged in from twenty-five to twenty-seven
longitudinal rows. The ground-colour of the upper surface is a dull greyish brown,
upon which are two rows of large, irregular spots, which may unite into zigzag
crossbands, and are gradually lost on the dark tail; the under-parts being yellowish
white, marked with small black dots. Generally about 43 feet in length, this
species may grow to 6 feet.
Diamond In the Southern United States the commonest member of the
Rattle-Snake. genus is the diamond rattle-snake (C. adamanteus), represented in
the upper figure of the accompanying illustration, which is not only the most
beautiful, but likewise the largest species, adult females (which in this group are
always larger than the males), not unfrequently measuring 6 feet in length.
From the common rattle-snake it may be distinguished by the large and narrow
head, on which the shields are but slightly developed, the presence of three pairs of
shields between the rostral and supraocular on the top of the muzzle, by the scales
of the body being always arranged in twenty-seven rows, and also by the coloration.
The small rostral shield is markedly triangular, the slightly developed frontal has
a roundish pentagonal form, and the great supraocular shield a distinctly over-
hanging edge. After shedding, the new skin is of a beautiful greenish, or
occasionally golden-brown, ground-colour; upon this is a triple lozenge-shaped
chain-pattern on each side of the back,the golden yellow lines of which stand out
in marked contrast to the dark diamonds of the ground-colour. A blackish brown
band runs from the muzzle through each eye to the corner of the mouth; and the
top of the head is either uniformly coloured, or ornamented with irregular markings.
South American Of the six species of the genus, four are confined to North
Rattle Snakes. America, and only one is found to the southward of the Isthmus of
Panama. The latter species (C. horridus), which is represented in the lower figure
of our illustration, approaches the common species as regards the arrangement of
the shields on the head, while in coloration it is like the diamond rattle-snake.
From the former it may be distinguished by the circumstance that the two pairs of
shields between the rostral and the supraocular have no small shields between
them, so that they come in contact with one another in the middle line; while from
the latter the larger size of the lozenges on the body, and the presence in each of
a light-coloured centre will serve as a sufficient distinction, in addition to the
different arrangement of the head-shields.
In noticing the habits of these snakes our remarks will chiefly
relate to the North American species. As we have already said,
rattle-snakes chiefly frequent dry and sandy localities, more especially when they
are covered with bushes; but we have to add that in North America they fre-
quently take up their abode in the burrows of the prairie-marmot. Formerly it
was thought that the snakes and marmots lived together in harmony, but itis now
ascertained that the former prey on the young of the latter. The general food of
rattle-snakes consists of small mammals, birds, lizards, and frogs, the latter being
especial favourites; but mammals as large as a mink have occasionally been taken
Habits.
VIPERINE GROUP. 241
from them. The most extraordinary peculiarity connected with the common
species is its habit in the colder regions of North America of collecting in enormous
numbers for the winter sleep. In some districts the snakes used to assemble in
hundreds, or even thousands, from all sides to sleep in the ancestral den, some of
them, it is said, travelling distances of twenty or even thirty miles. Huddled
together in masses for the sake of warmth, the serpents passed the winter in a
state of more or less complete torpor, until the returning warmth of spring. once
more started them to spread over the country. When rattle-snakes were abundant,
annual or biennial hunts used to take place at these dens; the fat of the
slaughtered reptiles being used as a valuable supply of oil. Catlin tells us how,
DIAMOND AND SOUTH AMERICAN RATTLE-SNAKES (7); nat. size).
when a boy, he once assisted at one of these hunts at a place known as Rattle-
snake Den, whence the snakes used to come forth on to a certain ledge of rock in
swarms. At one time, he says, there was a knot of them “like a huge mat wound
and twisted and interlocked together, with all their heads like scores of hydras
standing up from the mass,” into which he fired with a shot-gun. Between five hundred
and six hundred were killed with clubs and other weapons, but hundreds more escaped
to the den. Fortunately one large one was taken alive, and was made the means of
destroying the rest, a powder-horn with a slow fuse being applied to its tail, and
the reptile allowed to crawl back to the cave, where a loud explosion soon told the
tale of the destruction that had taken place.
The most interesting point in connection with rattle-snakes is the use to which
the appendage from which they derive their name is put,—for use it must surely
VOL. V.—16
242 SNAKES.
have. The old view was that it was intended to warn creatures preyed on by
these reptiles of the approach of their enemy; but, in regard to this supposition,
Darwin well observes that “I would almost as soon believe that the cat curls the
end of its tail when preparing to spring in order to warn the doomed mouse. It
is a much more probable view that the rattle-snake uses its rattle, the cobra
expands its frill, and the puff-adder swells while hissing so loudly and harshly, in
order to alarm the many birds and beasts which are known to attack even the most
venomous species. Snakes act on the same principle which makes a hen ruffle her
feathers. and expand her wings when a dog approaches her chickens.” In this
passage the writer commits himself to the view that the rattle is an instrument of
intimidation. It may, however, be observed that the sound would be quite as
te
ti
Lg
ALPE
GY the Se ee
THE BUSHMASTER (4 nat. size).
likely to attract enemies as to repel them. Moreover, it is now a well-ascertained
fact that rattle-snakes do not possess the power of hissing; and as that faculty
seems more closely connected with fear than with any other emotion, it would be
quite reasonable to suppose that the rattle stands in place of the hiss. Another
feature in the controversy is the circumstance that the sound of the rattle of one
snake causes all its kindred within hearing to sound their own; and the organ
therefore probably serves as a means of communication. What is known as
the “dinner-bell” theory, that is, that a rattle-snake attracts insects like grass-
hoppers and cicadas within striking distance by the resemblance of the sound
of its rattle to their own stridulating utterances, has been pretty clearly
disproved; while if it required a further quietus, the circumstance that these
reptiles do not appear to prey habitually upon insects would be sufficient. On
VIPERINE. GROUF. 243
the whole, while admitting that fear has probably some share in the matter, it
seems better to suspend our judgment before definitely committing ourselves to
any one particular view. That rattle-snakes are some of the most deadly of all
venomous serpents may be freely admitted; and it seems that we must almost
concede that they possess the mysterious power of “ fascinating” their victims
before striking. Moreover, the assertions as to the power possessed by vipers of
swallowing their young are equally numerous and well-authenticated in the case of
the serpents under consideration.
The formidable South American snake (Lachesis nvuta) known
to the Dutch settlers of Guiana as the bushmaster, but by the
Brazilians termed the surukuku, differs from the rattle-snakes by the presence
The Bushmaster.
of a distinct keel-like ridge down the back, and, in place of a rattle, having the
under surface of the tip of the tail covered with from ten to twelve transverse
rows of small, spiny, sharp scales, while the extremity terminates in a spine.
This snake attains a length of from 9 to 12 feet, and has the ground-colour of the
upper-parts reddish yellow, upon which is a longitudinal row of large blackish
brown lozenges, each having two light spots on either side of the middle line ; while
the under-parts are yellowish white, with a porcellanous glaze. The large size and
enormous poison-fangs of the bushmaster render it one of the most formidable
of the pit-vipers; its bite being apparently fatal to human beings in a few hours.
Fortunately it is far from common, and inhabits only the secluded portions of the
primeval forest, where it lies coiled up on the ground. Unlike most snakes, when
disturbed it makes no attempt to flee, but strikes with the rapidity of lightning at
the disturber of its slumbers.
Seo These snakes have the upper surface of most, or all, of the front
of the head covered with large shields; the body is rather long
and clothed with from seventeen to twenty-seven rows of keeled scales; and
the very short tail has its lower shields arranged in either a double or single series,
some species having a small spine at the extremity, which is regarded as a
rudimentary rattle. The genus is common to Asia and North and Central
America; some half-seore of species being known, two of which are found in India.
One species ranges as far east as the Urals, where it just enters the confines of
Europe. In habits they are all terrestrial.
Himalayan Of the Indian species, in both of which at least the majority of
Halys. the shields on the lower surface of the tail are arranged in two rows,
the Himalayan halys (Ancistrodon himalayanus) is distinguished by having two
pairs of large shields on the muzzle, the extremity of which is but little turned
upwards. In colour it is brown, with black spots or transverse bands, while some-
times a light festooned stripe runs down the back; from the eye to the angle of
the mouth runs.a black streak edged with white; and the under-parts are either
dark brown, or variegated with black and white. This snake, which grows to
nearly a yard in length, is abundant in the North-Western Himalaya, at elevations
of between five thousand and eight thousand feet, although it sometimes ascends
considerably higher. The carawila (A. hypnale), of Ceylon and Western India, is
a much smaller species, not exceeding 20 inches in length, and characterised by the
extremity of the upturned muzzle being covered with small scales.
244 SNAKES.
Somewhat superior in size to the common viper, this species (A.
halys) may be recognised by the small portion of the head that is
covered with shields, and also in that each shield, or pair of shields, overlaps with
its hinder edge the shield immediately behind it, thus producing a more or less
marked imbrication of the whole of the head-shields. Another characteristic is to be
found in the small size of the anterior frontal shields, which together have a crescentic
shape and a somewhat saddle-shaped upper surface. The head is very distinctly
defined from the compressed neck, the body being rather long, of a rounded trian-
cular form in the middle, and covered with twenty-three rows of triangular scales ;
the very short tail, which is much thinner than the hinder-part of the body, is
conical, and armed at the extremity with a forked horny appendage. The ground-
Siberian Halys.
SIBERIAN HALYS VIPER (4 nat. size).
colour of the middle of the back is a dark brownish yellow grey, while that of the
under-parts is a yellowish white, with more or less well-defined black spots on the
hinder shields. The yellow ground of the labial shields of the head has chestnut-
brown markings; and the crown of the head bears a large quadrangular blotch,
forming an interrupted transverse band on the frontal shields, and a temporal band
running from the hinder border of the eye to the angle of the mouth and the side
of the neck. Somewhat similar markings ornament the back, and are more or less
clearly margined with yellow. Along the whole length of the back and the ridge
of the tail are a number of yellowish or yellowish white black-edged irregular
blotches or crossbands; and on the sides are two rows of blackish brown spots
with white edges, which frequently run one into another, the first dark spot on
the neck differing from the rest by its horse-shoe form. The distributional area of
this snake extends eastwards from the Volga to the Yenesei. In Europe the halys
VIPE RINE: GROUP. 245
viper inhabits the steppes between the: Volga and the Urals; but its true home
is Central Asia.
Copper-Head In North America, one of the best known and most widely
Snake. = istributed members of the genus is the copper-head, or moceasin-
snake (A. contortrix), which seldom much exceeds a yard in length. The body is
strong and thick, the short tail provided with one row of shields inferiorly and
with a heavy appendage at the end, while the elongated triangular head is markedly
distinct from the neck, with the pits on the snout rather shallow, and the gape of
the mouth very wide, and there are no small smooth shields behind the large
parietals. A beautiful coppery brown, becoming lighter on the sides, forms the
COPPER-HEAD, OR MOCCASIN-SNAKE (? nat. size),
ground-colour of the upper-parts; upon which some sixteen reddish brown dark-
edged bands, becoming wider on the flanks, have given rise to the name of
moccasin-snake. On the under-parts the shields are copper-red, marked on the
sides with large polygonal or rounded alternating dusky spots. The head is
generally lighter coloured than the body, and marked by a broad stripe running
from the snout along the side to the angle of the mouth. The distribution of the
copper-head extends from the 45th parallel of north latitude to the extreme
south of the Eastern United States. Its favourite haunts are damp situations,
more especially shady meadows covered with tall grass; and its food consists of
mice, birds, and probably frogs. From its abundance and comparatively rapid
movements, as well as from its lacking the warning sound of the rattle, the copper-
head is even more dreaded than the rattle-snake.
BAG SNAKES.
Another well-known North American representative of the genus
that must come in for a brief share of attention is the water-viper (A.
piscivorus), Which inhabits marshes, rivers, and lakes, and attains a length of
nearly five feet. From the preceding species it may be distinguished by the
presence of two small smooth supplemental shields behind the parietals, and of
numerous small scales between the hinder frontal and temporal shields. The colour
is very variable; but in the majority of specimens, on a shining greenish grey
ground, there are a larger or smaller number of dark bands somewhat similar to
those of the copper-head. Always found in the neighbourhood of water, this
snake extends southwards from North Carolina over the whole of North America
Water-Viper.
CLIMBING PIT-VIPER (4 nat. size),
and westwards as far as the Rocky Mountains. Feeding chiefly upon fish and
frogs, it will also devour all animals that may happen to fall into the water and
are not too large for its maw; while in the rice-fields it is the dread of the negroes.
Not only is the water-viper feared by man, but it is shunned by all animals
dwelling in or near water.
Typical Pit- Under this title may be included the members of the largest genus
Vipers, of the subfamily, which is likewise common to Tropical America and
Asia, and is the last group of snakes that we have space to mention. These pit-
vipers are long-bodied snakes, characterised by the whole of the upper surface of
the triangular head being covered with scales instead of shields; the tail, which is
frequently prehensile, ending in a sharp point, and having either one or two rows.
f=}
PIT-VIPERS. 247
of shields on its lower surface. In all the Asiatic species there are two rows of
these subcaudal shields, and it is only in a few of the New World forms that they
are reduced to a single series. The number of longitudinal rows of scales on the
body is very variable in the different species, ranging from as few as thirteen to as
many as thirty-one. In Asia these snakes range from India to the South of China
and the Liu-Kiu Islands; and while some species are terrestrial and normally
coloured, others are arboreal, and in the greenish tints assimilate to the colour of
their surroundings. The climbing tree-viper (Zrimereswrus gramineus) belongs
to a group of four allied Indian and Burmese species, characterised by their
~
RAT-TAILED PIT-VIPER (% nat size).
prehensile tails and the arrangement of the scales on the body in from thirteen
to twenty-three rows; the figured species usually having twenty-one rows of scales,
while there are from seven to thirteen scales in a transverse series on the head
between the supraoculars; the temporal scales are smooth, and the shields on the lower
surface of the tail vary in number from fifty-three to seventy-five. Attaining a
length of 24 feet, this snake usually has the upper-parts bright green, although in
some specimens they may be yellowish, greyish, or purplish brown, while they may
or may not be marked with black, brown, or reddish spots. Generally there is a
light-coloured or reddish streak along the outer row of scales, and the end of the
tail is frequently red or yellow; the under-parts being green, yellow, or whitish.
Ranging from Bengal to the Malayan region, this species is thoroughly arboreal in
248 SNAKES.
its habits. Stoliczka states that he found these snakes very common about the
limestone-hills near Moulmein, where they are exactly of the same green colour as
the foliage amongst which they hide themselves. He saw small specimens very
often on low umbelliferous plants growing about a couple of feet high. - One of the
snakes had its tail wound below round the stem of the flower on the top of which
it was basking. All were very sluggish, and did not make the slightest attempt to
escape when approached, and even allowed themselves to be removed from the top
of the plant. Neither did they offer to bite, unless when pressed to the ground
with a stick; but when thoroughly aroused, they turned round and bit furiously.
The rat-tailed pit-viper, or fer-de-lance (7. lanceolatus) is one of several American
species with nonprehensile pointed tails, whose habits are terrestrial. Reaching a
length of nearly 7 feet, with a body as thick as a man’s arm, this snake is very
variable in coloration, the ground-colour of the upper-parts being generally a
reddish yellow-brown. The distinctive markings take the form of a black stripe,
which is but seldom absent, running from the eye to the neck, and of two rows of
irregular dark crossbands on the body. In some specimens the sides of the body
are, however, of a bright red. The form and arrangement of the scales on the
head, the presence of seven upper labial shields, and the arrangement of the body
scales in not more than twenty-nine rows, together with the uniformly coloured
under surface of the body, serve to distinguish the species from its congeners.
This snake is an inhabitant of the Antilles and Central America. During the
daytime it lies curled up in repose within the middle of the coils of the body,
ready to dart out with the rapidity of lightning on the approach of an enemy.
The mainland of South America is the home of two closely allied
terrestrial representatives of the genus, respectively known as the
jararaca (7. jararaca) and the labaria (7. atrox), which are exceedingly difficult to
distinguish from one another. The former, which ranges from Amazonia south-
wards to San Paulo and westwards to Ecuador and Peru, has eight or nine upper
labial shields on the snout, and from twenty-five to twenty-seven rows of scales
on the body; the general colour of the upper-parts being grey or greyish brown,
with small dark brown crossbands, bordered by darker edges; while the under-
parts are grey, with two or four irregular longitudinal rows of whitish or yellowish
spots. The labaria differs in having only seven upper labials, as well as in certain
details of coloration, the back showing dark lozenges alternating with X-shaped
markings, while the under-parts are darker, with sometimes two rows of white
spots, and from the eye to the corner of the mouth runs a broader dark brown
stripe. Inhabiting Eastern Brazil, this species extends as far north as Guiana,
while its southward range is less than that of the jararaca.
Writing of the latter, Bates states that in Brazil it is far more dreaded than
the jaguar or the alligator. “The individual seen by Lino lay coiled up at the
foot of a tree, and was scarcely distinguishable, on account of the colours of its
body being assimilated to those of the fallen leaves. Its hideous, flat, triangular
head, connected with the body by a thin neck, was reared and turned towards us;
Frazao killed it with a charge of shot, shattering it completely, and destroying its
value as a specimen. In conversing on the subject of jararaca as we walked
onwards, every one of the party was ready to swear that this snake attacks man
Jararaca.
EXTINCT SCALED REPTILES. 249
without provocation, leaping towards him from a considerable distance when he
approaches. I met, in the course of my daily rambles through the woods, many
jararacas, and once or twice very narrowly escaped treading on them, but never
saw them attempt to spring. On some subjects the testimony of the natives of a
wild country is utterly worthless. The bite of the jararacas is generally fatal.”
EXTINCT GROUPS OF SCALED REPTILES.
A brief reference may be made to two groups of extinct reptiles from the
rocks of the Secondary epoch, which must be included in the order Squamata.
Long-Neckea ‘The first of these groups is represented by a small snake-lizard, from
Lizards. the English Chalk, described under the name of Dolichosawrus, and
forming a suborder (Dolichosauria) by itself. Whereas ordinary lizards have not
more than nine vertebre in the neck, this strange reptile has upwards of froin
fifteen to seventeen, while its hind-limbs are characterised by having the whole of
the five metatarsal bones of the foot well developed, and its whole structure
reveals a very generalised type of organisation. The vertebre have additional
articulations like those of snakes. It is probable that these reptiles form the
ancestral group from which the other suborders of scaled reptiles have originated.
Cretaceous A still more remarkable group of the order is formed by certain
Sea-Serpents. carnivorous marine reptiles from the Cretaceous rocks, many of which
attained gigantic dimensions, and may not inappropriately be designated extinct
sea-serpents. Commonly known as Mosasauroids, on account of the first described
genus (Mosasawrus), having been found on the banks of the Meuse, they form a
suborder technically known as the Pythonomorpha. They all had a much elon-
gated body, and a skull approximating in structure to that of the monitors among
existing lizards, the nasal and premaxillary bones being welded together, and the
quadrate very loosely attached to the skull. Teeth were present on some of the
bones of the palate, as well as on the margin of the jaws; those of the latter series
being large, sharply pointed, and attached by expanded bases. The bones of the
shoulder-girdle and pelvis were more or less imperfectly developed; and the limbs
were modified into paddles or flippers, with the toes enclosed in a common skin,
and devoid of claws. There were either nine or ten vertebre in the neck; and
whereas, in some cases, the vertebrae resembled those of snakes, in other instances
they lacked the additional articulations distinguishing the latter. It will be un-
necessary to particularise the various genera of these reptiles, but it may be
mentioned that while some of the better-known forms have been described as
Mosasaurus, others have received the names of Liodon and Clidastes. They appear
to have inhabited the Cretaceous seas of all parts of the world, having been
obtained from regions as far apart as England, New Zealand, and Argentina ; and
while some attained a length of between 25 and 30 feet, others were not more
than 8 or 10. Then, again, while in some cases the jaws were armed with power-
ful teeth to their extremities, other forms had a long, toothless beak.
CHAPTER Vie
THE REMAINING Groups oF REpTILES,—Orders I[CHTHYOPTERYGIA,
RHYNCHOCEPHALIA, AND ANOMODONTIA.
Or the three orders remaining for consideration, two are completely extinct, and
not known from deposits of later date than those of the Secondary period, while
the third is represented at the present day only by a single species from New
Zealand, although in former geological epochs it appears to have been abundant.
The first of the three for consideration is the group of
FisH-LizaArps,—Order ICHTHYOPTERYGIA.
More or less familiar to all from the beautifully preserved skeletons obtained
from the Lias of England and the Continent, specimens of which are exhibited in
almost every museum, the Fish-lizards, or Ichthyosaurs, were large marine reptiles,
with the naked body thick and whale-like, the neck extremely short, and the limbs
modified into paddles differing from those of all other members of the class in the
structure of their skeleton. The skull is produced into a long snout, generally
furnished with a full series of sharp teeth, and mainly formed in the upper jaw by the
premaxillary, or front jawbones; and the nostrils are consequently placed close to
the eyes, the latter, like those of birds, being provided with a ring of movable plates.
Superiorly, the skull has a hole or foramen, in the parietal bones ; while posteriorly
the upper and lower arches are connected behind the socket of the eye by a bone
known as the supratemporal, so that this portion of the skull is completely roofed
over, as we shall see to be the case in the Labyrinthodont Amphibians. Then,
again, the quadrate-bone, with which the lower jaw articulates, is firmly united to
the adjacent elements of the skull; while in the general relations of this bone
and the bones of the palate there is a marked agreement with the beaked reptiles.
The teeth are confined to the edges of the jaws, where they are implanted in
distinct sockets; and generally have conical and fluted crowns, although more
rarely they are compressed and smooth, with sharp cutting edges at the front and
back. 'The back-bone presents a nearly similar structure, the vertebra, as shown
in the figure on p. 6, being short dises, which may be either deeply cupped or
nearly flat at the two ends. In the body and neck these vertebre carry a pair of
tubercles on each side for the articulation of the forked ends of the ribs; but in
the tail there is but one such tubercle, the ribs being single-headed. Moreover, the
vertebrae are further remarkable for the absence of any body union between the
body or centrum (the part represented in the figure), and the arch enclosing the
spinal marrow, so that these two portions are always found detached. The bones
LFISH-LIZARDS. 251
of the shoulder-girdle much resemble those of lizards, the collar-bones being well-
developed, and the T-shaped interclavicle resting on the lower surface of these and
the metacoracoids. The limbs are quite unlike those of any other reptiles, the
upper bone (humerus in the fore-limb) being very short and thick, while below
this the whole of the bones, as shown in the accompanying figure, were polygonal,
and so articulated with one another that the skeleton of the paddles assumed a
SKELETON OF FISH-LIZARD, SHOWING YOUNG ONE WITHIN THE CAVITY OF THE RIBS (34; nat. size).
(From Gaudry.)
kind of pavement-like or mosaic structure. In most kinds the front paddles were
much larger than the hinder-pair; and whereas, in some cases, two longitudinal
series of bones originate from the bone marked 7 in the accompanying figure, thus
producing a very broad type of paddle,
in other forms (as shown in the skeleton
in the figure above), only a single series
articulated with that bone, and the whole
paddle was consequently much narrower.
Specimens like the one figured here show
that while the soft parts of the paddle
extended but a short distance in advance
of the front edge of the bones, on the
hinder-side they terminated in a wide
fringe, thus forming a structure admir-
ably adapted for swimming. Other
examples indicate that the back of these
reptiles was furnished with an upright
triangular fin somewhat like that of a
porpoise, behind which were a number
PART OF THE FORE-PADDLE OF A FISH-LIZARD. of small finlets, while the extremity of
hu, bone of upper arm; 7.v, bones of fore-arm; the the tail was expanded into a horizontal
other letters indicate the bones of the wrist, below
the fi in, comparable to the flukes of a whale.
which are the bones of the fingers. fin, com]
Many of these reptiles attained a length
of from 30 to 40 feet; and they flourished throughout the whole of the: Secondary
period, that is to say, from the epoch of the Trias, or Red Sandstone, to that of the
252 BEAKED LIZARDS.
Chalk, most or all of the forms from the first-named deposits being of a more
generalised type than those of later date.
In external appearance the fish-lizards must have presented a marked
resemblance to whales, the place of which they seem to have filled in the old-seas.
Like these animals, they were obliged to come periodically to the surface of the
water for the purpose of breathing; and they were likewise carnivorous, as is
attested not only by the conformation of their teeth, but likewise by the petrified
remains of their prey. Occasionally specimens are met with, in which entire
skeletons of one or more young individuals of the same species are preserved within
the cavity of the ribs, thus proving that in these reptiles the egas were hatched
within the body of the females, and the offspring produced in a living condition.
THE BEAKED LIZARDS.
Order RHYNCHOCEPHALIA.
The tuatera, which seems to be confined to the small islands off the north-east
of New Zealand, is not only the most remarkable of all existing reptiles to which
the term lizard can be applied, but is the sole living representative of a distinct
family, as well as of an entire order; and the difference between it and an ordinary
lizard immeasurably exceeds that by which the latter is separated from a serpent.
As an order, the beaked reptiles may be provisionally characterised as follows.
Externally most of these reptiles appear to have been more or less lizard-like ;
and, as in their living representative, the body was probably covered above with
small granular scales intermingled with tubercles. The skull differs essentially
from that of lizards in having the quadrate-bone immovably fixed by the upper
end to the adjacent bones; and likewise by having both an upper and a lower
temporal arch. The hind portion of the palate is formed by the union of the
pterygoid bones, which, generally at least, extend forwards to meet the vomers,
and thus divide the palatines; while the anterior upper jawbones, or pre-
maxille, remain separate from each other. The teeth are not implanted in
distinct sockets, and are usually welded to the summits of the jaws. In the trunk
the ribs articulate to the vertebrae by single heads, and may have hook-like
processes similar to those of birds; while on the lower surface of the body
so-called abdominal ribs are always developed, forming a shield composed of a
number of segments, and comparable to the plastron of the tortoises. The
vertebree may be either hollowed at both articular ends, or the hinder surface
may be cupped and the front one ball-like. That the beaked reptiles form a very
primitive group is clear, not only from their structure, but from their antiquity ;
representatives of the order occurring in the Permian strata, immediately over-
lying the Carboniferous or coal-bearing rocks. While some of these early forms
appear to connect the order very closely with the Sauropterygians, others indicate
an equally close relationship with the wunder-mentioned Anomodonts.
The single existing representative of the order (Sphenodon
punctatus) forms a family (Sphenodontide) by itself, and likewise
is the representative of a distinct suborder (Rhynchocephalia Vera), characterised
The Tuatera.
LOALRE ICA. 253
by each segment of the shield on the lower surface of the body being formed of
only three elements, of which the middle one is chevron-shaped, and likewise by
the fifth metatarsal bone of the hind-foot being reduced in length and thickened
in the same manner as in lizards. The group is further characterised by the
double nostrils, the union of the two branches of the lower jaw by cartilage, and
the deeply hollowed articular surfaces of the vertebra. From its extinct allies the
family is distinguished by having a perforation on each side of the lower
extremity of the humerus, or upper bone of the fore-limb; by the presence of
hook-like processes to the ribs, as well as of so-called intercentra, or additional
segments between the bodies of the vertebrae; and likewise by the beak-like
premaxillary bones carrying a pair of somewhat chisel-like teeth, and the presence
NEW ZEALAND TUATERA (+ nat. size).
of only a single row of teeth on the palate, which are separated by a groove from
the row affixed to the edge of the upper jaw. Into this groove is received the
teeth and upper edge of the lower jaw, which in very old individuals becomes as
hard and polished as the teeth themselvés; the latter being more or less completely
worn away in extreme old age. On the upper surface of the skull is a large
vacuity, or foramen, in the parietal bones. In external appearance the tuatera is
lizard-like, the body being slightly and the long tail strongly compressed ; while
the limbs carry five toes, all furnished with claws, and connected at their bases by
webs. There is no external opening to the ear, and the large eye has the pupil
vertical. On the upper-parts the creature is clothed with small granular scales,
intermixed with tubercles; and a crest of spine-like scales runs from the hinder-
part of the head down the middle of the back, continued in a smaller degree of
254 BEAKED LIZARDS.
development down the tail ; while inferiorly there are large squarish scales arranged
in transverse rows. Attaining a length of about 20 inches, the tuatera is olive or
blackish in ground-colour, upon which are small yellowish dots, while the lobes of
the crest on the neck and back are likewise of the latter colour. The perforation
in the parietal bones of the skull just referred to covers a rudimentary eye, which
although now functionless was probably a working organ in the ancestors of
the Vertebrates. In the young tuatera this pineal eye can be seen through the
translucent skin, but in the adult this skin becomes opaque.
In the Jurassic rocks of Europe there occur remains of reptiles
allied to the tuatera, but constituting a distinct family (Hom«osawr-
ide) typically represented by the genus
Homeosaurus. These have no tusk-like
teeth in the front of the jaws, and the lower
end of the humerus has a perforation only
on its inner side, and there are no inter-
centra between the vertebra of the back,
and no hook-like processes to the ribs. A
third family (Rhynchosawride) is typitied
by the genus Rhynchosawrus, from the Trias
or New Red Sandstone of England, and is
characterised by the beak being toothless
and probably sheathed in horn; the palate
having two or more longitudinal rows of
teeth separated by a groove. From the
preceding families these reptiles differ by
having only a single aperture to the nostrils,
and by the bony union of the two branches
of the lower jaw; while the articular
surfaces of the vertebra are nearly flat.
Moreover, there is no vacuity in the middle
ERULL OF THE “Hyperodapedon (7 uat. size). ot the top.of the skull. dimthepymeallsenns
ae ar ethan mares et he there isa single row of teeth on the inmer
one the under surface of the front of the lowered side of the groove on the palate, but in
Hyperodapedon, there were numerous rows,
as is shown in the illustration. The extremity of the beak in each jaw formed
two curved tusk-like processes, which diverged in the lower one.
The Permian rocks of Europe yield remains of genera, such as
Proterosaurus and Paleohatteria, differing markedly from the fore-
going, and constituting a second suborder (Proterosauria), characterised by the
complex nature of the bones forming the shield on the lower surface of the body,
by the fifth metatarsal bone of the hind-foot being of an ordinary type, and like-
wise by the lower bones of the pelvis being expanded into large flattened plates,
instead of comparatively narrow. ‘The last feature allies the group to the earlier
Sauropterygians. In the genus first named the vertebre of the neck have cup-
shaped articular surfaces behind and balls in front, and there are no intercentra
between the vertebrz of the back, but in the other the articular surfaces of the
Allied Families.
Oldest Types.
ANOMODONTS. 255
vertebrae are slightly cupped at each end throughout the series, and intercentra
are present.
THE ANOMODONTS, OR MAMMAL-LIKE REPTILES.
Order ANOMODONTIA.
The last order of Reptiles, which is entirely extinct and confined to the
Triassic and Permian epochs, is of especial interest to the evolutionist as being
nearly allied to the ancestral stock from which Mammals have originated, and also
equally closely related to certain extinct Amphibians noticed in the sequel, which
were themselves evidently not far removed from the type whence sprang both
Reptiles and Mammals. It should be observed, however, that these Anomodonts
show the nearest relationship to the Egg-laying Mammals, and until we know the
true affinity of
the latter to the
other members
of the same class,
it is of course
impossible to at-
tempt to define
the genealogy
more exactly.
The Anomodonts
are the only
reptiles = which
agree with the
Egg - laying
Mammals in
having three dis-
tinct boneS On THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE PELVIS (A) AND SHOULDER-GIRDLE (B) OF AN ANOMODONT.
each side of the il, haunch-bone, or ilium; 7s, ischium; pd, pubis; of, foramen between ischium and
true shoulder- pubis ; sc, blade-bone, or scapula ; p.cor, coracoid ; cor, metacoracoid ; gl, cavity for head
: . of upper arm-bone, or humerus.
girdle; that is
to say, a blade-bone, or scapula, above, and a coracoid and metacoracoid below.
Then the pelvis is very mammal-lke, not only in that its three elements are
united, but likewise in the small size of the vacuity, or foramen (of) between
the pubis and ischium. It will also be seen from the two figures here given how
close is the resemblance between the pelvis and shoulder-girdle of these reptiles,
each having one bone above and two below. Even still more marked is the
similarity between the upper arm-bone or humerus of the Anomodonts and that
of the Egg-laying Mammals; each having a perforation on the inner border of
the lower end, whereas in those existing reptiles which possess such a perfora-
tion (with the exception of the tuatera, where there is one on each side), it is
situated on the outer border. As a rule, the Anomodonts further resemble
Mammals in the absence of abdominal ribs; and there are important similarities
in the structure of the skull.
256 ANOMODONTS.
Anomodonts are met with in the Triassic rocks, and are represented by at
least four well-marked subordinal types. In the first group, known as Mammal-
SKULL AND TEETH OF GALESAUR
toothed (Theriodont) Reptiles, the teeth,
as exemplified in the figure of the skull
of the African galesaur, are differentiated
into incisors, tusks, and cheek-teeth ; the
latter frequently having three cusps
ranged in a longitudinal series. Whether,
however, this marked mammalian type
of dentition is indicative of genetic affinity
with Mammals, may be open to doubt, as it is quite as likely to be due to parallelism
in development. Another modification is presented by the Dicynodonts of England,
Africa, and India, in which the jaws formed a horny beak, either destitute of
teeth, as in the tortoises, or provided with a huge pair of tusks in the upper
jaw; some of these reptiles being of
gigantic size.